Chapter: 9 Mechanical Properties

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are they used instead of load and deformation? Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much deformation occurs? What materials deform least? Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations cause permanent deformation? What materials are most resistant to permanent deformation? Toughness and ductility: What are they and how do we measure them?

Introduction
To know the characteristics of material To design the member To avoid the failure To study the factors To concern to variety of parties To study distributions To study the requirement

ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load
bonds stretch return to initial

3. Unload

F
Elastic means reversible!

Linearelastic Non-Linearelastic

PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)

1. Initial 2. Small load bonds stretch & planes shear 3. Unload
planes still sheared

elastic + plastic

plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent!
linear elastic linear elastic

plastic

ENGINEERING STRESS
Tensile stress, : Shear stress, :

Ft
Area, A

Ft
Area, A

F Fs

Ft = Ao

Ft

Fs

original area before loading

Fs = Ao
Stress has units: N/m2 or lb/in2

Ft

COMMON STATES OF STRESS

Simple tension: cable

F F = Ao
M

Ao = cross sectional Area (when unloaded)

Ski lift
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Simple shear: drive shaft

Ac M

Fs

Ao

Fs = Ao
2R
Note: = M/AcR here.

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)

Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Balanced Rock, Arches National Park

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F = Ao

Note: compressive structure member ( < 0 here).

OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)

Bi-axial tension: Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Fish under water

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

> 0 z > 0

h< 0

ENGINEERING STRAIN
Tensile strain: /2 Lateral strain:

= Lo
L/2

wo

Lo
/2 L/2

L L = wo

Shear strain:

/2 = tan
/2 - /2

Strain is always dimensionless.

/2

STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
Typical tensile specimen Typical tensile test machine
load cell

Adapted from Fig. 6.2,

Callister 6e.

extensometer

specimen

moving cross head gauge (portion of sample with = length reduced cross section)

Other types of tests:

--compression: brittle
materials (e.g., concrete) --torsion: cylindrical tubes, shafts.

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The

Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.)

Shear test
Shear and flexural test are performed by three-point or four point beam Simply supported beam of material to be tested is subjected to a concentrated load The experiment may be conducted on UTM and Tensometer using suitable attachments, or on a machine specially meant for it.
M/I=E/R=f/y =VQ/bIzz

Torsion tests
T

Ability of material to resist twisting moment is determine by a torsion test

G/L=T/J= /r = 16T/d3

Geometric Considerations of the Stress State

Geometric Consideration of the Stress State

D E C B A

BC 1 + Cos 2 Cos = ( ' BE = BCCos = ) BE 2 BE Sin 2 ' BE = BCSin = Sin = SinCos = BE 2

LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES

Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

E 1
Linearelastic

Hooke's Law:

=E
Poisson's ratio, :

= L

metals: ~ 0.33 ceramics: ~0.25 polymers: ~0.40

F
simple tension test

Units: E: [GPa] or [psi] : dimensionless

Non-linear and Interatomic relation ME temp

Force versus interatomic separation Fc or Ft=-F=dP/dr where P= - A/rn+B/rm Hence A,B, m and n are constant in which m>n E-dF/dr=d2P/dr2

Linear Strain and shear strain

q B1 B C1 C

A q

( B1D BD) B1B' BB1Cos 45 BD BD BD BB1 1 1 BB1 1 ( )( )= ( ) , 2 AB 2 2 AB 2 1 q d = = 2 2.G q q d = + E E q d = (1 + ) E E = 2G (1 + )

d =

ANELASTICITY
Time dependent elastic behavior is known as anelasticity Time dependent microscopic and atomstic processes that are attendant to the deformation For metal normally small and is often neglected however for some polymeric materials its magnitude is significant

OTHER ELASTIC PROPERTIES

Elastic Shear modulus, G:

M
G 1

simple torsion test

=G
Elastic Bulk modulus, K:

P -K V P Vo 1

P P
pressure test: Init. vol =Vo. Vol chg. = V

V P= -K Vo

Special relations for isotropic materials: E E G= K= 2(1 + ) 3(1 2 )

YOUNGS MODULI: COMPARISON

Metals Alloys
1200 1000 800 600 400

Graphite Composites Ceramics Polymers /fibers Semicond

Diamond

E(GPa)

200 100 80 60 40

Tungsten Molybdenum Steel, Ni Tantalum Platinum Cu alloys Zinc, Ti Silver, Gold Aluminum Magnesium, Tin

Si carbide Al oxide Si nitride Si crystal

<100> <111>

Carbon fibers only

CFRE(|| fibers)*
Aramid fibers only

Eceramics > Emetals >> Epolymers

Based on data in Table B2, Callister 6e. Composite data based on reinforced epoxy with 60 vol% of aligned carbon (CFRE), aramid (AFRE), or glass (GFRE) fibers.

Glass-soda Concrete

AFRE(|| fibers)*
Glass fibers only

GFRE(|| fibers)* GFRE* Graphite CFRE* GFRE( fibers)* CFRE( fibers)* AFRE( fibers)*

109 Pa

20 10 8 6 4 2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

Polyester PET PS PC PP HDPE PTFE LDPE

Epoxy only

Wood(

grain)

USEFUL LINEAR ELASTIC RELATIONS

Simple tension: Simple torsion:

= FL o = Fw o L EAo EA o F
Ao /2

2MLo = 4 r G
o
M=moment =angle of twist

wo
L/2

Lo
/2 L/2
2ro

Lo

Material, geometric, and loading parameters all contribute to deflection. Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.

PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION

(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:

tensile stress,
Elastic+Plastic at larger stress

Elastic initially
permanent (plastic) after load is removed

engineering strain,
plastic strain

YIELD STRENGTH, y
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has occurred. when p = 0.002
tensile stress,

engineering strain,

p = 0.002

YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON

Metals/ Alloys 2000 Graphite/ Ceramics/ Polymers Semicond Composites/ fibers
Steel (4140)qt since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield. in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Yield strength, y (MPa)

1000 700 600 500 400 300 200

Hard to measure,

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)a W (pure) Cu (71500)cw Mo (pure) Steel (4140)a Steel (1020)cd Al (6061)ag Steel (1020)hr Ti (pure)a Ta (pure) Cu (71500)hr

y(ceramics) >>y(metals) >> y(polymers)

Room T values
Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered

100 70 60 50 40 30 20
Tin (pure) Al (6061)a

Hard to measure,

dry

PC Nylon 6,6 PET humid PVC PP HDPE

LDPE

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TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.

TS
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,

Callister 6e.

engineering stress

Typical response of a metal

strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts. Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts. Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are
aligned and about to break.

TENSILE STRENGTH: COMPARISON

Metals/ Alloys 5000 3000 2000 1000 Graphite/ Ceramics/ Polymers Semicond Composites/ fibers
C fibers Aramid fib E-glass fib Steel (4140)qt Diamond W (pure) a Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a Steel (4140) Si nitride Cu (71500)cw Cu (71500)hr Al oxide Steel (1020) Al (6061)ag Ti (pure)a Ta (pure) Al (6061)a Si crystal
<100>

Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

AFRE(|| fiber) GFRE(|| fiber) CFRE(|| fiber)

300 200 100 40 30 20 10

TS(ceram) ~TS(met) ~ TS(comp) >> TS(poly) Room T values

Based on data in Table B4, Callister 6e. a = annealed hr = hot rolled ag = aged cd = cold drawn cw = cold worked qt = quenched & tempered AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE = aramid, glass, & carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy composites, with 60 vol% fibers.

Glass-soda Concrete Graphite

Nylon 6,6 PC PET PVC PP HDPE LDPE

wood(|| fiber) GFRE( fiber) CFRE( fiber) AFRE( fiber)

wood(

fiber)

DUCTILITY, %EL
L f Lo x100 Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = Lo
Engineering tensile stress,
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,

smaller %EL (brittle if %EL<5%) larger %EL (ductile if %EL>5%)

Lo

Ao

Af

Lf

Callister 6e.

Engineering tensile strain,

Ao A f Another ductility measure: %AR = x100 Ao Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume. --%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.

Resilience

Capacity of material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered.

TOUGHNESS
Energy to break a unit volume of material Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Engineering tensile stress,
smaller toughness (ceramics) larger toughness (metals, PMCs) smaller toughnessunreinforced polymers

Engineering tensile strain,

HARDNESS
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface. Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression. --better wear properties.
e.g., 10mm sphere apply known force (1 to 1000g) measure size of indent after removing load

D
most plastics

Smaller indents mean larger hardness.

cutting tools nitrided steels diamond

brasses easy to machine Al alloys steels file hard

increasing hardness
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)

HARDENING
An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

y 1 y

large hardening small hardening

unloa d reload

Curve fit to the stress-strain response:

T = C T
true stress (F/A)

( )

hardening exponent: n=0.15 (some steels) to n=0.5 (some copper) true strain: ln(L/Lo)

DESIGN OR SAFETY FACTORS

Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit. Factor of safety, N Often N is between y working = 1.2 and 4 N Ex: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a factor of safety of 5. d

working =

220,000N d2 / 4

1045 plain carbon steel: y=310MPa TS=565MPa F = 220,000N

Lo

SUMMARY
Stress and strain: These are size-independent measures of load and displacement, respectively. Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often shows a linear relation between stress and strain. To minimize deformation, select a material with a large elastic modulus (E or G). Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress reaches y. Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of material. Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.
Note: For materials selection cases related to mechanical behavior, see slides 22-4 to 22-10.

MEASURING ELASTIC MODULUS

Room T behavior is usually elastic, with brittle failure.

3-Point Bend Testing often used.

--tensile tests are difficult for brittle materials. F cross section
L/2 L/2 d
rect.
Adapted from Fig. 12.29, Callister 6e.

R
circ. = midpoint deflection

Determine elastic modulus according to:

F
x
slope =

E=
F

L3

4bd3
rect. cross section

L3

12 R4
circ. cross section
9

linear-elastic behavior

MEASURING STRENGTH
3-point bend test to measure room T strength.
cross section

L/2

L/2

d
rect.

R
circ. location of max tension

Adapted from Fig. 12.29, Callister 6e.

Flexural strength:
fail fs = m =
Fmax

Typ. values:

1.5FmaxL bd2 rect.

FmaxL R3

Material

fs(MPa) Si nitride 700-1000 Si carbide 550-860 Al oxide 275-550 glass (soda) 69

E(GPa)

300 430 390 69

Data from Table 12.5, Callister 6e.

max

10

MEASURING ELEVATED T RESPONSE

Elevated Temperature Tensile Test (T > 0.4 Tmelt).
creep test

x
slope = ss = steady-state creep rate

time

Generally, . ceramics . metals . polymers ss < ss << ss

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SUMMARY
Ceramic materials have mostly covalent & some
ionic bonding.

Structures are based on:

--charge neutrality --maximizing # of nearest oppositely charged neighbors. Structures may be predicted based on: --ratio of the cation and anion radii. Defects --must preserve charge neutrality --have a concentration that varies exponentially w/T. Room T mechanical response is elastic, but fracture brittle, with negligible ductility. Elevated T creep properties are generally superior to those of metals (and polymers).
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