Chapter 1:INTRODUCTION

In 1889 Tesla and Ferraris published a paper on methods of producing polyphase currents, and the former exhibited a crude type of three phase motor at the Frankfurt Exhibition in 1891. Since then induction machines have made steady progress in their development and applications. Today three phase induction motors is an important class of electric motors which finds wide applicability in industry and farm sector. In modern day era of ergonomics energy efficient motors have a pivotal role to offer. In this project an effort has been made to study the effects of variation of machine efficiency with variation in design parameters such as stator core length (L) and average value of air gap flux density and to optimize the performance of the motor such that it is in compliance with the IE4 standards. Studies reveal that the losses occurring in the machine may depend either directly or indirectly on these parameters, thus directly affecting efficiency of the motor.

Chapter 2:CONVENTIONAL APPROACH TO INDUCTION MOTOR DESIGN

We have to relate the output of the machine with its main dimensions. Lets use the following nomenclature:Eph=Induced EMF per phase in volts Iph=Current per phase Tph=No of turns per phase =Flux per pole in the airgap P=Number of poles Kw=Winding factor Bav=Average value of the flux density in the airgap ac=Ampere conductor per meter on the armature periphery D=Armature diameter or stator bore diameter(m) L=Stator core length ns=Synchronous speed in r.p.s.
Figure 2Error! No text of specified style in document..1 Stator and rotor slots

=Full load

efficiency

cos =Full load power factor =Pole pitch= D/P 2.1 OUTPUT EQUATION 2.1.1 Specific magnetic loading(Bav) Bav=P / DL 2.1.2 Specific electric loading(ac) ac=3x2xIphxTph/ D Further we have the relation, f=nsxP/2
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Fig. 2.2 Main dimensions D & L

2.1.3 kVA Equation kVA = 3 x 4.44 x Kw x ns x P/2 x Bav x (DL / P) x ac x D / (3 x 2)x 10-3 =(1.11 2 Kw Bav ac ) D2 L =CoD2L ns where, Co=1.11 2 Kw Bav ac x 10-3 2.1.4 Efficiency and power factor kVA=h.p. x0.746/( x cos ) Thus to get kVA from h.p. or kW, & cos is to be highly satisfied or suitably assumed. 2.1.5 Calculation of main dimensions kVA=(1.11 2 Kw Bav ac ) D2 L 2.1.6 Seperation of D & L D2L= kW /Co x ns The D2L product obtained above has to be split up into two components D & L. To incorporate features like cost, efficiency etc.
Table 2.1: Choice of L/

Design Feature 1. Minimum cost 2. Good efficiency 3. Good ovrall design

Ratio L/ 1.5 to 2 1.5 1

Assuming Ventilating ducts =nvd length of each duct= bvd

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Gross iron Length (Ls) = L - nvd x bvd Assuming Iron factor =ki Net Iron length (Li)= Ls x ki Core inner diameter (D) = (D2L/L)0.5

2.2 STATOR DESIGN Stator of an induction motor consists of stator core and stator slots. Stator slots: in general two types of stator slots are employed in induction motors viz, open clots and semi closed slots. Operating performance of the induction motors depends upon the shape of the slots and hence it is important to select suitable slot for the stator slots. (i) Open slots: In this type of slots the slot opening will be equal to that of the width of the slots as shown in Fig 10. In such type of slots assembly and repair of winding are easy. However such slots will lead to higher air gap contraction factor and hence poor power factor. Hence these types of slots are rarely used in 3 induction motors. Semi closed slots: In such type of slots, slot opening is much smaller than the width of the slot as shown in Fig 10 and Fig 11. Hence in this type of slots assembly of windings is more difficult and takes more time compared to open slots and hence it is costlier. However the air gap characteristics are better compared to open type slots. Tapered slots: In this type of slots also, opening will be much smaller than the slot width. However the slot width will be varying from top of the slot to bottom of the slot with minimum width at the bottom as shown in Fig. 2.

(ii)

(iii)

(i) Open type

(ii) Semiclosed type Fig. 2.3 Different types type slots

(iii) Tapered type

2.2.1 Stator winding design 2.2.1.1. Turns per phase m=Bav x DL/P Es=4.44 Kws f m Ts Ts=Es / (4.44 Kws f m Ts) 2.2.1.2. Stator conductor section Stator current per phase Is=kVA x 1000/(3 x Es) Cross sectional area of each conductor as=Is/s

2.2.2. Stator slot design 2.2.2.1. Number of stator slots Let Ss be the number of stator slots Stator slot pitch yss=D/Ss Number of conductors per slot Zss=3x2xTs/Ss 2.2.2.2. Size of stator slots Approx.area per slot= Copper section per slot/Space factor =Zss aa / Space factor The value of space factor varies from 0.25 to 0.4. Lower value to be selected for higher voltage machines in order to allow more space for insulation. 2.2.2.3.Stator slot insulation The slot liner is latheroid or micanite paper having thickness from 0.75mm to 4mm thick micanite seperators between the two layers.

2.2.3. Stator teeth design Once the dimension of the slots is fixed, the tooth dimension is also fixed. But a check is applied to see that the flux densityin the teeth is within the required range. The value of flux density in the tooth should lie between 1.3 to 1.7Wb/m2. Bts= m/((Ss/P) x Li x Wts)

2.2.4. Depth of stator core dcs=depth of stator core behind the slot dss=depth of stator slot Do=outside diameter of stator core lamination Area of cross section of stator core = m/(2Bcs) where Bcs= flux density in the stator core dcs= m/(2 x Bcs x Li) Do=D+2dss+2dcs

2.2.5. Losses in stator teeth: The following steps explain the calculation of iron loss in the stator teeth (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Calculate the area of cross section of stator tooth based on the width of the tooth at 1/3rd height and iron length of the core as A'ts= b'ts x li m2 Calculate the volume all the teeth in stator Vts = A'ts x hts x Ss m3 Compute the weight of all the teeth based on volume and density of the material as Wts = Vts x density. ( density of the material can be found in DDH) (7.8 x 10-3 kg/m3) Corresponding to the operating flux density in the stator teeth of the machine iron loss per kg of the material can be found by referring to the graph on pp179 of DDH. Total iron losses in teeth= Iron loss /kg x weight of all teeth Wts.

Fig. 2.4 : Flux density vs core loss

2.2.6. Losses in stator core Similar to the above calculation of iron loss in teeth, iron loss in stator core can be estimated. (i) Calculate the area of cross section of the core as Acs = dcs x li m2

(ii) Calculate the mean diameter of the stator core below the slots as Dmcs= D + 2 hts + dcs (iii) Compute the volume of stator core as Vcs = Acs x Dmcs m3 (iv) Calculate the weight of the stator core as Wcs = Vcs x density (v) Corresponding to the operating flux density in the stator core of the machine iron loss per kg of the material can be found by referring to the graph on pp 179 of DDH. (vi) Total iron losses in core = Iron loss /kg x weight of core Wcs Total iron losses in induction motor = Iron loss in stator core + iron losses in stator teeth. In addition friction and windage loss can be taken into account by assuming it as 1- 2% of the output of the motor. Hence total no load losses = Total iron losses + Friction and windage

2.3. ROTOR DESIGN There are two types of rotor construction. One is the squirrel cage rotor and the other is the slip ring rotor. Most of the induction motor are squirrel cage type. These are having the advantage of rugged and simple in construction and comparatively cheaper. However they have the disadvantage of lower starting torque. In this type, the rotor consists of bars of copper or aluminum accommodated in rotor slots. In case slip ring induction motors the rotor complex in construction and costlier with the advantage that they have the better starting torque. This type of rotor consists of star connected distributed three phase windings. Between stator and rotor is the air gap which is a very critical part. The performance parameters of the motor like magnetizing current, power factor, over load capacity, cooling and noise are affected by length of the air gap. Hence length of the air gap is selected considering the advantages and disadvantages of larger air gap length.

Advantages (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Increased overload capacity Increased cooling Reduced unbalanced magnetic pull Reduced in tooth pulsation Reduced noise

Disadvantages (i) (ii) Increased Magnetising current Reduced power factor

Magnetising current and power factor being very important parameters in deciding the performance of induction motors, the induction motors are designed for optimum value of air gap or minimum air gap possible. Hence in designing the length of the air gap following empirical formula is employed. Air gap length lg = 0.2 + 2DL mm 2.3.1. Number of slots Proper numbers of rotor slots are to be selected in relation to number of stator slots otherwise undesirable effects will be found at the starting of the motor. Cogging and Crawling are the two phenomena which are observed due to wrong combination of number of rotor and stator slots. In addition, induction motor may develop unpredictable hooks and cusps in torque speed characteristics or the motor may run with lot of noise. Let us discuss Cogging and Crawling phenomena in induction motors.
Crawling: The rotating magnetic field produced in the air gap of the will be usually rd th th nonsinusoidal and generally contains odd harmonics of the order 3 , 5 and 7 . The third harmonic flux will produce the three times the magnetic poles compared to that of the th th fundamental. Similarly the 5 and 7 harmonics will produce the poles five and seven times the fundamental respectively. The presence of harmonics in the flux wave affects the torque th speed characteristics. The Fig. 16 below shows the effect of 7 harmonics on the torque th speed characteristics of three phase induction motor. The motor with presence of 7 th harmonics is to have a tendency to run the motor at one seventh of its normal speed. The 7 harmonics will produce a dip in torque speed characteristics at one seventh of its normal speed as shown in torque speed characteristics. Cogging: In some cases where in the number of rotor slots are not proper in relation to number of stator slots the machine refuses to run and remains stationary. Under such conditions there will be a locking tendency between the rotor and stator. Such a phenomenon is called cogging. 8

Hence in order to avoid such bad effects a proper number of rotor slots are to be selected in relation to number of stator slots. In addition rotor slots will be skewed by one slot pitch to minimize the tendency of cogging, torque defects like synchronous hooks and cusps and noisy operation while running. Effect of skewing will slightly increase the rotor resistance and increases the starting torque. However this will increase the leakage reactance and hence reduces the starting current and power factor.
Selection of number of rotor slots: The number of rotor slots may be selected using the

following guide lines. To avoid cogging and crawling: (a)Ss Sr (b) Ss - Sr 3P To avoid synchronous hooks and cusps in torque speed characteristics P, 2P, 5P. (iii) To noisy operation Ss - Sr 1, 2, (P 1), (P 2) (i) (ii)

2.3.2. Rotor Bar Current Bar current in the rotor of a squirrel cage induction motor may be determined by comparing the mmf developed in rotor and stator. Hence the current per rotor bar is given by Ib = ( Kws x Ss x Z's ) x I'r / ( Kwr x Sr x Z'r ) ; where Kws Ss Z's Kwr Sr Z'r I'r winding factor for the stator, number of stator slots, number of conductors / stator slots, winding factor for the rotor, number of rotor slots, number of conductors / rotor slots and equivalent rotor current in terms of stator current I'r = 0.85 Is where is stator current per phase. 2.3.3. Cross sectional area of Rotor bar Sectional area of the rotor conductor can be calculated by rotor bar current and assumed value of current density for rotor bars. As cooling conditions are better for the rotor than the stator higher current density can be assumed. Higher current density will lead to reduced sectional area and hence increased resistance, rotor cu losses and reduced efficiency. With increased rotor resistance starting torque will increase. As a guide line the rotor bar current density can be assumed between 4 to 7 Amp/mm2.
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Hence sectional area of the rotor bars can be calculated as Ab = Ib /b mm2. Once the cross sectional area is known the size of the conductor may be selected form standard table. 2.3.4. Shape and Size of the Rotor slots Generally semiclosed slots or closed slots with very small or narrow openings are employed for the rotor slots. In case of fully closed slots the rotor bars are force fit into the slots from the sides of the rotor. The rotors with closed slots are giving better performance to the motor in the following ways: (i) As the rotor is closed the rotor surface is smooth at the air gap and hence the motor draws lower magnetizing current. (ii) reduced noise as the air gap characteristics are better (iii) increased leakage reactance (iv) reduced starting current (v) Over load capacity is reduced (vi) Undesirable and complex air gap characteristics. From the above it can be concluded that semiclosed slots are more suitable and hence are employed in rotors.

2.3.5. Copper loss in rotor bars Knowing the length of the rotor bars and resistance of the rotor bars cu losses in the rotor bars can be calculated. Length of rotor bar lb = L + allowance for skewing Rotor bar resistance = 0.021 x lb / Ab Copper loss in rotor bars = Ib2 x rb x number of rotor bars.

2.3.6. End Ring Current All the rotor bars are short circuited by connecting them to the end rings at both the end rings. The rotating magnetic field produced will induce an emf in the rotor bars which will be sinusoidal over one pole pitch. As the rotor is a short circuited body, there will be current flow because of this emf induced. The distribution of current and end rings are as shown in Fig. 17 below. Referring to the figure considering the bars under one pole pitch, half of the number of bars and the end ring carry the current in one direction and the other half in the opposite direction. Thus the maximum end ring current may be taken as the sum of the average current in half of the number of bars under one pole.

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Fig. 2.5 : currents in cage rotor bars and end rings

Maximum end ring current Ie(max) = ( Number rotor bars / pole) Ib(av) = x Sr/P x Ib/1.11 Hence rms value of
Ie = 1/22 x Sr/P x Ib/1.11

= 1/ x Sr/P x Ib/1.11

2.3.7. Area of end ring Knowing the end ring current and assuming suitable value for the current density in the end rings cross section for the end ring can be calculated as
Area of each end ring Ae = Ie / e mm , current density in the end ring may be assume as 4.5 to 7.5 A/mm2 .
2

2.3.8. Copper loss in End Rings Mean diameter of the end ring (Dme) is assumed as 4 to 6 cms less than that of the rotor. Mean length of the current path in end ring can be calculated as lme = Dme. The resistance of the end ring can be calculated as re = 0.021 x lme / Ae
2

Total copper loss in end rings = 2 x Ie x re

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2.3.9. Equivalent Rotor Resistance Knowing the total copper losses in the rotor circuit and the equivalent rotor current equivalent rotor resistance can be calculated as follows. Equivalent rotor resistance r r = Total rotor copper loss / 3 x (Ir )
' ' 2

2.3.10. Flux density in rotor tooth It is required that the dimension of the slot is alright from the flux density consideration. Flux density has to be calculated at 1/3rd height from the root of the teeth. This flux density has to be limited to 1.8 Tesla. If not the width of the tooth has to be increased and width of the slot has to be reduced such that the above flux density limitation is satisfied. The flux density in rotor can be calculated by as shown below. Diameter at 1/3rd height Dr' = D - 2/3 x htr x 2 Slot pitch at 1/3rd height = 'r = x Dr' /Sr Tooth width at this section = b'tr = 'sr bsr Area of one rotor tooth = a'tr = b'tr x li Iron length of the rotor li = (L- wd x nd)ki, ki = iron space factor

Area of all the rotor tooth / pole A'tr = b't x li x Sr /P Mean flux density in rotor teeth B'tr = / A'tr Maximum flux density in the rotor teeth < 1.5 times B'tr

2.3.11. Depth of stator core below the slots Below rotor slots there is certain solid portion which is called depth of the core below slots. This depth is calculated based on the flux density and flux in the rotor core. Flux density in the rotor core can be assumed to be between 1.2 to 1.4 Tesla. Then depth of the core can be found as follows. Flux in the rotor core section c = Area of stator core Acr = /2Bcr Area of stator core Acr = Li x dcr
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Hence, depth of the core dcr = Acr / Li Inner diameter of the rotor can be calculated as follows Inner diameter of rotor = D - 2lg - 2htr 2 dcr

2.4. ESTIMATION OF OPERATING CHAHRACTERSTICS 2.4.1. No load current No load current consists of two components: (i)Loss component of the current, Ie (ii)Magnetizing component of current, Im The loss component is in quadrature with magnetizing component of current. Io=(Ie2+Im2).5 2.4.2. Loss component This component of current is responsible for supplying the iron losses in the magnetic circuit. Hence this component can be calculated from no load losses and applied voltage. Iron loss component of current Iw= Total no load losses / ( 3 x phase voltage)

2.4.3. Magnetising current Magnetising current of an induction motor is responsible for producing the required amount of flux in the different parts of the machine. Hence this current can be calculated from all the magnetic circuit of the machine. The ampere turns for all the magnetic circuit such as stator core, stator teeth, air gap, rotor core and rotor teeth gives the total ampere turns required for the magnetic circuit. The details of the magnetic circuit calculations are studied in magnetic circuit calculations. Based on the total ampere turns of the magnetic circuit the magnetizing current can be calculated as Magnetizing current Im= p AT60 / (2.34 kw Tph ) where p no of pairs of poles,

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2.4.4. No load Power Factor: No load power factor of an induction motor is very poor. As the load on the machine increases the power factor improves. No load power factor can be calculated knowing the components of no load current. No load power factor cos0 = Iw / I0 2.4.5. Efficiency Pin=Input power Pout=Output power W=Total losses=Total no load losses + Total copper losses %efficiency=Pout*100/Pin =Pout*100/(Pout+W)

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Chapter 3: ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS

Energy-efficient motors, also called premium or high- efficiency motors, are 2 to 8% more efficient than standard motors. Motors qualify as "energy-efficient" if they meet or exceed the efficiency levels listed in the National Electric Manufacturers Association's (NEMA's) MG1-1993 publication. Energy-efficient motors owe their higher performance to key design improvements and more accurate manufacturing tolerances. Lengthening the core and using lower-electricalloss steel, thinner stator laminations, and more copper in the windings reduce electrical losses. Improved bearings and a smaller, more aerodynamic cooling fan further increase efficiency. Advantages of energy efficient motors Saves energy & money Near uniform efficiency from 50% to 100% of full load ensuring energy savings even at part load conditions also. Short payback period Substantial savings after payback period

Fig. 3.1 : %Efficiency vs %Loading 15

Design of Premium Efficiency Motors needs special knowledge, experience and test facilities, equipped with precision instrumentation. The task of design is, to get the efficiency up by minimizing and balancing the single losses, especially those created in the stator coils, the stator iron (magnetizing) and the losses within the rotor by slip. In comparison to standard electrical motors compliant e.g. to IE1 for IE3 motor manufacturing, more iron and copper material are used. IE3 motors are heavier and physically bigger, than IE1 motors. Typically use of higher slot fill in the copper winding, use of thinner laminations of improved steel properties, reducing the air gap, better design of cooling fan, use of special and improved bearings etc. can ensure higher efficiency in the motors. The high electrical conductivity of copper versus other metallic conductors enhances the electrical energy efficiency of motors. Increasing the mass and cross section of copper in a coil increases the electrical energy efficiency of the motor. Copper motor rotors, a new technology designed for motor applications where energy savings are prime design objectives, are enabling general-purpose induction motors to meet and exceed National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) premium efficiency standards. IEC 60034-30 specifies electrical efficiency classes for single-speed, three-phase, 50 Hz and 60 Hz, cage-induction motors that: have 2, 4, or 6 poles (3,000; 1,500; and 1,000 RPM at 50 Hz) have rated output between 0.75 and 375 kW have a rated voltage up to 1000 V are rated on the basis of either duty type S1 (continuous duty) or S3 (intermittent duty) with a rated cyclic duration factor of 80% or higher

The standard also mentions a future level above IE3 to be called IE4 Super Premium Efficiency although these products are not commercially available yet and might go beyond AC induction motor technology. There are still lower efficiency motors in use now (i.e. Eff3), but they will not be used anymore in the new classification.The following motors are excluded from the new efficiency standard: Motors made solely for inverter operation Motors completely integrated into a machine (pump, fan, or compressor) that cannot be tested separately from the machine Rotor losses in IE3 systems are considerably reduced by using copper instead of aluminium as the conductor material for the squirrel cage. The slip under load, which is proportional to the rotor losses, is significantly decreased compared with aluminium motors. Unlike aluminium motors, IE3 motors with a copper rotor do not require an increased amount of iron or need merely a moderate increase. Other measures can also be taken to save energy in IE3 motors.
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There is a 34% energy efficiency difference between IE1 and IE3 standard motors, but the differences, and the absolute level of efficiency, depend on the output of the motor relative to its rating.

Fig 3.2 : %efficiency vs output for different IE classes

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Chapter 4: SELECTION OF ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS FOR THE DESIGN OF ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS

4.1. SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR MATERIAL FOR ELECTRIC CIRCUIT The high electrical conductivity of copper is an important design factor that helps to improve the energy efficiency of motors. This is important because motors and motordriven systems are very significant consumers of electricity, accounting for 43%-46% of all global electricity consumption and 69% of all electricity used by industry. Electric motors do not transfer 100% of the input electrical energy into kinetic mechanical energy. A certain percentage of electrical energy is lost during the conversion to mechanical energy. These losses, which are manifested as electrical power losses (waste heat due to the electrical resistance of the windings, conductor bars and end rings), magnetic core losses, stray load losses, mechanical losses, and brush contact losses, reduce what is known as the energy efficiency of motors. The electrical power losses account for more than half of a motors total losses. This is a problem for several reasons. First, inefficient electric motors waste electrical energy, thereby increasing electrical demand and associated electricity costs required to power motors. Second, when electricity is generated by oil- or coal-fed power plants, the burning of fossil fuels produces carbon footprints from the usage of natural resources and the emissions of greenhouse gases. Electrical energy losses from inefficient motors, therefore, waste precious natural resources, cause increased emissions of greenhouse gases, and increase operating costs (i.e., increases utility bills). Third, waste heat from inefficient motors increases maintenance and decreases the life of the motor. A well-designed motor can convert over 90% of its input energy into useful power for decades. When the efficiency of a motor is raised by even a few percentage points, the savings, in kilowatt hours (and therefore in cost), are enormous. The main parts of an AC induction motor are the fixed housing body (stator), a rotating assembly (rotor), and electromagnets consisting of coils of copper or aluminium wire around a core of magnetic steel. Copper and aluminium can both be used in the stator coils, although copper coils are the standard as they are more flexible and they enhance motor electrical efficiencies due to
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their higher electrical conductivity. In standard induction motors, instead of being wound in coils, the rotor conductors are die-cast in the shape of a squirrel cage within a core of magnetic steel. Aluminium die-cast rotors are the standard material but copper diecasting of rotors is an improved new technology that is increasingly used to enhance motor energy efficiency. Induction motors can be designed with wound-rotor motors instead of a squirrel-cage. In a wound-rotor motor, the rotor winding is made of many turns of insulated wire. Other advantages to using copper rather than aluminium in AC motors include: Lower coefficient of expansion for copper: aluminium will creep and move approximately 33% more than copper. Higher tensile strength for copper: copper is 300% stronger than aluminium and thus able to withstand high centrifugal force and the repeated hammering from currentinduced forces during each start. Higher melting point of copper: copper can better withstand thermal cycling over the life of the motor. Copper has the second highest electrical conductivity of all metals (5.96 107 Siemens/meter at 20C) and is much more affordable. Copper is commonly used in motors, including the highest quality motors because of its high electrical conductivity. Copper is an excellent metal to use for a motor's coils because: 1) it has less electrical resistance than almost any other non-precious metal; 2) it is easily made into wires; 3) it is not too expensive; 4) it can perform and survive at high temperatures; and 5) it can easily be recycled when the motor needs to be replaced. In general, older, standard-efficiency motors have higher losses than premium motors that meet more current energy standards. One of the design elements of premium motors is the reduction of heat losses due to the electrical resistance of the conductors. To improve the electrical energy efficiencies of induction-type motors, one design consideration is to reduce load loss by increasing the cross section of the copper coils. Increasing the mass of copper in a coil increases the electrical energy efficiency of the motor. The electrical efficiency of motors can be improved by replacing the standard aluminium electrical conductor in the motor rotor with copper, which has a much higher electrical conductivity. Until recently, die-cast motor rotors were produced only from aluminium while researchers worked on solving technological issues with copper pressure diecasting. Today, copper pressure die-casting is a proven technology and thousands of diecast copper motor rotors are produced annually for motor applications where energy savings are prime design objectives.
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The use of copper in place of aluminium for conductor bars and end rings of induction motor rotors results in improvements in motor energy efficiency due to a significant reduction in I2R losses. Motor modeling by a number of manufacturers has demonstrated that motors with copper rotors yield overall rotor loss reductions from 15 to 20% compared to aluminium. The advantages of motors with copper motor rotors on an equivalent basis with aluminium include the following: Motors have longer lives: they generate less heat and reduce thermal stresses, including those on insulation, which enable them to operate longer. Motors are smaller: the increased electrical conductivity of the copper rotor material plus the need for a smaller volume of steel enables the motors to be shorter in length. Motors have 15% higher energy efficiency ratings, so therefore consume less energy. Motors have lower overall manufacturing costs.

4.2. SELECTION OF MATERIAL FOR MAGNETIC CIRCUIT Electrical steel, also called lamination steel, silicon electrical steel, silicon steel, relay steel or transformer steel, is specialty steel tailored to produce certain magnetic properties, such as a small hysteresis area (small energy dissipation per cycle, or low core loss) and high permeability. The material is usually manufactured in the form of cold-rolled strips less than 2 mm thick. These strips are called laminations when stacked together to form a core. Once assembled, they form the laminated cores of transformers or the stator and rotor parts of electric motors. Laminations may be cut to their finished shape by a punch and die, or in smaller quantities may be cut by a laser, or by wire erosion. When low carbon steel is alloyed with small quantities of silicon, the added volume resistivity helps to reduce eddy current losses in the core. Silicon steels are probably of the most use to designers of motion control products where the additional cost is justified by the increased performance. These steels are available in an array of grades and thicknesses so that the material may be tailored for various applications. The added silicon has a marked impact on the life of stamping tooling, and the surface insulation selected also affects die life. Silicon steels are generally specified and selected on the basis of allowable core loss in watts/lb . The grades are called out, in increasing order of core loss by M numbers, such as M19, M22, M27, M36 or M43, with each grade specifying a maximum core loss. (Note that this means that material can be substituted up , as M19 for M36, but not vice versa.) The higher M numbers (and thus higher core losses)
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are progressively lower cost, although only a few percent is saved with each step down in performance. M19 is probably the most common grade for motion control products, as it offers nearly the lowest core loss in this class of material, with only a small cost impact, particularly in low to medium production quantities. In addition to grade, there are a number of other decisions to make regarding silicon steels. These are: 1. Semi vs. Fully processed material, 2. Annealing after stamping, 3. Material Thickness, 4. Surface insulation. Fully processed material is simply material which has been annealed to optimum properties at the steel mill. Semi processed material always requires annealing after stamping in order to remove excess carbon as well as to stress relieve. The better grades of silicon steel are always supplied fully processed while semi processed is available only in grades M43 and worse. The designer considering semi processed M43 should evaluate Low Carbon Steel which may provide equivalent performance at lower cost.
4.2.1. Interpolation of core losses for M22 steel using MATLAB

We have the following set of points for different values of specific losses corresponding to different values of flux density.
Table 4.1: B vs P

B(Wb/m ) 0.2 1.0 1.2

P(W/kg) 0 1.2 3.0

Since it can be assumed that the core losses vary quadratically with change in B, one can apply second order curve fitting techniques to obtain a continuously varying core loss curve between P and B. The MATLAB code for this interpolation procedure is as under
x=[.2 1 1.5]; y=[0 1.2 3]; c=polyfit(x,y,2) B=0:.2:2; W=polyval(c,B) plot(B,W) title('INTERPOLATION OF CORE LOSSES FOR M22')

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xlabel('B(Wb/m2)'); ylabel('P(W/kg)');

Fig. 4 : Interpolated core loss curve for M22 steel

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Chapter 5 : DEVELOPMENT OF ALGORITHM FOR OPTIMAL DESIGN OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MACHINE

Fig. 5 : Flow diagram of optimal design of Induction machine

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5.1. MATLAB CODE FOR OPTIMAL DESIGN OF INDUCTION MACHINE

%INDUCTION MACHINE DESIGN %Output equation Vph=input('Vph='); P=input('P='); Bav=input('Bav='); Kw=input('Kw='); f=50; ns=2*f/P; D=input('D='); Yp=(pi*D)/P; L=1.6*Yp Iph=(5*746)/(.82*.91*3*Vph) flux=Bav*pi*D*L/P; Tph=Vph/(4.44*50*.966*flux) ac=(3*2*Iph*Tph)/(pi*D); Co=1.11*(pi*pi)*Kw*Bav*ac*10^-3; kVA=Co*(D*D)*L*ns %STATOR DESIGN Kws=Kw; Ts=Tph; Is=Iph; dels=input('dels(current density)='); as=Is/dels; conductor Ss=input('Ss'); yss=(pi*D/Ss); %Stator winding factor %Stator turns %Stator current per phase %Stator current density %Cross section area of stator %Stator slots %Stator slot pitch

%phase voltage %Poles %Average airgap flux density %winding factor %frequency %Synchronous speed in r.p.s. %Armature diameter(m) %Pole pitch %Stator core length(m) %Current per phase %Flux per pole %Turns per phase %Specific electrical loading %Output coefficient %Output equation

Lmts=2*L+2.3*Yp+.24; %Length of mean turn of stator winding rho=2.1*10^-8; %Resistivity of stator conductor material rs=rho*Lmts*Ts/as %Stator winding resistance per phase Ks=input('Ks='); %Stacking factor Li=Ks*L; %Net iron length Wts=input('Wts='); %Width of stator teeth Bts=flux/((Ss/P)*Li*Wts) %Flux density in stator tooth dcs=input('dcs='); %Depth of stator core behind the slot Bcs=(flux/2)/(dcs*Li) %Flux density in stator core dss=input('dss='); %Depth of stator slot Do=D+2*(dss+dcs); %Outside diameter of stator core lamination Wos=input('Wos(slot opening)'); %Stator slot opening(mm) Lg=(1/1000)*(.2+2*sqrt(D*L)) %Airgap length ratios=Wos/(2*Lg); %Wos/2Lg ratio Kcs=(2/pi)*(atan(ratios)-(1/ratios)*log10(sqrt(1+ratios*ratios))); %Carter's coefficient

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Kgs=yss/(yss-Kcs*Wos); stator slots

%Gap contraction factor for

%ROTOR DESIGN Sr=input('Sr='); %Rotor slots Dr=D-2*Lg %Rotor diameter ysr=(pi*Dr/Sr); %Rotor slot pitch at the airgap Nb=Sr; %Number of rotor bars Ib=.85*Is*Ts/Nb %Rotor current per phase delb=input('delb(current density)='); %Rotor bar current density ab=Ib/delb %Rotor conductor area Lb=L+(2*.012)+.01; %Rotor bar length rb=2.1*10^-8*Lb/ab %Resistance of each bar Prb=Sr*Ib*Ib*rb %Total copper loss in bars %End ring Ie=Sr*Ib/(pi*P) %End ring current dele=input('dele(end ring density)='); %End ring current density ae=Ie/dele %area of end ring de=input('de(depth of end ring)=') %depth of end ring dsr=input('dsr='); %Depth of rotor slot Deo=Dr-2*dsr; %Outer diameter of end ring Dei=Deo-2*de; %Inner diameter of end ring De=(Deo+Dei)/2; %Mean diameter of end ring re=(2.1*10^-8)*pi*De/ae; %Resistance of each end ring Pre=2*Ie*Ie*re %Total copper loss in end ring Wtr=input('Wtr='); %Width of rotor tooth Btr=flux/((Sr/P)*Li*Wtr); %Flux density in rotor tooth Wor=input('Wor='); %Rotor slot opening(mm) ratior=Wor/(2*Lg); %Wor/2Lg ratio Kcr=(2/pi)*(atan(ratior)-(1/ratior)*log10(sqrt(1+ratior*ratior))); %Carter's coefficient Kgr=ysr/(ysr-Kcr*Wor); %Gap contraction factor for rotor slots dcr=input('dcr='); %Depth of rotor core behind the slot Bcr=Bcs; %Rotor core density %OPERATING CHARACTERSTICS %Calculation of magnetizing current % 1.For airgap Kg=Kgs*Kgr; Ag=pi*D*L/P; B60=1.36*Bav; interpolar axis ATg=800000*B60*Kg*Lg; % 2.For stator teeth B=Bts; if(B<1.49) At=(2500/1.49)*B elseif(B>1.49&&B<1.60) At=(2500/.11)*B-313663.64 else At=50000*B-75000 end lts=dss; ATts=At*lts;

%Gap contraction factor for slots %Area of airgap %Flux density at 6odeg angle from %MMF for airgap

%MMF required for stator teeth

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% 3.For stator core lcs=(1/3)*(pi)*(D+2*dss+dcs)/P; stator core B=Bcs; if(B<1.49) At=(2500/1.49)*B elseif(B>1.49&&B<1.60) At=(2500/.11)*B-313663.64 else At=50000*B-75000 end ATcs=At*lcs; % 4.For rotor teeth B=Btr; if(B<1.49) At=(2500/1.49)*B elseif(B>1.49&&B<1.60) At=(2500/.11)*B-313663.64 else At=50000*B-75000 end ltr=dcr; ATtr=At*ltr; % 5.For rotor core lcr=(1/3)*(pi)*(Dr+2*dsr+dcr)/P; rotor core B=Bcr; if(B<1.49) At=(2500/1.49)*B elseif(B>1.49&&B<1.60) At=(2500/.11)*B-313663.64 else At=50000*B-75000 end ATcr=At*lcr; AT=ATg+ATts+ATcs+ATtr+ATcr; Im=P*AT/(2.34*Kws*Ts)

%Length of magnetic path through

%MMF required for stator core

%Length of magnetic path through

%Magnetizing current per phase

%CORE LOSSES c=[1.6154 -0.4385 %Stator core Dmcs=D+2*dss+dcs; Acs=Li*dcs; Vcs=Acs*pi*Dmcs; lkgc=polyval(c,Bcs) Wic=Vcs*lkgc*7600 %Stator tooth Ats=Li*Wts; Vts=Ats*dss*Ss; lkgt=polyval(c,Bts) Wit=Vts*lkgt*7600 Wi=Wit+Wic; %COPPER LOSSES

0.0231]; %Area of stator core %Volume of stator core %Iron loss in stator core

%area of stator tooth %Volume of stator teeth %Iron loss in stator teeth %total iron losses

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%Stator copper losses Wcus=3*Is*Is*rs %Rotor copper losses Wcur=Prb+Pre Wcu=Wcus+Wcur %TOTAL LOSSES Wfw=input('f/w losses='); W=Wi+Wcu+Wfw %PERFORMANCE EVALUATION Rs=7.419; stator side Xs=23.8678; stator side Zs=(Rs*Rs+Xs*Xs)^.5; Isc=Vph/Zs; angsc=72.73 efficiency=(5*746)/((5*746)+W) s=(Wcur)/(5*746+Wcur+Wfw) Tst=3*Vph*Vph*2.055/(50*pi*Zs*Zs)

%Stator coppper losses

%Rotor copper losses %Total copper losses

%Frictional and windage losses %Total losses

%Total resistance referred to %Total reactance referred to %Standstill impedance %Short circuit current %efficiency at full load %full load slip %Starting torque

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5.2. DESIGN DATA SHEET 5.2.1 Rating 1. Full load output 2. Line voltage 3. Supply frequency 4. Phase 5. Connection 6. Poles 7. Synchronous r.p.s. 8. Full load efficiency 9. Full load power factor 10. Full load current per phase 11. Full load line current 12. Specific magnetic loading 13. Output coefficient 3.73 kW 440 V 50 Hz 3 4 25 .91 .82 3.7869 6.56 0.54 135.882

5.2.2. Stator 1. Type of lamination 2. Winding type 3. Connection 4. Voltage per phase 5. Flux per pole 6. Turns per phase 7. Number of slots 8. Slots per pole per phase 9. Winding factor 10. Slot pitch 11. Conductors per slot 12. Conductor area 13. Bare diameter 14. Insulated diameter 15. Current density 16. Length of mean turn 17. Resistance of stator winding per phase 18. Stator copper loss at full load 19. Depth of slot
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0.5 mm Lohys Mush 440 V 5.9 mWb 348 36 3 0.955 9.2 mm 10 0.9467 mm2 1.2 mm 1.315 mm 4 A/mm2 0.6936 m 5.3639 ohm 230.3287 W 15 mm

20. Depth of core behind slot 21. Outer diameter of laminations

25 mm 185 mm

5.2.5. Rotor 1. Length of airgap 2. Rotor diameter 3. Number of slots 4. Rotor type 5. Number of bars 6. Number of bars per slot 7. Slot pitch 8. Rotor bar current 9. Rotor bar area 10. Current density in bar 11. Length of each bar 12. Resistance of each bar 13. Copper loss in bars 14. End ring current 15. Section area 16. Resistance of each ring 17. Copper loss in two end rings 18. Total rotor copper loss 19. Rotor resistance referred to stator 20. Depth of slot 21. Depth of core behind slot 22. Inner diameter of rotor .43 mm 104 mm 28 Cage 28 1 11.7 mm 40.055 A 10 mm2 4A/mm2 165.9 mm 0.348 miliohm 15.6144 W 89.1390 A 14.857 mm2 0.261 miliohm 4.1495 W 19.764 W 2.0555 ohm 17.6 mm 23.1 mm 63.3 mm

5.2.4. Performance analysis 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Total resistance referred to stator Total leakage reactance referred to stator Impedance at standstill Short circuit current Short circuit power factor Short circuit angle 7.419 ohm 23.8678 ohm 25 ohm 17.6 A .297 72.73 deg

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5.2.5. Efficiency 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Total full load losses Output at full load Input at full load Full load efficiency Starting torque 365.9342 W 3730 W 4095.93 W 91.07% 12.1629 Nm

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Chapter 6: CONCLUSIONS

The efficiency of a three phase induction machine can be significantly improved if the proper choices of the magnetic and electric materials are made. Materials like M22 have very low core loss components, thus contributing to the improved performance of the machine. With the help of an optimizing algorithm, we have been able to achieve efficiency as high as 91.05%. However it is still not in compliance with the latest IE4 (Premium efficiency) standards, which state that the efficiency of an energy efficient motor(4-P and 3.7 kW rating) should be more than 92%. In order to further enhance the machine performance and increase the efficiency up to 92%, some modifications in the conventional design procedure need to be made. Use of a better magnetic material core can certainly be of great advantage. It helps in reducing the losses in the core components of the motor. Another approach to improve the machine performance can be fine tuning of the dimensions, with the help of modern state of art technologies available today. More the precision in the design and fabrication , better will be the performance of the machine that can be achieved.

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REFERENCES
1. Principles of Electrical Machine DesignR. K. Agarwal 2. A Course in Electrical Machine Design A. K. Sawhney 3. Performance and Design of A C Machines M. G. Say 4. www.phasemotorparts.com (December 7,2012) 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_in_energy_efficient_motors (May 4,2013) 6. http://motorsummit.ch/data/files/MS_2010/ms_swiss_10/5_anibal.pdf (May 4, 2013) 7. http://www.motorsystems.org/files/otherfiles/0000/0038/MEPS_Guide_1st_Edition_ February_2009.pdf (May 6, 2013) 8. http://beeindia.in/energy_managers_auditors/documents/guide_books/3Ch2.pdf (May 7, 2013) 9. http://www.energy.ca.gov/process/pubs/motors.pdf(May 7,2013) 10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_steel (May 8, 2013)

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