CAPE Chemistry syllabus Unit 2

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Structure and Formulae (Module 1) a) explain the occurrence of carbon compounds with straight chains, branched chains and rings (refer to catenation, tetravalency, hybridisation and resonance of carbon atoms) b) explain the meaning of homologous series (chemical and physical characteristics) c) distinguish between empirical, molecular and structural formulae d) be able to write structural formulae (displayed, condensed and skeletal forms) of compounds e) be able to apply IUPAC rules to named organic compounds f) define structural formulae with examples (include chain, functional group and positional isomers) g) define and explain stereoisomerism (geometrical and optical) h) be able to determine the possible isomers from given molecular formulae i) define the terms electrophile, nucleophile and functional group giving at least 2 examples of each j) understand inductive and mesomeric effect k) define the terms homolytic fission and heterolytic fission and give examples l) understand different types of reactions Production of alkanes and alkenes (Module 1) a) understand that all organic compounds ultimately come from crude oil b) understand that crude oil is a mixture of organic compounds c) know that fractional distillation is used to obtain various fractions which would contain alkanes and alkenes d) list at least three fractions that are obtained from crude oil distillation e) know that the amount of gasoline and diesel from distillation does not meet the demand f) understand that cracking is used to obtain more gasoline fractions from the heavier fractions which are not in such high demand g) know the types of cracking that can be used h) know the conditions present for each type of cracking i) be able to give a full equation or complete a partial equation for the cracking of a given alkane

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Alkanes (Module 1) a) state the general formula of alkanes b) understand the concept of hydrocarbon and saturated / saturation c) apply the general formula of alkanes and give the molecular formulae and the names of the first ten members of the homologous series d) describe the reactions of alkanes (include the chemical equations for the reactions):- i) combustion (include colour of the flame) ii) halogenation e) list and understand the general uses of alkanes being based on their reactivity f) understand why alkanes are not very reactive g) understand that a mechanism for a chemical reaction is a suggested series of steps from the beginning of a reaction to the end of a reaction h) understand why the conventional equation for the reaction of methane and chlorine does not explain why small amounts of ethane are produced and detected at the end of the reaction i) be able to state the name of the mechanism by which alkanes use and describe the mechanism (use methane and chlorine as an example but other examples should be known) Alkenes (Module 1) a) state the general formula of alkenes b) know and identify the functional group in alkenes c) understand that alkenes are much more reactive than alkanes and explain why this is so d) appreciate that alkenes are not used as fuels but as building blocks to produce other chemicals e) describe the chemical reactions of alkenes (with conditions) i) combustion (include colour of flame) ii) halogenation iii) oxidation (hot and cold) iv) hydration v) hydrohalogenation vi) hydrogenation (include production of trans-fat which are harmful) and give equations for each chemical reaction f) state the name of the mechanism by which alkenes use and describe the mechanism using ethene and bromine as an example g) define Markovnikovs Rule and apply it to the prediction of products for the reaction of hydrogen halides and UNsymmetrical alkenes

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Benzene and derivatives of benzene (Module 1) a) State formula of benzene and discuss its structure (delocalised electrons/ pi system, a planar molecule) b) describe the reactions of benzene:i) nitration ii) halogenation c) state the name of the mechanism that benzene and its derivatives undergo d) describe the mechanisms involved in:i) nitration ii) halogenation e) compare and explain the difference in reactivity of methylbenzene vs benzene and use conditions of nitration as an example f) use methylbenzene and a derivative of methylbenzene to show how different conditions can influence the products formed for a reaction Alcohols and Phenols (Module 1) a) give general formula of alcohols b) apply IUPAC rules to naming alcohols (stating the position of the functional group) c) understand the differences between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols and give examples d) list and describe the chemical reactions of alcohols:i) oxidation ii) dehydration iii) esterification iv) iodoform test v) reaction with metals and the chemical equations for i), ii), iii) and v) only e) understand the concept of the breathalyser test f) show how one can distinguish experimentally between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols g) give general formula of phenols h) explain difference between phenols and alcohols (aromatic vs aliphatic) i) describe reactions of phenols:- a) reaction with aqueous bromine b) reaction with acyl halides c) reaction with sodium hydroxide and given chemical equations for the reactions j) explain why alcohols do not react with sodium hydroxide but phenols do k) be able to give and explain the order of acidity of water, ethanol and phenols

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Halogenoalkanes (Module 1) a) give general formula of halogenoalkanes or alkyl halides b) understand the differences between primary, secondary and tertiary alkyl halides c) describe the chemical reactions of alkyl halides:- i) hydrolysis ii) reaction with cyanide ions iii) reaction with ammonia gas and give chemical equations for the reaction d) appreciate that alkyl halides with an alcoholic solution of sodium hydroxide forms the alkene and not the alcohol e) state the name of the mechanism for the hydrolysis of alkyl halides f) describe the mechanism for the hydrolysis of alkyl halides Carbonyl compounds (Module 1) a) know the two types of carbonyl compounds and be able to give general structural formulae b) apply IUPAC rules for the two types of carbonyl compounds c) know how one can distinguish experimentally between the two types of carbonyl compounds (refer to 2,4-DNPH, Tollens / Fehlings reagent) d) describe reactions of carbonyl compounds :- i) hydrogen cyanide (NaCN/HCl) ii) Tollens reagent / Fehlings reagent iii) KMnO 4/H+ iv) LiAlH4 (ether) v) H2/Pt e) state the name of the mechanism for the reaction of carbonyl compounds and describe the mechanism using hydrogen cyanide as an example Carboxylic acids and derivatives (Module 1) a) give general formula of carboxylic acids b) understand the structural formula of the functional group c) describe chemical reactions of carboxylic acids:i) reaction with metals ii) reaction with bases iii) reaction with carbonates iv) esterification v) PCl 5, PCl3, SOCl2 and give equations for reactions i) to iv) d) describe properties of esters (sweet smell, low molecular mass) e) apply IUPAC rules for naming esters f) be able to state the starting compounds from the name of the ester only g) describe the acid and base hydrolysis of esters and give equations h) describe the process of saponification and give equations i) describe the process of transesterification biodiesel production

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j) be able to give and explain the order of acidity of alcohols, phenols and carboxylic acids (include chlorosubstituted acids and refer to pH and pKa values) Amines (Module 1) a) state general formula of amines b) distinguish between aliphatic and aromatic amines c) describe the chemical reactions of primary amines with dilute acid d) describe the production of phenylamine from nitrobenzene (using Sn/HCl conc.) e) describe the formation of an azo compound f) state uses of azo compounds g) give the structural formula of an amide h) state and explain the order in basic character of aliphatic amines, amides and aromatic amines (refer to pH and pKb) i) give the general structural formula of amino acids j) explain the acid-base properties of amino acids (refer to zwitterions) Macromolecules (Module 1) a) define a monomer and a polymer b) list the 2 types of polymers c) describe the characteristics of addition and condensation polymerisation (refer to polythene, polyvinyl chloride, polytetrafluorethene, terylene, nylon 6.6, proteins, starch) d) be able to predict the type of polymer formed from given monomers e) deduce the repeat unit of a polymer f) be able to identify proteins and carbohydrates as naturally occurring polymers (refer to starch, cellulose, pectin, proteins) g) illustrate the connection between carbohydrates and their monomers ***********END OF MODULE 1**************** Uncertainty in Measurements (Module 2) a) understand the concept of errors in measurement and their importance in analytical chemistry (refer to measurements using thermometers or beakers or measuring cylinder or rulers i.e. reporting values with a margin of error) b) understand and explain the main types of errors that can occur:random (statistical fluctuations either too high or too low) systematic (reproducible inaccuracies in the same direction i.e. always either too high or too low)

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c) know how random and systematic errors can be minimised (random errors can be reduced by conducting more measurements and obtaining an average, but systematic errors can only be eliminated if the cause is known) e.g. if a scale was incorrectly zeroed, it would give a constant error d) know and explain the differences between accuracy and precision e) know that a measurement is only valid if it is both accurate and precise f) be able to calculate the mean and standard deviation from a series of data points g) know and appreciate the role of standards and calibration curves in measurement h) know the uncertainty in measurements using thermometers, burettes, pipettes, measuring cylinders, volumetric flasks, top loading and analytical balances i) be able to state which type of instrument should be used depending on the accuracy required Titrimetric (volumetric) methods of analysis (Module 2) a) know and explain the basic principles upon which titrimetric analyses are based (using the concentration of one solution to determine to concentration of an unknown sample) b) know and understand the concepts of indicator, end point and equivalence point c) explain the concept of standardisation and why it is necessary d) know at least 4 characteristics of primary standards and be able to list 4 primary standards e) know at least 3 types of titrations that do not require indicators (refer to potentiometric, conductimetric and thermometric) f) be able to perform calculations on data from conductimetric and thermometric titrations g) perform calculations on data obtained from titrimetric analyses h) cite examples of the use of titrimetric analysis in the quantification of various substances (refer to vinegar, household cleaners, vitamin C tablets, aspirin, antacids)

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Gravimetric methods of analysis (Module 2) a) explain the principles upon which gravimetric analyses are based (refer to precipitation and volatilisation methods) b) describe the function of various pieces of apparatus used in gravimetric analyses (refer to suction flasks, suction funnels, silica crucibles, sinter glass crucibles and oven / furnaces) c) perform calculations on data obtained from gravimetric analyses d) cite examples of the use of gravimetric analysis in quality control (refer to estimation of SO2 in soft drinks, estimation of pollutants in air) Spectroscopic methods of analysis (Module 2) a) explain the nature of electromagnetic radiation b) know the approximate wavelength ranges of the X-ray, UV/VIS, IR and radiofrequency regions of the EM spectrum c) appreciate the relative energies and dangers associated with exposure to high energy wavelengths d) perform calculations using the equation E = h = hc / e) appreciate that energy levels in atoms and molecules are quantised Ultra Violet Visible (UV/VIS) Spectroscopy (Module 2) a) explain the origin of absorption in UV/VIS spectroscopy b) explain why some species will absorb light in the uv/vis region but some others will not c) describe the basic steps involved in analysing samples by uv/vis spectroscopy (also mention use of complexing agents to form coloured compounds, as well as sensitivity and detection limits) d) state the Beer-Lambert Law and be able to use the equation to calculate the concentration of a given species in solution (implies the use of standards and calibration curves) e) list examples of the use of uv/vis spectroscopy in the quantitation of substance (refer to iron tablets, glucose and urea in blood, cyanide in water) Infrared Spectroscopy (Module 2) a) explain the origin of absorption in IR spectroscopy b) describe the basic steps involved in analysing samples by IR spectroscopy (include reference to preparation of solids) c) appreciate the limitations associated with the use of IR spectroscopy (refer to usefulness of IR data when combined with other data)

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d) be able to deduce the functional groups present in organic compounds from IR spectra (groups such as:- -OH, -NH 2, -C=O, -C=C-, -COOH, -CONH2) (make use of IR spectra data) e) cite examples of the use of IR spectroscopy in the monitoring of air pollutants (refer to carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide)

Mass Spectrometry (Module 2) a) explain the basic principles of mass spectrometry (include a block diagram) b) describe the process from injection of the sample to formation of the mass spectra c)explain the significance of the bases peak, the (M+1) peak in mass spectra d) be able to use mass spectral data to i) determine relative isotopic masses and abundances ii) distinguish between molecules of similar relative molecular mass iii) predict possible identities of simple organic molecules based on their fragmentation patters iv) determine the relative atomic mass of an element Chromatographic methods of separation (Module 2) a) explain the principles upon which chromatographic methods are based (refer to adsorption and partition between mobile and stationary phases b) know and describe the different types of chromatography (refer to paper (including two-way), thin layer and gas-liquid) c) define the terms solvent front, retention factor, retention time, visualising agent d) be able to calculate the retention factor of a substance e) describe the steps involved in separating and quantifying the components of a mixture (refer to Rf values and retention times) f) list at least 2 examples of commonly used stationary phases (refer to cellulose, silica gel, alumina) g) cite at least 3 applications of chromatographic methods of separation (refer to pesticide analysis, forensic testing, purification of natural products)

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Phase Separation (Module 2) a) discuss chemical principles upon which simple and fractional distillation are based (refer to vapour pressure, Raoults Law) b) know and explain the differences between real and ideal mixtures c) be able to construct and interpret boiling point composition curves of both ideal and real mixtures d) be able to explain the formation of azeotropic mixtures e) be able to list at least 2 examples each of azeotropic mixtures for both negative and positive deviation f) discuss advantages and disadvantages of using vacuum distillation g) discuss the principles upon which steam distillation is based h) discuss advantages and disadvantages of steam distillation i) know at least 2 uses of steam distillation j) be able to perform simple calculations based on steam distillation k) state and discuss the basic principles of solvent extraction (refer to partition coefficient) l) be able to perform simple calculations based on partition coefficient m) be able to select appropriate methods of separation based on the physical and chemical properties of a mixture n) cite at least 2 examples of the application of distillation methods used in various industries (refer to petroleum, rum and fragrance industries) ***********END OF MODULE 2**************** Introduction (Module 3) a) discuss the fragility of the environment (refer to diminishing air and water quality b) discuss how the manufacture of products ultimately affect the environment c) appreciate the importance of using efficient manufacturing processes and site location to the environment and humans in the general location and even far away from the manufacturing site Locating Industrial plants benefits and risk (Module 3) a) list and discuss factors at least 4 factors which influence the location of an industrial plant b) discuss general safety requirements for industry (refer to head covering, body covering from sharp objects, gloves, eye covering, shoes, hearing protection)

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Aluminium (Module 3) a) describe the process involved in the production of aluminium from its ore (include purification of the ore) b) appreciate and be able to explain the high energy consumption in the production of aluminium c) understand why aluminium can be easily recycled or reused and know the amount of energy saved when aluminium is recycled d) explain the uses of aluminium in relation to its physical and chemical properties e) assess the impact of the aluminium industry on the environment Crude Oil (Module 3) a) explain the method used in the separation of the components of crude oil b) discuss the uses of the components of crude oil as fuels and as raw materials for the petro-chemical industry (also refer to catalytic cracking, fractional distillation and reforming techniques) c) assess the impact of the petroleum industry on the environment Ammonia (Module 3) a) outline the steps in the manufacture of ammonia from its elements by the Haber Process (include production of the starting materials and manufacturing conditions and also apply the principles of chemical equilibrium and kinetics) b) discuss the uses of ammonia (in agriculture and chemical industry) c) assess the impact of the ammonia industry on the environment Ethanol (Module 3) a) explain the process of fermentation and distillation in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages b) discuss the uses of ethanol (include fuel, pharmaceutical industry) c) discuss the social and economic impact of alcohol production and consumption (include physiological changes) d) assess the impact of the alcohol industry on the environment Chlorine (Module 3) a) describe the chemical processes involved in the electrolysis of brine using the diaphragm cell

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b) discuss the economic advantages of chlorine production by the diaphragm cell method (include sodium hydroxide and disadvantages as well) c) discuss the industrial importance of the halogens and their compounds (bleaches, PVC, halogenated hydrocarbons, solvents, aerosols, refrigerants, anaesthetics) d) assess the impact of the chloro-alkali industry on the environment Sulphuric Acid (Module 3) a) describe the Contact process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid (include principles of chemical equilibrium and kinetics) b) discuss the industrial importance of compounds of sulphur (SO2 in food preservation and H2SO4) c) assess the impact of the sulphuric acid industry on the environment Water (Module 3) a) describe the importance of the water cycle b) discuss the methods of water purification (include desalination via reverse osmosis) c) discuss the importance of dissolved oxygen to aquatic life d) discuss the sources of water pollution (include nitrates, phosphates, heavy metals (lead and mercury), cyanides, trace metals, pesticides, herbicides, petroleum reside, suspended particles) e) assess the impact of the pollutants in part d) above on the aquatic environment The Atmosphere (Module 3) a) explain how the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere maintained (photodissociation) b) discuss the environmental significance of CFCs in the ozone layer (include reference to free radical reactions in the upper atmosphere) c) discuss the effects of ozone on human life ( refer to both stratosphere and troposphere and part c above) d) explain the importance of maintaining the balance of carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere (refer to equilibrium concepts, carbon cycle and reforestation) e) explain the following terms: green-house effect, global warming, photochemical smog (include re-radiation of energy from the infrared region)

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f) discuss the effects of the products of combustion of hydrocarbon-based fuels (consider CO, SO2, oxides of nitrogen, lead compounds and volatile organic compounds) g) explain how the atmospheric concentrations of the oxides of nitrogen may be altered (refer to the nitrogen cycle and acid rain) h) discuss methods of control and prevention of atmospheric pollution (for prevention include alternative and cleaner fuels, improved technology and mass transit; for control include sequestering, filters, washers and scrubbers) Solid Waste (Module 3) a) distinguish among reduce, reuse and recycle b) describe the process involved in waste reduction (consider reusing and recycling of glass, paper, plastic, steel and aluminium; reduce) c) assess the impact of the solid wastes on the terrestrial environment (refer to iron, glass, plastic, paper, lead, biodegradable and nonbiodegradable materials, nuclear waste, proper and improper disposal techniques-dumps and sanitary landfills)