Chapter - 2 T10A Battery Charging

2.1 PbSO4The supply from which the charging current is obtained must be direct current (DC) or rectified alternating current (AC). Alternating current direct from the mains cannot charge a battery. The battery charging source should have a voltage equal to the number of cells in the battery X 2.7V and should be capable of delivering continuously a current in amperes equal to the normal charging rate of the battery at the above voltage. Also means should be available to control the current when the same tends to increase or decrease during charging. The voltage during charging should be adjustable between 1.8V to 2.7V per cell. Figure illustrates the connections necessary for correct charging.

Fig.2.1 Cells Connected in Series for charging 2.2 There are two principle methods adopted in charging batteries: Constant current method Constant potential method

The constant current method consists of maintaining a constant current to the battery until the full charged condition is reached. 2.3 There are two methods of constant current charging: Series method of charging Parallel method of charging

2.4 In the series method, the current must be the same in all parts of the circuit. Batteries of different types and capacities requiring different charging currents cannot be charged by this method. Series charging consists of putting a variable resistance in series with the battery or group of batteries connected in series. An ammeter in the return main indicates the current taken by the battery on total at a particular instant. This current is varied by changing the resistance. Any number of batteries may thus be charged, so long as the total value/voltages of batteries connected in series does not exceed that of the charger in which case the batteries would discharge, into the mains.

Fig. 2.2 Series Method of Charging 2.5 Figure illustrates a parallel charging arrangement. It is superior to series method, in that the switching arrangements allow batteries of different capacities to be charged at correct rates.

Fig. 2.3 Parallel method of charging. 2.6 It is very detrimental to charge plante positive cells at a rate below 60 per cent of the normal rate. The charging rate of a battery may be taken as 1/3 and 1/4 of the hour discharge rate. The first value is used during the first phase of the charge, and the second to complete it after gassing commences. 2.7 The effects of overcharging are not at first apparent, but persistent overcharging is the chief cause of deterioration of any battery. Excessive rates of charging, gassing and temperature above 100 deg. F or 38 deg. C are detrimental. Batteries charged daily should not be subjected to more than 15 minutes gassing charge. When charged at longer intervals the time may be increased but in all cases it should be cut down to a period just sufficient to get rid of all sulphation. 2.8 In the constant potential charging, the supply is kept at a constant voltage averaging 2.5 to 2.6V per cell, which is practically the normal value of a fully charged cell. The supply is made available between two copper bus bars carried on insulators and between which the various batteries or groups of batteries are clipped. The supply equipment is designed to supply a

constant voltage of 7.5, 15 or 30V, according to the type of battery mostly dealt with. The sets have a current output equal to the sum of all the batteries likely to be put on charge at one time. The constant rated voltage is applied to all batteries immediately they are connected to the busbars. If a battery has been discharged until its voltage has reached an average value of 1.8V per cell, the excess voltage of the supply in the case of 6, 12 and 24V batteries respectively will be approximately 2.4, 4.8, 9.6 V above the battery voltage and a large immediate rush of current will flow into the battery. It is the effect of this large initial rush of current which is the disadvantage of this method. As the emf of the cell rises with charge, the predominance of the supply voltage decreases, and as a result the charging current automatically gets less and less as the cell nears full charge conditions. This is a most desirable state of affairs as the cell reaches full charge value, and is perhaps the most satisfactory feature of the system. It would certainly appear the ill effects of an excessive first rush of charging current, if they do exist, cannot be nearly so detrimental to the life of the battery as those caused by excessive charge currents.

Fig. 2.4 Typical Constant Potential Charging Installation. Figure illustrates the method of supply and connection of a group of batteries being charged on the constant potential system. 2.9 Battery Charger System: A system in which DC voltage is dropped to the required value and in case of AC it is converted to the required value to charge secondary batteries is called a Battery Charger System. 2.10 Battery Eliminator System: A system in which the DC is directly fed from AC mains to the equipment is called a Battery Eliminator System. 2.11 The basic parts which are common to both systems are: Converter unit, which converts AC to DC or DC higher voltage to the required DC voltage of the equipment. Smoothing Filter. Regulating devices to maintain constant voltage under varying loads. Automatic control devices, where automatic working is desired.

Fig. 2.5 Elementary Charging method 2.12 The battery charging methods may be classified broadly as follows: A) From DC Directly from DC mains through voltage dropping rheostats ii) From DC generators coupled to DC motors B) From AC (Single phase or Poly phase) From DC generators coupled to AC motors From static rectifiers a) Metal rectifiers (full wave or half wave) b) Tungar bulb rectifiers c) Mercury Arc rectifiers. 2.13 In the elementary charging system, the batteries are first charged and then connected to the load. But the most economical system is to supply the load direct from the charger with a fully charged battery permanently connected across the load. Normally the current will not flow through the battery. This arrangement is known as "floating system". Fig, 2.5.

2.14 The control of the charging current to a battery can be classified as under: Constant current charging Constant potential charging Taper Charging Pulse Charging

2.15 Constant current charging system:

Fig. 2.6 Rate of Change of current and voltage in constant current method. The rate of current is maintained constant till the end of charge irrespective of the rise of voltage. This method is employed for initial charging of lead acid cells. A higher charging rate is permissible in the initial stages till the potential rises to 2.3 volts, after which it should be reduced to avoid loss of electrolyte due to excessive gassing and undue rise in temperature of the plates. The rise in potential with reference to the charging rate is indicated in the figure 2.6. The curves relate to a plante cell having a capacity of 60AH at 10 hour rate. 2.16 Constant potential charging: A fixed rate at 2.4 volts per cell is maintained without any ballast resistance in circuit. The initial charging current is very high especially if the battery is completely discharged. Hence, it is used only for batteries which are not normally discharged to a very low value. The figure illustrates the principle of constant potential charging of a 100 amp. hour lead acid cell at 5 Hr., rate after a full discharge at 5 hr. rate.

Fig. 2.7 Constant Potential Charging 2.17 Taper charging: Modified constant potential charging, the charging rate is fixed at the rate of 2.6 to 2.8V per cell and a ballast resistance is added in the charging circuit. The high initial charge rate is avoided and the curve is also flatter. The curves illustrate the rate of variation in the voltage and charging rate. 2.18 Pulse charging: Similar to Taper charging but for the resistance reduced by steps. 2.19 Charging Systems: The following different charging systems are adopted as per the requirement. 1. Initial Charging: Constant current method 2. Trickle Charging: Constant potential method 3. Float Charging: Constant potential method. 4. Float Trickle Charging: -do5. Equalizing Charging: -do6. Boost Charging: Constant Current Method 7. Normal Charging: Constant Potential Method 8. Freshening Charging: -do-

Fig. 2.8 Taper Charging

Fig. 2.9 Pulse Charging 2.20 Initial Charging: While charging a battery initially, it is always preferable to follow the instructions of manufacturer in reference to specific gravity of electrolyte, charging current, discharging current, total time the cell should be kept on charge etc. 2.21 Importance of Initial Charge: The results obtained from a battery being affected to an incredible extent by the way in which its initial charge is carried out, it is worthwhile repeating here that this first charge is not to be terminated till the specified ampere hour capacity is put into the battery, notwithstanding constant or higher values of Sp. Gr. and voltages being obtained earlier. 2.22 Method of Initial Charging: The initial charging shall be carried out in the following steps: a) Preparation of Electrolyte b) Testing of battery/cell c) Filling of electrolyte in battery/cell d) Supply of electrical energy/Charging and e) Drawing back the Electrical Energy/Discharging. a) Preparation of Electrolyte: Battery grade sulphuric acid (suitable to ISI Specification 266) is mixed with distilled water (suitable to ISI Specification 1069) in a glass jar or vulcanized rubber jar. The approximate ratio of acid to distilled water is 1:4. The specific gravity of mixed solution should be as per the manufacturer card, applying the temperature correction. After mixing the solution it should be allowed to cool to room temperature. Precautions to be observed: 1. The person preparing the electrolyte should wear protective gear apron, Rubber gloves, eye shield. 2. Water should be collected first into jar and concentrated acid should be slowly added to the distilled water. In no case water should be added to concentrated acid. 3. While adding acid to water continuous stirring should be carried out to distribute the heat generated at the point of acid dropping. 4. The temperature should be measured at regular intervals and in no case it should be more than 50 deg. C.

5. The entire operation should be carried out in well ventilated rooms to enable the escape of concentrated acid vapour. b) Testing of Cell/Battery: The cell/battery should be tested for any possible short circuit and external damage. If the cell/battery is found to be defective it should be rejected. c) Filling of Electrolyte: Cool pure diluted sulphuric acid prepared as above should be carefully poured into the cells with the help of a funnel and jug. The level of Electrolyte in each cell should be adjusted as indicated by the top red mark on the float guide (Normally 1/2" more than plate level). Replace the vent plugs on the cell, do not tighten, leave them loose. Ensure that the vent holes are not blocked by dirt. After filling in, leave the cells idle for 12 to 16 hours, or until the temperature falls to slightly above room temperature (but not more than 24 hours in any case after filling the electrolyte). The plates will absorb electrolyte causing a drop in the electrolyte level. Restore the electrolyte level at the end of this period by adding more electrolyte of the same specific gravity as used initially. Replace the vent plugs on the cells do not tighten. The battery is now ready for initial charge. d) Charging: The polarity of inter cell/row/tier should be checked and connections done in proper polarity sequence. The positive lead of battery should be connected to the +ve lead of the charger and -ve lead of battery to -ve of charger, keeping the charger in 'OFF' condition. The voltage control device in the battery charger should be in the minimum position so that when the charger is switched on, minimum or no current flows into the battery. Charger to be switched 'ON' after ensuring the polarity of battery once again. The voltage supplied should be at the rate of 2.7V per cell. Total voltage to be adjusted is No.of cells connected in series in each path x 2.7V. The current should be slowly increased till the maximum current as specified by the manufacturer instruction card is reached. The charging schedule should be maintained, the current should be maintained constant throughout the initial charge. If manufacturer instruction card is not available the constant current of AH Capacity/15 may be supplied. 2.23 Standard, Amco and Chloride Cell Manufacturers have indicated a slight change of Initial Charging System. All these firms are approved by RDSO. The level of Electrolyte may fall slightly during charging, maintain the level throughout by adding distilled water as used for initial filling. During the early stages of the first charge, the Sp.Gr. may fall but after the charging has been in progress for some time, the Sp.Gr. of the electrolyte will gradually commence rising, reaching a steady value. The readings of Sp.Gr. and voltage of each cell may be taken at intervals of 8 hours from the commencement of charge. After 50 hours of charge, take hourly readings.

Towards the end of charge, all the cells start gassing freely. The voltage will reach a final value of 2.50 to 2.55 V per cell, and the specific gravity to 1.210 0.005 for AMCO and for Chloride, 12.00 0.005 at 27 deg. C. Do not terminate the charge even if the specific gravity and voltage readings exceed the above values until the specified ampere hour input is fed into the battery. At no stage during charging, the temperature be allowed to exceed 50 deg. C. If the temperature tends to rise beyond 45 deg C, reduce the current to one third, so that the temperature ceases to rise. However, if at any time, the current is reduced, the time of charging should be correspondingly increased so that at the end of charging, the specified ampere hour input is put into the cells. The charging may be suspended for some time to allow the cells to cool, provided 50% of the total ampere hour input is fed. Under no circumstances, initial charging be stopped prior to 50% of the total input is given. Charging at above finishing rate when the cells are gassing and the volts are above 2.3 per cell can cause scouring of the +ve plates. This causes reduction of capacity and deposits of spongy lead on the tops of -ve plates, hence must be avoided. At places where high ambient temperature normally prevails and where electrolyte temperature limit of 50 deg. C, would make charging impossible, it is recommended that the cell be filled during night-time and charging undertaken during the night and suspended during the day. 2.24 Trickle Charge Working: A system in which battery comes into operation only during emergencies. At other times the battery is idle and maintained in charged condition by trickle charging at 2.25 to 2.30 volts per cell. The trickle charge current will be approximately 1 mA per A.H. at the rated 10 Hour capacity of the battery. If the current is high, gassing takes place, if it is low, battery gets discharged. Change in temperature, age of the battery, higher capacity and other variables may necessitate adjustments in the rate of trickle charge. If for instance, the Sp.Gr. of the pilot cells is declining, the trickle charge rate needs a rise. On the other hand, if the cells show a continuous form of mild charging and topping up is required frequently, the trickle charge rate is high. Battery should be given a normal charge after the emergency duty and then put on trickle charge. Trickle charge is not recommended for thin or medium pasted plates. With correct condition of trickle charge, the life of battery can be prolonged. 2.25 Float Charge Working: is a system in which the battery is connected in parallel to the charger or DC source and load. The correct float charger current is automatically controlled by maintaining the correct float voltage across battery terminals. This is perhaps mostly employed in Railway Signalling and Telecommunications. The voltage of the source is slightly greater than the open circuit voltage of the battery and in polarity. The source supplies current direct to the load, the battery in parallel is on trickle charge, supplying the fluctuation in load and during the failure of the source, supply the entire load. The life of the battery is prolonged because it is not subjected to any charge/discharge cycle. The voltage of the system is closely regulated to 2.15V to 2.20 volts per cell. There is a chance of fall of Sp.Gr. day by day, hence, the battery requires a freshening charge every fortnight or more frequently. 2.26 Float trickle working: The battery is connected in parallel to the load and the source. The voltage of the system is regulated to 2.15V volts per cell as it was with trickle charging. In case of failure of DC source the battery automatically discharges into the load. The battery should be given a normal charge after the discharge and then put to float trickle. The method eliminates the necessity of more frequent equalising charges and is suitable where equipment itself can withstand higher voltages without any harm. 2.27 Equalizing Charge: A periodical charge given to the battery to correct any inequalities of Sp.Gr. among cells developed during service. This also assures that the maximum capacity is

available when needed. The lower the floating voltage, the more is the frequency of equalising charge. Thus for example, it is necessary to give a fortnightly charge to a battery floated at an average potential of 2.06 volts whereas at 2.18 volts, the frequency of the refreshing charge is once in six months only. An equalising charge is given at a rate of 10 Hr.Cap/50. However, it can also be at the finishing rate or less, done after a regular charge until the Sp.Gr. of all cells stop increasing for a period of 3 or 4 hours. 2.28 Boost Charge: Given to a battery when it is neither possible nor practicable to give it a regular charge. This is usually a charge of higher rate and shorter duration in order to prevent over-discharging of the battery. It is given at rate 2.4V Cell. 2.29 Normal Charge: Done at two rates, the Start (high) rate being maintained till the cells reach 2.4 volts per cell after which at the finishing (low) rate till the end of charge. The high rate is usually 14% and the finishing rate is 7% of the 10 hour capacity of the battery. The battery is considered fully charged when all cells gas freely and the voltage and Sp.Gr. remain constant for consecutively 3 Hrs. The battery can be charged at rates higher than 14% also, but charging current should be cut down to 7% when the cells reach 2.4 volts per cell. 2.30 Freshening Charge: Applicable to a battery at a rate of 4% of the rated 10 hour capacity and the battery is to be fully charged. 2.31 Weak Cells: Cells which do not pick up Sp.Gr. in spite of repeated charging are Weak Cells and must be given a special charge. The Weak Cells must be removed from the battery and charged separately at normal charging rate until gassing point is reached and then reduced to half the normal rate. When the cells appear to be fully charged, the charging should be stopped for an hour and then be resumed at half normal rate until free gassing again takes place. A further stop of one hour duration should be made and the charge should again be resumed at half the normal charge. This process should be repeated until gassing starts simultaneously with switching on the charging current. In spite of this special charge, if the cells do not pick up, the Sp. Gravity, the Manufacturer should be approached. 2.32 Conditioning charge with a curative discharge: It is recommended to discharge the battery once in a year at 10 Hr. rate to its ultimate capacity, i.e., to an end voltage of 1.80 volts per cell or 1.180 sp.gr. The discharged battery should be immediately charged as detailed under "Normal Charge". 2.33 Life of Batteries: This varies depending on the type of batteries and charging system. On Float change the life of batteries always increase, it can be expected 10 to 12 years for pasted, 14 to 15 years for tubular stationary batteries. Plante Cells with built-in stoutness of plates, give life ranging over 15 and upto 20 years. About 1500 cycles could be expected from pasted tubular +ve batteries used on the charge-discharge cycling system. In general, a battery kept in regular use with periodical cycles of full charge and discharge, help in achieving a long life. 2.34 Careful maintenance, observing all precautions, gives more life and trouble-free service. There is no substitute for careful compliance with Manufacturer Instructions. 2.35 Battery Chargers: A system in which D.C. voltage is dropped to the required value or AC is converted to the required D.C. value to charge the secondary battery is called a Battery Charger System.

The basic parts which are commonly needed to charge batteries: Converter Unit which converts AC to DC or DC at higher voltage to the required voltage of the equipment. Smoothing Filter Regulating devices to maintain constant voltage under varying loads. Automatic Control devices, where automatic working is desired.

2.36 Fig. 2.10 illustrates the arrangement often adopted for battery charging at a controlled rate. The transformer is chosen with an RMS voltage and current capacity equal to the nominal battery voltage, and the maximum desired charging rate respectively. RV is the variable resistance by which the maximum desired charging current can be adjusted.

Fig. 2.10 Simple Battery Charger The charger output voltage can be adjusted by choosing proper tapings of Secondary on transformer TX. RI is the full wave bridge rectifier for converting AC to DC. The output from rectifier consists of voltages with harmonic content beside the fundamental ripple frequency. This produces 'Noise' which depends upon: a) Amplitude and frequency of the AC b) Internal impedance of the source c) Impedance of the battery circuit d) Impedance of load.

Fig. 2.11 Noise Weighing Curve The last one is ignored, since it is very much greater than (c). In static metal rectifiers the ripple frequency is 100Hz for single phase full wave and 300 Hz for 3 Phase full wave. The maximum ripple voltage depends upon the frequency of the ripple. The level is taken as 2 mv at 800 Hz and since the response of ear varies for different frequencies, ITU has produced as weighting curve which is shown in the figure. This curve enables noise voltage at different frequencies to be stated in terms of standard 800 Hz frequency by weighting factor 2 mv at 800 Hz approx. 4 mv at 600 Hz and approx. 1.02 mv at 1000 Hz. The smoothing filter is indicated by L 1C1, L2C2 in Fig. 2.12 C1 and C2 are electrolytic condensers the capacity of which may vary from 100 mfd to 3000 mfd. Each stage may be considered as a potential divider for the next stage.

Fig. 2.12 Smoothing Filter The noise in DC also to some extent depends on the electrical characteristics of smoothing filter. The charging current is determined by the excess of the DC output of the rectifier over the voltage of the battery. The DC output voltage will change according to the AC mains voltage fluctuations, but since the internal resistance of the battery is low, the "excess voltage" variations will cause charging current to change by large values. A change by 2% of the mains voltage doubles the charging current. Additional impedance is, therefore, introduced to reduce the change in the charging current, this impedance is known as 'Ballast'. RB is the ballast resistance as shown in Fig. 2.10

Ballast impedance can be either resistive or choke ballast. In the first case the RMS current is reduced to 1.4 times the mean output current. In the second case, the RMS current is 1.3 times the mean value of the output current. It has all other advantages of resistance ballast. An additional advantage is the elimination of loss in the ballast resistance. Figs. 2.13, 2.14, 2.15 indicate the DC output for battery load without ballast, with resistive ballast and with choke ballast respectively. (A) and (V) are ammeter and voltmeter respectively for measurement of current and voltage. A provision also shown to choose quick charge or trickle charge with switch and R1 resistance.

Fig. 2.13 Battery Load without Ballast Resistance

Fig. 2.14 Battery Load with Resistive Ballast

Fig. 2.15 Battery Load with choke Ballast Full wave rectifier R2 is also shown connected to the Secondary of transformer Tx for 12V AC output. The output from R2 operates Relay WR, when power fails WR de-energises, cutting of

R2 contact and the circuit to battery is disconnected. This is to prevent the reversal of current from battery to main in the event of power failure. The other methods employed for this purpose are:i) Blocking Rectifiers Fig. 2.16 ii) Reverse current circuit breakers Fig. 2.17 2.37 Reverse Current Circuit Breaker: This is in the form of a meter. In the event of reverse current, the pointer reverses, a contact is made and circuit breaker trips.

Fig. 2.16 & Fig. 2.17 Methods Of Preventing Reverse Current Automatic control of the battery charging equipment includes automatic control of the output voltage from the supply, automatic control of the charging and discharging periods, automatic regulation of voltage of the battery. 2.38 Double Current battery charges: (Fig. 2.18) Each circuit is suitable for charging batteries from 6 to 72V at 10 amps. Each circuit is controlled by two switches. A voltage selector switch S1 and S4, a current selector switch marked as S 2 and S5. Both the circuits are controlled by mains OFF/L/H switch S3. The charger is provided with two ammeters and a mains 'ON' lamp. Two sets of output terminals + and - AND protection fuses are on the reverse. 2.39 Working of Charger: Connect lead No: 7 marked Red to 180 V - for mains voltage upto 190V, to 200 V - for mains voltage 191 to 210 V to 220 V - for mains voltage 211 to 230 V to 240 V - for mains voltage 231 to 250 V. The output of each circuit is separate and is brought out on independent + and - terminals and can be connected in series (The output is 12 to 144 V at 10 amps) or parallel (The output is 6 to 72 V at 20 amps).

Fig. 2.18 Double Current battery charges

2.40 For Single Circuit Operation: Place S3 in 'OFF'. Place S1 or S4 in respective battery voltage position. Switch 'ON' mains. Put S3 in low and adjust S2 or S5 till desired current is obtained (10 Amp. max). If full charging current is not obtained, place S 2 or S5 in position 1, S3 on high and again adjust S2 or S5 for desired current. 2.41 For parallel connection: Sequence of operation similar, but switches S 1, S4 and S2, S5 to be so adjusted that both the ammeters read the same amount of current. The total current is the sum of the two meter readings. 2.42 Precautions: 1) Charging current should not exceed 10 amps for each circuit. 2) Fuses should never be wired with higher gauge of wire. 3) While switching '' always proceed with S 3 in lower battery voltage positions i.e., for 24V battery, position should be 12 to 24. 4) After completion of charge the sequence of operation should be as shown. S1 or S4 to position 6 to 12V, S2 or S5 in position S1 and S3 in off. Then only the charging leads must be disconnected. 2.43 A float power scheme for a PMBX: A 12 volt cell battery is provided. Relay A is an AC relay. When mains fail relay CF energises via dropped contacts of A (A 1). CF1 causes alarm to ring and CF2 causes red alarm lamp to glow. The key switch silences the bell, but prepares a circuit for a pilot lamp (green) to glow when main is ON. The rectifier has a maximum output of 3 amps. The output voltage is 24 volts. Three sizes are normally available for daily discharge leads of 15, 30 and 60 AH respectively.

Fig. 2.19 Typical Float Power Scheme for a PMBX 2.44 Present-day Battery Chargers are mostly of the Metal Rectifier Type, using Selenium or Silicon Rectifiers. They produce higher voltage supplies at less cost than its equivalent devices. Selenium rectifiers are the most commonly used metallic rectifiers, the trend however, is, for increasing use of Silicon. The selenium cell is of single plate construction and is usually built with an aluminium base plate that gives a durable and light stack. 2.45 Power Diodes: Silicon Power Diodes (sometimes referred to as power rectifiers) are relative new comers to the diode-rectifier field. Their physical and electrical characteristics, including compactness and efficiency, partially account for their increasing use in equipment, demanding instantaneous action and small size. These units are finding widespread applications in guided missiles aircraft, microwave radio relays and other fields. Silicon Power Diodes are compact, hermetically sealed units consisting of a wafer-thin crystal disc into which a metal pellet (aluminium for silicon) is diffused. The junction barrier is formed by the diffusion of these materials at a high ambient temperature. The junction is hermetically sealed in an all-welded shock proof housing with either pigtail leads or mounting studs welded to the terminals. Silicon Power Diodes are available in two types: Those used for industrial applications to convert AC to DC, as in a conventional power supply, and those with very little leakage current used in special applications, such as, magnetic amplifiers. Either unit, when mounted within a cooling fin or on the chassis, can be operated at higher-than-rated ambient temperatures. Silicon Power Diodes have an advantage in their ability to withstand greater operating temperatures with little or no effect. These have been recently placed in the power rectifier field. The size of the rectifying element in these power rectifiers is considerably smaller than in metallic rectifiers. Where large currents may cause the temperature to rise beyond safe rated values, adding fins helps to dissipate the excessive heat. It is very important that temperatures be kept to a minimum, not only for efficient operation, but also for long cells life. The rectifier must be located where there is adequate ventilation.

2.46 SCR Controlled Battery Charger:

This type of Charger uses SCRs to reduce the rate of charge as the battery voltage rises, until the charging current automatically ceases when the battery reaches a pre-determined value. When the battery voltage is low, each half cycle of mains input delivers current from the secondary of the transformer to the battery via the Silicon-controlled rectifier, SCR 1 because this SCR is turned 'ON' at its gate via R 1 and the Diode D3. As charging proceeds, the battery voltage rises until the potential at the slider of the potentiometer, RV, exceeds the Zener Voltage of ZD, causing it to conduct. The current through ZD into the gate of the other SCR., SCR 2, Switches that one 'ON'. SCR2 does not have to carry heavy charging current, it can, therefore, be a small one with a low current rating. As the battery voltage rises under charge, the point at which the half cycle SCR2 conducts comes earlier and earlier, until eventually it takes place before SCR1 has had a chance to turn 'ON'. With SCR 2 conducting, the junction of R1-R2 is only just above ground, so that SCR1 is unable to switch 'ON' and charging ceases. The battery voltage at which this charge limiting occurs is set by RV. If the battery voltage falls, charging will re-start. So making the circuit suitable for these uses where a battery is called upon to provide high rate intermittent, short discharges and is left across the charger continuously.

Fig. 2.20 SCR Controlled battery charger 2.47 Float Charger Making Use of UJT:

Fig. 2.21 Float Charger making use of UJT ZD is adjusted with the help of variable resistance R 1 that it shall conduct at a pre-determined value of battery on charge. When battery is low, ZD does not conduct, capacitor 'C' gets charged and UJT conducts during charge and discharges when there is 0.6V difference between B1 and E. This potential is applied to SCR. It conducts and charging circuit is complete. When battery gets charged to a pre-determined value, ZD conducts, short circuiting 'C'. Hence, 'UJT' does not conduct, SCR does not conduct, charging circuit discontinued, till the battery voltage again falls below pre-determined value. 2.48 Aging:

Aging in crystal diodes means any persistent change (except failure) in either the forward or reverse resistance characteristics. The characteristics of a new metallic rectifier are very stable. The forward and reverse current, however, may vary with time. This is due to the gradual variation of the forward resistance. Any increase in the forward resistance is accompanied by an equivalent decrease in the DC output voltage. Coincident with this, voltage loss is a loss of efficiency and an increase in operating temperature. Changes in the reverse resistance are not important so long as the leakage current remains within the rated limits. If the reverse voltage increases beyond its rated value the power loss in the reverse direction will also increase and will cause a more rapid aging of the cell. The temperatures at which the rectifier operates also affect the aging process. If the ambient temperature is high the increase in forward resistance will be accelerated and vice versa. Since all rectifiers are subject to aging, it is good practice to make allowances for the increased forward resistance and subsequent decrease in DC output. One way of controlling the aging of a cell is to provide taps on the input power transformer. As the efficiency of the cells decrease, more AC input voltage may be applied. Another method is to place a load resistor in the output circuit and to adjust it to compensate for the decreased output. Aging among individual rectifiers will vary, depending on the characteristics of the individual cells, the process used in their manufacture, and the circuits in which they are used. 2.49 Three Phase Circuits: Centertap (Full Wave): Three phase centertap (full wave) rectifier circuits are employed in many industrial applications where large DC currents are required. Each secondary is centre tapped and feeds a pair of rectifiers. The operation of each leg is identical to that of the single phase centertap circuit. Full Wave Bridge: The basic three-phase bridge circuit, the economical design of the transformer, requires a lower power rating than the three-phase centertap. This, plus the high degree of flexibility of full-wave bridge circuits, makes them extremely popular for commercial and industrial applications needing relatively high-power outputs. Since this circuit needs no center-tapped transformer it can be used directly across a three-phase power line. 2.51 RDSO has specified the standards required for a float-cum-boost charger and various tests to be performed on while accepting and during maintenance. The details are as under: This specification lays down the requirements and tests for battery chargers for use in Railway S & T Installations.

Fig . 2.22 Three Phase Full Wave Centre Tap Circuit.

Fig. 2.23 Three Phase Full Wave Circuit The battery chargers covered in this specification are self-regulating type and are suitable for float working, boost charging and initial charging of lead acid stationary secondary batteries. Boost mode of charging envisages periodical quick charging of batteries (not to the full capacity) by the maintenance staff with equipment load connected. Initial charging should be used when equipment load is not connected. This can fully charge the battery. The specification caters for automatic mode of working also. In this mode of working the harger will automatically change over from normal float working to boost working if the batteries are discharged and will switch back to float mode after they get charged. It is recommended that a separate AC voltage stabilizer should be provided if the mains voltage fluctuations are more than +10% of the nominal value.

The nominal output voltage and the rated output current of the charger are required to be specified. Note: 1.The nominal voltage of a lead acid secondary cell will be taken as 2.0 volts and nominal output voltage of the charger will be calculated accordingly. The output current rating of the battery charger may be calculated by adding the total equipment load to be supplied by one tenth of the AH capacity of the batteries which are to be kept on float charge by the battery charger. 2. The current ratings of 10,20,30,50,75 and 100 amperes and nominal voltage ratings of 12,24,48,60 and 110 are recommended for adoption by Railways. This will help in standardizing the equipment and ultimately testing and maintenance. 3. The chargers shall be of natural air cooled type and shall be suitable for indoor use in the cabins where the maximum ambient temperature may reach 500C. The chargers shall be of shelf or floor mounting type and shall be of robust construction. The cubicles shall be adequately ventilated. 4. The layout of the components and wiring shall be such that all parts are easily accessible for inspection, repairs and replacement. 5. The AC input portion shall be clearly isolated and protected to prevent accidental contact. 6. All connections shall be either soldered or made through crimped eyelets and shall be numbered with PVC cable markers corresponding to the numbers shown in the schematic wiring diagrams. 7. The schematic wiring diagram shall show all wiring used for interconnecting the main components of the charger. This diagram shall be drawn on an anodized plate and shall be firmly fixed on the inside of the cover of the charger. 8. The following components shall be provided on the front panel. A double pole ON/OFF switch or a miniature circuit breaker A selector switch Current control switch Voltage control switch Indications and fuses Meters

All non-current carrying metal parts shall be bonded together and earthed. An earth terminal suitable for taking min. 4 mm dia wire and with suitable marking shall be provided. 2.52 Components: a) Transformers and Chokes: The main transformer shall be double wound and shall confirm to category 3 of IS:6297 (Pt.I) 1971 and grade 2 of IS:6267 (Pt.II)-1973. Class B insulating material shall be used. The transformers and chokes shall be vacuum impregnated.

When tested in accordance with IS6297 (Pt.I) - 71, the main transformer shall show an insulation resistance of not less than 1000 Megohms. This value shall not fall below 500 Megohms at the end of climatic tests. The maximum permissible rise in temperature above ambient shall be 50 deg. C for transformers and chokes. b) Rectifying Elements: The chargers shall use silicon diodes and/or silicon controlled rectifiers for rectification. The rectifier cells and stacks shall comply with IS3895-66. They shall be suitably protected against surges. The rectifier stacks shall be connected for full wave rectification. The current rating of power components such as diodes, SCRs, etc., shall be rated more than twice the rated value of the charger. The peak reverse voltage rating should not be less than two times the expected reverse voltage across the rectifier elements. All resistors used shall be at least double the power capacity which is supposed to be dissipated in it. The voltage rating of capacitors shall be at least 50% above the peak value. c) Printed Circuit Cards and Components: Glass epoxy, copper clad laminates shall only be used for printed circuit control cards. The printed circuit cards shall be fitted with plug-in arrangement by using gold plated harp connectors. d) Meters. Each charger shall be provided with a DC ammeter to indicate the total current delivered by the charger. The range of the ammeter scale shall be of 125% to 150% of the rated output current of the charger. The rated output current of the charger shall be indicated on the meter scale by a green marking. For chargers having separate battery terminals, arrangement shall be provided so that it may be possible to read on ammeter either the total current of the charger or current driven by the battery. Each charger shall be provided with a DC voltmeter to indicate the output voltage of the charger. The range of the voltmeter scale shall be 150% to 175% of the nominal output voltage of the charger. The limits of voltage in float mode of working shall be indicated on the meter scale by a green band. e) Switches and Terminals: Each charger shall be provided with a double pole ON/OFF switch or a double pole miniature circuit breaker on AC side. A selector switch shall be provided for selecting float working, initial charging or boost charging mode of operation. A fourth position for automatic mode of working may be provided. A control switch designated 'current control' shall be provided to set the initial/boost charging rate. The control shall permit variation of the current over the entire range of the charger either in

steps or continuously through the use of two10 way rotary switches or through the use of suitable potentiometers. A potentiometer control designated 'voltage control' shall be provided to adjust the output voltage over a range of 2.0 to 2.3 volts per cell under float mode of working. For chargers of ratings upto 20 amp. output current: Output terminals shall be externally terminated and provided with red and black insulating nuts of adequate size to indicate positive and negative terminals respectively. AC input leads shall be taken out from the back of the charger and the termination shall not be accessible without removing the cover. The leads shall be terminated with a three pin plug of 15A rating for connecting the charger in AC supply mains. For chargers of output ratings higher than 20 amperes output current. The input, output and earth terminals shall be provided inside the cubicle and shall be accessible only when the cover is removed. All current carrying terminals shall be of brass and shall be plated for protection against corrosion. f. Indications & Protective Devices: A green lamp to indicate that the input supply is ON shall be prominently provided. If automatic mode of working is provided in the charger. visual indications shall be provided to indicate the mode of working of the charger (float or boost). A Red visual indication shall be available to indicate reverse connection to the battery. The indication shall be located near output/battery terminals. The charger shall also be protected against damage due to reverse battery connection. A Red visual indication shall be provided to indicate over-load/short circuit conditions. HRC fuses shall be provided in the DC output circuits. In addition to fuses, protection against short circuit and overload at output terminals shall be available. Arrangements shall be provided such that even any fault occurs within the charger, output terminal voltage shall in no case exceed 2.5 V/cell. Chargers of output current rating of 50 amps and above shall be provided with extra fuses and alarms (visual and audible) as given below:A-Fuses Rectifier Elements Smoothening Condenser.

B-Alarms.

Mains fuse blown/Miniature circuit breaker tripped. Output fuse blown Rectifier element fuse blown Equipment Overload/Short Circuit Smoothening condenser fuse blown.

The alarms shall be provided with a resetting button for cutting off the alarm with a receive Attention Lamp which will light up when the fault persists and the audible alarm shall only be reset. Facility shall be provided for a single contact which will make for any of these conditions. 2.53 Performance Requirements. Unless otherwise specified, the chargers shall be suitable for operating on single phase AC supply mains of 230 volts nominal and of frequency 50 + 2 Hz. Tappings shall be provided at 200 and 230 volts. Actual voltage may vary by +10% about the selected tapping. The DC output of the chargers shall be smoothened such that the rms ripple content of the output voltage shall not be more than 5%. 2.54 Additional requirement for battery chargers for Telecommunication installations: The output of the chargers shall not contain psophometric noise voltage of more than 2 mv rms. 2.55 Additional requirements for battery chargers for Axle Counter Installations PARD value (ripple and noise) of output voltage is specified as under:B rms value 10 mv pp " 50 mv 2.56 The chargers shall be designed to work continuously at the rated output current without damage or deterioration of the components of the chargers. Beyond the rated value, arrangement shall be such that the current is limited automatically upto the rated current (when working in float mode) or upto the preselected value of current (when working in initial charging or boost charging mode) by regulation of the output voltage of the charger. As soon as the overload conditions are removed, normal voltage should again be obtainable without need for any resetting. The chargers shall be suitable for float working, boost charging and initial charging mode of working as selected by means of the selector switch. They shall also be capable of working in the automatic mode. 2.57 Float Working: Under this mode of working, the chargers shall give a DC output voltage equal to 2.15 V per cell. This value shall be maintained within 2.10V per cell and 2.20V per cell over supply variations and output load variations from no load to full load. Manual adjustment of output voltage over a range of 2.0V to 2.3V/cell shall be possible by voltage control switch. 2.58 Boost Charging: Under this mode of working, the chargers shall be capable of delivering an output current whose magnitude shall be capable of being selected by means of the current control switch. Thus current shall be constant (within +5% of the selected value), with the input

voltage varying between the limits and the DC terminal voltage varying from 1.7V to 2.4V per cell. 2.59 Initial Charging:- Under this mode of working, the equipment load will not normally be connected. The chargers shall be capable of delivering an output current whose magnitude shall be capable of being selected by means of the current control switch. This current shall be maintained constant within +5% of the selected value with the input voltage varying between limits and the DC terminal voltage varying from 1.7V to2.7V per cell. Automatic Mode: While working in this mode, if current drawn by battery increases by 8-12% of the pre-selected current, the charger shall automatically change to boost mode of working. It shall continue under boost mode till the battery voltage reaches 2.4 volts per cell where after the charger shall again switch back to float mode of working, In case of failure of electronic system for auto mode, suitable visual indication shall be provided and the charger shall then work in manual mode. The overall watt efficiency and power factor shall be calculated at the nominal input voltage and at the rated output current (through a resistive load) at the following output voltages. Float mode 2.15 V/Cell Boost charging 2.4 V/Cell Initial charging 2.7 V/Cell.

The overall watt efficiency shall not be less than 75% for chargers of 500 watts or more rated output power and 65% for chargers of less than 500 watts rated output power in all modes of working. The power factor shall be better than 0.8 lagging in all modes of working. The no-load current of the charger shall not be more than 10% of the rated input current under float made. In case of AC mains failure, reverse leakage current from the battery through the chargers shall not exceed 10 mA. 2.60 Instruction Manual: Two copies of Instruction Manual shall be supplied with each charger. The manual shall include the following information:a) Installation Instructions b) Guaranteed performance data and technical and other particulars of the charger as in the in Annexure 'A' Appendix A: Information to be supplied by the Purchaser. A-1 A-2 A-3 A-4 A-5 Nominal output voltage and rated output current. Drawings, Dimensions and layout if desired. Type of mounting required - shelf mounting or floor mounting. Whether Automatic mode of working required, Whether initial charging mode required.

c) Wiring diagrams showing components and their values. d) List of all components used in the manufacture of charger, their makes and values.

e) Drawings showing general mounting arrangement of various components. f) Trouble shooting procedures. g) Explanatory notes on operation, maintenance and adjustment procedures. h) Any other information which the manufacturer may like to give. Each charger shall have an anodised aluminium sheet on which instructions for operation of battery charger shall be printed. The anodised aluminium instruction sheet shall be fixed either on back or side cover of the battery charger. 2.61 Tests and Requirements: Condition of Tests: Unless otherwise specified, all tests shall be carried out at ambient atmospheric conditions. Type Tests: The following shall comprise type tests and shall be carried out in the given sequence. a) Visual Inspection b) Insulation Resistance Test c) Applied High Voltage Test d) Induced High Voltage Test e) Temperature Rise Test f) Performance Test g) Test for protective devices h) Climatic Tests. Only one charger on each type and output rating shall be tested for this purpose. If the charger fails in any of the type tests, the purchaser or his nominee at his discretion, may call for another charger of the same type and output rating and subject it to all tests or to the tests in which failure (s) occurred. No failure shall be permitted in the repeat test(s). 2.62 Acceptance Tests: The following shall comprise Acceptance Tests:a) Visual Inspection b) Insulation Resistance Test c) Applied High Voltage Test d) Induced High Voltage Test e) Temperature Rise Test f) Performance Test g) Test for protective devices Visual Inspection, Insulation Resistance Test and Performance Tests shall be carried out on all chargers. The following sampling plan shall be adopted for the remaining tests.

Table 2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------S.No. Components. Max. permissible temperature

rise above ambient temp. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1. 2. Transformer & Choke Silicon Diodes, Zener diodes 50 deg. C 50 or 20 deg. C specified by manufacturer whichever is less. less than

3.

Electric junctions (terminals, switches, etc.) 15 deg. C

4. Resistors. 50 deg. C -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2.63 Routine Tests: Following shall constitute routine tests to be and shall be conducted by Manufacturer on every battery charger and test results will be submitted during the inspection. a) Visual Inspection b) Insulation Resistance of main transformer c) Insulation resistance of complete charger d) Performance Test. The performance test may be carried out only at normal input voltage during the routine tests. a) Visual Inspection: The chargers shall be visually inspected to ensure compliance with the relevant requirements. b) Insulation Resistance Test: This test shall be carried out. Before the high voltage test After the high voltage test After induced high voltage test (for main transformer only) After the temperature rise test when the charger has attained ambient temperature, and after the climatic tests have been completed.

The measurement shall be made at a potential of not less than 500volts DC. The insulation shall be measured between:a) AC line terminals and earth b) DC terminals and earth c) AC terminals and DC terminals. Value of the insulation resistance shall not be less than 100 Megohms for the complete battery charger and shall not be less than 1000 Megohms for the main transformer. There shall not be any appreciable change in the measured value of insulation resistance before and after Applied High Voltage Test and after induced High Voltage Test. The insulation resistance will not be less than the limits mentioned above. When measured after the battery charger has attained ambient temperature after completion of Temperature Rise Test. When the test is repeated after the climatic tests, these values shall not be less than 5 Megohms and 500 Megohms respectively. c) Applied High Voltage Test: The chargers shall withstand for one minute without puncture and arcing. A test voltage of 2000 volts rms applied between:-

a) AC line terminals and earth b) DC line -doc) Primary and secondary windings of charger transformer. The test voltage shall be alternating, of approximately sinusoidal waveform and of any frequency between 50 and 150 Hz. Printed circuit cards shall be removed and all four terminals of rectifier bridge shall be connected together during this test. d) Induced High Voltage Test: The main transformer of the charger with no load shall be connected to a voltage equal to two times nominal supply voltage, the frequency being equal to two times the rated frequency. The voltage shall be raised from 1/3rd of the maximum value to full value as is consistent with accurate reading of the instrument. Full test voltage shall be maintained for one minute and shall then be rapidly reduced to 1/3rd of the value before being switched off. At the end of the test the transformer shall be tested for the following:a) Insulation Resistance b) No lead current. The values shall not differ from the specified. e) Temperature Rise Test - The cold resistance of transformer and choke winding shall be measured after conditioning the charger until three consecutive temperature readings taken at 30 mts interval are constant and the constant temperature shall be taken as reference Temp. T1 The charger shall be connected to the AC supply mains setting the input voltage at 230 + 10%. Set the selector switch to the boost charging position. A resistive load shall be connected such that the rated AC current flows through the load and output terminal voltage remains at 2.4 V per cell. The charger shall continue to draw the rated output current till such time the temperature equilibrium is reached i.e., the temperature variation between 3 successive readings taken at the interval of 30 mts. is less than 10%. Throughout the test, the rated load current shall be maintained. Once the temperature equilibrium has been reached the temperature of the rectifying diodes, resistors, thyristor, zener diodes, electric junction (carrying more than 5 amps current) shall be measured by means of thermometer without disconnecting the load. Then the charger shall be switched off and hot resistance of the windings of main transformer/chokes shall be measured within one minute of switching off. The temperature rise of the winding shall be computed by the following formulae:T = R1 - R2 (234.8 + T1) - (T2 - T1) R1

T is the temperature rise. R1 is the resistance at the beginning of the test. R2 is the resistance at the end of the test. T1 is the room temperature at the beginning of the test, T2 is the room temperature at the end of the test, During the test, the charger shall be protected from draughts and radiations from warmer objects.

f) Performance Test - The charger shall be tested for its output performance (Watt efficiency, regulation, no-load current, power factor and ripple content by connecting a variable resistive load across the output terminals. The test shall be carried out at AC input voltages of 200 and 230 V at the appropriate tappings. Test connections for watt efficiency, no load current, regulation and power factor are shown in Figure. For ripple measurement, connections shown as dotted should be used.

Fig. 2.24 performance Test on Float charger Note: For chargers of output current higher than 20 amps. use of water load is recommended. The capacity of the water load should be sufficient so that its temperature does not rise more than 350 C above ambient during the test. i) Float Working - Set the charger to float mode of working by means of the selector switch. Check the working of voltage control switch to ascertain whether variations from 2.0 V/Cell to 2.3V/Cell is possible at rated output current. Then adjust the output voltage at 2.15V/Cell at rated output current and to the nominal input voltage. Vary the resistive load and record readings, without disturbing the voltage control switch setting. Readings shall be taken at: (a) Nominal input voltage (b) Nominal input voltage plus 10%, (c) Nominal input voltage minus 10% where nominal voltage is 200or 230V depending upon tapping used. ii) Boost Working - Set the charger to boost mode of working by means of the selector switch. Vary the resistive load and record the readings, at any random current setting. The output voltage shall be adjusted at: (a) 2.2 V per cell (b) 2.4 per cell, (c) 1.7 V per cell. (d) The open circuit output voltage shall also be measured. iii) Initial Charging mode of working - Set the charger to initial charging mode of working by means of the selector switch. Vary the resistive load and record readings. Readings shall be taken at any random current setting. The output voltage shall be adjusted at : (a) 2.2 V per cell (b) 2.7 V per cell (c) 1.7 V per cell The open circuit output voltage shall also be measured. iv) Automatic mode of working:

Switch on the charger and set the selector switch to 'Automatic' mode of working. Verify that it is in float mode of working using test method. Now connect a load across the 'output' terminals such that it draws 90% of the current selected by current control switch. Further, connect another load across the 'battery' terminals and increase the current drawn by it gradually. When the current reaches 9 to 11% of the value (selected by current control switch), the charger should change over to boost mode of working. This should also be indicated by the luminous indication on the panel. Check whether charger switches back to float mode when terminal voltage reaches to 2.4 V per cell. v) The charger may also be tested by actually connecting it to a set of batteries. g) Test for protective devices: i) Overload/short circuit - During this all fuses of the charger shall be short circuited. Charger shall be connected to AC input voltage of 230 + 10%, Output terminals shall be short circuited through a suitable arrangement. Steady short circuit current shall be measured. It should not exceed rated current +10%. There shall not be any damage to charger. Working of overload/short circuit indications/alarms will also be checked. ii) Reverse battery connection: A fully charged battery shall be connected in reverse polarity to output terminals of charger. There shall be no emission of smoke or undue temperature rise of any component of the charger. Working of corresponding indication/alarm will also be checked. h) Climatic Tests: The climatic tests shall consists of: (i) Dry Heat Test at 500 C as per IS:9000 (Pt.III) (ii) Damp Heat (Cyclic) Test for Variant I for 7 cycles as per IS:9000 (Pt.V)/Sec.2.. The climatic tests shall be carried out by setting the chargers in boost charge mode of operation by means of the selector switch. During the period of exposure in each test the chargers shall be connected to supply mains of nominal input voltage and shall deliver the rated output current at output voltage of 2.4V/Cell to a resistive load. Immediately after the damp heat test, the insulation resistance of the main transformer shall not go below 100 Megohms and for the complete charger not below 5 Megohms which shall improve to 500 Megohms and 8 Megohms respectively after complete recovery. During the last half an hour of exposure under Dry Heat test, insulation resistance of complete battery charger shall not go below 5 Megohms. At the end of each test and after recovery, the charger shall not show any sign of apparent deterioration. The no load current shall not vary more than 5% of the initial value before test.

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