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Tugas Ujian dr.

Ninik Burhan spPD, KPTI Oleh : Fadlan Adima Adrianta (0810710043)

1. Pemeriksaan Sedimen Urin Nilai Rujukan dan Interpretasi Tes Sedimen Urin Hasil yang mungkin ditemukan pada tes sedimen urin dapat dibedakan atas : a). Elemen Organik, dapat berupa : Sel: Eritrosit, nilai rujukannya <4/ LPB. Hematuri mikroskopi menunjukkan adanya pendarahan pada saluran kemih. Leukosit, nilai rujukannya <4/LPB. Glitter cells adalah leukosit yang berukuran lebih besar berasal dari ginjal, dapat dikenali dengan meneteskan 3 tetes pewarna Sternheimer-Malbin. Piuria menunjukkan adanya infeksi pada saluran kemih. Epitel adalah sel berinti satu dengan ukurannya lebih besar dari leukosit. Macam- macam sel epitel : Sel epitel gepeng/ skuamous dari uretra bagian distal yang normal ditemukan dalam urine Sel epitel transisional dari kandung kemih Sel epitel bulat dari pelvis dan tubuli ginjal, ukurannya lebih kecil dari epitel skuamous. Silinder/Torak/Cast: Silinder terbentuk pada tubulus ginjal dengan matriks glikoprotein yang berasal dari sel epitel ginjal. Silinder pada urin menunjukkan adanya keadaan abnormal pada parenkim ginjal yang biasanya berhubungan dengan proteinuria. Tetapi pada urin yang normal mungkin saja ditemui sejumlah kecil silinder hialin. Macam- macam silinder yang dapat dijumpai adalah: Silinder hialin/ hyaline cast; Tidak berwarna, homogen dan transparan dengan ujung membulat. Meningkat pada setelah latihan fisik dan keadaan dehidrasi. Silinder sel/ cellular cast, yang dapat berupa; Silinder eritrosit/ erythrocyte cast: ditemukan pada glomerulonefritis akut (GNA), lupus nefritis, goodpastures syndrome, subakut bacterial endokarditis, trauma ginjal, infark ginjal, pielonefritis, gagal jantung kongestif, thrombosis renalis dan periarteritis nodosa. Silinder leukosit/ leucocyte cast: menunjukkan adanya infeksi saluran kemih, pielonefritis akut, nefritis interstisial, lupus nefritis dan pada penyakit glomerolus. Silinder epitel/ epithelial cast: menunjukkan adanya infeksi akut tubulus ginjal. Silinder berbutir/granular cast, bias berbutir halus atau kasar : Berisi sel-sel yang mengalami degenerasi, mula- mula berbentuk granula kasar kemudian menjadi halus. Ditemukan pada nefritis kronik, dapat juga pada inflamasi akut. Silinder lemak/fatty cast Berhubungan dengan proses kronik yang misalnya pada sindroma nefrotik, glomerulonefritis kronik (GNK) Silinder lilin/waxy cast: Merupakan degenerasi yang lebih lanjut dari silinder granular. Terbentuk karena adanya statis urin yang lama.

Menggambarkan kondisi patologi yang serius pada ginjal dan saluran kemih misalnya pada gagal ginjal kronik, hipertensi maligna, renal amiloidosis, nefropati diabetika.

Oval fat bodies Adalah sel epitel tubulus berbentuk bulat yang mengalami degenerasi lemak. Sering kali disertai dengan proteinuria. Dapat dijumpai pad sindroma Spermatozoa Nilai rujukannya negative.

Mikroorganisme yang dapat dijumpai: Bakteri Diidentifikasi dengan pewarnaan gram pada sedimen atau dengan biakan urin. Mungkin dijumpai gram negative basilus seperti Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas, Proters atau kokus gram positif: streptokokus piogen. Nilai rujukan untuk bakteri Kandida. Nilai rujukan negative. Sel yeast dan kandida. Nilai rujukan negative Parasit, nilai rujukan negative Trichomonas vaginalis biasanya dijumpai bersamaan dengan adanya leukosit dan sel epitel. Schistosoma haematobium. Enterobius vermicularis. b). Elemen anorganik,dapat berupa: Bahan ammorf: Urat- urat dalam urin asam dan fosfat-fosfat dalam urin alkali. Kristal: Pada urin normal yang asam (pH <7.0) dapat dijumpai Kristal: asam urat (berwarna kuning), natrium urat, kalsium sulfat(jarang), Pada urin normal yang asam, netral atau sedikit alkali dapat dijumpai Kristal kalsium oksalat, asam hipurat (kadang- kadang) Pada urin normal yang netral dan alkali dapat dijumpai Kristal tripel fosfat (amonium magnesium fosfat) dan dikalsium fosfat (jarang). Pada urin normal yang alkali dapat dijumpai Kristal kalsium karbonat, ammonium biurat dan kalsium fosfat. Pada keadaan abnormal, dalam urin yang asam dapat dijumpai Kristal sistin, leusin, tirosin, dan kolesterol Kristal yang berasal dari obat seperti sulfonamide juga dapat dijumpai pada urin yang asam. Dapat diidentifikasikan dengan tes lignin terhadap sedimen. Zat lemak: Pada lipiduria dapat ditemukan butir- butir lemak bebas yang dapat berupa trigliserida atau kolesterol. Butir lemak ini diidentifikasi dengan pewarnaan Sudan III atau IV pada sedimen atau memakai mikroskop polarisasi

2. Hormon eritropoietin dihasilkan dimana?

Eritropoetin yaitu hal penting yang bisa merangsang peningkatan produksi eritrosit, yakni satu hormon glikoprotein dengan berat molekul 34. 000 yang dihasilkan oleh sel endotel kapiler peritubuler ginjal serta pembentukannya adalah tanggapan pada hipoksia jaringan. pada orang normal lebih kurang 90% eritropoetin dibentuk di ginjal serta sisanya terlebih dibentuk di sentrilobuler hepatosit hati. tetapi di banding hati, ginjal lebih peka pada rangsangan hipoksia didalam pembentukan eritropoetin. ikatan eritropoetin dengan reseptornya di sumsum tulang dapat merangsang proliferasi serta maturasi stem sel untuk membuahkan eritrosit matur yang baru. tanggapan eritropoetin sepadan dengan beratnya anemia serta tingginya proliferasi sel di sumsum tulang. 3. Keith Wagener Baker Grade Keith-Wagener-Barker classification (1939) Patients were grouped according to their ophthalmoscopic findings. As such, this was the first system to correlate retinal findings with the hypertensive disease state. Classifications are as follows:
Group 1 - Slight narrowing, sclerosis, and tortuosity of the retinal arterioles; mild,

asymptomatic hypertension
Group 2 - Definite narrowing, focal constriction, sclerosis, and AV nicking; blood pressure

is higher and sustained; few, if any, symptoms referable to blood pressure


Group 3 - Retinopathy (cotton-wool patches, arteriolosclerosis, hemorrhages); blood

pressure is higher and more sustained; headaches, vertigo, and nervousness; mild impairment of cardiac, cerebral, and renal function Group 4 - Neuroretinal edema, including papilledema; Siegrist streaks, Elschnig spots; blood pressure persistently elevated; headaches, asthenia, loss of weight, dyspnea, and visual disturbances; impairment of cardiac, cerebral, and renal function 4. Penyebab Anemia Pada CKD

Blood loss

Patients with chronic kidney disease are at risk of blood loss due to platelet dysfunction. The main cause of blood loss is dialysis, especially hemodialysis, and the loss results in absolute iron deficiency. Hemodialysis patients may lose 3 to 5 g of iron per year.6 Normally, we lose 1 to 2 mg per day, so the iron loss in dialysis patients is 10 to 20 times higher. Therefore, iron supplementation is a mainstay of anemia management. Shortened red blood cell life span

The life span of red cells is reduced by approximately one third in hemodialysis patients. Uremic milieu

The uremic milieu is a term that is overused in attempts to explain the multiple organ dysfunction of chronic kidney disease. In studies in vitro, the term has been invoked when cultured cells were exposed to serum from patients with chronic kidney disease, with results that mimicked some of the clinical observations. For example, uremic serum has been shown to inhibit primary bone marrow cultures of early erythroid cell lines. However, the lack of specificity in these studies has been criticized because this serum also affects

other cell lines. In studies in vivo, the concept of a uremic milieu may explain why the level and prevalence of anemia correlate with the severity of the kidney disease. A GFR lower than 60 mL/minute/1.73 m2 has been associated with a higher prevalence of anemia, which reached 75% in some studies. In addition, in a study in patients who had been receiving hemodialysis, the hematocrit rose when the intensity of dialysis was increased, implying that reducing uremia restores or improves bone marrow function. However, this study could not distinguish the independent effects of the increased dialysis dose and the effect of changing to a more permeable dialysis membrane during the study. EPO deficiency is considered the most important cause of anemia in chronic kidney disease. Researchers postulate that the specialized peritubular cells that produce EPO are partially or completely depleted or injured as renal disease progresses, so that EPO production is inappropriately low relative to the degree of anemia, EPO is produced when its gene is transcribed, in a process that depends on the binding of a molecule called hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha to the hypoxia-responsive element on the erythropoietin gene. Production of this factor increases in states of relative oxygen deficiency. Therefore, the balance between oxygen supply and consumption determines the production of hypoxiainducible factor 1 alpha and, in turn, production of EPO. Donnelly proposed that the relative EPO deficiency in chronic kidney disease could be a functional response to a decreased glomerular filtration rate. The theory is that the EPO-producing kidney cells themselves may not be hypoxic: if the glomerular filtration rate is low, there is less sodium reabsorption and sodium reabsorption is the main determinant of oxygen consumption in the kidney. In this situation there may be a local relative excess of oxygen that could down-regulate EPO production. Iron Deficiency

Iron homeostasis appears to be altered in chronic kidney disease. For reasons not yet known (perhaps malnutrition), transferrin levels in chronic kidney disease are one half to one third of normal levels, diminishing the capacity of the iron-transporting system. This situation is then aggravated by the wellknown inability to release stored iron from macrophages and hepatocytes in chronic kidney disease. Clinically, diminished iron transport and accumulated iron stores are manifested as low transferrin saturation and elevated serum ferritin levels. These characteristics suggest that the interorgan iron transport pathways may be ratelimiting factors in erythropoiesis in these patients. Interplay between increased iron losses (as discussed previously) and abnormal interorgan iron transport results in an absolute or functional iron deficiency that can be corrected only by aggressive iron replacement therapy.

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