Thesis Braking Transmission

MAKERERE UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Design and Simulation of the Transmission and
Braking System of a Two-Seater Electric Car

Thesis
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award
of the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Mechanical of Engineering

WANDERA Mourice

06/U/540

May- 2010
Wandera Mourice. Final Year proj ect thesis Pagei

Declaration
I, WANDERA Mourice declare to the best of my knowledge that the content
presented in this thesis is personally developed and has not been presented in a part or
whole by any one for any award in any award in any university, college or institution
of learning.
..
WANDERA Mourice
Date ..
We have analyzed the content of this document and certify by the power entrusted in
us that it measures up to the requirements by Faculty of Technology, Department of
Mechanical Engineering for the award of a Bachelor of Science degree in Mechanical
Engineering.
SUPERVISOR
MR. PAUL ISAAC MUSASIZI
Assistant Lecturer
Department of Engineering Mathematics
Faculty of Technology
Makerere University
Signature
Date ..
CO-SUPERVISOR
MR. KASEDDE HILLARY
Teaching assistant
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Technology
Makerere University
Signature
Date..

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Dedication
I dedicate this final year project to my family, my girl friend and other friends of mine
for all the support they gave me during my four year period at Makerere University.
May God bless them enormously.
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Acknowledgement
I would like in a special way to acknowledge the Lord Almighty for protecting and
guiding me in everything for my entire life up to date. May His name be glorified. I
convey my sincere gratitude and thanks to my pastors and my youth group for their
tireless prayers and encouragement.
I would also like to send my special thanks to the following persons;
My main supervisors, Mr. Paul Isaac Musasizi and Mr. Kasedde Hillary and other
back ground supervisors, Mr. Akovuku Albert and Dr. JB Kirabira for their time to
time advices and recommendations
My father and mother, Mr. Tibanyenda Jackson and Mrs. Tibanyenda Jane for their
financial support

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Table of Contents

Declaration ........................................................................................................................... i
Dedication ........................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................. iii
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... ix
Acronyms ............................................................................................................................ x
Abstract .............................................................................................................................. xi
Chapter One: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1
1.1 Back Ground................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Problem Statement ....................................................................................... 3
1.3 Objectives .................................................................................................... 4
1.3.1 Main Objective ..................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ............................................................................... 4
1.4 Justification ................................................................................................. 4
1.5 Scope ........................................................................................................... 5
1.6 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................. 5
1.7 Summary of the Methodology ...................................................................... 5
1.8 Report Outline ............................................................................................. 7
Chapter Two: LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 9
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 9
2.2 Braking System............................................................................................ 9
2.2.1 Evolution of the Braking System ....................................................... 9
2.2.2 Safety Considerations .......................................................................13
2.2.3 Design Materials ..............................................................................14
2.2.4 Braking System Layouts ...................................................................16
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2.3 Transmission System ................................................................................. 17
2.3.1 Evolution of the Transmission System ..............................................17
2.3.2 Transmission System Layouts...........................................................22
2.5 Role of Simulation in Product Design ........................................................ 26
2.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 27
Chapter Three: REQUIREMENTS AND DESIGN SPECIFICATION ......................... 29
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 29
3.2 Transmission System Designing ................................................................. 29
3.2.1 Front Wheel Drive Description .........................................................30
3.2.2 Drive Shafts Designing .....................................................................31
3.2.3 Establishment of the Specifications...................................................33
3.3 Braking System Designing ......................................................................... 55
3.3.1 Selection of the Energy Transmission System ......................................56
3.3.2 Establishing Stopping Distance and Time ............................................57
3.3.3 Analysis and Selection of Foudation Brakes ........................................60
3.3.4 Brake Proportioning .........................................................................69
3.3.5 Thermal Analysis .............................................................................70
3.3.6 Parking Brakes .................................................................................70
3.3.7 Regenerative Braking ..........................................................................70
3.3.8 Selecting Component Materials ...........................................................72
3.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 74
Chapter Four: IMPLEMENTATION .............................................................................. 75
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 75
4.2 Modeling and Simulation of the Shaft Assembly Parts ............................... 75
4.2.1 Modeling of Shafts ...........................................................................75
4.2.2 Simulation of the Shaft .....................................................................76
4.2.3 Modeling of the Constant Velocity Joints .........................................79
4.2.4 Assembled Half Shafts .....................................................................83
4.2.5 Simulation of the Rzeppa Joint .........................................................84
4.3 Modeling and Simulation of the Braking System parts ............................... 85
4.3.1 Modeled Rotor (Disc) .......................................................................85
4.3.2 Simulation of the Modeled Rotor (Disc) ...........................................86
4.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 89
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Chapter Five: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................... 90
5.1 Summary of Results ................................................................................... 90
5.2 Contributions ............................................................................................. 90
5.3 Limitations ................................................................................................ 91
5.4 Recommendations ...................................................................................... 91
References ......................................................................................................................... 93
Appendices ........................................................................................................................ 97

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List of Figures
Figure 1 Vision 200 hybrid car .............................................................................................. 2
Figure 2 Eliica ...................................................................................................................... 3
Figure 3 Typical Automobile Braking System ....................................................................... 9
Figure 4: The Early Wooden Block and Lever Brake (Daniel Patrascu, 2009)..................... 10
Figure 5: Showing Internal Expanding Shoe Brake .............................................................. 11
Figure 6: The Copper Disc Brake that was adopted by Fredrick William ............................. 11
Figure 7: Showing a Modern Disk Brake ............................................................................. 12
Figure 8: Power Booster ...................................................................................................... 12
Figure 9: A Four-Wheel Drum Brake System ...................................................................... 16
Figure 10: Hybrid Brake System (Front disc and Rear Drum Brake System)........................ 16
Figure 11: Car with Four Wheel Disc Brake System ............................................................ 17
Figure 12: Panhard-Levassor Manual Transmission............................................................. 18
Figure 13: Showing the Transmission Shafts and Universal Joints ....................................... 19
Figure 14: Pictorial for a CVT ............................................................................................. 21
Figure 15: Front Engine, Rear Wheel Drive (FR) Layout..................................................... 22
Figure 16: Front Engine, Front Wheel Drive (FF) Layout .................................................... 23
Figure 17: Front Engine, Four Wheel Drive (4WD) Layout ................................................. 24
Figure 18: Complete Ultracommuter CAD Model ............................................................... 26
Figure 19: Arrangement of the Front Wheel Drive Transmission System components ......... 30
Figure 20: The Speed, Torque and Power Characteristics of the Selected Motor .................. 43
Figure 21: Illustrating Hooke's Coupling's Principle ............................................................ 49
Figure 22: Shearing Force diagram ...................................................................................... 51
Figure 23: Bending Moment Diagram ................................................................................. 51
Figure 24: Transmission System Layout .............................................................................. 53
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Figure 25: Braking System Layout ...................................................................................... 55
Figure 26: Relating Velocity to Time for Emergency Braking and under Constant
Deceleration........................................................................................................................ 57
Figure 27: Relating Pedal Force to Time ............................................................................. 58
Figure 28: Relating Deceleration to Time ............................................................................ 58
Figure 29: Relating Velocity to Time .................................................................................. 58
Figure 30: Types of foundation brakes ................................................................................ 60
Figure 31: Schematic of a Disc when a Force is Applied (Shigley, 2006) ............................. 65
Figure 32: Operation of the Regenerative Braking System ................................................... 72
Figure 33: Simulation of a 25mm Diameter using the Design Insight ................................... 76
Figure 34: Simulation of a 41mm Diameter using Design Insight ........................................ 77
Figure 35: Showing the stress the shaft undergoes ............................................................... 78
Figure 36: Factor of Safety Plot........................................................................................... 78
Figure 37: Complete Assembly of the half shaft .................................................................. 83
Figure 38: Rzeppa Joint Assembly ...................................................................................... 84
Figure 39 Simulation of the Rzeppa Joint ............................................................................ 84
Figure 40: Brake Rotor Model ............................................................................................. 86
Figure 41: Showing the Stress the Brake Rotor undergoes during Braking ........................... 86
Figure 42 Brake Rotor Factor of Safety Plot ........................................................................ 87
Figure 43: Thermal Analysis of the Brake Rotor during the Braking .................................... 87
Figure 44: Remodeled Brake Rotor ..................................................................................... 88
Figure 45: Showing the Stress the Remodeled Brake Rotor Experiences .............................. 88
Figure 46 Thermal Analysis of the Remodeled Brake Rotor ................................................ 89
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List of Tables
Table 1: Methodology Summary for the Transmission System .............................................. 5
Table 2: Methodology Summary for the Transmission System .............................................. 6
Table 3: Acceleration Forces computed at Different Accelerations ...................................... 35
Table 4: Aerodynamic Forces acting on the Vehicle at Different Speeds .............................. 36
Table 5: Climbing Forces acting on the vehicle at Different Grades ..................................... 37
Table 6: Relative Wind Drag at different Vehicle Speeds .................................................... 38
Table 7: Rolling Resistance at different Vehicle Speeds ...................................................... 39
Table 8: Showing the Sum of Forces ................................................................................... 40
Table 9: Selected Tire Specifications ................................................................................... 41
Table 10: Efficiency Comparisons among Different Transmission Systems ......................... 41
Table 11: Computation of Wheel hp, Wheel Torque and Motor hp ...................................... 42
Table 12: The Major Steel Classifications ........................................................................... 46
Table 13: Costing of different Materials Relative to Carbon Steels (JamesScot, 2008) ......... 47
Table 14: Ranking and Scoring Matrix for Selection of the Shaft Material ........................... 48
Table 15: Selection Matrix for the Energy Transmission System ......................................... 56
Table 16: Comparison between the Types of Foudation Brakes ........................................... 60

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Acronyms
ABS Anti-locking Braking System
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
CAD Computer Aided Designing
CV Constant Velocity
CVT Continuously Variable Transmissions
ECU Electronic Control Unit
FMVSS Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards
ICE Internal Combustion Engine
IPR Intellectual Property Rights
MMCs Metal Matrix Composites
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
VDS Vehicle Design Summit
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Abstract
The research was geared at designing and simulating of the transmission and braking
systems for a two-seater electric car. The transmission system was aimed at providing
means of transferring power produced by the motor to the driven set of wheels
whereas the braking system was to provide a means of recapturing the momentum of
the car and bringing the car to a stop. These systems were designed based on the local
conditions of the prototype test ground i.e. Makerere University campus.
The systems were designed using a planned and systematic procedure. The first stage
was to establish the requirements and design specifications from which system
layouts and models were derived. The modeled parts were checked for performance
using simulation tools to judge the found solution principles based on technical
functionality.
The research established the requirements for developing the transmission and
braking systems and also designed the systems. Simulation of the systems parts was
also done from which performance reports were drawn.
The research recommends more work to be done on regenerative braking and parking
brake as well as training to entirely satisfy the functionality of the braking system.
The research also recommends Institutional partnerships which can be resourceful
when it comes to software, hardware, training, financial assistance, consultancy
services, technical knowledge etc

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Chapter One: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Back Ground
The automobile has a long history because the birth of the car took several years. The
French engineer Nicolas Joseph Cugnot built the first self-propelled vehicle, a heavy,
three-wheeled, steam-driven carriage with a boiler that projected in front. (Pearson
Education, 2009). The design for these vehicles was the basis for the first self-
propelled vehicles and ultimately the basis for the design of the car we know today.
Several models of steam powered vehicles were developed after cugnots. Cars
powered by electricity briefly appeared at the turn of the 20th century but largely
disappeared from commonality. Their disappearance or decline in popularity was
attributed to the fact that almost total non-existence of electricity infrastructure
outside of the cities, which limited electric car usage to city travel, the growing
requirement for cars to travel longer distances and having higher horse powers (form
and function, 2006). The next step towards the development of the automobile was
the invention of the internal combustion engine which marked the end of the
beginning of the automobile.
Internal combustion engine vehicles have two types (i.e. the manual and automatic) of
transmission and mechanical, hydraulic, electric braking systems with drum and disc
foundational brakes. The manual and automatic transmissions were invented by a
pair of Frenchmen Louis-Rene Panhard and Emile Levassor in 1894 and by the
Sturtevant brothers of Boston in 1904 respectively (Motolink, 2008). In a manual
transmission, the torque of the engines crankshaft is passed along mechanical
linkages and gears to the driven wheels. On the other hand, an automatic transmission
has a gearbox and a torque converter which uses a fluid to transfer energy from the

engine to the gearbox then to the wheels. An automatic transmission automatically
adjusts its gear ratios according to a vehicles acceleration and road speed, and the
strain on the engine. (Microsoft Corporation, 2008) Brake systems in automobiles
have adapted to the ever changing demand of the automotive fleet. Drum foundational
brakes were the state of the art until considerations like front wheel drive and
increased vehicle weight caused the car manufacturers to introduce disc brakes. Power
brakes and other features like Anti-Lock Brake Systems (ABS) were introduced. To
take advantage of the wasted energy in conventional brakes, the regenerative system
is employed in electric cars to recapture some of the vehicles kinetic energy.
The automobile industry and various academic institutions have carried out research
in green transport technologies. Makerere University took part in one of the
researches which resulted into the development of vision 200 hybrid car (figure 1
below). This was a joint effort with other renowned universities in technology from
all over the world.

Figure 1 Vision 200 hybrid car
Another research known to Makerere University is one which was done by Keio
University led by Prof. Hiroshi Shimizu. This led to the development of the Eliica
(Electric Lithium-ion Car) which is considered the fastest electric car

Figure 2 Eliica
Makerere University now seeks to implement a two seater electric vehicle as a proof
of concept of which the transmission and braking systems are requirements.
1.2 Problem Statement
Because different car designs have different capacities, they would require different
and custom transmission system requirements that suit their capacities; heavy trucks
require heavy and strong drive elements, saloon cars require medium strength drive
elements. This car being resident to Makerere University with a rolling terrain and the
fact that it is a two-seater, it will require a specially design transmission system.
Therefore the project is motivated by the need for an appropriate transmission system
that will satisfy the geographical and functional design specifications for a two-seater
electric car resident to Makerere University.
Electric cars usage is greatly limited by their drive range per charge. With
conventional braking process, a lot of energy is wasted. Therefore this calls for an on-
board charging system known as regenerative braking to take advantage of the would-
be wasted energy hence increasing the vehicle drive range. Therefore the project
seeks to design an efficient braking system that will incorporate regenerative braking.

1.3 Objectives
1.3.1 Main Objective
It was to design and simulate the transmission and braking systems that are effective
in terms of functionality, cost and compatible with electric drives.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
The specific objectives for the project were;
a) To establish the load and power requirements
b) To establish the design specifications
c) To investigate the systems performance in a virtual environment using
simulation packages or software
1.4 Justification
The project aimed at designing and simulating the transmission and brake systems a
two-seater electric car operable within Makerere University. Upon completion;
Effective transmission and braking systems customized to suit a two-seater electric
car resident to Makerere University were developed.
Facilitated the dissemination of knowledge to the engineering fraternity and the
academia in the advanced vehicle design technology the technical documentation
It laid a platform for further research in advanced vehicle technologies
The researcher acquired vast knowledge in the area of the project research i.e.
Capacity building

1.5 Scope
The project was limited to designing and simulation of the braking and transmission
systems for a two-seater electric car. The systems that were designed are custom to a
two-seater electric car resident in Makerere University hence suitable for the Campus
terrain, weather and regulated speed limits.
1.6 Ethical Considerations
The project followed the standards set by organizations like Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE), Fedearal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) etc during the
design process. Since these organizations intellectual property is their most valuable
asset, it is policy that the copyrights and other intellectual property rights of third
parties be respected and not infringed upon.
Makerere University put in place policies on Copyright which are being handled by
the Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Committee of Makerere University. These
policies are to protect the patented works, publications, etc which are used during
research for pedagogical purposes.
Therefore during the course of the project, the guidelines pertaining to the use of any
patented or copyrighted materials were faithfully followed not to be infringed.
1.7 Summary of the Methodology
Table 1: Methodology Summary for the Transmission System
System Milestone Activities Deliverable
Transmission
System
Requirements
Analysis
Load analysis
power Analysis
Requirements
specification

System
Designing
Derivation of the systems
layout
Determination of the sizes
of :
Half Shaft
Rzeppa, tripot Joint
Derivation of component
models
Design
specifications
System
Simulation
Subjected the system to loads in a
virtual environment
Simulation
Report

Table 2: Methodology Summary for the Transmission System
System Milestone Activities Deliverable
Braking
System
Requirements
Analysis
Load analysis
Analysis of energy
transmission systems
Determination of
Stopping distance and
time
Analysis of the
foundation brakes
Determination of Apply
and energy source
Requirements
specification
System
Designing
Derivation of the
system layout
Determination of the
Design specifications

sizes of :
Master Cylinder
Brake rotor
Brake pedal ratio

Derivation of
component models
Selection of the system
components materials
System
Simulation
Subjected the system to loads in
a virtual environment
Simulation Report

1.8 Report Outline
This thesis presents five chapters and an overview of the contents is as below;
Chapter one points out the back ground to this research, clearly cites the problem
statement and the research objectives, scope, ethical considerations and also presents
a summary of the methodology.
Chapter two presents the literature reviewed in which the evolution and different
types of transmission and braking systems are elucidated. It points out the merits and
demerits of using the different types and at the end identifies the suitable and versatile
designs.
Chapter three establishes the requirements and design specifications for both the
transmission and braking systems.

Chapter four focuses on modeling of the systems parts and simulation from which
performance conclusions are drawn.
Chapter five presents the conclusions drawn from the research undertaking which
include, results and unique contributions of the research, limitations and
recommendations to the research.
The second last section of this thesis i.e. References recognizes different sources and
works by accredited scholars for purposes of patents and copyright.
The last section of the thesis presents and appendix in which detailed data is given
about the different part models and simulations carried out.

Chapter Two: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the literature reviewed included the evolution of the braking and
transmission systems, their design materials, their layouts and the role of simulation in
the product design process. This was aimed to study and understand the research area.
2.2 Braking System
2.2.1 Evolution of the Braking System
A braking system is a collection of gadgets that help to halt the vehicle. The system
uses a combination of two forces i.e. mechanical and another one which can be
hydraulic, pneumatic or electric. As a result of these two forces, the brake parts are
engaged to impede further rotation of the wheels hence halting the vehicle. During
this process of stopping, the kinetic energy of the wheels is converted into heat
energy.

Figure 3 Typical Automobile Braking System

Horse drawn vehicles with steel rimmed wheels implemented a curved block of wood
and a lever system for stopping. Stopping was done by pulling the lever located next
to the driver to make the wooden block bear against the wheel. The method proved
effective not until the replacement of steel rimmed wheels with the pneumatic rubber
tires. This made the curved block of wood obsolete, therefore other means of braking
had to be put in place. (Daniel Patrascu, 2009)

Figure 4: The Early Wooden Block and Lever Brake (Daniel Patrascu, 2009)
Daimler and Ransom E. Olds implemented a cable wound around a drum and
anchored to the chassis so that when the cable was tightened while the car was
moving forward the rotation of the drum increased the tightness and grip of the cable,
therefore reducing the amount of force required to pull the lever or press on the pedal
in order to stop the vehicle. (Daniel Patrascu, 2009) However, in reverse it tended to
work against the pull of the cable and loosen its grip. (wikinet, 2004-2009)
All the above discussed brake types were external, therefore they were vulnerable to
road dirt and weathering which caused rapid wear of lining hence loss of efficiency
and on hills the brake unwrapped and gave way after some time. To overcome these
problems, Victoria employed an internal expanding shoe brake in which the brake

shoes were inside a 'brake drum' (protected from weather and dust) allowing the
braking process to remain effective. (motolink, 2008)

Figure 5: Showing Internal Expanding Shoe Brake
Malcolm Loughead invented and implemented a four-wheel hydraulic brake system
on Model A Duesenberg car which solved the great brake pedal force application and
the un-even braking problems which were experienced in the mechanical brakes. The
hydraulic brake system multiplied the force that was applied to the brake, lessening
the amount of force needed to be applied to the brake pedal by the driver.
Frederick William Lanchester patented the disc brakes but due to limited choice of
metals, he used copper as the braking medium acting on the disc. The poor state of the
roads at this time, no more than dusty, rough tracks, meant that the copper wore
quickly making the disc brake system a little non-viable (MediaWiki, 2008)

Figure 6: The Copper Disc Brake that was adopted by Fredrick William

Modern-style disc brakes appeared on the low-volume Crosley Hotshot, although they
had to be discontinued due to design problems. Chrysler's Imperial also offered a type
of disc brake, though in this instance they were enclosed with dual internal-
expanding, full-circle pressure plates. (Gassmann, 2010) Reliable modern disc brakes
were developed in the UK by Dunlop and first appeared on the Jaguar (C-Type)
racing car and Citron DS along with Loughead hydraulics. (Daniel Patrascu, 2009)

Figure 7: Showing a Modern Disk Brake
French car Model F 10 employed power brakes which have a vacuum booster
mounted on the firewall directly behind the master cylinder and, along with the master
cylinder, is directly connected with the brake pedal. Its purpose is to amplify the
available foot pressure applied to the brake pedal so that the amount of foot pressure
required to stop even the largest vehicle is minimal. (Timothy Sexton, 2009)

Figure 8: Power Booster

2.2.2 Safety Considerations
For safety purposes, a hand operated brake to stop the vehicle from free roll due to its
own weight when parked was developed. This principle was first adopted in early
carts by use of wooden wedges to avoid accidents and later was developed in modern
vehicle to use a cable and sets of linkages to actuate it.
For the same reason, anti-lock or anti-skid braking system found their invention. Anti-
lock braking systems were first developed for aircraft by the French automobile and
aircraft pioneer, Gabriel Voisin, as threshold braking on airplane is nearly impossible.
An early system was Dunlop's Maxaret system and still in use on some aircraft
models.
Royal Enfield Super Meteor motorcycle was used by the Road Research Laboratory
to test the Maxaret anti-lock brake. The experiments demonstrated that anti-lock
brakes could be of great value on motorcycles, where skidding is involved in a high
proportion of accidents. Stopping distances were reduced in almost all the tests
compared with locked wheel braking, but particularly on slippery surfaces, where the
improvement could be as much as 30 percent.
Chrysler, together with the Bendix Corporation, introduced a true computerized three-
channel all-wheel antilock brake system called "Sure Brake" on Imperial. It was
available for several years thereafter, functioned as intended, and proved reliable.
General Motors introduced the "Trackmaster" rear-wheel (only) ABS as an option on
their Rear-wheel drive Cadillac models. (Wales, 2008) Ford automaker also adopted
this technology in its cars. This system avoids skidding of the vehicle in case of hard
braking hence steering to safety. With conventional braking systems, when the brakes
are applied with enough pressure, the wheels will lock up. This results in a loss of

steering effectiveness which may cause a loss of control. The system consists of an
electronic control unit, a hydraulic actuator, and wheel speed sensors at each
wheel. If the control unit detects a malfunction in the system, it will illuminate an
ABS warning light on the dash to let you know that there is a problem. If there is a
problem, the anti-lock system will not function but the brakes will otherwise function
normally. (CorporateInc, 2009)
The implementation of the regenerative brakes saw the re-birth of an electric car
because they facilitated longer distance travels. These brakes descended from
dynamic brakes which are used on electric and diesel-electric locomotives. In both
systems, braking is accomplished by switching motor to act as generators that
convert motion into electricity instead of electricity into motion. Traditional friction-
based brakes must also be provided to be used when rapid, powerful braking is
required. It is estimated that regenerative braking systems currently see
31.3% efficiency; however, the actual efficiency depends on numerous
factors, such as the state of charge of the battery, how many wheels are
equipped to use the regenerative braking system, and whether the topology used
is parallel or serial in nature. The biggest disadvantage is that it only acts on the
driven wheels. (Sheehy, 2009)
2.2.3 Design Materials
In every engineering field, materials selection for a given application is very
important in order to meet the functional and cost requirements. So the braking
system in automobile will not take a different trend but to circum because brakes are
very important more especially in terms of performance and safety.

Brakes were made of wood i.e. curved wood block mounted on a steel rimmed wheel.
These brakes proved somehow effective simply because vehicle speeds and weights
were very low but occasionally wood could get charred because it does not possess
good friction properties. (AbsoluteAstronomy, 2009)
The introduction of drums and cable system led to the use of asbestos which has
increased strength, performance and heat resistance but creates a dust that is deemed a
hazardous material (Cancerous). Other material options were considered, and it was
when Lanchester patented the first caliper-type automobile disc brake. The limited
choice of metals in meant that he had to use copper as the braking medium. The poor
state of the roads, no more than dusty, rough tracks, meant that the copper wore
quickly making the disc brake system non-viable. (MediaWiki, 2008)
With growing technologies other materials to be used set in of which some included;
Organic materials composed of carbon based compounds with glass or synthetic
fibers. These were produced to replace the asbestos based brakes though they are of
low heat resistant hence low life span. The use of cast iron was not really involving
because of its heavy weight which reduces fuel efficiency of the car. (Science
Daily,2009)
Ceramic brakes set in which were designed for high performance requirements
because of very high heat tolerance and mechanical strength and to virtually eliminate
noise and/or break squeal. (Thomas Buff, 2009) Ceramic material brakes may cost a
little more but are highly recommended for drivers who are hard on their brakes. In
the long run they turn out to be worth the cost because they have an extended life
span. (Wikipedia, 2007)

2.2.4 Braking System Layouts
Vehicle braking system may be classified as being four-wheel drum, front disc and
rear drum (hybrid) and four wheel disc. Early vehicles used four wheel drum layout
but because of the drum brake shortcomings and the invention of disc brakes, the
layout changed to the hybrid layout. Braking causes the car's weight to shift forward
and as a result about 70% of the work is done by the front brakes the more reasons to
place the efficient disc brake on the front wheels while drum brakes at the rear to meet
economic benefits because they are less expensive. The four wheel disc brake layout
provides superior braking performance even in wet weather since all the wheels wipe
water off the friction surface hence increased brake efficiency. (Aaron Gold, 2009)

Figure 9: A Four-Wheel Drum Brake System

Figure 10: Hybrid Brake System (Front disc and Rear Drum Brake System)

Figure 11: Car with Four Wheel Disc Brake System
2.3 Transmission System
Automobile transmission system refers to an assembly of gears and associated
automobile components by means of which the drive is multiplied and transmitted to
the driving axle and then finally to the wheels.
2.3.1 Evolution of the Transmission System
Getting power from the engine to the wheels of an automobile has provided a
seemingly endless challenge for rear-wheel-drive, front-wheel-drive, 4-wheel-drive,
front-engine, rear-engine, and mid-engine cars, longitudinal, transverse, vertical,
slant, and flat engines, plus an amazing array of hardware in between. When it comes
to car designs, there are very few new ideas, just progressively successful adaptations
of old concepts.
The manual transmission was introduced by a pair of Frenchmen, Louis-Rene
Panhard and Emile Levassor. Cars transmitted engine power to the wheels in a simple
fashion that was easy for non-engineers to visualize. The engine drove a set of bevel
reduction gears that drove a shaft and pulley. Leather belts extended between the

pulley and geared wheels on an axle. One wheel, the small one, got the car going by
meshing with a ring gear on one of the driving wheels. The big wheel then took over
to get the car to hustle along at a top speed of 20 mph. If the car encountered a hill
that it did not have the power to climb, the driver would come to a dead stop so he
could engage the small wheel. (Motolink, 2008)

Figure 12: Panhard-Levassor Manual Transmission
Louis Renault completed the layout of a transmission equipped with a drive shaft and
universal joints that drove differential located on a rear axle. Renaults transmission
allowed for more power in the lower gears and more speed in the higher gears.
(3DAuto, 2005-2006)

Figure 13: Showing the Transmission Shafts and Universal Joints
Cadillac introduced a "clash less" synchromesh transmission which permits the drive
and driven gears to be brought into mesh with each other smoothly without gear
clashing hence eliminating chafing noise and friction of shifting gears and laid the
foundation for the fully automatic transmission. (Sphinx, 2005-2009)
Planetary transmission was implemented in Model T Ford in further efforts of making
gear shifting easier. It had a central gear, called the "sun" gear, surrounded by three
"planet" gears. Walter Wilson built on the idea and invented the Wilson Preselector.
This gear system used four individual planetary gearsets, allowed the driver to
preselect one gear ratio by moving a small lever on the steering column. The driver
could then "order up" the particular preselected gear by depressing a foot pedal. This
caused the clutch to disengage one gear and simultaneously allow the preselected
gearset to engage.
Sturtevant brothers of Boston invented an automatic transmission to further make gear
shifting easy. It provided two forward speeds that were engaged and disengaged by
Universal joint
Drive shaft inside

the action of centrifugal weights without need for a foot-operated clutch. As engine
speed increased, the weights swung out to engage bands, first the low-gear band and
then the high-gear band. The unit failed because the weights often flew apart.
Reo made another attempt to come up an automatic transmission and he called it the
Reo Self-Shifter, it was actually two transmissions connected in series. Reo had a
transmission that shifted automatically in ordinary driving, but the automatic didnt
really get in gear.
Buick and Oldsmobile built a transmission called the Automatic Safety Transmission
and was implemented in GM Hydra-Matic. It had a conventional clutch for shifting
the transmission into forward or reverse. Once in forward, the transmission shifted
automatically by using two hydraulically operated planetary units; one for low gear
and one for drive.
Chrysler perfected the fluid coupling when the Chrysler Fluid Drive transmission was
introduced. This was not an automatic unit, but a standard transmission with a fluid
coupling, not a clutch. This perfection eliminated the clutch but the transmission was
not yet completely automatic.
Buick employed along with Chevrolet Powerglide, Fordomatic and Merc-O-Matic;
and the Chrysler M-6 employed the hydraulic torque converter that we know today
coupled to a planetary gear train. The torque converter replaced the hydraulic
coupling.
Transaxles and CVTs (continuously variable transmissions) are recent developments.
The former are single units on front-drive cars that save weight by combining
transmissions and axles. (Motolink, 2008) CVT is an old technology but has only

recently begun to find its way into production of automobiles (featured in 2001 Honda
Insight). CVT's promise, both as a boon to fuel economy and as a low-cost alternative
to conventional transmissions, has prompted a revisit of the topic. With the
introduction of improved materials, such as high-density rubber belts, advanced
hydraulics and, more recently, high-speed sensors and microprocessors, the stage was
set for CVT's rise in the automobile. CVT's design advantages lie not only in its
efficiency but also in its simplicity hence offering advantages over traditional
transmissions. However it has its drawbacks for instance, its belt-driven orientation
limits its application more especially in cars with large engines. Improvements have
been made to suit these powerful engines and these have found application in V6
power plants found in some Nissan and Audi vehicles. CVT's advantages outweigh its
disadvantages. Its robustness is behind its ability to vary the working diameters of the
two main pulleys in the transmission, hence obtaining an infinite number of gear
ratios, with no "steps" between. The "stepless" nature of its design is CVT's biggest
draw for automotive engineers. (Memmer, 1995)

Figure 14: Pictorial for a CVT

2.3.2 Transmission System Layouts
Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in
practice for instance rear-wheel-drive, front-wheel-drive and 4-wheel-drive for which
the location of each is dependent on the application the vehicle will be used for.
Factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging
(location and size of the passenger compartment and boot space), weight distribution
and the vehicle's intended handling characteristics (William, 1998). Early automobile
used rear wheel drive set up with good weight balance, acceleration, and good road
Handling but with the increased need for traction in Snow and Ice and cost issues,
front wheel drive setups found their way through. (Township,2008) Four wheel drive
is a kind of layout that avoids completely wheel slip, with great traction more than for
front wheel drive and having more control on rough trails. (Dashboard, 2009)

Figure 15: Front Engine, Rear Wheel Drive (FR) Layout
The first FR car was a 1895 Panhard model, this layout was known as the "Systme
Panhard" in the early years. Most American cars used the FR layout until the mid
1980s. The Oil crisis of the 1970s and the success of small Front engine, Front drive
(FF) cars like the Mini, Volkswagen Golf, and Honda Civic led to the widespread
adoption of FF layout. Many cars such as Corvette, Camaro, Ford Crown Victoria,
Mercury Grand Marquis, Lincoln Town Car ,Ford Mustang Lincoln LS, Holden

Commodore, Ford Falcon, Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Jaguar etc used the FR layout
because this layout has a simple design and good handling characteristics. Placing the
drive wheels at the rear allows ample room for the transmission in the center of the
vehicle and avoids the mechanical complexities associated with transmitting power to
the front wheels. For high performance vehicles, the FR layout is more suitable than
front-wheel drive designs, especially with engines that exceed 200 horsepower. This
is because weight transfers to the rear of the vehicle during acceleration, which loads
the rear wheels and increases their grip. (Chaparral, 2008)

Figure 16: Front Engine, Front Wheel Drive (FF) Layout
DKW F1, Citron 2CV, Saab 92 and the original Mini were the first cars to adopt this
kind of layout. The success of the FF layout was attributed to its traction and
packaging advantages but also the oil crisis of the 1970s. Because the transversely-
mounted engine does not require a bevel gear to change the direction of the final
drive, coastdown losses are reduced by approximately 2-3% of flywheel power and
hence overall efficiency is slightly higher than with an FR design. There are four quite
different particular arrangements for this basic layout, according to the location of the
engine, which is the heaviest component of the drivetrain, with respect to the front
wheels. (Zunaid, 2009)These arrangements include mid-engine / front-wheel drive,

front-engine longitudinally-mounted / front-wheel drive and front-engine
transversely-mounted / Front-wheel drive. (Biscuittin, 2008)

Figure 17: Front Engine, Four Wheel Drive (4WD) Layout
The true inventor of four-wheel drive is not really known but an English engineer
Bramah Joseph Diplock patented a four wheel drive system for a traction engine,
including four-wheel steering and three differentials, which was subsequently built.
The development also incorporated Bramah's Pedrail wheel system in what was one
of the first four-wheel drive automobiles to display an intentional ability to travel on
challenging road surfaces. It stemmed from Bramagh's previous idea of developing an
engine that would reduce the amount of damage to public roads.
Ferdinand Porsche designed and built a four-wheel driven Electric vehicle for the k. u.
k. Hofwagenfabrik Ludwig Lohner & Company at Vienna, presented to the public
during the World Exhibition at Paris. The vehicle was powered by an electric hub
motor at each wheel. Although clumsily heavy, the vehicle proved a powerful sprinter
and record-breaker in the hands of its owner E.W. Hart. Due to its unusual status the
so-called Lohner-Porsche is not widely credited as the first four-wheel driven
automobile.

The first four-wheel drive car, as well as hill-climb racer, with internal combustion
engine, the Spyker 60 H.P., was presented by Dutch brothers Jacobus and Hendrik-
Jan Spijker of Amsterdam. The two-seat sports car, which was also the first ever car
equipped with a six-cylinder engine, is now an exhibit in the Louwman Collection
(the former Nationaal Automobiel Museum) at Raamsdonksveer in the Netherlands.
Daimler-Benz , Unimog , Land Rover, Range Rover, Subaru cars etc later on
implemented the technology. Its so much implemented of late in cars like,
HMMWV, Subaru Impreza, Jeep Cherrocke, Honda CR-V, Jeep Wrangler, Hammer,
Lamborghini Murcilago etc (CZmarlin,2009)
2.4 Controversies
The designing process is sequential and each step undertaken in earlier stages is
important and dictates the final design characteristics. Several decisions or tradeoffs
must be made among the different options available which is not such an easy task for
instance the friction material is arguably at the heart of any brake system, with its
properties taking one of the most important roles in defining its performance
characteristics. High performance applications, such as race track capable brake
systems in high powered vehicles, heavy duty trucks, exert considerable stress on the
friction materials, in the form of very high heat flux loads, high clamp and brake
torque loads, and high operating temperatures. It is important, for high performance
applications, to select capable friction materials, and furthermore, it is important to
understand fully what operating conditions the friction material will face in the
considered application. (David Antanaitis, 2009). The specifications being well
known to the designer, an issue of material availability comes in. Well the material
might be available but when has its adverse effects e.g. Asbestos is such a great

material to suit high performance requirements in the braking because of its good
friction characteristics but is hazardous to human health. Therefore compromises must
be reached among functional requirements and other important factors.
2.5 Role of Simulation in Product Design
Simulation aims at gaining an understanding whether the product/part functions the
way it is intended to do. Therefore simulation plays an important role to judge the
found solution principles by testing the part/product technical functionality, physical-
chemical and mechanical properties. (N. Roozenburg and E. Eekels, 2001) Simulation
has become a fundamental part of engineering due to its ability to test part designs in
virtual environments while avoiding costly mistakes, helping in estimating crucial
parameters and providing visual aids that go far in helping to comprehend solutions.
Because of the increasing complexity of vehicles, the automotive industry also
adopted this technology and Ford was among the first automakers to use solid
modeling and finite element analysis and also virtual engineering was evident
throughout the design of the Ultracommuter. A complete model was designed in solid
works, and all components were integrated into the CAD before production began.
(Fluiter, 2008)

Figure 18: Complete Ultracommuter CAD Model

The Chrysler Group adopted an innovative technology approach to impact simulation
analysis at a speed that is 20 % faster than Company's previously used hardware
solution, maintaining the same precision required from the analysis of the simulations,
and at a cost that is 40 % lower than the other available solutions. (QuinStreet Inc,
2009)
2.6 Conclusion
According to the literature reviewed above, a variety of areas were elucidated in line
with the braking and transmission systems of automobiles and as a result a number of
things were cited out;
The evolution of braking system has not followed such a vigorous turn ranging from
the wooden curved blocks to ABS system. In the design process, hydraulic actuation
method was likely to be used because of its multiplication force abilities, disc brakes
because of their outstanding braking efficiencies compared to the drum brakes and the
regenerative braking system because of its ability to recapture the would be wasted
energy during the braking process hence increasing the drive range of the vehicle.
The ability of electric motors to start from zero speed and operate efficiently over a
wide speed range make it possible to eliminate the multiple gear ratios that are used in
ICEVs, therefore a single gear ratio will be sufficient to match the wheel speed with
the motor speed. A front wheel drive layout will be used for great traction, reduced
vehicle weight and design simplicity purposes.
Employment of 3D modeling and simulation tools such as Solid Edge, Solid Works,
Cosmos and Nastran will be used during the design process in order to design, depict

and analyze the performance of different part components and assemblies. This will
make the design process easier, simpler and cheaper to manage.
In a nut shell, every car model requires specially designed systems for it to suit its
design specifications.

Chapter Three: REQUIREMENTS AND DESIGN
SPECIFICATION
3.1 Introduction
This chapter presents a planned and a systematic way of how the design parameters of
the transmission and braking systems were obtained. It provides in-depth detail about
the design requirements including assumptions, constraints, and methods.
3.2 Transmission System Designing
A basic automotive transmission system comprises of various transmission
components such as gears, shafts and other parts, which function together to transmit
power from the engine to the live axle of an automobile.
There are many ways of transmitting power from the engine to the live axles ranging
from manual transmission, automatic transmission, Front Engine, Rear Wheel Drive
(FR), Front Engine, Four Wheel Drive (4WD), and Front Engine, Front Wheel Drive
(FF). The most versatile being the 4WD but it was not opted for because the Makerere
Universitys terrain does not really need it whereas the front wheel drive layout was
opted for because of its great traction, reduced vehicle weight and for design
simplicity purposes.
The ability of electric motors to start from zero speed and operate efficiently over a
wide speed range made it possible to eliminate the multiple gear ratios that are used in
ICEVs

(Cluster of gears found in a manual transmission and variable pressures in automatic
transmission), therefore a single gear ratio was sufficient to match the wheel speed
with the motor speed.
3.2.1 Front Wheel Drive Description
Front-wheel drive is a form of transmission layout used in motor vehicles, where the
engine drives the front wheels only as shown in the figure below.

Figure 19: Arrangement of the Front Wheel Drive Transmission System components
For the case of an electric car, the engine is replaced by the motor, a cluster of gear
ratios is replaced by a single gear ratio and the drive shafts plus the wheels are not
(replaced) or given any special treatment in electric drives.

3.2.2 Drive Shafts Designing
Drive shafts transmit torques from the gear box to the wheels, hence they experience
twisting forces. Attached to these are constant velocity joints that allow a number of
degrees of freedom in case of the vehicle negotiating a corner or going over a hump.
There various types of constant velocity joints;
Fixed Type Joints Rzeppa and Weiss. These are used on the outboard side of
the vehicle but Rzeppa constant velocity joint is the mostly used
Free Type Joints Tripod used at the in-board side of the vehicle.
3.2.2.1 Shaft Design Criteria
Due to stresses experienced by the shafts as a result of applied loads, it is important
selecting the appropriate design (failure prevention) criteria. The design criteria are
largely influenced by the modes of failure of the structural member.
Modes of failure include the following;
1. Yielding which occurs when the maximum stress is greater than the yield strength
of the material causing plastic deformation
2. Fracture
due to static loads
due to fatigue loads
The above mentioned modes of failure are influenced by;
duration of the applied load
shape of the part
nature of the material (ductile/brittle)

Following the determination of the expected maximum induced stress in the member
(shaft) to be designed and selection of the suitable material, the design criteria were
applied in the calculation of the cross-section dimensions of the shaft.
In the selection of the material to be used, the choice was based partly on its physical
properties so that its allowable stress was at least equal to the maximum induced
stress. Therefore the allowable stress was the upper limit of the induced stress.
In design for strength to avoid fracture of the shaft subject to static loads, the
appropriate property considered for static loading of brittle materials was the ultimate
strength, and for ductile materials was the yield point whereas in cyclic loading for
infinite life the appropriate property was the endurance limit.
Because of the difference between the expected life and actual life in service, the parts
were tested under service conditions as closely as possible in a virtual environment
i.e. simulation indicated any need for redesigning the part.
3.2.2.2 Shaft Design Considerations
1. Size and spacing of components
2. Material selection, material treatment
3. Deflection and rigidity
Bending deflection (considered negligible because of less attached
components like gears, flywheels, clutches, bearings)
Torsional deflection
Shear deflection
4. Stress and strength
Static strength
Fatigue

3.2.3 Establishment of the Specifications
These included the load supported by the vehicle, power required by the motor for
propulsion, and the different dimensions of the transmission and braking systems
components.
3.2.3.1 Determining the Vehicle Load
Loads Weights
Batteries 200kg
Motor 60kg
Controller 10kg
Charger 8kg
DC-AC convertor 5kg
Passengers 170kg
Body 200kg
Luggage 30kg
TOTAL 683 kg
Approximately 700kg and therefore the cars weight is W= m - g = 700*9.8=6860N.
This value was determined in order to facilitate the determination of the
acceleration force required by the vehicle and at the same time to establish the
required braking energy.
3.2.3.2 Determining Motor Power
Before the power rating of the motor was established, the loads acting on the vehicle
had to be determined first. The identified loads and weights / forces which affect the
overall resistive forces of the vehicle included the following;

Acceleration force
Aerodynamic force
Climbing force
Relative wind drag force
Rolling resistance force
a). Computation of the different forces
The establishment of the different force values acting on vehicle enabled the
determination of the power required in the forward propulsion of the vehicle at
different speeds and gradability.
Acceleration force
The force required to get the vehicle going is directly proportional to the vehicles
weight, there fore F
u
= C
- m - o
Where F
u
Is the acceleration force
C
Is the mass factor of the vehicle rotating parts, 1.06

w Is the vehicles weight, N
o Is the acceleration, m/s
2

Table below showing computation of the acceleration forces at different acceleration
values
The acceleration values chosen cover a range of typical accelerations for passenger
cars

Table 3: Acceleration Forces computed at Different Accelerations
Acceleration m/s
2
Force N
1 742
2 1484
3 2226
4 2968
5 3710
6 4452
7 5194
8 5936
9 6678
10 7420

From the table above it was evident that the acceleration force is directly proportional
to the acceleration of the vehicle. Therefore the more the vehicle accelerates the more
acceleration force it generates.
Aerodynamic drag force
This is a force by air that resists vehicles motion and it varies with the square of the
vehicle speed. There fore F
d
= 0.5pC
d
AI
2

Where F
d
Is the aerodynamic drag force
p Is the density of air, 1.2754 kg/m
3

C
d
Is the drag coefficient of the vehicle, 0.35
A Is the projected area in the vehicles direction of motion, 18-24 ft
2
for sedan
cars,
using 20ft
2
, 1.85806 m
I Is the vehicles speed m/s
Table showing computation of the aerodynamic drag forces at different vehicle speeds

Table 4: Aerodynamic Forces acting on the Vehicle at Different Speeds
Speed Km/hr Speed m/s Drag Force N
0 0 0
5 1.39 0.80
10 2.78 3.20
15 4.17 7.20
20 5.56 12.80
25 6.94 20.00
30 8.33 28.80
35 9.72 39.20
40 11.11 51.20
45 12.50 64.80
50 13.89 80.00
55 15.28 96.80
60 16.67 115.20

This force increases as the vehicle speed increases as well as vehicle frontal area,
therefore reduced frontal areas must be ensured otherwise the vehicle would require a
lot of power from the power source.
Climbing force
When the vehicle is going uphill, an additional force acts on the vehicle which has a
tendency to pull it back. This force is given by F
h
= mg sin 0 and it increases as the
gradient increases.
Where F
h
Is the climbing force, N
w Is the vehicles weight, N
0 Is the angle of incline, degrees
g Is the acceleration due to gravity, m/s
2

The table showing the computation of the climbing forces at different angles of
incline
Table 5: Climbing Forces acting on the vehicle at Different Grades
Angle sin Force N
0 0 0
5 0.09 598.13
10 0.17 1191.70
15 0.26 1776.20
20 0.34 2347.16
25 0.42 2900.25
30 0.50 3431.25
35 0.57 3936.12
40 0.64 4411.00
45 0.71 4852.29
50 0.77 5256.61
55 0.82 5620.90
60 0.87 5942.38

Relative wind drag force
This force contributes to the aerodynamic drag force and it is as a result of random
local winds that push against the vehicle. It is given by F
w
= F
d
(0.98(w/ I)
2
+
0.63(w/ I)C
w
- 0.40(w/ I))
Where F
w
Is the relative wind drag force
F
d
Is the aerodynamic drag force
C
w
Is the relative wind factor defined by C
w
= (0.98(w/ I)
2
+ 0.63(w/
I)C
w
- 0.40(w/ I))
Where w is the average wind speed of Makerere University, 4.64 km/hr
I Is the vehicle speed

C
w
Is the relative wind coefficient, 1.4 for sedan vehicles
The table below shows computation of the Relative wind factor, C
w
at different
vehicle speeds from which the Relative wind drag force is calculated using the earlier
stated equation
Table 6: Relative Wind Drag at different Vehicle Speeds
vehicle speed Km/hr Wind factor,Cw Fd, N Fw, N
1 43.71 0 0
5 2.24 0.80 1.80
10 0.72 3.20 2.29
15 0.39 7.20 2.79
20 0.26 12.80 3.29
25 0.19 20.00 3.78
30 0.15 28.80 4.28
35 0.12 39.20 4.77
40 0.10 51.20 5.27
45 0.09 64.80 5.77
50 0.08 80.00 6.26
55 0.07 96.80 6.76
60 0.06 115.20 7.26

This force increases the moment there are random droughts of air around a moving
vehicle hence increased resistance to forward motion of the vehicle.

Rolling resistance force
This force depends on the tire type used and the nature of the surface the vehicle is
moving. It is given by F
= C
Wcos0
Where F
Is the rolling resistance force


C
Is the rolling resistance factor for which cars < 2267.961 kg approximately
it
0.015 On a hard surface (concrete)
0.08 On a medium-hard surface
0.30 on a soft surface (sand)
0 Is the angle of incline
Is the vehicle weight
Using , the rolling forces required are computed at different angles of incline as
shown below;
Table 7: Rolling Resistance at different Vehicle Speeds
Angle Cos Force, Fr
0 1 548.80
5 1.00 546.71
10 0.98 540.46
15 0.97 530.09
20 0.94 515.68
25 0.91 497.34
30 0.87 475.22
35 0.82 449.47
40 0.77 420.31
45 0.71 387.94
50 0.64 352.61
55 0.57 314.61
60 0.50 274.20

These values indicated that as the gradient increases, the rolling resistance reduces.
Therefore on inclined grounds the motor will not be strtained by this resistive force
unlike on level grounds.

After obtaining all the forces which act on the vehicle, a summation was done in order
to obtain the power required to be produced by the power source to sufficiently propel
the vehicle.
Summation for all the forces acting on the vehicle,
(Brant,
Build your own electric Vehicle, 2007)
Under steady-speed conditions, there is no acceleration force because acceleration is
zero and given that it is a level surface, then , , therefore the force
equation is rewritten as

Table 8: Showing the Sum of Forces
vehicle speed Km/hr Force, N
1 548.80
5 551.40
10 554.29
15 558.79
20 564.88
25 572.58
30 581.88
35 592.77
40 605.27
45 619.37
50 635.06
55 652.36
60 671.25

The sums of these forces acting on the vehicle at different speeds were computed in
order to help in the determination of the power required by the wheels at these

respective speeds by using the following formula where F is
force, N and V is velocity, m/s
b). Computation of the Wheel Power, Torque and hence Motor Rating
To compute the wheel torque, there was need to obtain the wheel radius by selecting a
tire that satisfies the car specifications in terms of load it supports i.e. 700 kg. The
selected tire was P185/70R14 which supports a load between 454-900 kg with
specifications as below;
Table 9: Selected Tire Specifications
Stock Tire- 185/70R14
Section Width 185mm
Rim Diameter 355.6mm
Rim Width Range 5-6.5in
Overall Diameter 614.42mm
Sidewall Height 129.28mm
Radius 307.08mm
Circumference 1930.1mm
Revs per Mile 859.8

Using a tire radius of 307.08mm of the selected tire, torques at the wheel were also
computed using the following formula where P is power and
r is wheel radius
To compute the motor power, the overall drive train efficiency was required.
Quotations of rear and front wheel drive in terms of efficiencies were presented in the
table below from which an efficiency value, n=0.91 was selected.
Table 10: Efficiency Comparisons among Different Transmission Systems
Drivetrain
type
Manual
transmission
Drive
shaft
Differential
drive
Drive
axle
Overall
efficiency

Front wheel
drive
0.96 Not
required
0.097 0.098 0.91
Rear wheel
drive
0.96 0.99 0.097 0.098 0.9

After selecting the efficiency value and computation of the power required by the
wheels at different vehicle speeds, the power required from the motor was computed
using the following formula where n is the overall drive train
efficiency
Table 11: Computation of Wheel hp, Wheel Torque and Motor hp
Speed km/hr Force, N

1 548.80 0.20 168.53 0.22
5 551.40 1.03 169.32 1.13
10 554.29 2.06 170.21 2.27
15 558.79 3.12 171.59 3.43
20 564.88 4.21 173.46 4.62
25 572.58 5.33 175.83 5.86
30 581.88 6.50 178.68 7.15
35 592.77 7.73 182.03 8.49
40 605.27 9.02 185.87 9.91
45 619.37 10.38 190.19 11.41
50 635.06 11.83 195.01 13.00
55 652.36 13.37 200.33 14.69
60 671.25 15.00 206.13 16.49

It was observed from the above table that the maximum motor power required was
16.49hp, approximately 17hp. To obtain the maximum torque that was to be
transmitted through the shafts, the gear ratio was required.

c). Determination of the Gear Ratio and Torque transmitted through Shafts

From research on available motors for electric car applications, Azure AC24 motor
from Azure Dynamics Electric Drive Solutions was selected because it was within
range of the power required. That is, it supports a load of 454-1590 kg and is rated
13kW continuous power.

Figure 20: The Speed, Torque and Power Characteristics of the Selected Motor
To obtain the gear ratio, the formula below was used;

RPM (motor) is the rotational speed of the motor at which it delivers closest to its
rated horsepower and RPM (wheel) is the rotational speed of the wheels at the target
speed.
From the graph shown above; the RPM at which the selected motor delivers closest to
its rated horsepower (13kW/17.433 hp) was estimated at 1800 RPM

The target speed of the vehicle was 60 km/hr, and using
(Husain, 2005)
= 534.25
Therefore = 3.37
Having obtained the overall gear ratio required and estimated the largest torque
produced by the motor as 88 Nm from the characteristic curve. The largest torque
transmitted through the shafts was set to be determined.
Since power transmitted remains approximately constant, .
Where and is torque produced by the motor and is rotational speed of the motor
at that torque respectively, and is torque transmitted by the shafts and rotational
speed of shafts at that torque respectively. Therefore
, thus .
The largest torque transmitted by the shafts
was , hence it was the torque value designed
for.
3.2.3.3 Selection of the Material
Some of the commonly used materials for shafts are ferrous alloys of which the prime
constituent is iron of which they include Low to medium carbon steel, stainless steel,
case hardened steel and cast iron. (Machine Design - R.S. Khurmi, J.K. Gupta)


a) Ranking according to Priority;
Torsional strength Most important 8
Fatigue strength Very important 5
Cost Fairly important 3
Availability Important 2
Tensile strength partially needed 1
b) Ranking according to Score;
Excellent 8
Very good 6
Good 5
Fair 3
Poor 1
c) Preliminary Materials Selection
Cast irons
Generically, cast irons are a class of ferrous alloys with carbon contents above 2.14
wt%; in practice, however, most cast irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C and, in
addition, other alloying elements. The most common cast iron types are gray, white,
malleable and nodular.
From observation;
A gray cast iron of class ASTM 60 was selected because it exhibits the best
tensile, compressive, torsional and fatigue strength properties amongst others
Malleable cast iron of grade 90001 and M8501 were selected because they
exhibit the best properties amongst others in the category

White cast iron was disqualified right away because it is hard to machine i.e.
poor machinability properties (Jr., 2001)
Steels
Many shafts are made from low carbon, cold-drawn or hot-rolled steel, such as ANSI
1020-1050 steels. Low carbon steels contain less than 0.25% C and unresponsive to
heat treatment intended to form martensite; strengthening is accomplished by cold
work.
If strength considerations turn out to dominate over deflection, then a higher strength
material should be tried, allowing the shaft sizes to be reduced until excess deflection
becomes an issue. The cost of the material and its processing must be weighed against
the need for smaller shaft diameters. When warranted, typical alloy steels for heat
treatment include ANSI 1340-50, 3140-50, 4140, 4340, 5140, and 8650.
Stainless steel may be appropriate for some environments (Shigley, 2006) because
they are highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety of environments especially
the ambient atmosphere. (Jr., 2001)
Table 12: The Major Steel Classifications
Major Steel Classsification
SAE designation Type
1XXX carbon steels
2XXX nickel steels
3XXX Nickel-chromium steels
4XXX Molybdenum
5XXX chromium steels
6XXX chromium-vanadium steels
7XXX tungsten steels
8XXX Nickel-chromium-vanadium steels
9XXX silicon-manganese steels


Table 13: Costing of different Materials Relative to Carbon Steels (JamesScot, 2008)

Material Cost relative to carbon steel
Carbon steel 1
Alloy steels 1.51
Cast iron 1.51
Stainless steel 8.1
Aluminium/alloys 4
Copper/alloys 10.1
Zinc alloys 4
Magnesium/alloys 7.3
Titanium/ alloys 30.9
Nickel alloys 32.7

From the above graph, it was obsverved that stainless steel is 8-10 times expensive
relative to carbon steels. Since the project aims at cost efficiency, stainless was
disqualified immediately.
Candidate materials selected out of steel grades included SAE 1020, 1035, 1045, 4130
and 4340. Therefore it was from these initially selected material grades that the final
material to be used was chosen using the selection matrix below.

d) Selection of the Candidate Material using the Selection Matrix
Table 14: Ranking and Scoring Matrix for Selection of the Shaft Material
Material Designation Fatigue Strength Torsional Stiffness Availabilty Tensile Strength Total Score
SAE 1020 Fair (5x3) poor (8x1) Good (2x5) Fair (1x3) 36
SAE 1035 Fair (5x3) Good (8x3) Good (2x5) Fair (1x3) 52
SAE 1045 Good (5x5) Good (8x5) Good (2x5) Good (1x5) 80
SAE 4130 Excellent (5x8) Good (8x5) Fair (2x3) Excellent (1x8) 94
SAE 4340 Excellent (5x8) Very good (8x6) Fair (2x3) Excellent (1x8) 102
ASTM 60 Poor (5x1) Poor (8x1) Good (2x5) Poor (1x1) 24
ASTM 90001 Good (5x5) poor (8x1) Poor (2x1) Good (1x5) 40
ASTM M8501 Good (5x5) poor (8x1) Poor (2x1) Good (1x5) 40

From the above matrix, the highest scoring material was SAE 4340 and hence it was selected.


3.2.3.4 Shearing Force and Bending Moment Diagrams
The Shearing force (S.F) and bending diagrams (B.M) diagrams illustrate the
variation in the S.F and B.M values along the shaft for any fixed loading condition.
(Hearn, 1998)Since the designed shaft is not attached to many mechanical
components like pulleys, gears, bearing etc which cause a lot of variations in the
shearing forces and bending moments acting on the shaft, the variations were known
to only be brought about by the applied torque, the weight subjected to the shafts at
the wheel hub and the constant velocity (C.V) joints.
The C.V joints that were used in the design were of the tripot (at the gear box
side/inboard) and the rzeppa (at the wheel side/outboard) type. The hookes coupling
principle which states that was employed where is the
angular speed of driver link 2, is the angular speed of follower link 4, is the
angle between the shafts i.e. link 2 and 4, is the angle of rotation of the driver shaft
or link.

Figure 21: Illustrating Hooke's Coupling's Principle
The angle between the driver and the follower shaft was assumed to be 0 i.e. there is
no angular variation between the driver and follower shaft and the angle of rotation of
the driver shaft takes on any value, then which meant that the angular

velocity of the driver shaft was equal to that of the follower thus same velocity
transmitted. Because of this, the shaft assembly was assumed to be rigid throughout
i.e. without constant velocity joints.
Assuming that the shaft is fixed at one side and applying a torque at the other end;

Where and were the force components in x- and y-directions at the fixed end
respectively, L the length of the shaft and T being the maximum applied motor torque.
Resolving in x and y directions resulted in and being equal to 0.
Sectioning the shaft at point x distant from the fixed end and analyzing the left hand
side;

Resolving forces in the vertical direction =0 and taking moments about x-x

Analyzing the right hand side;

Resolving forces in the vertical direction and taking moments about x-x,

Below are the shearing and bending moment diagrams
Shearing force diagram

Figure 22: Shearing Force diagram
Bending moment diagram

Figure 23: Bending Moment Diagram


3.2.3.5 Establishing the System Parts Dimensions
a) Establishment of the Tripod Joint Length
The chassis width and the steering system affect the dimensioning of the drive shafts
and their attached components most especially when the vehicle is cornering. During
this time, the shafts are off-set towards the inside of the corner. Therefore these
offsets have to be cartered for;
Considering that the maximum articulation as a result of steering for a typical rzeppa
joint ranges between 45
0
and 48
0
(CROLLA, 2002) a value of 47
0
was selected and a
clearance of 5 cm of the rzeppa joint from the wheel hub assumed. Thus the linear
distance travelled by the drive axle was determined as

Therefore a tripot housing of about 7.5 cm was observed to be required for the free
movement of the shaft to and fro without it jumping out or crushing the housing at the
extreme end.
b) Establishment of the Half Shafts Lengths and other attached members
The width dimensions of the chassis established by the chassis designer appear as
below;

The established off-set distance of the wheels from the chassis was 33cm. Using this
off-set distance and the width of the chassis, the linear dimensions of the transmission
components were approximated as below;

Figure 24: Transmission System Layout
Units in mm
c) Establishing the Half Shaft Diameter
The shaft diameter based on static loading in bending and torsion was obtained using
the maximum-shear-stress theory where;


Where d is the shaft diameter, n factor of safety assumed to be 1.8, yield strength
of the material (i.e. SAE 4340), M the largest bending moment and T is the maximum
applied motor torque. Therefore

Based on fatigue loading, goodmans relation was used to determine the shaft
diameter. Goodmans relation is given by;
J = _
32n
n
_[
k
]
M
S
c

2
+ _
1
S
j
]
2
_
1
2
,
_
1
3
,

Where k
]
is the fatigue concentration factor and S
c
is the endurance limit
The endurance limit can be obtained using the rotating beam specimen but it
unrealistic to expect the endurance limit of a mechanical member to match the values
obtained in the laboratory. Therefore marin identified and classified some of the
factors that modify the endurance limit. To account for the most important of these
conditions, a variety of modifying factors are employed, each of which is intended to
account for its effect. (Shigley, 2006)
Hence Endurance limit, S
c
= K
u
K
b
K
c
K
c
S
c
i
where
S
c
i
= 0.504S
ut
= 0.504 - 745MPa = 377.7MPa,
K
u
= oS
ut
b
= 4.51 - (745)
-0.265
= 0.782
K
b
= [
d
0.3
-0.1133
= [
1
0.3
-0.1133
= 0.872 for 0.11 J 2 incbcs

K
c
= 0.577 for torsion and shear
K
c
= K
d
= 1 for operating temperatures of about 20
0
C
Therefore S
c
= 0.782 - 0.872 - 0.577 - 1 - 377.7 = 148.6 MPa
and J = _
32-1.8
n
_[
1.9--296.56
148.6-10
6

2
+ [
296.56
470-10
6
2
_
1
2
,
_
1
3
,
= 0.041m (Shigley, 2006)
3.3 Braking System Designing
The brake system is a single most important safety feature of every vehicle on the
road. It uses a simple principle of converting kinetic energy into heat energy hence
halting the vehicle.
Typical braking system

Figure 25: Braking System Layout
An effective braking system measures to the following;
decelerate a vehicle including stopping

maintain vehicle speed during downhill operation
hold a vehicle stationary on a grade
Designing was done according to the system sub-systems which include; the energy
source, apply system, energy transmission system and wheel or foundation brakes.
3.3.1 Selection of the Energy Transmission System
To select the energy transmission sub-system, a number of significant influencing
factors were considered and evaluated by a rational process based on ranking to
achieve the best design solution. In the selection process, ranking points were
assigned to each different solution relative to the various influence factors or
constraints (Nierman, 1981). Points spread over zero to five worked well, with the
ideal solution receiving five points.
Table 15: Selection Matrix for the Energy Transmission System
design solutions
Influence Factor Mechanical Hydraulic Electric Ideal
Reliability 3 4 3 5
Complexity 4 3 3 5
Maintenace 3 4 4 5
Versatility 3 3 2 5
Wear 3 4 2 5
Materials 4 4 4 5
Inspection 4 4 2 5
Durability 4 4 3 5
Efficiency 2 4 4 5
Effectiveness 3 4 3 5
Corrosion/Water 3 3 2 5
Panic Braking 2 3 4 5
Brake Failure 1 0 3 5
Brake Balance 1 5 3 5
Braking on Grade 2 2 5 5
Parking Brake 4 3 2 5
Brake Fade 2 2 3 5
Driver Control 1 2 4 5
Total Points 49 58 56 90

% score 54.40% 64.40% 62.20% 100%
It was apparent that no energy transmisssion system could be rated superior to the
other in all respects. But in this case the hydraulic energy transmission system was
selected as the overall best scorer considering a number of influence factors.
3.3.2 Establishing Stopping Distance and Time
In a simple analysis, the vehicle motion for an emergency braking manuever with
constant deceleration can be approximated as shown in Figure 26. After the drivers
reaction time and the brakes are applied, the vehicle begins to slow at a constant
decelaration from its travel speed and the vehicle stops after the braking time . As
in the first case the stopping distance of the vehicle is the area under the -curve i.e.
the rectangular and triangular area

Figure 26: Relating Velocity to Time for Emergency Braking and under Constant Deceleration

but there fore
Expanded Stopping Distance Analysis
In braking maneuvers where the maximum sustained vehicle deceleration is not
achieved quickly and the deceleration rise cannot be ignored, a more detailed stopping
distance analysis must was carried out.

Considering the basic braking parameters in the figures below, the idealized pedal
force as a function of time is shown in Figure 27. At time (0) the driver recognizes the
danger. After the reaction time has elapsed, the driver begins to apply pedal force.
After the brake system application time has passed, the brake shoes or pads
contact the drum or disc rotor and vehicle deceleration begins. The linear rise of the
pedal force is an approximation and occurs over time .

Figure 27: Relating Pedal Force to Time

Figure 28: Relating Deceleration to Time

Figure 29: Relating Velocity to Time
The idealized deceleration is shown in Figure 28. The deceleration begins to rise
linearly at point 1 when the brake torque development starts, and stops at point 2,

either because the pedal force is constant or all brakes are locked and no further
increase in tire-road braking forces is possible.
Figure 29, shows the change in velocity as a function of time. Prior to any
deceleration, the travel velocity remains constant. Deceleration forces other than those
produced by the wheel brakes themselves may slow the vehicle before the brake pedal
is applied. Depending on the vehicle and braking process involved, these retarding
forces may come from aerodynamic drag, or gravity when braking on an incline. The
velocity is a curved line between points 1 and 2 and it can be observed that the
deceleration remains constant when it has reached its maximum value. The velocity
line is a straight line between points 2 and 3 of which the vehicle stops at point 3.
The total stopping distance was obtained by summing the individual distances
associated with the different time intervals, i.e. beginning of the reaction until
deceleration begins to rise, deceleration rise time, and when the deceleration is
constant until the vehicle stops.

There fore the total time t from the driver reaction to vehicle stopping was given by

The overall stopping distance is strongly affected by driver reaction time. In general,
driver reaction consists of four phases, namely, perception, judgment, reaction
initiation, and reaction execution (Nierman, 1981). In cases of panic-type braking
application, the judgment time may be at minimum. Results of a large number of
Wandera Mourice. Final Year project thesis Page60
reaction time tests measured in simulated emergency braking maneuvers show that
typical values of 0.75-1.5 s are generally acceptable. For hydraulic brakes, a brake
system response or application time of 0.03-0.06 s was measured, indicating that only
a small amount of time is required to bring shoes or pads into contact with the drums
or discs. For deceleration rise, measurements show a range of 0.14-0.18s. Taking
averages of the given time ranges and taking a considerable deceleration of 5.5m/s
2
,

And

3.3.3 Analysis and Selection of Foudation Brakes
There are two types of foundation brakes i.e. drum and disc brakes respectively as
shown below

Figure 30: Types of foundation brakes
Table 16: Comparison between the Types of Foudation Brakes
Parameter Disc Brake
Drum Brake
Brake Fade No brake fade
High due to expansion of
drum
Cooling
Good cooling due to better air
flow
Poor because of closed
drum
Parking brake
integration Difficult Easy
Brake squeal
High especially when pads are
worn out Low

Brake torque
produced High Low
Actuation force
required Higher compared to drums Low
Force distribution Uniform Non-uniform
Brake wear Uniform Non-uniform
Cost Higher than drums Cost effective

From the comparison, it was obsversed that the disc brake design is better than drum
brake design in very many aspects. There fore they were adapted.
A typical disc brake is illustrated in the Figure 30 above in which the rotor or disc
rotates through the caliper. The wheel cylinder pistons force the pads against the rotor
and produce brake torque. There are two main types of calipers;
Fixed caliper: The caliper is fixed securely on the steering knucke. It does not
move relative to the steering knuckle. The disadvantage with this design is that
they are expensive to manufacture as compared to floating calipers due to their
complexity and number of parts
Floating caliper: The caliper piston applies a force on the inboard pad, and this
force is transmitted to the outboard pad via the caliper. It is based on the
principle that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. The action is the
application of pressure on the piston in the outward direction, and the reaction
is the pressure on the caliper in the inward direction, through the brake pad.
These calipers float on one or more guide pins or bolts, which allow the
sideways motion of the caliper. There fore, the caliper is not fixed, but rather it
moves about the bolts, and this is what causes the force to transmit from the
inboard to the out board pad.
The floating caliper design was used because of its simplicity and cost effectiveness.

3.3.3.1 Establishing the Braking Energy and Braking Power
During braking, the kinetic and potential energies of a vehicle are converted into
thermal energy through friction in the brakes.
Level surface scenerio
For a vehicle decelerating on a level surface from a higher velocity to a lower
velocity the braking energy is
Nm
Where is mass moment of inertia of rotating parts, kgm
2

m is vehicle mass in kg
V
1
is velocity at beginning of braking m/s
V
2
is velocity at the end of braking, m/s
is the angular velocity of rotating parts at the beginning of braking
is the angular velocity of rotating parts at the end of braking
If the vehicle comes to a complete stop, then V
2
= =0 and the energy equation
becomes
Nm
When all rotating parts are expressed relative to the revolutions of the wheel, then
with , then the energy equation becomes

Where k is the correction factor for rotaing masses (k ) where r is the tire
radius
Typical values of k for passenger cars range from 1.05 to 1.15 in high gear to 1.3 to
1.5 in low gear. Corresponding values for trucks are 1.03 to 1.06 for high gear and
1.25 to 1.6 for low gear.
Since the car being designed is a passenger car and high precaution is taken for higher
speeds, then I takes on a value of 1.1 and V
1
60km/hr
There fore
E
b
=
kmI
1
2
2
=
1.1 - 700 - 16.67
2
2
= 107 kNm
To obtain the braking power ,

If the deceleration a is constant, then the velocity V(t) is given by V(t)=V
1
at m/s
Where a is deceleration m/s
2
and t is time, s
Substituting for velocity in the energy equation and differentiating, power is obtained
as


Inspection of the above equation indicates that the braking power is not constant
during the braking process. At the beginning of braking (t = 0), the brake power is a
maximum, decreasing to zero when the vehicle stops.
The time t
s
for the vehicle to come to a stop is , s
The average braking power excluding tire slip over the braking time for a
vehicle coming to a stop is

Braking on gradient
For a vehicle traveling downhill while decelerating, the brakes have to absorb both
kinetic and potential energy. Using the energy balance, the braking energy is
Nm where h is the vehicle drop of vehicle mass, m.
There fore E
b
= 700 - 9.81 - 49.6sin 60 + (1.1 -
700
2
, )(16.67
2
- 0
2
) =
402 kNm

For continued braking at constant speed, i.e. . Hence

To obtain power

Relating the angle of inclination of the gradient, actual distance traveled and change
in height, the expression below is obtained

Substituting the above equation and E
b
into
, the folloing equation is obtained

3.3.3.2 Establishment of the Foundation Brake Parameters

Figure 31: Schematic of a Disc when a Force is Applied (Shigley, 2006)
From the above diagram, the cordinate locates the line of action of force that
intersects the y-axis, if is the local contact pressure, and the friction torque T are
given by

Under uniform wear conditions i.e. PV is a constant

Where is the inner radius of the pad, is the outside radius of the pad, is the
largest allowable pressure, f is the cofficient of friction of the material, is the angle
which the initial point of the pad makes with the horizontal and is the angle which
the last point of the pad makes with the horizontal.
According to the tire which was selected in earlier stages of design, the appropriate
rotor diameter for it is 10 inches. In obtaining the actuation force at the pads, braking
on gradient scenerio was considered since it required more braking energy compared
to braking on a flat surface.

For purposes of preliminary designing, brake geometry parameters were set as r
i
=75
mm, r
o=
120 mm and , assumed piston cylinder diameter as 37.5 mm,
coefficient of friction of the pad is 0.35
Braking energy required at each of the front wheel brake=0.6*0.5*402 = 120 .
(assuming 60% of vehicle weight onto the front axle) The largest allowable (contact)
pressure is

a) Establishment of the Actuation Force

The point of application of the actuation force is

b) Establishment of the Required Hydraulic Pressure
prcssurc =
F
A
p
=
3.51 - 10
3
n -
(37.5 - 10
-3
)
2
4
,
= 3.17 MPa
On the assumption that all caliper unit components are 100% hydraulically efficient.
In practical sense, fluid properties, seal friction, and compliance the physical
components prevent this condition. (Shigley, 2006)
Clamp force generated by the caliper unit

F
u
= 2 - F
p
= 2 - 3.51 - 10
3
= 7.02 kN
Where F
p
is the actuation force. This relationship hold on the assumption that all
components in the caliper unit are 100% mechanically efficient. In the practical sense,
friction in some components in the caliper unit nulify this condition.
c) Master Cylinder Piston Diameter
The hydraulic pressure transmitted to the caliper was assumed to be equal to the
hydraulic pressure generated by the master cylinder basing on 100% hydraulic
efficiency of all the brake fluid pipes and hoses. Hence P
m
= P
u
= 3.17 MPa where
P
u
and P
m
is hydraulic pressure transmitted to the caliper and generated by the master
cylinder respectively.
Obtaining the Pedal Ratio

Because the design does not require high amplification of the driver brake pedal force
(the car design top speed is relatively low i.e. 60 km/hr), the length of the brake pedal
was assumed to be 9(0.229 m) and distance from sidewall to master cylinder pushrod
attachment as 1.8( 0.046 m). Therefore pedal ratio is =
L
1
+L
2
L
1
=
9
1.8
= 5:1

From, P
m
=
pcduI uto-P
b
A
m
where P
m
is the hydraulic pressure generated by the
master cylinder, F
b
is the brake pedal force and A
m
is the master cylinder cross
sectional area. According to FMVSS 135, the average brake pedal force under
standard test conditions is 498.2 N. Therefore, A
m
=
pcduI uto-P
b
P
m
=
5-498.2
3.17-10
6
=
7.86 - 10
-4
m
2
. From this the diameter was obtained as, J = _
4-7.86-10
-4
n
=
0.0316 m
3.3.4 Brake Proportioning
Brake proportioning is an important part of any braking system. All forms of motor
vehicles utilize some form of brake balance system to avoid lock up of the rear wheels
before front ones hence facilitating straight stopping. Brake proportioning can be
achieved by using one or more of three different methods. Brake pedals with
adjustable balance bars, adjustable proportioning valves and calipers with different
piston diameters (front to rear). In the design, the adjustable proportioning valve was
adapted because of its ability to reduce pressure that is conducted through it by
approximately 50% and that the ability to be combined with the pressure differential
valve (responsible for turning the brake warning light on when it detects a
malfunction) to form a combination valve hence compactness.
Therefore the pressure transmitted to the rear wheels was obtained as 0.5 - P
m
= 0.5 -
3.17 = 1.56 MPa

3.3.5 Thermal Analysis
Parts in contact undergo friction which results heat generation. Since the rotor and
brake pads are always in contact during braking, it is important to know the impact of
heat or temperature rises of the parts involved. If not well studied it can lead to creep.
Temperature rise, AI =
L
Cm
where E is the braking energy required, C is the specific
heat of the material and m is the mass of the brake part involved. The temperature rise
was obtained as 88
o
C by use of the formula above though temperatures can rise past
this value. Further investigations of effects of heat on the brakes were carried out in
the later chapter. (Shigley, 2006)
3.3.6 Parking Brakes
A motor which has a torque lock at rest was adapted. It was based on the principle
that torque at rest cannot be overcome by the vehicle weight. Therefore when the car
is parked, it cannot move or roll at that.
3.3.7 Regenerative Braking
Regenerative braking system is a way of slowing a vehicle by using the motor as
brakes. During the conventional way of braking, the kinetic energy of the moving
vehicle is converted into heat energy hence wasted. Instead of this load energy being
wasted as unwanted heat energy, the motor acts as a generator and returns some of it
as electricity. Therefore this system was incorporated in the vehicle as a way to obtain
more efficiency. Instead of converting kinetic energy to thermal energy through
frictional braking, the vehicle can convert a good fraction of its kinetic enegy back
into charge in the battery, using the same principle as an alternator. During this time
the motor is not receiving power from the battery pack, and therefore it resists the

turning of the wheels, capturing some of the energy of motion as if it were a generator
(reversed polarity) and returning that energy to the battery pack. Regenerative braking
has minimal impact on fuel economy during highway driving, but it can significantly
improve the fuel economy of vehicles that are driven primarily in city traffic
A pedal position sensor was incorporated into the system inorder to detect the amount
of force applied by the driver on the brake pedal, and to give the position signal to the
brake electronic control unit (ECU). From this the brake ECU senses the braking
demand and sends a fraction of this demand to the motor control unit for regenerative
braking. The brake ECU also calculates the force necessary to fulfil the remaining
braking demand and instruct the hydraulic pressure control unit to pass on a
corresponding amount of hydrauic fluid given that driver requires greater deceleration
than the generator function can provide. This happens when there is further
depression of the brake pedal by the driver such that the conventional brake system
generates the remaining braking effect also based on the driving state determined by
sensors for wheel speed.
Under this system, the master cyclinder and the regulator unit responds in two steps.
First it signals electronically to the brake ECU that braking force has been demanded
and next, the master cylinder exerts hydraulic pressure on the pedal sensor, and the
regulator feeds hydraulic fluid to the hydraulic pressure control unit. The master
cylinder has hydraulic pressure sensors for detecting hydraulic pressures in the first
and second hydraulic pressure chambers connected to the different pressure lines.

Figure 32: Operation of the Regenerative Braking System
3.3.8 Selecting Component Materials
Caliper Materials
Calipers are generally made from three common casting metals: magnesium,
aluminum and cast iron. Calipers are made of different materials the most common
being aluminum and cast iron (ductile iron). The material used in the calipers
becomes important to help eliminate deflection, deflection results in a spongy pedal.
The modulus of elasticity is very important to eliminate the deflection (flexing) of the
caliper. The higher the modulus of elasticity, the greater the resistance to deflection.
Magnesium has a modulus of 6.5 million, aluminum has a modulus of 10 million, cast
iron has a modulus of 14.5 million.
Brake Pad
Asbestos (hydrated magnesium silicate, Mg
3
Si
2
O
5
(OH)
4
, semi-metallic and
asbestos free materials


Brake Lines
These are made of steel for strength to contain the hydraulic pressure, fracture from
vibrations and from moving components and then rubber hoses for flexibility
connected to the wheel cylinders. The steel brake lines are used as much as possible
and the length of the flexible lines kept to a minimum.
Rotor (Disc)
Cast iron; mostly it is used in form of gray cast iron with a pearlitic matrix of low
ferrite and carbide content. This iron wears by abrasive, adhesive and oxidative
processes.
Aluminium based Metal Matrix Composites; these are light in weight compared to
cast iron but they are not resistant to high temperatures as cast iron. Because of this
there are serious performance issues with aluminium MMCs regarding extended
braking operations with excessive temperature build ups. These composites are
expensive compared to cast iron.
Ceramic and carbon brakes; these exhibit light weight and uniform frictional
attributes but they are costly, not very wear resistant and have a shorter life compared
to cast iron discs.
Gray cast iron was selected to be used as the rotor material because it is cheap, easy to
machine, has a good volumetric heat capacity due to its relatively high density, a
reasonable conductivity due to the presence of the graphite (or carbon) flakes and a
maximum operating temperature which is relatively high i.e. 700
o
C.

3.4 Conclusion
The established requirements set out parameters to be met by the design for the proper
functioning of the car. There fore the design was based on the requirements which
were majorly dictated by the test grounds geograhical features.

Chapter Four: IMPLEMENTATION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on modeling and simulation of different systems components or
assemblies. The requirements and design specifications obtained in the previous
chapter were used to generate the different parts which were later on simulated to
investigate their performance in a virtual environment.
4.2 Modeling and Simulation of the Shaft Assembly Parts
4.2.1 Modeling of Shafts
Two shaft diameters of 25mm and 41mm were predicted by static and fatigue loading
respectively. In the transmission shaft assembly, there is a short and a long shaft. The
length of the short and long was obtained as 360mm and 460mm respectively.
a) Long Shaft
Diameter 25mm
Diameter 41mm


b) Short Shaft
Diameter 25mm

Diameter 41 mm

4.2.2 Simulation of the Shaft
Simulation was done on only the longer shaft because of its likelihood to fracture
faster than the short one due the spreading of the torque and vibrations over a large
length. The next task was to decide on the diameter to be used. Therefore shafts of
460mm long, 25mm and 41mm wide were subjected to the designed for torque i.e.
296.56 Nm

Figure 33: Simulation of a 25mm Diameter using the Design Insight

Figure 34: Simulation of a 41mm Diameter using Design Insight
In the above, the design insight application was used to indicate the parts that transfer
the applied loads effectively. This application helps to identify the regions of the
model that effectively carry the applied loads most effectively, of which they appear
blue in the above diagrams. The translucent parts can be eliminated from the model
for purposes of weight reduction and cost effectiveness. The translucent portion in
41mm shaft was approximated to be 35%. Therefore the remainder of the effective
load carrying material was of 26.7mm.
From the above, a diameter 25mm was chosen since it is a standard shaft size which
suitably lies between 25.4mm and 26.7mm.
Further investigations were made on the shaft to check whether it was in position of
handling the maximum induced/ experienced stress. 1.96 was observed as the factor
of safety and 240MPa as the maximum stress; hence its ability to suit the real time
conditions since its yield strength is greater than the maximum stress.

Figure 35: Showing the stress the shaft undergoes

Figure 36: Factor of Safety Plot
Further evidence was seen from the color coding of the stress plot where most of the
shaft was a mixture of green and yellow. This is indicated that the shaft was
experiencing about of the maximum stress at application of the torque (T=
296.46Nm).


4.2.3 Modeling of the Constant Velocity Joints
Modeled Rzeppa Joint (All units are in mm)
Outer Race


Steel Ball and Retainer

Inner Race


Cage


Modeled Tripod Joint


4.2.4 Assembled Half Shafts

Figure 37: Complete Assembly of the half shaft


4.2.5 Simulation of the Rzeppa Joint
Rzeppa Joint Assembly

Figure 38: Rzeppa Joint Assembly
Simulation of the Rzeppa Joint
The joint was simplified as much as possible by engaging the torque to the joint
through the splines instead of the shaft and fixed at its end. The inner race was rotated
to about its maximum articulation i.e. 45
o
and outer race fixed to investigate the
behavior of the joint

Figure 39 Simulation of the Rzeppa Joint

It was observed that during this process, the balls experience the greatest stress more
so those on their contact points with the outer race. Therefore case hardening of the
ball was opted for but no further investigations were carried because the simulation
software does not cater for it.
4.3 Modeling and Simulation of the Braking System parts
The parts were sized to the requirements of the design of which all them of them were
for off-shelf buying apart from the foundation brakes i.e. the disc and caliper
assembly. Attention was focused on the foundation brakes such that details of its
performance would be investigated because it is the core area of the braking system.
4.3.1 Modeled Rotor (Disc)


Figure 40: Brake Rotor Model
4.3.2 Simulation of the Modeled Rotor (Disc)
The rotor was subjected to a rotational speed at the vehicle maximum speed i.e. 65.62
rad/s and to the braking force from the caliper unit i.e. 3.51 KN

Figure 41: Showing the Stress the Brake Rotor undergoes during Braking
The study yielded a stress of 1.2MPa experienced at the point of application of the
braking force which was about of the failure stress. It was not such a good
performance though it had a good (almost 100%) factor of safety (as shown below)
like as shown below.

Figure 42 Brake Rotor Factor of Safety Plot
Thermal Analysis of the Rotor
Under this the rotor was subjected to the temperature increase i.e. 88
o
C as a result of
the braking process.

Figure 43: Thermal Analysis of the Brake Rotor during the Braking

It was observed from the above study that the temperature rise had a small effect on
the brake rotor though consistent temperature would lead to creep. The rotor was
remodeled to improvise on temperature issue by only introducing ventilation ducts.
Remodeled Brake Rotor

Figure 44: Remodeled Brake Rotor
Under simulation of the remodeled rotor, not great results were achieved concerning
temperature but a tremendous improvement on the sustained stress before failure as
shown below.

Figure 45: Showing the Stress the Remodeled Brake Rotor Experiences

Experienced stress 1.1 MPa and Yielding stress 2.7MPa not 1.4MPa like in the first
model

Figure 46 Thermal Analysis of the Remodeled Brake Rotor
4.4 Conclusion
The modeled parts of the systems had to be tested to investigate their performance
against the requirements of the design. This was intended to predict the fate of the
designed parts when subjected to real time loads in a virtual environment i.e. will the
part fail before meeting the operational requirements or not?
During simulation most of the parts which were tested yielded positive results but for
those which did not yield the expected results, remodeling was done to achieve the
better results.

Chapter Five: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Summary of Results
The requirements specifications were determined first which gave a launch pad to the
establishment of the design specifications
The established requirements specifications facilitated the determination of the design
specifications from which the systems architectures and part solid models were
derived
The solid models were subjected to their respective loads to investigate their
performance from which simulation reports were registered.
5.2 Contributions
The transmission and braking systems were designed that are custom to a two-seater
electric prototype car operable in Makerere University
Capacity building through acquisition of vast knowledge in areas of the project
research and general upgrading of performance abilities
This project was an eye opener to the University and Ugandans at large that noise, air
pollutions, and local transport problems can be mitigated through harnessing
renewable energy sources, in this case electricity
It facilitated the dissemination of knowledge to the engineering fraternity and the
academia in advanced vehicle design technology through technical documents but has
also provided a platform for further amelioration in this field of study.

5.3 Limitations
During the project undertaking there were problems related to the simulation tools
that were available. ADVISOR 2004 simulation tool did not carter for regenerative
braking which limited the process of acquiring the amount of charge that would be
recaptured and the rate at which it is done under different cruising conditions. To add
onto that SolidWorks Simulation tool did not carter for some of the heat treatments
that were key to the findings.
The other limitation was the hardware being of low specifications as prescribed for
usage by some programs.
Insufficient knowledge and lack of sense of direction of the project research. A lot of
time was spent doing research which was not really relevant to the research problem
5.4 Recommendations
Automotive engineering is a wide study area so are the sub-study areas like the
transmission and braking systems, therefore it needs extensive and intensive research
to fully understand the subject matter of the two study topics such that all the
available options are explored to design and acquire versatile and cost effective
systems. Therefore more time for research should be allocated to such demanding
areas in order to produce quality results.
Not only should more time be allocated for extensive and intensive research but also
training. You find that a lot of time is spent trying to understand something you have
never seen, perhaps never heard of. Therefore special training should be given to
researchers to enrich their knowledge and to focus the precious time resource to the
core values of the research hence giving them a clear goal.

Institutional partnerships should be sought to reinforce the livelihood of both
technical and financial support. These institutions may include education,
consultancy, manufacturing etc which can be resourceful when it comes to software,
hardware, training, financial assistance, consultancy services, technical knowledge etc
I recommend that further research should be undertaken in the area concerning
regenerative braking because no substantial results were obtained because of the
inability of the available software to perform the simulation. Another aspect being the
parking brake in which a decision to use a torque locking motor may need be revised
because of its high energy requirements when starting the car.

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Appendices
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF THE BRAKE ROTOR MATERIAL
No. Body Name Material Mass Volume
1 rotor Gray Cast Iron 9.49146 kg 0.00131826 m^3

Material name: Gray Cast Iron
Description:
Material Source: SolidWorks
Material Model Type: Linear Elastic Isotropic
Default Failure Criterion: Mohr-Coulomb Stress
Application Data:

Property Name Value Units Value Type
Elastic modulus 6.6178e+010 N/m^2 Constant
Poisson's ratio 0.27 NA Constant
Shear modulus 5e+010 N/m^2 Constant
Mass density 7200 kg/m^3 Constant
Tensile strength 1.5166e+008 N/m^2 Constant
Compressive strength 5.7217e+008 N/m^2 Constant
Thermal expansion
coefficient
1.2e-005 /Kelvin Constant
Thermal conductivity 45 W/(m.K) Constant
Specific heat 510 J/(kg.K) Constant

STUDY PROPERTIES OF THE ROTOR
Study name further Investigation
Analysis type Static

Mesh Type: Solid Mesh
Solver type FFEPlus
Inplane Effect: Off
Soft Spring: Off
Inertial Relief: Off
Thermal Effect: Input Temperature
Zero strain temperature 298.000000
Units Kelvin

LOADS AND RESTRAINTS
Restraint name Selection set Description
Fixture-1 <rotor> On 1 Face(s) fixed. Fixed at the wheel hub

Load name Selection set Loading type Description
Force/Torque-1 <rotor> On 2 Face(s) apply
normal force 3510 N
using uniform
distribution
Sequential Loading Fixed at the wheel hub
Centrifugal-1 Centrifugal with
respect to Face< 1 >
with angular velocity -
65.62 rad/s and angular
acceleration 0 rad/s^2
Sequential Loading Applied on
circumference of the
rotor

TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SHAFT ASSEMBLY MATERIAL
No. Body Name Material Mass Volume
1 long shaft 41 AISI 4340 Steel,
annealed
4.76594 kg 0.000607126 m^3

Material name: AISI 4340 Steel, annealed
Description:

Material Source: SolidWorks
Material Model Type: Linear Elastic Isotropic
Default Failure Criterion: Max von Mises Stress
Application Data:

Property Name Value Units Value Type
Elastic modulus 2.05e+011 N/m^2 Constant
Poisson's ratio 0.285 NA Constant
Shear modulus 8e+010 N/m^2 Constant
Mass density 7850 kg/m^3 Constant
Tensile strength 7.45e+008 N/m^2 Constant
Yield strength 4.7e+008 N/m^2 Constant
Thermal expansion
coefficient
1.23e-005 /Kelvin Constant
Thermal conductivity 44.5 W/(m.K) Constant
Specific heat 475 J/(kg.K) Constant

LOADS AND RESTRAINTS
Fixture
Restraint name Selection set Description
Fixture-1 <long shaft 41> On 1 Face(s) fixed. Extreme End
Load
Load name Selection set Loading type Description
Force/Torque-1 <long
shaft 41>
On 1 Face(s) apply
torque -296.56 N-m
with respect to selected
reference Face< 1 >
using uniform
distribution
Sequential Loading Subjected on the
cylindrical face

Thesis Braking Transmission

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MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

Is the mass factor of the vehicle rotating parts, 1.06

Is the rolling resistance force

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