You are on page 1of 29

CHAPTER - 3

T9 LOUDSPEAKERS
The function of the loudspeaker is to convert electrical energy into acoustic energy. The actual arrangement consists is feeding the electrical energy to a movable member which vibrates in accordance with the waveforms of the electrical input. The movable member sets up vibrations in the air as sound waves. The loudspeaker should have the following qualities: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) Satisfactory sensitivity. Broad directivity. Low distortion over the audio spectrum. Smooth frequency response. Balanced response. Good transient response Sufficient damping at base resonant frequency Adequate power handling capacity.

Loudspeakers may be divided into two main groups:i) ii) Cone type - i.e., direct radiator, where cone or diaphragm is directly coupled to air. Horn-type i.e., indirect radiator, where the diaphragm is coupled to the air by means of horn.

The horn increases the acoustical loading on the diaphragm and thereby increases the efficiency. It may be described as a device which transforms acoustical energy at high pressure and low velocity to acoustical energy at low pressure and high velocity. The most common type is the moving coil loudspeaker also known as dynamic loudspeaker. It is a loudspeaker mechanism consisting of a permanent magnet to supply strong magnetic field and a diaphragm which acts like a piston. A voice coil is attached at the apex of the diaphragm. Audio frequencies are applied to the voice coil and cause it to react in the permanent field, resulting in motion of the cone. The motion of the cone sets up a varying air pressure which is carried to the listener in the form of sound waves. To secure proper operation of a dynamic loudspeaker, it must be operated in a baffle or enclosure. A cross-sectional view of a dynamic loudspeaker, with its essential parts indicated, is shown in Fig 21. A is the frame supporting a composition diaphragm or cone B to which is attached a voice coil, C. The diaphragm is supported at the outer edges by a hinged joint D. A circular, softiron case with a centre pole piece E and a field coil F supply the magnetic field. In a permanent magnet type loudspeaker, the field coil is replaced with a permanent magnet made in the form of the case E. Modern types are permanent magnet types. The magnetic field is polarized in one direction, as shown by the dotted lines G, the sides becoming north and the centre pole piece becoming south.

Fig. 21 Cross Sectional construction of a Dynamic Loud speaker The voice coil C is connected to the output of an audio amplifier when audio frequency currents are applied to the winding of the voice coil, the voice coil will move either inward or outward, depending upon the instantaneous polarity of the signal. In other words, the voice coil is attracted or repelled by the magnetic field. To facilitate the phasing of two or more loudspeakers, the voice coils of loudspeakers are polarised. The mechanism of a moving coil loudspeaker is really an electric motor which develops reciprocating action instead of rotary motion. The stator field is analogous to the magnetic flux in the air gap, and the armature is replaced by the voice coil which is responsible for developing the driving thrust and passing it on to the cone with the minimum distortion. The voice coil normally consists of a large number of turns of insulated wire supported on a cylindrical former usually of stiff paper, but sometimes in fine aluminium. The resistance of the coil is determined by the gauge of wire and the number of turns. Copper wire is used for general purpose, units because it is readily available, possesses high conductivity and reasonable tensile strength, and is easily connected to ordinary soldering methods. Voice coils are today mainly grouped in the 2 to 3 ohms class for radio sets, and 8 to 10 Ohms or 10 to 15 Ohms for the hi-fi and P.A. equipment. The higher values result in cheaper crossover networks because of smaller inductors and capacitors. Also the loss of power in long leads between amplifier and speaker is reduced. A total resistance of 2 ohms in such leads would waste half the input to a 2 ohms speaker but would have no audible effect on a 10/16 ohms type. With aluminium wire, the finer gauge are so fragile that it is not practical to exceed 8/10 ohms D.C. resistance in a 1" diameter coil of suitable length. Where a speaker is designed mainly for HF performance, it would be wasteful to use a very long coil merely to attain a higher resistance, as the impedance rises with frequency above 1000 Hz. It is now common practice to fit a dome in the apex of the cone to prevent dust, grit or fillings entering the magnet gap. These domes are usually moulded in a cotton fabric impregnated with synthetic reigns to hold the shape. A fairly open weave is selected so that air may pass through

the dome and thus avoid undue damping of cone movement at low frequencies. By fitting a light, rigid dome pressed from aluminium or duralumin, the output from a fairly large speaker can be improved in the 10/20 Hz region. When a metal dome is fitted to a full range unit, it is advisable to punch a small hole in the centre to relieve the air pressure at low frequencies. With small trouble speakers limited to frequencies above about 250 Hz, the complete dome is satisfactory. In view of the small gap in which a speech coil is expected to vibrate without fouling the magnet. Some type of centring device is essential. A perfect device would prevent all lateral movement of the coil, would help to regain its correct elevation when at rest in the gap, but would not impose increasing restraint as the piston movement of the coil develops, and would also not have any self-resonance. The first two of these qualities are fairly practicable, but the second two are not so easy, and so the centring device has to remain as a necessary evil. In the early days of moving coil speakers, front "spiders" were generally used, but have been almost entirely superseded by rear suspension devices. The back spider as it is called is superior for three main reasons:a) b) c) it is located nearer the actual coil it has less effect on the high note response of the cone. it can be designed with longer limbs to reduce restraint at maximum deflection, and to lower the frequency of the main resonance.

The corrugated disc, is by far the most widely used, as it lends itself to mass production and seals one side of the magnet gap from dirt and filings. The circular corrugations help to maintain the correct lateral position of the coil in the gap whilst permitting reasonable piston action, but the disc must be sufficiently right to maintain the correct elevation. Unfortunately the resonance frequency of the cone assembly is raised as rigidity is increased. The best compromise can only be found by experience, but it is now quite practicable to build 8" speakers with base resonance below 60 Hz. 10" and 12" units below 40 Hz and 15" below 30 Hz, when suitable cone surrounds are employed. The voice coil of a moving coil speaker has inductance as well as resistance, which means that its impedance varies according to the frequency and therefore, for a given e.m.f. the current flowing in the coil will vary with frequency. The impedance characteristic of the moving coil speaker is far superior to the other types reproducer as shown in figure22. It will be noted that it is reasonably linear. The impedance of the speaker is also affected by mechanical considerations, such as, the cone resonance, the air loading imposed by the method of mounting, and vibrations of cabinet, and for laboratory work is usually measured by comparing the voltage developed across the voice coil at different frequencies with the voltage across a known resistance, when passing the same current by means of an Electronic voltmeter. The two main defects of the moving coil speaker are the rising impedance in the treble and the hump in the bass at the fundamental resonance. These are also clearly shown in figure 22.

Fig. 22 Impedance Curve on Moving Coil on Baffle Circular cones are generally used because the tools are easily and cheapest to make than elliptical types, which offer no rear advantage. The use of elliptical speakers is of special importance in television sets, where they can be fitted under the cathode ray tube to secure the largest possible cone area in the minimum available space. In spite of the fact that these speakers are usually mounted with the major axis horizontal instead of vertical, the results appear to be far more satisfactory than those obtained from a small unit mounted in the side of the cabinet unless this is placed at an angle closed to wall to reflect the sound waves into the room. Failing this, an external reflector fitted to the side of the cabinet greatly improves results. Fig. 23 A. Cross Sections of Typical Cones

Cones also vary in cross-section, the two most common shapes being straight sided and flared or curvilinear (See Fig23 A). The straight sided cone is more rigid at low frequencies but tends to produce a rise in output at middle frequencies due to "break up" effects. Curvilinear shapes subdue the mid-frequency rise in response but if the curvature is excessive the reproduction may become "mushy" due to intermodulation distortion and the production of sub-harmonics. Cone angle also affects performance. Deep cones are very rigid at low frequencies but are sharply directional higher up. A hallow cone is less directional, but weaker when driven hard at the base end of the range. The effect of only slightly flaring a 12" cone is shown in Fig 23 B. The response in the region 2-6 KHz is levelled, the output at figure B having been reduced by 6 dB.

Fig. 23 B Response of 12 Loud Speaker Cone weight is connected with suspension stiffness in determining the fundamental resonance frequency, but the increased weight will result in lower efficiency. It is not practical to use highly compliant suspension systems in order to achieve low resonance with light cones, because the suspension would be too weak to hold the voice coil in centre and also in elevating. Further more, extremely light cones are not sufficiently rigid. In practice, it is again necessary to adopt a compromise between various conflicting requirements. The texture of the cone pulp affects mainly high frequency response and transient performance. Long fibred, soft pulps give good transient response due to their inherent self damping properties, but treble response is weak because the cone will absorb the high frequency energy instead of radiating it. On the other hand, large cones constructed from short fibred, hard pulps tend to give peaky response and had transient "bangover". Fortunately, most of the radiation at high frequencies come from the cone apex immediately adjoining the voice coil. Hence, peaky response can be corrected by bakelising the apex to make it stiff and using a soft textured pulp for the reminder of the cone, which is mainly operative at low frequencies. The choice of pulp is a very important consideration in moving coil speaker design, it is also essential at any of dopes of impregnating agents used to keep out moisture should have negligible effect on performance. The corrugated, one piece cone is normally considered the cheapest proposition and is essential for mass production, but it has three disadvantages. i) ii) It is difficult to obtain sufficient compliance to give resonance without making the edge too thin. The corrugations usually have resonance, which produce irregularities in response with audible colouration.

iii)

Untreated corrugations do not possess the correct mechanical impedance to absorb the high frequency energy which reaches the edge of the cone and is therefore, reflected back to produce standing wave effects.

The paper corrugation problem can be overcome by fitting a soft surround to the cone. Various materials have been used with success e.g., chamois leather, goatskin, velvet, moulded cotton fabric and soft woollen cloth. More recently, form plastic material known as expanded polyurethane has been found to posses excellent mechanical properties on this application, provided that the thickness and diversity are selected to suit the cone in supports.

Fig 24 Effect of Speaker Baffle As already stated, the moving coil loudspeaker may be considered as a single diaphragm radiator type loudspeaker. In figure 24, is shown the action of single diaphragm radiator, without a baffle, actuated by a low frequency sine wave. At A, the diaphragm is centred at B, the diaphragm is caused to move forward. The air at the front of the diaphragm is compressed and a rare faction is set up at the rear of the diaphragm. On the reverse half of the cycle at C, the diaphragm moves backward. The aim at the rear is now compressed and that at the front is decompressed, thus, a partial vacuum is created on one side of the diaphragm.

When the air is compressed on one side of the diaphragm, the air from that side rushes to the compressed side in an attempt to equalize the pressure. Thus cancelling the sound waves emanating from the opposite side. The result is that very little energy in the form of a sound wave is created. At the higher frequencies, the diaphragm is moving at a very high rate, and the air does not have time to travel from front to back, therefore, sound waves are created and little effect from cancellation is noted. At the lower frequencies the diaphragm moves at a much slower rate, and the air has time to travel from one side of the diaphragm to the other in any one cycle, setting up cancellation between the front and back waves. To prevent cancellation at the lower frequencies, a baffle is placed in front of the diaphragm as shown at D. Now, the low frequencies must traverse a much longer path to reach the opposite side. If the path is made long enough cancellation can be eliminated entirely. The baffle may be made in the form of a flat surface, a closed box, a labyrinth. Cancellation of the low frequencies may be demonstrated by operating a loudspeaker without a baffle and then placing a two - foot - square flat baffle over the diaphragm. It will be noted immediately that the low frequencies are increased. Fig 25 The Polar curve plotted to show Radiation of a Speaker

The loudspeaker characteristics are described by polar curve and free pattern. The polar curve is a circular curve plotted to show the angle of radiation of a loudspeaker with respect of frequency for a given power input at the voice coil terminals. A typical polar curve is shown in fig 25. The free field pattern is the frequency response pattern of a loudspeaker made in open air away from reflections or in an unechoic room. The efficiency of average moving coil loudspeaker is approximately 10 to 30 percent depending on the design. Early design dynamic loudspeakers had efficiencies of 1 to 5 percent. Every loudspeaker has two types of impedance viz., the blocked impedance and motional impedance. The blocked impedance is the impedance of the voice coil when the voice coil is blocked to prevent its movement. Because a loudspeaker generates a counter emf due to the movement of the voice coil in the magnetic field, the generated emf opposes the applied signal voltage to the voice coil. The impedance measured while the voice coil is in motion is different from that when the voice coil is blocked. Motional impedance is the impedance measured when the voice coil is in motion minus the blocked impedance of the voice coil. The resonant frequency of the loudspeaker can be measured by connecting an amplifier and an audio oscillator to the loudspeaker and then sweeping the oscillator from 30 to 100 Hz. The resonant frequency will manifest itself by the greatest excursion of the voice coil. The test must be made in open air.

The nominal impedance is measured at generally 400 Hz. The DC resistance of the voice coil is approximately three fourths the nominal impedance. The efficient cone shape at low frequencies is circular. An elliptical cones with major-minor arises of 2:1 has an average of 7% lower radiation, an resistance in the useful low frequency range of than a circle of the same area. The oval/elliptical cones has an advantage of its shape and space occupied. Typical movements of loudspeaker diaphragm are 8 inch loudspeaker. 0.30 inch at 50 Hz to 0,00008 inch at 1,000 Hz. 12 inch loudspeaker 0.34 inch at 30 Hz to 0.0003 inch at 1,000 Hz. If 30 Hz is applied to the voice coil of a 50 inch loudspeaker, the diaphragm movement would be approximately 2.26 inches (if construction would permit).

Fig 26 Circuit for Measuring the Impedance of a Loud Speaker The impedance characteristics are measured by energising the voice coil with a constant voltage, then measuring the current through the voice coil as shown in figure 26. Two measurements are usually made with and without an enclosure. CABINET LOUD SPEAKERS The cabinet improves the acoustic response of the cone type speakers. The basic design consists of an enclosure with the loudspeaker unit set in the centre of a large box which is completely air tight except for a port and the loudspeaker hole in the front panel. The port is so proportioned to the interior volume of the enclosure and to the loudspeaker characteristics that it functions acoustically as a low frequency loudspeaker. Thus, the low frequency response is increased, and distortion generally experienced with a nonported enclosure, is reduced. The resonant frequency of a loudspeaker enclosure is damped by completely lining the interior surfaces of the enclosure with a highly absorbent material such as, rock wool. The resonant frequency of the panels may be damped to the use of diagonal braces and by filling unused spaces with sand. High fidelity (hi-fi) speakers are used to reproduce the generally audible frequency range of 50 Hz to 12 KHz (out of the entire audio range of 20 Hz to 20 KHz). The frequency response of ordinary speakers in irregular, with a number of resonant peaks and valleys, and has a range of about 60 Hz to 8 KHz only. By using a fairly large (30cm to 38 cm diameter) and heavy cone, the low frequency response of speakers can be extended downward to 45 or even 30 Hz but at the cost of high frequency response. A small (7.6cm to 12.7cm diameter light speaker cone can improve high frequency response, but then the bass response will cut off at 100 to 150 Hz. A single speaker cannot perform well over the entire audio range. Recently however, wide range hi-fi speakers have been available in the market. It is difficult to design a single speaker to cover the entire audio range. One can use separate speakers for different audio ranges or combine large and small speakers into a single unit, mounted in line or coaxially.

A coaxial speaker consists of two separate speakers mounted on the same axis. Alternatively, a single electromechanical driver may operate two different cones or diaphragms. A mechanical or electrical crossover network divides the low and high frequency bands, which are fed partly to each speaker unit. Single speaker response of limited frequency can be prevented through a multiple speaker system comprising separate speakers with maximum efficiency. An example of this is a two way system comprising a 'woofer', a 'tweeter' and a 'crossover network'. Woofer: A woofer mainly reproduces lower notes in a musical programme. In some cases it handles all notes below 2 KHz. For a three speaker system, it is designed to work up to 500 Hz. Woofers are cone speakers and the best of them are in a loose suspension with very high compliance. A woofer is operated in a closed box (baffle), so that air resistance limits the cone's movement and avoids damage. Tweeter is designed to reproduce higher notes in a musical programme and can be used with a woofer in a two speaker system, or with woofer and midrange speakers in a three speaker system. Tweeter in a two speaker system re-produces frequencies from 1KHz onwards and in a three speaker system from 5 KHz onwards. Also, there is a super tweeter which covers the range from 8 KHz onwards. A tweeter may be a small cone permanent magnet speaker or an electrostatic type. Crossover network: An electrical circuit in a two way system directs the high frequencies to a tweeter and low frequencies to a woofer.

Fig.27: High pass crossover network. In a three way system it divides the audio into three parts high, midrange and low. The simplest form of crossover network, as shown in Fig.27 has a capacitor in series with the speaker. The capacitor offers very little impedance to high frequencies which pass through the tweeter unimpeded. But the impedance offered by capacitor increases as the frequency decreases, and so very low power reaches the tweeter at lower frequencies. Inductance of the woofer offers some impedance to high frequencies attempting to pass through it also. The system is unsatisfactory for high fidelity. Impedances are not matched and there is no definite crossover point.

Fig. 28 Constant impendence cross-over network

A better type is the constant impedance network shown in Fig.28. The impedance offered to both amplifier and speaker is constant and there is a 6dB per octave attenuation from the crossover point. The filter type crossover network shown in Fig.29 has a 12dB per octave attenuation.

Fig. 29 Filter type crossover network Ambitious approach to hi-fi reproduction is the three way system. In addition to the former twoway system it contains a dual horn high frequency tweeter and an LC crossover network (filter type) which limits the woofer to audio frequencies below 600 Hz or less. The previous tweeter can be used here as a midrange speaker for frequencies of 600 Hz to approx. 4 KHz. The new tweeter here reproduces the range from 4 KHz to 20 KHz. More elaborate and expensive multiple speaker setups are used sometimes to achieve uniform response. Loudspeaker enclosures (baffles): The sound heard from a speaker is produced by the combination of the loudspeaker and its enclosure or baffle. It cannot perform its job properly without a suitable baffle. When the speaker pushes the air in front of it, sound compressions and rarefactions are created which are 1800 out of phase with each other. The sound from the front of speaker is out of phase with that radiated from its rear. When these two out of phase sound waves meet, they cancel out each other. This cancellation affects the low frequency sound (long wavelengths), since high frequency sound is radiated in the form of beams which do not meet. sound waves from reaching each other. The baffle elongates the sound path from front to the rear so as to minimise the cancellation. Some sort of obstacle is obviously required around the speaker to prevent the front and rear sound waves from reaching each other. The baffle elongates the sound path from front to the rear so as to minimise the cancellation.

Fig. 30 Loudspeaker enclosure So, the speaker is sometimes mounted on a simple, flat wooden board or a baffle shown in Fig.30(a). This open baffle has the drawback of requiring a very large size to prevent cancellation at low frequencies. A simple type of enclosure is the open back type shown in Fig.30(b) which is essentially a flat baffle with its edges folded back. The main defect in this type of cabinet is resonance which is unsuitable for hi-fi reproduction. The entire box resonates with the low frequency sound reproduced in the 100 to 200Hz range. The resonant peaking of these frequencies produces booming characteristic which masks the balance of the bass response. The closing the rear opening of the box the rear sound wave is entirely suppressed and an infinite front to rear path length results. This infinite baffle shown in Fig.30(c) suppresses cabinet resonance and would at first appear to be ideal, except for other deficiencies. The best approach to an infinite baffle is to mount the speaker either in a large unused closet or in the wall between two rooms. But the low frequency output is not sufficient in this type of enclosure. An alternative approach is to provide an additional spacing or air-vent in the front of an infinite baffle as shown in Fig.30(d). By providing some opening or front hole in the infinite baffle, the sound energy from the rear of the speaker can be used and the size of enclosure can be reduced. The resulting bass reflex enclosure has other advantages which make it one of the most popular hi-fi baffles. This cabinet is essentially a phase inverter for sound waves. By making the path length from the rear of the speaker to the port just right the rear wave can be delayed (by one half wavelength) so that it emerges from the port in phase with the front wave and reinforces it. As a result of this reinforcing action, the low frequency output is twice that of an infinite baffle. The bass reflex enclosure uses its own resonant frequency to extend and smoothen low frequency response of the speaker. By properly designing the box the resonant peak of the speaker can be damped out and the bass response produced. So a definite relationship must be maintained between the size of the enclosure, the diameter of the port and the resonant frequency of the speaker. Applications: Speaker systems are used in conjunction with various consumer electronics products such as public address systems, stereo systems, hi-fi equipment, sound recording equipments, and in cinema halls, theatres, cassette production units etc. Process of manufacture: Plywood sheets are cut to their proper sizes using a wood saw machine. The speaker grills are cut into required sizes by means of a grill cutting machine. Circular openings are cut in the plywood sheets for fitting the speakers. The enclosures are fabricated and polished.

Woofer, tweeter etc are fitted in the openings on the front side. The crossover filter type networks are placed inside the enclosures and connections for amplifier are brought out after making the interconnections of speakers and crossover network. In the inner walls glass wool is pasted using suitable adhesive for better response. The speaker columns are tested finally by means of an audiometer and by listening to the sounds produced by them.

LOUDAPEAKERS (HORN TYPE): A typical example of the indirect radiator is the driver unit. It is a loudspeaker unit which does not radiate sound waves directly from a vibrating surface but requires acoustic loading from a horn. Horn loading is coupling a loudspeaker diaphragm to the air by means of a horn. Generally, the horn uses and exponential flare, starting with a small throat and expanding rapidly to a large bell. The equivalent circuit of a horn driver unit is shown in Fig. 31. The compliance is the acoustical and mechanical equivalent of capacitance. Figure 32 A & B show two cross sectional views of typical high frequency driver units. Fig.32 A is a unit using a conventional diaphragm and a DC energized field coil to supply the magnetic field. The diaphragm in this unit is relatively small, dome shaped, and made of aluminium or Bakelite. A phase correction plug is placed in the sound chamber in sophisticated units to minimize effects caused by the difference in path length from the various areas of the diaphragm to the throat. This, interference occurring in the sound chamber at the high frequencies is reduced and a smoother frequency response is obtained. The diaphragm is supported at the outer edges of the dome shaped centre.

At figure (B) is shown an annular type driver unit with a V-shaped diaphragm. The voice coil winding is attached to the apex of the V. The sound chamber is formed by the space on the active side of the diaphragm. The throat opening is a circular or annular slot expanding into the horn. This construction minimizes interference by making the distance from any portion of the diaphragm area to the throat opening small and provides, sturdy construction.

Fig.33 A and B show two methods used in the assembly of permanent magnet driver units. Fig. A shows the magnetic circuit of driver unit, with the magnet mounted at the centre of the magnetic circuit. The maximum number of lines of force are obtained. In Fig. B, two magnets are mounted at the outer edges of the assembly. In this type of construction, some of the lines of force are lost. The magnets in either type are of alnico alloy and charged as one whole unit. Thus, the maximum number of lines of force are obtained. Although one of the most commonly used components in the audio systems, the loudspeaker is not completely standardized. Because of this lack of standardisation statements as to power handling capabilities are rather misleading because only the input power which may be applied to the loudspeaker without damage to the moving elements in the speaker mechanism is given. The power rating of a loudspeaker has not bearing on the frequency response or the amount of distortion generated. At the lower frequencies, the physical dimensions of a loudspeaker unit are small compared to the required acoustically, thus, the unit becomes a low efficiency radiator with high distortion. With development of new type enclosures, efficiency and frequency response have been a marked improvement with a decrease in distortion. A technique used by the Bell Telephone laboratories for rating direct radiator units is to apply a sweep frequency of uniform amplitude from 50 to 1,000 Hz to the unit at the calculated power handling ability of the unit. If after 100 hours of operation there is no failure, the maximum power used during the test is considered to be the power rating of the unit. For horn-driver units,

frequency 100 Hz below the cut off frequency with a high frequency of 2, 000 Hz is used. When making such tests, the unit must be used with the proper horn loading. If the intensity of the acoustic output level is taken at a distance of 30 feet for a given electrical power at the voice coil and using a warble tone, the intensity will decrease 6db when the distance from the speaker is doubled. Doubling the input power to the voice coil increases the acoustic output intensity only 3db. The Doppler effect enters into the loudspeaker frequency characteristic. The pitch of a given tone will rise as the diaphragm moves towards the listener and fall as it moves away. This effect is independent of the non linearity characteristics of the speaker involved. This effect has long been a bone of contention among loudspeaker manufacturers. Attempts have been made to evolve units for comparing frequency response and a typical term used to rate the frequency response of loudspeakers is the Lin (developed by Johnson Mfg. Co. of America). One Lin is the listeners sensation corresponding to a just noticeable change in frequency range. The method of comparison permits loudspeaker to be rated in terms of noticeable effects. As there are no standards for specifying frequency limits, loudspeaker manufacturers rate loudspeakers quite differently. The system of rating used by Jenson Mfg. Co., was accepted. It will be noted that the frequency range has been divided into four sections, namely, low, medium, high and ultra-high, indicating the fidelity of reproduction. Typical uses and frequency ranges are indicated. Loudspeakers with the widest frequency range are rated plus 8 Lin which is that interval at which hearing cut off occurs for the lost cars. This rating is the maximum that can be applied to any loudspeaker intended for listening purposes.

Fig 34A Exponential Loud speaker Horn

Fig. 34B Comparison of the different rates of flare used in the design of loud speaker horns

A common type is the exponential horn. It is a horn with a constant rate of expansion or flare at an exponential rate (See Fig 34A). The purpose of the horn is to provide an acoustical match between the diaphragm of the loudspeaker unit and the air in the throat of the horn. A horn facilitates the transfer of electrical energy into acoustical energy and, if properly designed will be so with a minimum of distortion. The design of loudspeaker horn is complex and requires careful consideration to prevent reflection of the acoustical energy back into the horn bell. Typical designs are the hypex, conical, exponential and parabolic. The rate of flare determines the efficiency of the horn design. The hypex is a rate of flare developed by the Jonson Manufacturing Co. America. Different rates of flare in common use are shown in Fig34 (b). The efficiency of a horn falls between 25 and 50 percent. The area of the throat determines the loading on the diaphragm. If the area of the throat is small compared to the area of the diaphragm, the efficiency is increased because of the heavier

loading effect. However, small throats requires a longer horn which increases the frictional losses. A horn designed to use the Jonson Hypex flare has a considerably higher throat resistance as may be seen in figure 34(c) which indicates the comparative efficiencies of various types of flares.

Fig. 34C Comparative performance of the horn flare rates illustrated


The resonance is held to a minimum in a horn type loudspeaker by making the bell or mouth of the horn, a dimension which is two thirds or more of the lowest frequency to be reproduced. Horn resonance causes cancellation of certain frequencies and introduces distortion. A variation of exponential horn is the re-entrant type. The folding of the horn permits it to be designed for a lower cut off frequency with a shorter physical length as shown in Fig.35(A). It is an exponential horn folded within itself to reduce its physical length as shown in Fig.35 (B).

Fig. 35 Jensen Re-Entrant type Horn

A curled horn is a horn type loudspeaker with a rather low frequency cut off and which is curled back upon itself to reduce its physical length as shown in Fig36. These horns were used in early motion picture theatre installations.

Fig. 36 Curled Loudspeaker Horns A multi-cellular horn is a group of small exponential horns built into a unit, as shown at the upper portion of the speaker system in Fig 37(A). After the horns have been soldered together, mastic or tar is poured between the horns to prevent resonant rattles from being created. A high frequency driver unit is attached to a common throat at the rear of the horns. The polar patterns for a multi-cellular horn are shown in Figs.37 (B), 37(C). A multicellular Baffle is a single high frequency horn with several small vanes, in the bell to deflect the high frequencies over a wide area (about 1050), thus reducing the directional effect of the high frequencies (See Fig.38) it is used with multiple loudspeaker systems.

Fig. 38 Multicellular Baffle short Horn with deflecting fins To properly reproduce programme material with a loudspeaker system employing two or more loudspeaker units, it is essential that the diaphragm of each loudspeaker unit in the system be in acoustic phase with each other. That is, the diaphragms must all move in the same direction at a given instant. Phasing of multiple loudspeaker systems is difficult and it is quite easy for the

listener to become confused making it difficult to determine as to when the units are inphase. As a rule, when a system is out of phase, it will have a good low frequency response as well as a good high frequency response, but the overall response will be lacking in presence. This is particularly sure of male voices when using a crossover frequency around 800 Hz. The voice will appear to jump or move from the speaker to the other. The phasing of a two way system may be checked by applying a signal of the same frequency as the crossover frequency to the system, and finding the exact centre by rocking the oscillator over a small band of frequencies above and below the crossover frequency. The signal level is set for a comfortable listening level. The listener then moves in front of the low than the high frequency unit. If the system is out of phase, a null point will be noticed somewhere between the units caused by the cancellation of the out-of-phase signals reaching the cars of the listener simultaneously. This out-of-phase condition may be eliminated by reversing the leads to one loudspeaker unit, but not both. When the phasing is correct, the signal will speak to be of uniform level when the listener walks from one unit to other. The phasing may be further improved (after phasing the units as described above) by moving the high frequency unit either behind or to place a microphone in front of the loudspeaker system and connect it to an amplifier, and vacuum tube voltmeter to read the output of amplifier. A signal is applied as described previously, and the output levels adjusted from the high and low frequency units for the same indication on the meter. When a balance between the units has been established the high frequency loudspeaker is moved behind or in front of the low frequency unit until a maximum signal is obtained. In a multiple loudspeaker system a lack of presence will be noted. In a public address system in which the loudspeakers are separated some distance from each other, no particular effect will be noted. However, if the loudspeakers are used in a cluster, they must be phased with reference to each other or dead spots will appear on the zero axis, as shown by the polar curve in Fig.38 A. In the out-of-phase condition, the angle of sound distribution is increased. The effect on the listener is shown in Fig 38 B.

If the system does not employ a crossover network, they may be phased electrically by momentarily connecting a single flashlight battery to the terminals of each voice coil and noting the direction of the diaphragm deflections for a given polarity of the battery, and the voice coils. The voice coils are then connected across output of the amplifier in a way that result in the same direction of deflection at a given instant for each loudspeaker. In the case of a driver unit, the direction can be checked, as under:Cover the throat with tissue paper. Apply a single flashing cell to voice-coil connections in a given direction. When the diaphragm moves outward, the paper will be moved out ward by air pressure within the unit. The unit is then connected to move in the same direction as the other units in the system. In big installations involving hundreds of watts of audio power, there is the danger of accidental or excessive peak surges. This is besides the low frequency overload protection of drivers through the use of a series capacitor. Sometimes "ground loops" (voltage established by

equipment and lines considerably above so-called ground potential) will find a circuit to the speaker lines. There is always the possibility of amplifier output transformer breakdown, resulting in high D.C. voltage applied to drivers. A.C. voltage also finds a way to the speaker lines, or drivers are burnt out by voltages induced in speaker transmission lines by lightning. The following methods are used to protect speakers in installations of a relatively involved nature, and to minimize the possibility and inconvenience of a complete system breakdown. One method known as "shunt resistor" is for use where driver units are connected in series or series parallel. Shunt each driver unit with a fixed resistance of approximately three times the impedance of the unit. For instance 8 ohm units would be shunted with a 25 ohm resistor, a 16 ohm driver unit, with a 50 ohm resister. These shunt resistors will cause a loss in sound pressure of about 1 1/2 db, a loss that may be overlooked when safety is more important than less in efficiency. The wattage dissipation capabilities of the resistor should be equal to the maximum power handling capacity of the drive unit. This method prevents failure of the entire system should a single driver unit open, as would be the case in a series arrangement installed without shunt resistance. Should a unit of 16 ohms breakdown and become open circuited a 50 ohm resistor takes its place, thus considerably lowering the energy in the remaining speaker. This results in a reduced sound output without impairing the service for a temporary period. The details are shown in Figs. 39 A and B.

A) Series

B) Series/Parallel Fig. 39 Shunt Resistor Method

Another method known as "Fusing Method" uses ordinary fuses to protect against breakdown whenever the current becomes excessive the speaker remaining in operation (See Fig 39.C.) When the fuse blows, the power to the driver unit is automatically reduced, and the amplifier power is divided equally between the loudspeaker and a fixed resistance. The speaker continues to function at a 3 db lower sound level. This method utilises low current fuses placed in series with each driver unit. Across each fuse is shunted a fixed resistor equal in resistance and power to that of the loudspeaker and a fixed resistance. The speaker continues to function at a 3 db lower sound level. This method utilizes low current fuses placed in series with each driver unit. Across each fuse is shunted a fixed resistor equal in resistance and power to that of the loudspeaker. The current rating of the fuse is selected on the basis of the peak current encountered in the average musical or speech output where the average level is equivalent to the loudspeaker rating. In the case of a 25 watt loudspeaker, the current rating of the fuse should be approximately 0.75 ampere when shunted with a 15 ohm resistor.

The third method, known as Double Driver Method, is a practically fool proof method that involves additional driver units, each operating at 50% capacity (Fig 39.D). Where a certain amount of power must be supplied to a single horn, positive protection against breakdown is achieved by equipping each horn with two driver units, using a special connector. Thus, each driver unit receives approximately one half the electrical power, while the acoustic energy at the horn mouth is equivalent to that furnished by a single unit operating at full power input. The safety factor is increased by many times in this type of installation.

Fig. 39C. Fusing Method

Fig. 39D. Double Driver Method

As already indicated for horns, low frequency overload protection is necessary, to prevent damage to the diaphragm unit. A non-polarised capacitor is connected in series with the voice coil of the pressure unit. The value is given below:Capacitor (in micro farads) = 106 3 x 2 II fc ZV

Where FC = desired cut off frequency in C/S ZV = impedance of the driver unit in ohms. LOUDSPEAKERS (CLOTH TYPE): The sound reproduced from the speech or music emanating from the stage. It is desirable for the sound reaching all listeners to be of approximately the same loudness and quality. Also, precautions must be taken against acoustic feedback that would result in uncontrolled oscillations. Large rooms generally have a rather long reverberation time. As a result most of the sound energy arriving at the listener's ears do so after one or more reflections from the surfaces of the auditorium, except for those who are located quite close to the original source, this tends to produce a blurring of the original sound because of the delay involved when the reflected sound traverses the long paths from the source to the reflecting surface or surfaces and from there to the listener. In extreme cases speech can become completely unintelligible. An accepted method of solution to the foregoing problem is to use highly directional loudspeakers which beam the sound directly to the listeners, greatly minimizing the amount of sound reaching the surfaces of the listening space and, consequently, reaching the effects of reverberation. In many installations, horn-type loudspeakers are used, since efficiency is an important consideration. For horns to be effective down to reasonably low frequencies, however, In public address and sound reinforcement installations the principle problem is how to provide each listener in the auditorium the maximum possible degree of intelligibility and naturalness in they must be extremely large. This high cost and speaker placement difficulties. Typical public address speakers are designed primarily for high intelligibility rather than to produce high fidelity sound. Their frequency response is limited at both ends of the spectrum and distortion can be

quite high. Theatre type speakers, such as, those using multicellular horns, have high quality but are expensive. Moreover, they do not provide the required directivity at lower frequencies. The problem can be illustrated by a specific example. Figure 40.A. indicates the cross section of a large auditorium having acoustically hard walls and, as a result, a long reverberation time. In this particular case, the audience subtends angles with respect to the speaker on the stage of 900 (horizontally) and 160 (vertically). If the speaker is considered as a virtually omni-directional radiator in the low and medium frequency ranges, the solid angle in which the audience is included is only 1/30 of the complete solid angle of the spherical radiation from the speaker. This means that only 1/30 of the radiated sound reaches the audience directly, while the remainder strikes the walls which reflect most of it in the form of reverberant sound. Since the ratio of indirect to direct sound is 30:1, intelligibility is good only in the forward part of the auditorium, as shown by the curve at the bottom of figure 40.A. If the sound emanating from the speaker were to be confined completely to the solid angle subtended by the audience, nothing but direct sound would reach them from the speaker. After wards, some of this direct sound would reach the walls and create some reverberant sound. A typical figure 40.B. of direct to reverberent sound in such a case would reach the walls and create some reverberant sound. A typical figure of direct to reverberant sound in such a case would be 5:1, representing an improvement of approximately 150 times over the omni-directional source. Figure shows how the direct sound is maintained throughout the auditorium. In practice, the ratio of indirect to direct sound need not be maintained to such a low value as in the example given. It turns out that if the directivity is maintained principally in the vertical plane, without being restricted horizontally, a very satisfactory result can be obtained. This type of radiation pattern is produced by a column speaker or 'Line Radiator' as it is sometimes called. To obtain an idea of how column speakers produce the desired directivity patterns, consider the figure 40 C. shown with an array of four omni-directional sources (1,2,3 & 4) arranged along a line and equally spaced at a distance d. Assume that all your sources are radiating equal amounts of power, if we select the point A, along a line X - X' at right angles to the line of the sources, sufficiently far away from the sources, the differences in path lengths between the sources and point A are quite small. Therefore, the sound pressures from all of the sources arrived at A with substantially equal strength and very nearly in phase. Consequently, the sound pressure at A is four times that received from a single source along. A long line through the sources, if we select a point B, that is far removed from the sources, the sound pressures from all the sources will again be substantially the same and will also arrive in phase, provided that the distance d is considerably smaller than the wavelength corresponding to the frequency being radiated. The sound pressure at B will be the same as that at A. As the frequency increases and the wavelength becomes shorter, the situation at A does not change substantially because the differences in path length from sources 1,2,3 and 4 to A are a small fraction of d. However, at B the path length differences are much greater. For instance, if d is half a wavelength, sources 3 and 4 will be in opposite phase and cancel out, as will sources 1 and 2. Consequently, the sound pressure at B will be zero. At a quarter of a wavelength, sources 1 and 3 will be out of phase, as will 3 and 4, and the sound pressure will again be zero. Between these values the pressure will be greater than zero, but there will always be some cancellation because the sources are partially out of phase. It can be seen that at frequencies for which the extent of the array of sources is an appreciable fraction of a wavelength, considerably more power will be radiated at right angles to the array than along the line through it. In general, this will also hold true at points along the circle between A and B.

A typical radiation pattern for a column loudspeaker is shown in Fig 40 D. for a frequency where the length of the columns is four wavelengths. The illustration shown that most of the energy radiated is concentrated in the main lobe. The inherent effect of increasing directivity in the vertical plane as the frequency increases is an undesirable property of a simple column speaker. A good column speaker, in other words, is not just a number of loudspeakers mounted in a long box. There are several means by which the directional characteristics can be made more uniform with frequency. The most widely used designs for column speakers employ some form of 'tapering'. Suppose that by some means a lower amount of power is fed to the speakers away from centre as the frequency increases. Comparing the extreme case where at low frequencies all the speakers of a column are working and at the higher frequencies only one at the centre is operating the column is effectively a long one for the lower frequencies and a short one for the higher frequencies. By this means, the effective length of the column can be made approximately the same fraction of a wavelength over its entire operating range so that the directional pattern remains nearly constant. One method of tapering is electrical: A series of filters is used to feed progressively less power to successive speakers on either side of the centre unit as the frequency increases. The arrangement is shown in the Fig 41. The values of the series inductor element is calculated from the formula:L = Zv L sin 2.25 (N-1) Where Zv = Nominal Voice Coil impedance of each unit. L = Length in feet of effective radiating surface. = Angle where response is -6 dB at Fc N = No. of Loudspeakers.

It is assumed that there is no mutual coupling between the inductors. Fig. 41 Method of Frequency Distribution Still another method of acoustic tapering is to use identical speakers, but to place fibre-glass wedges with their thick ends outermost in front of the speakers so that the high frequencies are attenuated as one moves away from the centre of the column towards either end.

In the practical arrangement the loudspeakers are placed side by side. The effect is to give a polar plot (shown bt solid lines) as shown in the Fig.41 A. This defect can be overcome by distributing the power to the individual loudspeakers, by a tapped transformer as shown in Fig. B. The preferred power ratios are 0.7, 0.5, 0.35 etc., the power to the centre speaker is unity. The result is a polar diagram as shown by dotted lines in Fig. 41 A.

Fig. 41 A & B A curved column may be used instead of a straight column to obtain broader high-frequency dispersion in the vertical plane. If the radiating area of a line sources, is curved, the polar response becomes very broad for wavelengths which are large compared with the radius of the area. It becomes narrow for wavelengths comparable with the radius, and wedge shaped for wavelengths which are very small compared with the radius of the area. The details are shown in the Fig 41.B. If a "frequency taper" is given, with progressively attenuating characteristics for speakers above and below the centre speaker, the vertical polar response will be broadended as in the curved system. Alternatively, if the frequency taper, is modified, with full frequency range for the topmost speaker, and progressive attenuation for speakers towards the other end, then the polar response will be tilted as in the figure 41.B Some columns are manufactured as two-way speaker systems in which there is a long array of speakers covering the low-frequency and mid-frequency ranges and a short array of tweeters to cover the high frequencies. The formula for the angle of the main lobe indicates that columns become unwidely if a directional pattern is to be maintained below 300 Hz or so. In many applications the lack of directionality at low frequencies is of no particular consequence. For music a long reverberation time is both expected and desirable for the lower frequencies. For speech alone this is not the case. A roll-off below 300 Hz usually is desirable. A typical column speaker designed for wide range reproduction, primarily for symphonic music sound reinforcement in large outdoor and indoor areas, measures 57" high X 15 1/2" wide X 10" deep. The large speaker cabinet provides the volume behind the speakers required to maintain a fairly low system resonant frequency. For voice reproduction, column speakers are generally made considerably slimmer, with correspondingly less air volume behind the speakers, this raises the system response and provides the necessary roll-off below several 100 Hz. If more directivity is required in a vertical place, several columns can be placed one above the other.

One of the interesting and desirable features of column speakers is that the sound intensity does not follow square law characteristics as in the case of an omni directional source. This was illustrated previously in Fig.40.B but really must be heard to be appreciated. As one approaches the speaker from a considerable distance, there is very little change in sound intensity until one is extremely close to it. This is a very desirable property, the people in the audience who are close to the speakers are not blasted "out of their seats" in order to enable these in the rear to hear properly. The efficiency of a column speaker is also considerably greater than that of a single speaker. As was previously pointed out, the sound pressure add up along the central axis. As a result, the sound intensity increases as the square of the number of speakers or 2. Since, each speaker is fed with 1/n times the power supplied to the whole column where n is the number of speakers, the sound intensity in the beam is n times as great as that of a single loudspeaker fed with the same electrical input. Since each speaker carries only part of the power, distortion tends, to be low. There is of course, no reason why a column speaker cannot be made up of a series of horn-loaded speakers to obtain the additional advantages of the inherently high efficiencies of the horn speakers themselves. In this type of installation, however, the relatively restricted frequency range and comparatively high distortion of public address type horn speakers must be kept in mind. The simplest and most usual arrangement of installing column speakers in an auditorium or outdoors is to use a pair of column speakers, one at each edge of the stage from which the programme material originates. In this type of installation, acoustic feedback to the microphone can be minimised by placing the speakers forward of, and above the microphone. The elevated location is desirable anyway because of more uniform distribution of sound to the audience. Some experimentation with the locations and angles at which the speakers are installed is usually warranted. Some advantage can usually be gained by making sure that the side lobes of speaker directional response are not directed at the microphone, especially these occurring at frequencies at which the entire system is most prone to "take off" howl, or oscillates. Column speakers are to be supplied with fittings for mounting that provides flexibility of installation. An interesting and somewhat extreme examples was used at the Evangelical Church Congress near Frankfurt in 1956. Here, a huge cross about 135 ft. high was mounted on a raised platform. The vertical beam of the cross contained loudspeakers forming a sound column about 100 ft. tall. Sound was said to be adequately distributed over an area of approximately 50 acres to a crowd of over 300, 000 people. Another installation used a cluster of columns mounted at the centre of a "garden" type auditorium, distributing sound over a 3600 horizontal angle. This type of cluster can also be hung from the ceiling in indoor installations, and it can be supported in various wave outdoors, such as in stadiums. Where it is not practical to form a closely spaced cluster, column speakers can be mounted on posts between the edges of the field and the audience. The latter type of installation is somewhat less effective in providing even sound distribution. In the central type of application, if opposite columns are connected out of phase, they will produce greatly reduced sound in the region below and between them, so that if a microphone is located in this zone, higher sound output is possible without acoustic feedback to the microphone. This system is practical mainly where, instead of a true cluster, the speakers are located in a single plane to provide sound coverage on opposite sides rather than all around the ring or playing field, that is over a 3600 are, because in the latter case there would also be cancellation in the overlap region between the columns. Specifications of Loud Speakers

1. Impedance: It is the impedance offered by a loud speaker at 400 Hz. The impedance will be changed with the frequency. At its natural removable the impedance of the loud speaker will be maximum. 2. Power handling capacity (PHC): Loud Speaker manufacturers use this term to indicate the maximum volume of sound that the loud speaker will produce before it runs into distortion. Generally maximum 5% tolerance is allowed. It is also said that the voice coil of the loud speaker can handle the maximum radial power safely. 3. Frequency Response: It indicates the uniform sound pressure throw for the given band of frequencies and it is related with the enclosures that is used.

4. Sound pressure level at 1 watt power at a distance of 1 metere (Spl at 1W, 1M) Loud speaker manufacturers indicate the accurate of sound pressure in DB Spl at 1meter distance when 1 watt of 1Khz signal feed to the loud speaker. It is also related with the enclosures. Apart from the above specification some manufactures indicate the dimensions, weight and the size of the magnet used in the loud speaker. CROSSOVER NETWORKS The specific purpose of crossover network is :1. To extend the frequency range by the use of two or more speakers of different size. 2. To avoid inter modulation distortion which may occur in a single unit. 3. To limit the input to the most useful frequency range in a given speaker. 4. To protect a delicate HF unit from LF input. 5. To facilitate suitable placing of bass and treble speakers for natural results. The simplest way to extend the frequency range above 3.5 KHz is to add a tweeter via coupling capacitor, say. 4 Mfd for 10/15 Ohms Unit. 8 -do6/10 -do12 -do2/5 -doAt frequencies below about 2 KHz a quarter section or half section network is to be preferred. It is important to remember that inter modulation of higher frequency only occur when there is nonlinearity of cone movement in the base. As distortion at low frequencies should not occur, in any case, and its incidence has been greatly reduced by negative feedback amplifiers, flexible cone suspension systems and acoustic loading devices, the benefit of a crossover usually shows up only on the loudest passages of orchestral music. It is also worth noting that records are also not always free from intermodulation distortion. It is useful in many cases to limit the input to suit the frequency response of a speaker, inspite of the obvious benefits of parallel working. A bass speaker rising unduly above 1000 Hz or a midrange speaker tending to peak at 4-5 KHz. can be controlled. In this application, a half section network is better than a quarter section, but not necessarily in all applications. The rate of attenuation is about 6 dB per octave with quarter section networks, 12 dB with half section types rising to 18 dB per octave with full section units with three elements in each branch. Many 3

way crossovers leave the midrange speaker free to operate at high frequencies in parallel with the tweeter. Any peak in the 3-5 KHz region can be subdued by inserting an inductance of 0.8 mH in series with the middle speaker, with a reduction in output at higher frequencies. Protecting the tweeter is automatically achieved by the coupling mentioned in para 2 above. The full audio range from a set or amplifier should never be fed into any speaker of any make which has been designed purely for HF use. The danger lies in frequencies below about 500 Hz. with maximum risk at the resonance frequency of the tweeter. As regards placing of speakers, an arrangement of middle and top units at a height of three or four feet, with bass unit below, seems to give very natural results. The detailed circuits are shown in the figure 42. The component values are in inverse proportion to the frequency. Therefore, to crossover at 500 Hz instead of 1,000 multiply all C and L values by 2. To crossover at 2,000 Hz instead of 1,000 divide all C and L values by 2. The values shown in circuits NW1 to NW8 are for 15 ohms speakers. To arrive at values for higher and lower impedances proceed as follows:30 Ohms circuit, divide all C values by 2. 7.5 Ohms circuit multiply all C values by 2, divide all L values by 2. In other words, as the circuit impedance is doubled the L values are also doubled, but the C values are halved. For domestic use, 800 or 1,000 Hz is usually a satisfactory changeover point, but with folded horns the extra cost of 400 Hz or 500 Hz networks is justified, to avoid irregularities in response at higher frequencies due to the horn bends. Electrolytic condensers are not as a rule recommended, but where the crossover frequency is very low, the large paper condensers cost a lot of money. 110 volt AC motor starting capacitors (electrolytic) could be used after being DC aged at 50 volts, first in one direction and then in the other. Modern metallisted paper capacitors give large values of capacitance with very small bulk. Air cored coils are generally advocated, but iron cores provide low resistance windings which may be worthwhile in case where insertion loss must be kept at an absolute minimum or where a 500 ohms circuit in cinema installations would involved large and costly coils. A typical 4 mH air cored coil for 15 Ohms circuits is easily wound with 18 S.W.G. copper and D.C. resistance is less than 1 Ohms, with an M.O. resistance, due to skin effect, from 1.6 Ohms at 1 KHz to 5.25 Ohms at 4 KHz where it is harmless, or actually beneficial with a crossover frequency not higher than 1 KHz. The insertion loss with networks fitted with air cored coils is about 1 dB with quarter section types, 2 dB with half section, rising to about 3 dB with full section networks, which are not often used in domestic systems.

One school of thought does not favour the use of volume controls in the loudspeaker circuit, but for mid-range and HF units they are not more harmful than many of the tone control circuits used in amplifiers. Their main value is that they reduce the output from the speaker at all operative frequencies, which is often better than the common preamp roll-off. The phase shift in a quarter section network is 900. Its effect is not serious, but can be countered by pushing the middle speaker back a quarter wave-length at crossover frequency, say 4" at 800 Hz. With a half section, the phase shift is 180 and it is better to ensure that the bass and middle speakers are acoustically in phase (by anti-phase connection), to avoid a dip in response around the frequency of crossover, especially if both units face forward into the room. Where the treble speaker faces upwards, reversing the phase makes little or no difference. About 2/3 KHz phasing is of no importance in domestic listening. When building a dividing network, there is no practical advantage in seeking absolute accuracy. Whether a coil is 3.38 mH or 3.5 mH is of no real importance because absolute accuracy in the associated capacitors cannot be expected. And whether you crossover at 750 or 800 or 850 Hz does not matter, because it is only a gradual process. A dividing network cannot be modified to take speakers of different impedance, say 15 Ohms bass with 3 ohms trouble units, or two speakers in parallel. The best plan is to work at 15 Ohms and fit a small matching transformer to the 3 Ohms unit. A partial exception to this rule would be the use of a 10 Ohms trouble unit with 15 Ohms bass speaker, which is permissible because the impedance tends to rise with frequency. It is practically impossible to overload a unit fitted with paper dielectric capacitors and air cored coils. The capacitors are usually rated at 100 or even 200 volts A.C. but do not receive more than 21 volts peak at 15 watts from amplifier. Coils wound with 18 SWG are recommended. ***

You might also like