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The terms “open-loop control” and The room temperature PV (output vari- the control unit (e.g. in the form of
“closed-loop control” are closely inter- able of the open-loop control system) characteristic curves). Use of such a
linked. is to be maintained at a constant value control unit allows the influence of the
by adjusting the electrically operated outside temperature on the room
mixer valve and thus, the temperature temperature to be eliminated.
1.1. of the heating supply line or radiator.
Function and Besides the outside temperature, the
sequence of an open- If the outside temperature changes, example shown in Figure 1 also con-
loop control system the room temperature changes as a tains other disturbance variables which
consequence of this. The outside tem- also affect the room temperature:
An open-loop control system is char- perature is referred to as the disturb- – opening a window or a door
acterized by the fact that one or more ance variable and identified with the – changing wind conditions
input variables of a system influence letter z (z1 in the example). – presence of persons in the room.
its output variables in accordance with The task of the open-loop control sys- Since it is not detected by the control
the system’s own interrelations. tem is to counteract the influence of unit, the effect of these disturbance
the “outside temperature” disturbance variables on the room temperature is
One everyday example of an open- variable. not compensated for by the open-loop
loop control system: For this purpose, the outside tempera- control system.
ture is measured via the outside temp- The use of such an open-loop control
The inside temperature of a room is to erature sensor. system is practical only if it can be as-
be maintained at a constant value as a The mixer valve is adjusted or the sumed that there is a low influence of
function of the outside temperature. temperature of the radiator varied via (secondary) disturbance variables.
the control unit.
The interrelationship between the out- The block diagram in Figure 2 shows
side temperature and the heating out- the open action sequence characteris-
put required for maintaining a constant tic of an open-loop control system.
room temperature must be stored in
Disturbance variable z2 PV
Opening the window Room
temperature
Disturbance variable z1
Change in outside
Disturbance variable z4
temperature Window
Radiator Number of persons in the room
supply line
Disturbance variable z3
Heating
4
However, if the effect of the other dis- Disturbance variable z1
Change in outside temperature
turbance variables is so strong that it Disturbance variable z2
Opening the window
also needs to be compensated for, it
Disturbance variable z3
becomes necessary to control the room Wind conditions
Disturbance variable z4
temperature on the basis of a closed- Number of persons in the room
Room
loop control system. The block diagram Set-point
temperature
Controller Mixer valve Radiator Room PV
Set-point value +
in Figure 3 shows the closed action programm. –
Figure 3: Block diagram of the closed-loop control system for room temperature
1.2.
Function and
sequence of a closed- In this case, the effects of disturbance with the set-point value. On the basis
loop control system variables on the room temperature of the comparison between set-point
should be eliminated. and actual value, the controller adjusts
The fundamental difference with res- the temperature of the heating supply
pect to an open-loop control system is The effects of all disturbance variables line or radiator via the mixer valve until
that the output variable of the system influencing the room temperature: the required room temperature is
(the actual value) is constantly meas- – change in outside temperature reached.
ured and compared with another vari- – opening a window
able (the set-point value or the refer- – changing wind conditions The table below contains application
ence variable). If the actual value is are registered by measurement of the recommendations for open-loop and
not equal to the set-point value, the room temperature and comparing this closed-loop control.
controller responds to this. It changes
the actual value by adjusting it to the Open-loop control Closed-loop control
set-point value.
Application • If no or only one essential • If several essential disturb-
and measurable disturbance ance variables are present.
One everyday example of a closed-
variable is present. • If disturbance variables
loop control system:
cannot be detected or can
The inside temperature of a room is to
be only poorly detected with
be maintained at a preset temperature.
measuring systems.
• If unforeseeable disturbance
variables may occur.
Advantages • Low implementation effort. • Disturbance variables are
Disturbance variable z2 PV
Opening the window Room • No stability problems detected and compensated
temperature
Disturbance variable z1 due to the open action for.
Change in outside
temperature Window sequence. • The preset value (set-point SP)
Setpoint Radiator
is more precisely complied.
supply line
adjuster
Room
Heating
temperature
Set-point value
return line
Closed-loop control is a process that One example: Figure 5) so that the process value ad-
is used in more than just technical The fluid level in a tank is to be main- justs to the set-point value, i.e. so that
applications. Closed-loop control tained at or adjusted to a preset value. the control deviation becomes zero. If
systems run virtually everywhere and In order to implement a closed-loop the process value is higher than the
always. The process of setting the control system, it is necessary to con- set-point value, the control valve must
required water temperature when tinually measure the filling level in the be closed further. If the filling level is
showering or complying with a speed tank (process value). too low, the valve must be opened
limit when driving a car involves This is done here, for example, by an wider.
closed-loop control. These two exam- ultrasonic level transmitter. The process
ples demonstrate the task of a closed- value is constantly compared with the Control deviations in a control loop
loop control system: adjusting, a preset target filling level (set-point va- are caused by two factors:
specific variable such as temperature, lue), which is set e.g. on a control unit – disturbance variables
speed, flow rate or pressure to a re- via buttons or selector switches. – changes in the set-point value.
quired value. The comparison between process value
and set-point value is performed by the In our example, the following two dis-
In principle, a closed-loop control pro- controller. If a deviation occurs be- turbance variables may occur:
cess appears to be a very simple one. tween the process and set-point value – outflow from the tank, occurring
However, when implementing techni- (control deviation), the controller must abruptly due to opening of one or
cal closed-loop control systems, prob- respond to it. The controller has to ad- more ON/OFF valves
lems are very quickly encountered. just a suitable final control element or – slow filling-level change due to
The precondition for correct function- actuator (a continuous-action control evaporation of the fluid from the
ing of a closed-loop control system is valve in the example shown in tank.
the interplay of the individual compo-
nents involved in a closed-loop control
system. The totality of components of
a closed-loop control system is referred
to as the control loop. In the following,
the control loop is explained in further
detail.
ON/OFF
valves
Controlled system
6
Figure 5: Hardware representation of a closed-loop filling-level
control system
2.1. SP: Set-point value or reference The basic structure of this block dia-
The elements of the variable (required filling level) gram corresponds to that of the closed-
control loop PV: Process value or controlled loop room temperature control struc-
variable (measured filling level) ture. Thus, the following general block
Block diagrams are used to represent PVd : Control deviation diagram (shown in Figure 7) can be
control loops. This mode of represen- (actual value – set-point value) used to summarize the closed-loop
tation affords the advantage that it CO: Manipulated variable or con- control engineering.
concentrates on the control-engineer- trol output (output value of In this case, it is assumed that the ac-
ing problem. The interplay of the in- the controller) tion point of the disturbance variables
dividual components of the control z1: Disturbance variable 1 does not always need to be at the out-
loop is represented graphically. For (outflow from the tank) put of the controlled system, but that
the example of a closed-loop filling- z2: Disturbance variable 2 the action of the disturbance variables
level control system, the block diagram (evaporation of fluid from the can be converted to this point.
looks as follows: tank) Usually however, the simplified block
diagram shown in Figure 8 is used.
z1 z2
The disturbance variables are combi-
Reference
point
ned and their action point is at the
SP PVd Controller CO Continuous- Tank PV output of the controlled system.
action position-
ing valve Block diagrams are used to create a
+ closed-loop control engineering model
Measured of a real system. The main compo-
value pick-up
plus nents of the control loop are represen-
transmitter
ted by function blocks, frequently also
referred to as transfer elements. The
Figure 6: Block diagram of the closed-loop filling-level control system
functional relationship between the in-
dividual blocks and in regards to the
z1
environment is shown by action lines.
Disturbance
var. system 1 Each function block is characterized
+
by the dependence of its output signal
+
z2 Disturbance
var. system 2
on the input signal. This dependence
Reference
point is described by the response. There
SP – PVd Controller CO Final control Controlled + + PV are numerous possible ways of repre-
element/ system
+ actuator senting the response. The most con-
PV ventional way is stating the step re-
Measured sponse or transfer function. It is plot-
value pick-up
plus ted as a simple timing diagram in the
transmitter
relevant function block.
Figure 7: General block diagram of the control loop The step response is the characteristic
of the output signal, which occurs
when the input signal changes abrupt-
ly as a function of time. The transfer
Control system, controller
Reference
z function (designated h(t)) is the step
point response standardized with respect to
SP – PVd Controller CO Final control Controlled + + PV
element/ system the magnitude of the input step or in-
+ actuator
put signal (h(t) = PVo(t)/PVi0).
PV
Measured
value pick-up
plus
transducer 7
Figure 8: Simplified general block diagram of the control loop
2.2.
PVo
The controlled system
PVi PVo
Input signal Output signal
In order to select a suitable controller
PVi Time PVo and be able to adapt it to the control-
led system (the system or equipment
PViø
to be controlled), it is necessary to
have precise information on the behav-
Time Time
ior of the controlled system. Factors
that must be known include to what
Figure 9: Step response of a transfer element
extent and in what timeframe the out-
put signal of the controlled system re-
z2 z1
sponds to changes of the input signal.
co xo xo
SP – PVd CO PV Real transfer elements differ from ideal
?
+ Time Time Time ones by virtue of the fact that they al-
PV Controller Final control element/ Controlled system most always feature a time-delayed
actuator
xo response. This means that a certain
Time
time elapses until the output signal re-
Measured value pick-up
sponds to a changing input signal.
+ transmitter
Figure 10: Signal flow diagram of the closed-loop filling-level control system Controlled systems can be subdivided
into two categories in terms of their
time response or steady state condi-
If, in the block diagram, we replace the The signal flow diagram or the block tion:
individual control loop elements or diagram is an important aid to design-
function blocks by the form of repre- ing control loops and for adapting the Controlled systems with compen-
sentation shown in Figure 9, we obtain controller to the controlled system. In sation:
the signal flow diagram of the control many cases, adaptation of the control- In the case of controlled systems with
loop. Figure 10 shows the signal flow ler is one of the most demanding tasks, compensation, the output variable of
diagram of the closed-loop filling-level and one that requires basic knowledge the system reassumes steady-state
control system. of controlled systems and controllers. condition within a specific period. One
This is covered in the following sec- example of a controlled system with
tions. compensation is the flow rate in a pipe.
If the degree of opening of a continu-
ous-action control valve is changed, a
constant flow rate is established after
a specific period assuming constant
pressure conditions. The transfer ele-
ment shown in Figure 11 symbolizes a
controlled system with compensation.
PVo
PVi PVo
Input signal Output signal
PViø
Time Time
8
Figure 11: Transfer element with plotted step response of a controlled system with
compenastaion
Controlled systems without com-
pensation: PVo
Time
The most frequently occurring control-
led systems and their transfer func-
3rd-order time-delayed Closed-loop
tions are described below in greater system
PVo temperature control
PVi PVo (steam via heat
detail. Table 2 provides an initial over- Input signal Output signal exchanger)
view.
Time
Time
Time
Time
9
The P-element:
On the P-element or proportional ele- PVi PVo
Input signal Output signal
ment, the output signal follows the in-
put signal directly, with no time delay.
Input and output signal are propor-
tional to each other. There is no time ∆PVi ∆PVo = Ks· ∆PVi
delay. Figure 13 shows the behavior or
step response of a P-element. Time Time
Time Time
Tt Tu Ta
Tte
10 Input step Step response
Figure 16: Approximate model for controlled systems with compensation and
dead time
On the basis of practical experience, it
Tte/Ta Controllability Control engineering
is possible to make an approximate
effort
statement on the controllability of a
controlled system with compensation < 0.1 Very well controllable Low
and equivalent dead time via the ratio 0.1 … 0.2 Well controllable Moderate
Tte/Ta. 0.2 … 0.4 (Still) controllable High
0.4 … 0.8 Poorly controllable Very high
> 0.8 Barely controllable Special measures or controller
structures required
Table 3: Estimation of the controllability of a system with compensation
PVi PVo
The I-element: Input signal Output signal
PVi PVo
The lag element: Input signal Output signal
On the lag element, there is a similar
behavior to that on the P-element with
system gain 1 (Ks = 1). However, the
lag element does not respond immedi- ∆PVi ∆PVo = ∆PVi
Control output CO
CO = 100 Control Set-point value
Output output
switched on Process value
Temperature
sensor
CO = 0 Heating
Output system
switched off SP Heating valve Room
Process value PV
Set-point value
Radiator
PVh
Hysteresis
Figure 19: Principle of operation, characteristic of a two-point Figure 20: Hardware representation of a closed-loop
controller temperature control system
Process value Ts
displacement of the
Set-point value
Tt
Tt Tt
process value
Peak-to-peak
Set-point
+ 0,5* Hysteresis
Set-point
Set-point
– 0,5* Hysteresis
Tt Tt Tt
Time
Control
output CO
100%
On
0%
Off
Time
PVh PVh
Hysteresis Hysteresis
CO = 0 CO = 0%
Output Output
switched off SP
Process value PV switched off Process value PV
Set-point value
PVh
Hysteresis
CO = –100%
Figure 22: Principle of operation, characteristic curve of
Output
a two-point controller, cooling function SP switched on
Set-point value
13
Dead band
CO1
Time Time
PV
CO2
14
Figure 25: Symbolic representation of
a 3-point controller comprising 2-point
controllers
The P controller is represented by the
following symbol:
Kp
PVd CO
CO = Kp · Tv/T1 · PVd
SP – PVd CO CO = Kp · PVd
PV
Time Time
T1
Input step Step response
Figure 27: Symbolic representation of Figure 28: Step response of the PD controller
a P controller
Characteristics of the P controller: portional gain factor Kp to be set high- for example, by disturbances in
– The P controller operates without er than on the pure P controller. electrical transfer of the process
delay and very quickly; it responds value (e.g. by standardized signals),
immediately to changes in the Figure 28 shows the step response of lead to constant fluctuations of the
control deviation. the PD controller. On real PD control- control output.
– Control loops with P controller have lers, the D-component is time-delayed – Setting parameters:
a permanent control deviation. (time constant T1), which is allowed Kp (proportional gain factor)
– Setting parameter: Kp (proportional for in the transfer function shown. The Td (derivative-action time)
gain factor). time constant T1 can, however, not be
set directly on most controllers. PI controller
PD controller The PI controller consists of a propor-
On the PD controller, not only the con- The PD controller is represented by tional component and an integral com-
trol deviation, but also its rate of change the following symbol: ponent. The integral component calcu-
is used to form a control output. The lates its share of the control output via
controller thus already responds when the time integral of the control devia-
a control deviation occurs and counter- Kp, Td tion. If there is a control deviation, the
acts the occurrence of a higher control integral component increases the con-
deviation. The control output increases trol output. This avoids a permanent
all the faster the control deviation control deviation as occurs on P con-
SP – PVd CO
changes. The control output of the PD trollers and PD controllers. The control
controller is calculated as follows: output of a PI controller is calculated
PV
as follows:
∫
d(PVd(t)) 1
CO = Kp·(Td· +PVd(t)) CO = Kp ·( · (PVd(t)dt)+PVd(t))
dt Figure 29: Symbolic representation of Tr
a PD controller
PVd = PV – SP: Control deviation
Kp: Proportional gain factor PVd = PV – SP: Control deviation
Td: Derivative-action time Kp: Proportional gain factor or
Characteristics of a PD controller:
proportional coefficient
– Like the P controller, the PD con- Tr: Reset time
As can be seen from the above calcu- troller operates without delay and
lation formula for the control output, responds immediately to changes As can be seen from the above calcu-
the influence of the D-component is de- in the control deviation. lation formula for the control output,
termined via parameter Td. The higher – The PD controller responds to the the influence of the I-component is de-
Td becomes, the higher the D-compo- rate of change of the control devia- termined by parameter Tr. The lower Tr
nent becomes when calculating the tion and thus counteracts the build- becomes, the greater the I-component
control output. up of a higher control deviation. becomes when calculating the control
As is also the case on the P controller, – Control loops with PD controller output. Reset time Tr is the time which
control loops with PD controller have have a permanent control deviation. the controller requires to generate a
a permanent control deviation which – The D-component of the controller control output of the same magnitude
decreases with increasing Kp. How- may lead to a situation in which as that which occurs immediately as
ever, the D-component produces a minor fluctuations of the process the result of the P-component by 15
stabilizing effect which allows the pro- value, and thus minor fluctuations means of the I-component.
of the control deviation, as caused,
Figure 30 shows the step response of
the PI controller.
PVd CO
Input signal
CO = 2 · Kp · PVd
CO = Kp · PVd
Time Time
Tr
Input step Step response
∫
SP – PVd CO
1 d(PVd(t))
CO = Kp · ( · (PVd(t)dt)+ Td · +PVd(t))
PV Tr dt
16
Figure 32 shows the step response of
the PID controller.
PVd CO
CO = Kp · Td/T1 · PVd
CO = 2 · Kp · PVd
CO = Kp · PVd
Time T1 Time
Tr
Input step Step response
PV
P PD PI PID
Controlled Permanent No permanent
variable control deviation control deviation
Figure 33: Symbolic representation of Temperature Conditionally Conditionally Suitable Suitable for
the PID controller suitable suitable stringent demands
Flow rate Unsuitable Unsuitable Suitable Over-dimensioned
Characteristics of the PID controller: Pressure Suitable Suitable Suitable Over-dimensioned
– The PID controller unites the char- Filling level Suitable Suitable Suitable Over-dimensioned
acteristics of the P controller, PD
Table 5: Suitability of various continuous-action controllers for controlling important
controller and PI controller. technical controlled variables
– Setting parameters:
Kp (proportional gain factor)
Tr (reset time)
Td (derivative-action time)
17
3. Adapting the controller to the
controlled system
There are two requirements made on a When planning a closed-loop control The control loop is stable; the process
controller or control loop. system, there is the risk that the con- value is corrected to the new set-point
trol loop becomes unstable due to the value.
Variable command control: selected combination of controller and
Set-point value SP
In the case of variable command con- controlled system or owing to the se-
Process value PV
trol, the set-point value is not constant lected parameters of the controller. The Maximum overshoot PVm
but changes over the course of time. following behaviors may occur, e.g.
Tolerance band
The process value must be corrected after occurrence of a set-point change
Permanent control
to the set-point value. The behavior of or disturbance variable change. deviation PVb
a closed-loop control system in the
case of changing set-point value is The control loop is at the stability limit;
referred to as response to set-point the process value oscillates at constant
Time
changes. amplitude and frequency. Rise time
Trise
18
The quality of a closed-loop control or 3.1. 3.2.1. Setting guidelines
a control loop is assessed on the basis Selecting the suitable in line with Ziegler and
of the following parameters. controller Nichols
(oscillation method)
Permanent control deviation PVb The controller must be matched to the
The permanent control deviation oc- controlled system in order for a control With this method, the controller para-
curring after the adjustment process loop to operate optimally. meters are set on the basis of the be-
has decayed. havior of the control loop at the stabili-
Suitable combinations of controllers ty limit. The controller parameters are
Overshoot PVm and controlled systems on which a initially set so that the control loop
Maximum value of the process value stable control response can be achiev- starts to oscillate. Critical characteris-
or of the controlled variable minus the ed by appropriate setting of the con- tic values then occur which allow con-
process value in steady state. troller parameters: clusions to be drawn in terms of the
– Kp (proportional gain factor) controller parameters. The precondi-
Rise time Trise – Tr (reset time) tion for using this method is that the
The time which elapses after a set- – Td (derivative-action time) control loop can be caused to oscillate.
point or disturbance variable change can be established on the based on
until the process value occurs for the the dynamics and stability of control
first time in an agreed tolerance band loops and allowing for empirical values. Procedure:
(e.g. 2 % or 5 %) about its stationary There are, of course, also control loops – Set controller as P controller (i.e.
end value. necessitating other combinations of Tr = 9999, Td = 0), initially select a
controlled system / controller. low value for Kp.
Settling time Tset Table 6 provides an overview of suit- – Set the required set-point value.
The time which elapses after a set- able combinations of controllers and – Increase Kp until the process value
point or disturbance variable change controlled systems. executes an undamped
until the process value occurs and sustained oscillation (see Figure 38).
permanently remains in an agreed
tolerance band (e.g. 2 % or 5 %) ab- 3.2.
out its stationary end value. Determining the Process value
controller parameters
On the basis of these parameters, it is
possible to formulate the requirements After a suitable controller has been se-
made of an optimally tuned control lected, a second step is to match the
loop: parameters of the controller to the
Tcrit
– permanent control deviation PVb = controlled system.
0 wherever possible
Time
– maximum overshoot PVm as low as A number of setting guidelines with
Figure 38: Process value characteristic
possible which a favorable setting of the con- of the control loop at the stability limit in
– settling time Tdet as low as possible troller parameters can be determined order to determine the control para-
meters in line with Ziegler and Nichols
– rise time Trise as low as possible. experimentally are cited in control-
engineering literature. The proportional gain factor set at the
In order to avoid incorrect settings, stability limit is designated Kcrit. The
the conditions under which the rele- resultant period of oscillation is desig-
vant setting guidelines were establish- nated Tcrit.
ed must always be followed. Besides
the characteristics of the controlled
system and of the controller them-
selves, other important factors include
whether a disturbance variable change
or a reference variable change is to be
compensated for optimally.
19
Controlled system Continuous-action controllers On/off controllers
P PI PD PID 2-point 3-point
P-element PVo Unsuitable Response Unsuitable Unsuitable Unsuitable Unsuitable
to set-point
changes
well-suited
Time
Disturbance
response
well-suited
PTt- PVo Unsuitable Response Unsuitable Unsuitable Unsuitable Unsuitable
element to set-point
changes
suitable
Time
Disturbance
response s.
1st-order PVo Response Disturbance Unsuitable Unsuitable Suitable Suitable
time-delay to set-point response
element changes well-suited
Time well-suited
20
Table 6: Suitability of continuous-action and on/off controllers for combination with various types of controlled system
The controller parameters can then be
Setting the parameters in line with Ziegler and Nichols:
calculated in accordance with Table 7
from Kcrit and Tcrit.
Controller type Setting parameters
The Ziegler and Nichols setting were
determined for P systems with 1st- P controller Kp = 0.5 · Kcrit
order time delay and dead time. They PI controller Kp = 0.45 · Kcrit Tr = 0.85 · Tcrit
apply only to control loops with dis-
PID controller Kp = 0.6 · Kcrit Tr = 0.5 · Tcrit Td = 0.12 · Tcrit
turbance response.
Table 7: Controller parameters in line with Ziegler and Nichols
PI controller Tg Tg Tg Tg
Kp = 0.35 · Kp = 0.6 · Kp = 0.6 · Kp = 0.7·
Tu · Ks Tu · Ks Tu · Ks Tu · Ks
PID controller Tg Tg Tg Tg
Kp = 0.6 · Kp = 0.95 · Kp = 0.95 · Kp = 1.2 ·
Tu · Ks Tu · Ks Tu · Ks Tu · Ks
In addition to controllers and sensors, Valves can also be classified in accord- 4.2.
actuators or final control elements ance with the distinction between the Rating and selection
which intervene in the process to be main functions of final control elements/ of ON/OFF valves
controlled as a function of the signals actuators in compliance with DIN
preset by the controller and which 19226, dividing them into CONTROL- This kind of valves can either open or
change the process variable to be con- final control elements and ON/OFF-final close a line (ON/OFF valve) or switch
trolled are required for constructing control elements. over a material stream from one line to
closed-loop control systems. another.
ON/OFF valves having only two or a
4.1. few circuit states are used for open- An important criterion for the valve to
Introduction and loop control tasks. Control valves which be selected is initially that the required
definition of terms are able to continuously set the fluid fluid quantity be able to flow through
stream are used for closed-loop pro- the valve at a given pressure differen-
Valves are final control elements or ac- cess control tasks. ON/OFF valves tial, i.e. the valve cross-section must
tuators for influencing fluid streams in and control valves have extremely dif- be adequately large. The following rule
pipe systems. In accordance with DIN ferent tasks in some cases, so that the of thumb frequently applies: the line
IEC 534, a positioning valve is a device, rating and selection of both valve types cross-section is equal to valve (fluidic
operated with auxiliary energy, which necessitate greatly different procedu- connection) cross-section. The next
varies the flow rate in a process. It con- res. requirement is that the valve be able to
sists of a valve fitting, connected to the switch against the maximum pressure
actuator, which is able to change the differential, i.e. that the valve actuator
position of the restrictor in the valve as be adequately powerful. The maximum
a function of the controller signal (con- switchable pressure differential is spe-
trol output). Generally, a control system cified in the data sheet. If the type of
is required between the actuator and auxiliary energy has been defined and
controller to act as a signal transducer the material suitability has been
and/or amplifier. In the case of many checked, it is already possible to define
positioning valves, the control system a specific valve type and to select the
is integrated as far as a field bus inter- specific valve.
face in the actuator. In accordance with
DIN IEC 534, positioning valves are sub-
divided on the basis of the following
types:
Valve type Restrictor
Lift-type valve The restrictor is generally designed as a cone.
Through-way valve It moves perpendicular to the seat plane.
3-way valve
Angle valve
Gate valve The restrictor is a flat or wedge-shaped plate.
Diaphragm valve A flexible restrictor performs the function of
of isolation and sealing.
Ball valve The restrictor is a ball with a cylindrical bore
or a segment of a ball.
Butterfly valve A disc mounted in such a way as to allow it to rotate.
Plug valve The restrictor may be a cylindrical, conical or
22 eccentrically mounted ball segment.
Control valves are able to constantly Range of the Flow form Interrelationship
change their opening cross-section Reynolds number between ∆p and Q
and thus continuously influence fluid
Re low Laminar ∆p Q
streams. They thus represent variable
flow resistors. Re high Turbulent ∆p Q7/4
Re Recritical Transitional form To be determ. experimental.
4.3.1. Fluidics
fundamentals
From this, we can conclude that the In the case of a high Reynolds number,
Flow resistances occur in process in- flow resistance R is constant only in i.e. in turbulent flow, the following ap-
stallations in various forms: the case of laminar flow owing to plies to cross-sectional resistances in
– as resistances in capillaries, gaps, ∆p ≈ Q. Otherwise, a non-linear rela- non-compressible fluids: ∆p Q2.
nozzles, diaphragms and tionship always applies between pres-
valves sure drop ∆p and fluid flow Q. The flow-rate variable kv which is de-
– as line resistances in pipes, hoses fined as follows is used to identify
and ducts The following applies to fluid resist- valves as orifice-type fluidic compo-
– as leakage resistances in gaps and ances in the case of cross-sectional nents:
porous components. variation in non-compressible fluids the kv value (in m3/h) is the volume
and with turbulent flow: flow of water at +5 to +30 °C passing
In general, the ratio of pressure drop through the valve at the relevant
∆p to fluid flow Q can be defined as The permanent pressure loss ∆ploss is stroke s with a pressure loss
the flow resistance R of a component. taken as the basis for the flow resist- ∆p0valve = 100 kPa. (1 bar; 14.5 psi)
ance R. The flow resistance coefficient
∆p is introduced as a “non-dimensional Analogous to this, the flow-rate coef-
R= pressure loss” by referring the perma- ficient cv is described in the American
Q nent pressure loss to the dynamic literature, defined as follows:
pressure. the cv value (in US gal/min) is the vol-
Basically, a distinction must be made ume flow of water at 60 °F which pas-
∆ploss
between two types of resistance on = ses through at a pressure loss of 1 psi
· u2 (
the basis of the physical causes:
– frictional resistances due to flow
involving friction
( 2
with the relevant stroke s.
and Q must be made for frictional re- contraction coefficient Kv ↔ cv: kv = 0.86 cv
sistances in non-compressible fluids and Kv ↔ : kv = 4 · d2/()1/2
as a function of the Reynolds number Kv ↔ QNn: kv = 1078 QNn
∆ploss = (1 – mb) · ∆pB
∆pB effect. press. through the orifice plate
u·Dh Aorifice
Re = mB
Apipe
opening ratio
v
u mean flow velocity
Dh hydraulic diameter,
and, after introduction of a flow coef-
Dh = kA/U ficient a, we obtain the flow-rate equa-
v kinematic viscosity
tion
Q = · Aorifice 2 ·∆p
flow coefficient 23
density of the fluid
4.3.2. Characteristic The equal-percentage valve characte- Linear flow characteristic
curves ristic approximates practical require- In the simplest case, the flow charac-
ments to a greater extent than the li- teristic is linear, i.e. kv = K1 · s:
4.3.2.1. Valve characteristic near characteristic, since
The valve characteristic represents the – low variations in stroke ∆s cause
dependence of the aperture cross- low ∆A, i.e. fine infeed movements
section A on the stroke s of the valve – high variations in stroke ∆s cause
Flow rate kv
spindle: A = f(s). high ∆A, i.e. coarse infeed move-
In the simplest case, the valve charac- ments.
teristic is linear, i.e. A = K1 · s: In the case of s = 0, a minimum aper-
ture cross-section A0 is present. The
valve closes only with an additional
Stroke s
sealing edge.
Aperture area A
Stroke s
= =
kvs ∆po ∆pvo+∆pLo+∆p'o 0.4
1
=
1
30
0.2
∆po: Pressure drop over entire installa-
s
tion smax
Conventional values are as follows: ∆Pvo: Pressure drop at fully opened valve 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(max. flow)
∆pLO: Pressure drop at tubes, fittings... Figure 46: Control valve with linear flow
1 1 1 1 ∆p'o: Pressure loss at pump (at max. characteristic
= ; ; flow rate)
25 30 50
Control valve with equal-percentage
The behavior of the system as an flow characteristic
4.3.2.3. Operating characteristic interplay between source (pump) cha-
and pressure ratio racteristic and load (valve) characteris- ·
·
V
Vmax
The operating characteristic identifies tic can be shown in the characteristic
1.0
the flow behavior of the valve under map (see Figure 45):
0.8
operating conditions in the installa-
= 0.1 0.3 1.0
tion. It represents the dependence of The following standardized equation 0.6
·
the volume flow V on the stroke s of applies to the operating characteristic 0.4
1 = 1
the valve spindle. 0.2 30
·
· V 1 s
V [ (
[(kvkv
max 2
s
The following main elements of the in- 1+ -1 Figure 47: Control valve with equal-per-
centage flow characteristic
∫( s
– and other resistances ∆p'i in the in-
kvs
=
s ( sure ratio .
stallation (shut-off valves, heat ex- kv max The non-linearities for both valve types
changers, pipe elbows, branches, have approximately the same magni-
changes in cross-section and other tude at 0.3.
installed fittings).
∆p Positioning
∆p valve Operating points
Closes
V·
Pump
Tube
Valve
Ventil
Tube
∆pL0 ∆pL0
Opens ∆p = ∆pvmin + ∆pL
∆pL1 ∆pv ∆pL2 ∆p0
∆pL1 + ∆pL2 = ∆pL ∆pvmin
∆pv ∆pv ∆pL
∆pv
Figure 44: Pressure losses in ∆pL0 ·
an installation V
∆pL ∆pL
Flow and operating characteristics for NW = 0.42 · Q Analogous to the kv value the flow rate
1 1
valves with 0.3 and = : coefficient cv is described in the Ame-
30 NW: Connection nominal diameter
Q: Volumetric flow rate in l/h
rican literature. The following conver-
kv
kvs sion factor applies: kv = 0.86 · cv.
1.0 See also chapter “4.3.1. Fluidics fun-
0.8
Gases: damentals”.
0.6
lin. opt. ep.
QN The kv value must be calculated for the
0.4 NW = 4.2 · current operating data. A distinction
Flow
characteristics p1
kv0
0.2 must be made between maximum load
= 0.33 s QN: Volumetric flow rate in Nm3/h
kvs
smax p 1: Pressure upstream of the valve in
(maximum quantity Qmax, minimum
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
bar absolute ∆pmin ➾ kvmax) and minimum load (mi-
Figure 48: Flow characteristics: nimum quantity Qmin, maximum ∆pmax
linear, optimum, equal-percentage ➾ kvmin) Both load cases must be cal-
Steam: culated individually and be adjusted
on the basis of the valve rangeability.
·
V
·
Vmax NW = 2.8 · G · v"
1.0 The following applies to cold water:
0.8 G: Mass flow rate in kg/h
v": Specific volume in m3/kg 1
kv = Q ·
0.6
lin. opt. ep. ∆p
0.4
Operating
characteristics Q: Volumetric flow rate in m3/h
0.2 General: ∆p: Pressure differential at the valve in
0.061 s bar
smax
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
QB The following applies in general to
NW = 18,8 · fluids (sub-critical):
Figure 49: Operating characteristics: c
linear, optimum, equal-percentage
QB: Volumetric flow rate in m3/h p2 > ps2
c: Flow velocity in m/s
4.3.3. Rating and ps2: Saturated steam press., in bar abs.,
related to the temperature downstream
selection
of the valve
In the case of simple control valves on
Control valves must be rated and se- which a connection nominal diameter 1
kv = Q · 0.032 ·
lected with a view to their specific task is assigned directly to a kvs value, the ∆p
in order to be able to ensure a fault- anticipated flow velocity should at mi-
less control function. nimum be checked. 1: Density of the medium in kg/m3
∆p: Pressure differential at the valve in
bar
Initially, the connection nominal dia- The nominal pressure stage results
1
meter must be defined in accordance from knowledge of the valve material, kv = G · 0.032 ·
with the medium and the related, effi- the operating temperature and the max. 1 · ∆p
cient flow velocity. operating pressure, e.g. from DIN 2401, G: Mass flow rate in kg/h
or from a valve data sheet. ∆p: Pressure differential at the valve in
bar
The following guideline values apply:
– 2 m/s for fluids The actual closed-loop control func- The following applies to fluids in
– 20 m/s for gases tion, i.e. setting the fluid flow rate of a general (super-critical):
– 45 m/s for steam. given temperature and given pressure
while simultaneously producing a de- p2 < ps2
fined pressure loss, is determined by ps2: Saturated steam pressure, in bar
the flow characteristic, the kv value absolute, related to the temperature
downstream of the valve
The kv value is a reference variable and The kv value is calculated here in two
26 is defined as follows: kv value = quan- steps: the kv value for the evaporating
tity in m3/h of cold water (+5 … +30 °C) steam quantity kvD and the kv value for
which flows through the valve at 1 bar. the fluid kvF are calculated separately
and both values are added.