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Introduction:
2% of newborn infants have a major malformation. 5% if include malformation detected later in life. Malformation more in spontaneous abortuses. About 9% of perinatal deaths due to malformations. The incidence of congenital abnormalities is higher in preterm and SGA infants. Classification into malformations and deformations.
Deformations:
Result from late changes in previous normal structures by destructive pathological processes or intrauterine forces.
Malformation Syndromes
Limited number of cranio-facial syndromes can be diagnosed with confidence during the neonatal period Period of follow-up is essential for the growth and development of the child Characteristic cranio-facial features of some syndromes are age-dependent
Deformations - Causes
Primigravidity. Oligohydramnios. Abnormal presentation. Multiple pregnancy. Uterine abnormality Growth retardation.
Malformations - Causes
Estimated incidence (%) Genetic Chromosomal Environmental Infection Drugs and chemicals Radiation Maternal metabolic dis. Unknown Polygenic 20% 10 2-3 2-3 <1 1-2 35-40 25-30
Multifactorial Inheritance
For isolated affected case Factors increasing risk
Close relationship to proband High heritability of disorder Proband of more rarely affected sex Severe disease in proband Multiple family members affected
Spinal Bifida
Anecephaly / Hydrocephalus
Epigenetic Disease
RNA interference
E.g. Asthma
Syndrome Diagnosis
Gestalt recognition
Unusual facial appearance e.g. Down , Patau, Edward, Noonan, William syndromes.
Malformation Handle
A Malformation handle an accurate dx dysmorphic syndromes:
uncommon in the general population and not common to all dysmorphic syndromes.
Good handles:
Anal atresia; cleft palate ; polydactyly
Bad handles:
Clinodactyly; low-set ear; microcephaly; Simian crease.
Edwards syndrome
Trisomy 18
Small-for-gestational age infant who has trisomy 18, showing short palpebral fissures, hypertrichosis of the forehead, short sternum, clenched hands, hypoplastic genitalia, and malformed foot
Trisomy 18
Trisomy 13 ( Patau)
Triploidy facies
Triploidy
Triploidy is the presence of 69 chromosomes Fetuses that survive exhibit severe growth restriction and typically have syndactyly and clubfeet Chromosome studies from either placental or fetal tissue should be obtained for confirmation. The recurrence risk is not increased for future pregnancies.
A 23-week triploid fetus who exhibits severe growth restriction and syndactaly
Meckel-Gruber Syndrome
A rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by large polycystic kidneys, postaxial polydactyly, and occipital encephalocele Patients rarely survive beyond the neonatal period due to the severe CNS and renal defects as well as pulmonary hypoplasia (due to compression of the fetal lungs by the large kidneys). The recurrence risk is 25%, and prenatal diagnosis can be made by fetal ultrasonography or DNA analysis for known mutations.
Trisomy 21
Clinodactyly
Trisomy 21
Down Syndrome
Incidence 1-1.4 /1000 live births Associated problem:
Heart diseases 40-50% Doudenal obstruction 2.6% Leukemia 1%
Growth
Puberty delayed Final height: Men 5 ft, women 4 ft 10 in
Down Syndrome
Genetic risk Maternal age:
30 yr 35 yr 40 yr 45 yr 1:1000 1:380 1:110 1:30
Risk of recur
Mum < 35 yr 1 in 200 Mum > 35 yr 2 x normal risk
Down Syndrome
IQ
Final IQ between 35-55 Early dementia start from teen 50% sit by 1 yr Walk by 2 yr Speak few words by 3 yr
Turner Syndrome
Turner syndrome (TS) should be suspected in female infants who have evidence of fetal edema , such as excess posterior nuchal skin folds or dorsal edema of the feet with small nails. Females who have critical aortic stenosis due to bicuspid aortic valve or coarctation of the aorta also should undergo karyotyping. Affected infants often are small at birth. TS is caused by the partial or complete absence of one of the X chromosomes. Half are mosaic, eg, 45,X/46,XX. Routine chromosome studies should be obtained for diagnosis, and if TS is diagnosed, an additional 200 cells should be screened with X and Y chromosome FISH probes to rule out the presence of a Y chromosome. Medical management involves cardiology evaluation for bicuspid aortic valve, coarctation of the aorta, valvular aortic stenosis, and mitral valve prolapse. Renal ultrasonography is indicated because 40% of affected infants have renal anomalies such as horseshoe kidney. There is no increased risk for future pregnancies. TS is suspected prenatally when fetal nuchal cystic hygroma or edema/hydrops is identified.
Webbed neck
XO Syndrome
Turners Syndrome
Imprinting Disorders
Normally, each gene is represented by two copies or alleles inherited from each parent at the time of fertilization, and they function equally well whether maternally or paternally inherited. However, less than 1% of genes are imprinted, meaning that there is a parent-of-origin difference in gene expression. In the neonatal setting, the two most common imprinting disorders are Prader-Willi and Beckwith-Wiedemann syndromes.
Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome
BWS is a congenital overgrowth syndrome characterized by macroglossia, hemihyperplasia, abdominal wall defects (omphalocele or umbilical hernia), hypoglycemia, ear lobe creases, and posterior helical pits The diagnosis is based on the presence of three of the clinical findings noted previously. Six known mechanisms lead to BWS, involving a handful of imprinted genes at 11p15.5, including paternal IGF2, which usually is overexpressed. Molecular studies are available in clinical laboratories, and all children should undergo a high-resolution chromosome study to evaluate for a familial translocation. Approximately 20% of individuals who have BWS have a familial mutation that can be detected by molecular analysis. The recurrence risk is low, except for familial translocation and mutations. Prenatal diagnosis includes fetal ultrasonography and molecular/cytogenetic analysis for families who have those abnormalities. BWS occurs with increased frequency in pregnancies achieved by in vitro fertilization.
Infant who has Beckwith-Wiedeman syndrome, exhibiting macrosomia, macroglossia, and a repaired omphalocele
Cranisynostosis Syndromes
Crouzon, Pfeiffer, and Apert Most individuals who have these disorders have new autosomal dominant mutations in the FGFR2 gene. Bilateral coronal craniosynostosis or cloverleaf skull is the characteristic cranial feature in all The syndromes are distinguished by the limb findings Cleft palate or choanal atresia may result in upper airway obstruction. Proptosis is common and may lead to exposure keratopathy. Spinal radiographs are needed to evaluate for vertebral anomalies and computed tomography scan or magnetic resonance imaging are required to assess for hydrocephalus. Most patients need treatment at a craniofacial center by the age of 2 to 3 months. Recurrence risk depends on whether one of the parents is affected, in which case the recurrence risk is 50%. Prenatal diagnosis by fetal ultrasonography or molecular analysis for known mutations is available.
VATER/VACTERL Association
No known molecular cause. Described by Quan and Smith in 1973 Acronym describes the components: Vertebral defects, Anal atresia, Tracheo-Esophageal fistula with esophageal atresia, and Radial and Renal dysplasia. Kaufman (1973) and Nora and Nora (1975) subsequently added "C" for cardiac defects and "L" for limb defects to broaden the acronym to VACTERL.
Genetic Testing
Evaluations in the neonatal period should include echocardiography, renal ultrasonography, radiographs of the spine, radiographs of the extremities if abnormalities are noted on examination, and an ophthalmologic evaluation. In addition, high-resolution chromosome analysis and a genetics consultation should be obtained to exclude other genetic causes. The recurrence risk for parents and for the individual is low, and the cause is unknown, although VACTERL is related to maternal diabetes in the minority of cases.
Retinal coloboma
CHARGE Syndrome
The acronym CHARGE initially was coined by Pagon and colleagues in 1981 Including Coloboma, Heart defect, Atresia choanae, Retarded growth and development, Genital hypoplasia, and Ear anomalies/deafness. A common pathogenetic basis was discovered in 2004, the association now is referred to as CHARGE syndrome. CHARGE syndrome has a prevalence of 1 per 10,000 15,000 An autosomal dominant disorder, most cases represent simplex cases (the first case discovered in a family).
Clinical Findings
Colobomas are present in 80% to 90% of patients who have CHARGE syndrome, and retinal colobomas are more common than iris colobomas Retinal involvement can affect the optic nerve or macula, leading to impaired visual acuity. Severe chorioretinal colobomas can be associated with microphthalmia. Newborns in whom CHARGE syndrome is suspected should receive an ophthalmologic evaluation for retinal colobomas and be monitored by ophthalmology with an eye examination every 6 months.
Choanal Atresia
Affected individuals may have a complete blockage (choanal atresia) or a partial blockage (choanal stenosis), and the blockage may be unilateral or bilateral. Bilateral choanal atresia causes significant respiratory distress in the newborn, unilateral choanal atresia or choanal stenosis may not be detected in the newborn period; the older child who has choanal stenosis or unilateral choanal atresia may present with persistent rhinorrhea or infections. Choanal atresia or stenosis is present in 50% to 60% of patients who have CHARGE syndrome and should focus the clinician's attention on involvement of other organ systems, such as the eye and heart.
Choanal Atresia
Individuals who have bilateral posterior choanal atresia often have a prenatal history of polyhydramnios, believed to be due to an insufficient swallowing mechanism. The inability to pass a nasogastric tube should alert the clinician to the possibility of choanal atresia, but computed tomography (CT) scan of the nasopharynx and nasal cavity is necessary to evaluate the quality of the blockage. Bilateral choanal atresia is a medical emergency that should be corrected surgically as soon as possible. Chronic otitis media and deafness are potential complications of choanal atresia.
Hypoplastic lobule, prominent antihelix, and trangular concha characteristic of the typical "CHARGE ear
Ear Anomalies
Occur in approximately 90% of children and can involve the outer, middle, or inner ear. The typical "CHARGE ear" is protuberant, short, and wide, with a hypoplastic lobule, prominent antihelix, and triangular concha Middle ear anomalies include ossicular malformations, an abnormal or absent oval window, and absent stapedius muscle. Among the inner ear anomalies are aplastic or hypoplastic semicircular canals, and the Mondini defect (decreased number of turns to the cochlea) is present in up to 95% of affected individuals and can be detected by CT scan of the temporal bones. Temporal bone abnormalities also may be present. The combination of ossicular malformations and inner ear defects frequently results in a mixed (conductive and sensorineural) hearing loss that can range from mild to profound.
Genetic Testing
In 2004, a molecular cause for CHARGE syndrome was identified. The responsible gene is CHD7 (chromodomain helicase DNA-binding protein 7) Clinical testing is currently available, and the mutation detection frequency is approximately 60% to 65%. CHARGE syndrome remains a clinical diagnosis. In the neonatal period, the presence of iris or retinal coloboma, choanal atresia, characteristic ears, hearing loss, facial nerve palsy, or congenital heart defects should alert the physician to the possible diagnosis. The evaluations initiated in the neonatal intensive care unit should include an ophthalmology examination, echocardiography, ear-nose-throat evaluation, renal ultrasonography, and hearing screen. The most sensitive diagnostic study, which has implications for management, is a CT scan of the temporal bones.
De Large Syndrome
Diagnostic Approach
History
Family history Parental consanguity Maternal drug/alcohol Maternal illness Antenatal scan
Neonatal examination
Cranio-facial
Diagnostic Approach
Clinical examination
Measurement and documentation of abnormalities Clinical photograph
Investigation
Development assessment X-ray/biochemical assay Chromosome study Biopsy/postmortem
Investigations
Chromosome analysis Fluorescent in situ hybridisation (FISH) Molecular genetic tests Metabolic tests Radiology Neuroimaging Echocardiogram Renal ultrasound scan Eye /Hearing /tests of immune function
The cells in amniotic fluid. Amniotic fluid Alpha Fetoprotein. Secretor substance. Ultrasound. Amniography. Fetoscopy. Radiography.
Genetic Counseling
Process of communication 3 Functions
Discuss on diagnosis and patient implication Advice on probability of the next child affected. Early diagnosis of condition (prenatal diagnosis)
Genetic Counselling
Risk of a child being born
with some congenital abnormalities A serious physical/mental handicap 1 in 30 1 in 50 1 in 30-100 1 in 150 1 in 8
Risk of perinatal death Risk of child dying after 1 wk to 1 yr Risk of a pregnancy end with spontaneous abortion Risk of a couple to be infertile
1 in 10
Follow-up
In no diagnosis can be made, follow up is important Truth to parents about no diagnosis made
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