2

Measurement of Length, Volume, Time and Mass

1. Measurements using common instruments (metre rule, vernier callipers and micrometer screw gauge for length, volume by displacement using a measuring cylinder, stop watch and simple pendulum for time, equal arm beam balance for comparison of masses); least count of measuring instruments; significant figures; percentage error associated with a measurement.

A Concise
Least count is the smallest measurement that any instrument can measure accurately. MEASURING LENGTH Least count of some commonly used instruments : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) A metre scale = 1 mm. Thermometer = 05C. Ammeter = 1 mA. An electronic clock = 001s.

The Least Count of a Vernier Callipers Least Count : The least count (LC) of an instrument is the smallest measurement that can be taken accurately with it. Value of the one smallest division on MS LC = = 001 cm Total number of divisions on VS Corrected reading of Vernier calliper = Observed reading correction. When zero error is negative, correction is = + (VSD LC) When zero error is positive, correction is = (VSD LC) (VSD = Vernier Scale Division). Pitch of a Screw Gauge Definition : Pitch of a micrometer screw gauge is the distance traversed by the screw (or the spindle) in one complete rotation of its head (or thimble) or the distance between two consecutive threads. To Find the Pitch : The pitch of a screw is found by giving its head at least ten rotations and then finding the distance travelled

by the tip of the screw. This distance, divided by 10, is the pitch of the screw. Pitch of the screw Least count of Screw Gauge = Numbers of division on (CS) Distance moved by thimble on MS Pitch = Number of revolutions of thimble = 0001 cm Least Count of a Screw Gauge Pitch of the screw LC = Total number of divisions on a circular head Observed diameter by screw gauge = MSD Pitch + LC CSD = reading on main scale + LC CSD (CSD = Circular Scale Division, MSD = Main Scale Division). Corrected diameter by screw gauge = Observed diameter correction. Correction for negative zero error. = + (circular scale divisions (CSD) LC). Correction for positive zero error. = (circular scale division (CSD) LC) Positive Zero-error : Zero of the VS (Vernier Scale) on the right of the zero of MS (Meter Scale). Correction = Coinciding division LC Negative Zero-error : Zero of the VS on the left of the zero of MS. Correction = Coinciding division LC True length = Observed length Zero error (with sign)

Positive Zero-error : If zero of the circular scale is below the reference line (in Screw gauge). Correction is ve. Negative Zero-error : If the zero of the circular scale is above the reference line, the error is said to be Negative and correction is Positive. MEASURING TIME Mean Solar Day : The average time taken by earth to revolve once about its own axis is mean solar day (MSD). Each MSD is divided into 24 parts. Each part is known as an hour, which is further divided into minutes and seconds. 1 MSD = 24 60 60 = 86400 sec. 1 hr = 60 min = 3600 sec. 1 min = 60 sec. 1 1 second = 86400 th of a mean solar day.

Effective Length of the Pendulum : It is the distance from the point of suspension to the centre of gravity of the bob. Amplitude : It is the maximum displacement from the mean position on either extreme position. Oscillation : One complete to and fro motion of the pendulum. Period of Oscillation : It is the time taken to complete one oscillation. T = 2 L g

L = effective length g = acceleration due to gravity. The period of oscillation does not depend on : (i) Mass of the material and shape of the bob, and : It is the number of oscillations (ii) amplitude of oscillation. Frequency of oscillation performed in one second.

Relationship between frequency and Time/Period. 1 f = T If there are two pendulums with L1 & L2 respective lengths and T1 & T2 respective time periods then T1 T2 = L1 L2

If time periods of a simple pendulum are T1 & T2 respectively and accelerations due to gravity are g1 & g2 respectively then : T1 T2 = g2 g1

Seconds Pendulum : A pendulum whose period of oscillation is 2 sec. is, known as seconds pendulum. The effective length of a seconds pendulum is 0994 mt. If a graph is plotted for time period and Effective length then it comes out to be a curve as shown.

Fig.

Time Measuring Instruments : Stop watch, Stop clock, Spring clock, Pendulum clock, Quartz watch. The least count of a stop watch is either 1 sec. or 05 sec. MEASURING VOLUME Volume of Regular Solids : Volume of a body is defined as the space occupied by it. Its S.I. unit is meter3. Volume of the regular shaped bodies can be calculated by using the following standard formulae. (i) Volume of Rectangular Block : (Cuboid) V (ii) Volume of a Cube V (iii) Volume of a Sphere V = 4 3 3 r = l3 = (side)3 = l b h

where r being its radius. (iv) Volume of a Cylinder = area of the base height V = r2 h = r2 h

where r is the radius of the base of the cylinder and h is its height. (v) Volume of a Cone 1 = 3 = (radius of the base)2 height 1 2 3 r h

Instruments used to Measure Volume : (i) Burette (ii) Measuring flask

(iii)

Measuring cylinder

(iv) Pipette

Characteristics of Mass (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Mass Mass of a body is the amount of matter contained in it. Its S.I. unit is kilogram (kg) Other values in which mass can be expressed are tonne (t) and quintal (Q) t = 103 kg = 106 g = Mega-gramme Q = 102 kg. Beam balance is the physical balance used to measure mass, by comparing the body with a standard mass. Beam balance works on the Principle of Momentum. Characteristic of a true balance : (i) Both arms must be of equal length. It is a scalar quantity. It is independent of the surroundings. It is independent of the position of the body. It remains constant. The mass is never zero.

(ii) Both pans must be of equal weight. Percentage Error in the Measurement : Measurement is the foundation of all experimental science and technology. The measured (observed) value of a physical quantity is usually different from its true (actual) value. The accuracy of measurement is a measure of how close the measured value is to the true value of the quantity. Error is an uncertainity of measurement in any measured quantity. The absolute error of the measurement is the magnitude of the difference between the true (actual value) and individual measurement value of the quantity. It is denoted by |a|.

Relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error amean to the mean value (amean) of the quantity measured i.e. Relative Error amean (a) = a . mean If the relative error is expressed in percent, then it is called percentage error. Thus percentage error is amean a = a mean 100

The Percentage Error is also expressed as Error Least Count of the Instrument = Measured Value 100%

Lower the least count of the measuring instrument, less is the percentage error in the measurement.