Chapter - 4

T10A Converters And Inverters

4.1 It may not be always possible to obtain from power sources the correct voltages in the required form, for operating communication equipments. In such circumstances, converting equipments become necessary for converting the supply voltage into a form suitable for being fed to the equipment. As long as the supply source is 'AC' the necessary AC voltages can be obtained by the use of step down or step up transformers. DC voltages can be conveniently obtained by means of a transformer and a rectifier. But where only a low voltage DC supply is available and higher AC voltages needed DC to AC inverters are to be used. When a higher DC voltage is needed, "DC - DC converters" must be used. 4.2 The principle of DC to DC converters is fairly simple. It is a device, which normally steps up a low DC input to a high DC output. It is only an inverter with a rectifier and filter. Figure shows how it works. It takes the output from the low voltage DC supply A and switches it ON and OFF continuously at an audio frequency in a switching circuit 'B' to give an ac voltage fed into the step up transformer 'C'. The high voltage output from 'C' is fed into a rectifier and smoothing circuit 'D' from, which emerges a final high voltage DC. The wave shapes of the ac voltages are illustrated as square waves, which is the commonest waveform and ac sinusoidal waveform can be derived from it. Although the illustration shows a step-up from a low to a high voltage, a stepdown transformer can also be used to give an output lower than the input. Fig. 4.1 DC to DC Conversion Principle

4.3 Solid State Converters are built with transistors or SCRs. For low power upto 100W DC, transistors are normally used. Above 100W, SCRs take over from transistors. The chopping frequency at which DC is converted to AC is usually between 50 Hz to 20 KHz. In practice converters are used most commonly to step up from standard 6,12 & 24V lead acid storage batteries. Sometimes DC-DC converters are used even where a mains supply is available. A DC-DC converter powered from a low voltage, mains driven DC supply usually works in such a way that if the high voltage DC output is overloaded the converter ceases to change the "input DC into AC". This is because of safety reasons it is desirable to have the in-built safety feature of a supply that cannot accidentally supply high current at high voltage. Most converters give an unregulated output which requires stabilization. Let us now examine the different types of practical converter circuits having regard to the problems of starting oscillations, suppressing high voltage transients and regulating the output voltages. 4.4 Single Transistor DC-DC Converter:

Fig. 4.2 Single Transistor DC-DC Converter Figure shows the basic circuit usually, known as "ringing choke" circuit. This is a simple transformer coupled feedback relaxation oscillator which switches the single transistor ON and OFF periodically. When the transistor is ON, power is transferred from the input supply to the circuit transformer, when the transistor is OFF the power stored in the transformer is transferred to the load at high voltage. The operation of the oscillator requires that a rectifier be included in the output circuit in such a way that output is drawn during one-half of the cycle only. For maximum efficiency, the output from the transformer should be a square wave. To achieve this, usually the transformer core shall be of Nickel-Iron or Ferrite material both of, which have square loop of hysterics curve. The diagonal lines at the end of the laminations indicate the square-loop core. The advantages of this ringing choke circuit are its high efficiency and suitability for producing high voltage, small power, compact DC supplies. This is essentially a constant power output device, suitable selection of load resistance, high voltages can be achieved without having a high number of turns of secondary of the transformer. But it is unusual to find ringing-choke converters used for output powers of more than a few watts. 4.5 Two Transistors, one Transformer DC-DC Converter: This is the commonest circuit used in most of the commercial DC-DC converters. This selfoscillating, push-pull circuit uses two power transistors in a symmetrical square wave oscillator. The operation of the circuit depends mainly on the square loop pattern of the BH curve of the transformer and switching properties of the transistors. The transistors TX 1 & TX2 play the part of the switches and are constrained by transformer-coupled feedback to be alternately ON and OFF, so as to connect the unidirectional input voltages alternately to the separate halves of the primary windings of the output transformer T. This produces an alternating square wave output across the secondary of the transformer. The circuit shown in explained as follows: Initially, when the input DC supply is switched 'ON', one of the transistors in the converter circuit conducts more rapidly than the other, because no two transistors can be perfectly matched, suppose that TX1 is switched ON first with the collector current of TX1being slightly greater than that of TX2. The magnetized state of the core at this instant is also shown in the Fig. The flux now changes towards positive saturation point, inducing voltages in windings a-b and f-g with points 'a' and 'f' being positive. This will cause TX 2 to 'turn off' quickly. In windings c-d, d-e, points 'c' of c-d and 'd' of d-e will be positive. The flux will now saturate at point 2, current will increase further saturating the core deeply. The induced voltages in windings a-b and f-g will drop. The core saturation reduces to the rampant value and an induced voltage of opposite

polarity is induced due to the decreasing flux. TX 2, which was off, now turns 'ON' and TX 1 turns OFF. The current flowing in alternate directions in windings c-d and d-e produces an ac voltage across the secondary. The output is a square wave, which is rectified by a conventional rectifier and capacitor to provide the required output DC. Fig. 4.3 Two Transistors, One transformer DC-DC Convertor The figure shows the circuit of two transistor, one transformer DC-DC converter circuit making use of NPN power transistors as switches. The working is as detailed in fig.

Fig. 4.4 Two Transistor, One Transformer DC-DC Converter using NPN transistors. 4.7 Two Transistors, two Transformers DC-DC Converter: With only one transformer to carry out both feedback and power output for efficient operation the transformers must use square loop core material (Nickel-iron or ferrite) instead of the normal silicon-iron laminations as widely used in mains transformers. For low power converters, the single transformer design is widely used, but for higher power above 100W, the cost of a large square loop core transformer can become prohibitive in relation to the rest of the components. Thus in high power converters two transformers are being used. One, with the square loop core (relatively expensive) which can be small and has to handle only the feed back switching drive while the other is to transfer power to the rectifying smoothing circuits and the load, and must be large compared to the power to be handled. The latter can be made up with low-cost silicon iron laminations with an oscillation frequency ranging from 50 to 500 Hz. For higher frequencies such as, between 500-5000 Hz transformer losses become significant and special low loss silicon-iron materials may have to be used. For still higher audio frequencies (500 Hz to20 KHz) one has to go in for more expensive ferrites because of high losses in low-cost silicon-iron laminations. 4.8 The Principle Of Operation:

Fig. 4.5 Two Transistors, Two Transformers DC DC Converter Initially when the input supply is switched on, one of the transistors in the converter circuit conducts more rapidly than the other. Suppose Q2 conducts earlier than Q1 - It tends towards saturation and takes the lower end of the primary of 'T 2' down to zero volts. The top dot indicated end of the 'T2' primary goes positive by an equal amount above the positive power voltage (to which the centre tap is connected). This carries the bottom dot, indicated end of the primary of T1 also positive and switches Q2 ON and Q1 OFF. The magnetising current of T 1 builds up linearly until the core saturates. When T1 reaches its saturation, flux density, the magnetising current increases very rapidly and the secondary voltage collapses and cannot hold Q2 saturated. The collector voltage of Q2 rises and regenerative action causes Q1 and Q2 to reverse states. As these processes repeat during each half cycles, oscilations are sustained. The frequency of oscillation depends on the following: No. of turns of the primary windings of T1 Core Cross Section and Core material characteristics in T1 iii)Value of RF (Resistor Feed Back) and RB (Resistor bias)

4.9 Two Transistor DC-DC Converter:

Fig. 4.6 Master Oscillator Driven DC-DC Converter Fig. shows the basic system using n-p-n transistors as push pull switches. A Master Oscillator (A) produces an output (usually, but, not always, a square wave) which switches the transistors Q1 and Q2 alternately ON and OFF. When one is ON the other is OFF. The Master Oscillator has a fixed frequency independent of the input voltage. But the driven circuit is used not only, where the a.c. frequency is important, but also in very high power converters, where the transmission of high power can be concentrated on the design of output transformer without need to consider its conflicting characteristics as a source of feedback switching, as in the self oscillating designs.

4.10 DC to AC Inverter:

Fig. 4.7 DC to AC Inverter Inverter is a device by means of which high AC can be obtained from very low DC voltage. The circuit shown in figure is an unusual inverter circuit which can produce 120V AC from 2V DC input, provided the 2V DC source has a current capacity of 25 to 50 amps. Operation: Assume that Q1 begins to conduct, which increases the voltage drop across the primary of the transformer. This increasing voltage is coupled to the feed back winding, and a -ve voltage is applied to the base of Q 2 causing it to increase its conduction. Q 1 causes the transformer to go into saturation, and the voltage across the primary collapses, causing a change in polarity which is coupled to the feedback winding. This applies a reverse bias to Q 1 and a forward bias to Q2, so that there is a reverse operation, with increasing conduction through Q2. Bias current is applied across R1. This circuit operates best with a DC input of 3V or less. 4.11 SCR DC-DC Converters:

Fig.4.8 SCR DC-DC Converter This type of converters are mostly used at high power and high input voltages. The Fig. illustrates the basic operation. This converter consists of two basic units, the power switching section and a low power oscillator necessary for periodic triggering of the switching section. It is assumed that a separate oscillator is available to apply current pulses alternately through the gates G1 and G2 of SCR to turn them on. When turned on, they effectively present short circuit between anode (A 1 or A2) and cathode (K1 or K2). The switching of SCRs takes place as follows. Let SCR 1 be switched on. The voltage across it falls to a low value and a current accompanied by a corresponding magnetic flux will rise in the upper half of the transformer primary. Since this flux is common to both halves of the winding, a voltage of the same value as that of the supply will be induced in the lower half. Hence, the total voltage across the "commutating capacitance C" will be approximately 2 Vin,

with the left hand terminal negative. On the next half cycle, when SCR 2 is triggered on, the capacitor applies a voltage of -2 Vin to the anode A 1 of SCR1. Provided this reverse voltage is applied for sufficiently long, it will revert to the Off (blocking) condition and with SCR 2 now conducting, a voltage of 2 Vin will again appear across the transformer and commutating capacitor but with polarities reversed. At the next trigger pulse SCR 1 will be turned on and SCR2 off. Thus, if trigger pulses are periodically and alternately applied to the gates of the SCRs an approximately rectangular AC voltage will appear at the transformer secondary. The function of the choke L is to limit the current flow during the commutation process i.e., while both SCRs may be conducting. It also tends to limit the rate at which C discharges and so hold the SCR reverse-biased until it recovers to the blocking state. If SCR 2 has just been triggered ON, the discharge path for C is through it, the DC supply, the choke L and the upper half of the transformer winding. As the secondary loading is increased, the effective impedance of the transformer primary decreases and this allows 'C' to discharge more rapidly. Hence, if the DC output current is progressively increased, a condition will be reached at which C will discharge too rapidly to allow SCR1 to recover the blocking state. Thus both SCRs will remain on together, leading to a short circuit on the supply. Unless special protective circuits are incorporated the SCRs may be destroyed. In this type of converter, as the output current taken from it decreases, the output voltage tends to rise rapidly. This does not matter where a fairly constant load is taken, but, on light or no load operation, the D 1-R1 and D2-R2 networks must be fitted to hold down the output voltage on low current loads. For rapid switching and a good square wave output shape, 'C' should be small, whereas it must be large enough to produce regular switching at the heaviest load current. A formula for minimum value of C is given as: C =1.44n2 Toff R Where

T off = Turn off time of the SCRs n = Ns/Np R = Load resistance seen by the output of the transformer. 4.12 Some Special Features Of DC-DC Converter Circuits: (i) The process of starting oscillations: Most converter circuits are intrinsically self-starting for light loading, but with higher output current, starting becomes difficult. The starting is generally achieved by one of the following arrangements: (a) Placing a large initial forward bias on the transistor. (b) Applying an initial heavy asymmetrical pulse to the circuit. (c) Reducing the initial load by a series choke or by a feedback circuit.

Fig. 4.9 DC-DC Convertor Starting Circuit. The various starting circuits have been illustrated in the figure. The use of the large initial forward bias will be found in figure a,c,d,e,g and h. The use of heavy asymmetrical pulse can be seen in Fig. (b). Whereas Fig. (i) illustrates the use of a saturable core choke in series with the transformer output load to present a high impedance load to the converter circuit until the output current builds up. Finally Fig. (f) shows the use of feedback from the DC output rail to ensure forward-bias on the converter switching transistor until the appearance of DC on the output rail switches of the feedback transistor Q1 and provides AC short circuit to the base series resistor R10. (ii) Transient spike suppression circuit: High voltage transient spikes are very prone to appear at various points in the converter circuits. Quite apart from the spikes coming on the input supply, the rapid switching ON and OFF of the transistor or SCRs with large inductances in the circuits can lead to very high voltage spikes, which can be a major cause of semi-conductor device failure. Ringing choke circuits appear more prone to spikes than push-pull circuits. The major sources of voltage spikes is leakage inductance in the transformer, particularly in self-oscillating square loop cores. Careful transformer design with the use of bi-filter winding techniques and low inter-winding capacitance design is called for, and the following de-spiking circuits may be used to protect the semiconductor devices. (a) Clipping diodes from collector to emitter (b) Capacitors from collector to emitter (c) Series capacitor-resistors across total feedback winding (d) Collector to Collector capacitor and (e) Series capacitor-resistors across transformer secondary.

Fig. 4.10 Transient Spike Suppression Circuits (iii) Regulating the output voltage of the DC-DC converters:In the converters the output voltage is directly proportional to the input voltage so that the line regulation is poor. In addition, ringing choke converters etc., works on constant output power basis so that output voltage for these will vary with change in load currents also. Very often, therefore, some form of stabilizing circuitry is needed to keep the output voltage constant. The circuits used in DC-DC converters to regulate the output voltage fall into three types as illustrated in fig o to q. In Fig (o) output from the converter is sampled and the sample is used to control a DC regulator on the input supply to bring it to the appropriate voltage level to keep the final output constant. In Fig.(p) the output is again sampled, but the sample voltage is used to control directly the operation of the converter to give the desired output voltage. Finally, in Fig (q) a conventional voltage regulator is used in the output rail after the converter to regulate the output voltage.

Fig. 4.11 Circuits for Regulating the output voltage of converters

RDSO has specified various performance requirements and Type Tests of DC-DC Converters as per RDSO Specification No.123/1991. Some salient points are reproduced here. 4.13 Performance Requirements: (a) The converter shall operate from nominal input voltages of 120V, 50V, 48V, 24V and with output voltages of 5V, 10V, 12V, 18V and 24V or any other voltage as specified by the purchaser with output current capacities, varying from 1 amp. to 15 amps. (b) Voltage regulation shall not be worse than + 1% for all output ranges, for input supply variation from -10% to +20% of nominal input voltage indicated in para 1 above. (c) The output shall be free from over-shoot on account of turn 'ON/turn OFF' or power failure or when the battery charger is switched ON/OFF. (d) It shall work in the temperature range of 00 C to 700 C and relative humidity upto 95%. (e) The unit shall be provided with over-load protection, output over-voltage protection and output short circuit protection with feed back characteristics. The overload protection shall be effective at 120% of the nominal output rating. (f) The overall efficiency of the converter shall not be less than 50%. (g) The switching frequency used shall not be less than 20 KHz. The converter shall employ PWM technique for regulation of DC output. (h) All components used such as, transistors, diodes, FETS, Integrated circuits etc., shall meet the relevant IS: Specification or JSS specification. (i) All indications and fuses shall be provided on the front panel. (j) The noise spikes on the input side shall be attenuated by atleast at 60 db when measured at the output side. For test purposes the noise spikes will be of 10V amplitude, 50 milli seconds pulse width with a repetition rate of 20 Hz. (k) The equipment shall withstand vibration tests from 10 Hz to 55 Hz, 0.75 mm peak to peak displacement in all three tests for two hours each or at resonant frequency for two hours. (l) Additional requirements of DC/DC converters are to be provided for Axle Counter installations, solid state interlocking, Data logger and other similar equipment involving TTL IC's, Linear IC's, Microprocessors, CMOS devices, etc. It shall be capable of operating from nominal input of 12 V battery on float/boost charger. Outputs of +10 V & +5 V shall be with common ground and 10V with separate ground. Voltage regulation shall be 0.1% or less for the common ground outputs and +0.7 V for the independent ground output. Crowbar protection with independent comparison and firing circuits for 5 V supply to act within 20 micro seconds at 6.3 V + 0.2 V.

Ripple and noise in the output shall be less than 40 mV peak to peak with normal ground connection. The outputs, where current required is of the order of 1 Amp. or less shall make use of convertor IC chips. In order to increase the reliability of convertor, series-parallel combination of such IC's shall be used.

4.14 Type Tests - The following shall constitute type tests and shall be carried out in the given sequence:a) Visual inspection b) Applied high voltage test c) Insulation resistance test d) Test for continuous operation e) Performance Test f) Test for protective devices g) Overload and in rush current test h) Climatic Tests

++++++++++++++++++