Forensic Archaeology and Palaeopathology

Osteological analysis of skeletal remains and related microorganisms to determine lifestyle and diagnose manner of death

Satbir Jandu N0212002

Abstract It is possible to examine skeletal remains and determine the sex, age and lifestyle the individual would have once led. It is also sometimes possible to determine the cause of death, be it natural or something more sinister. I looked at various evidential sources, including skeletal remains, microscopic samples associated with the remains and osteological materials, all in an attempt to understand more about the lifestyle of the individual. I uncovered many clues; my interpretation of what I diagnosed is detailed in this report. Key words Skeletal remains, osteoarchaeology, diatoms, bog body, Neolithic period, Northern Europe, Rheumatoid arthritis. Introduction Examining skeletal remains can provide crucial information about the lifestyle of the individual being examined, as well as clues about the lifestyle of the community and how they interacted with their environment in that particular era. Palaeopathology can provide direct evidence of disease and provide data on disease in populations before modern medicine. Factors such as age and gender can be derived from skeletal remains (Franklin, 2010) (Gibbs, 1987) (Lucy, Pollard and Roberts, 1995), as well as when time of death approximately occurred. Certain gender differences are present that can help forensic archaeologists estimate age and gender of the individual. Age can be identified by looking at bone size, density and dental development. Differences in sex such as pelvic size, jaw width, height and stature (Gibbs, 1897) can help determine sex of an individual. The level of medical care in that era and available to that individual can also be determined, by looking at healed bones which have ossified. This can also give clues on the social status of the individual at the time they lived.

Experimental procedure All the material to be analysed was provided by Nottingham Trent University. Due to time constraints, we were allowed forty minute sessions with each exhibition of evidence, before moving on to the next exhibit. This process was repeated a week later in case we had missed anything. The first exhibit I looked at was microscope slides, provided by the university. These contained six types of micro-organism that were found with the skeleton; Xanthoria parietina apothecium, Sphagnum leaf, Parmelia, freshwater diatoms, maritime diatoms and Polytrichum sporogonium. A suitable area of cells was chosen at low x10 magnification, and then drawn at magnifications of x10 and x40. The species names were also noted, so the species distribution could be identified, giving possible clues as to where the remains have been. The skeletal remains requiring analysis was again provided by Nottingham Trent University. Thorough and concise examination of the skeleton was required to make detailed and accurate recordings within the time constraint. The analysis was done by hand, carefully moving the skeleton and obtaining whatever we deemed to be relevant information. The skull was the first area to be investigated, working down through the torso, looking at ribs and vertebrae into the thoracic cavity and pelvic area. This was followed by the arms, hands and fingers, then legs, feet and toes. Features that we identified and wrote down were height, bone length and gender specific features. This could be useful, as if the individual had a prominent jaw, raised brow and narrow hips, then the individual could be male. Age specific features are also important ,such as whether wisdom teeth have erupted, giving a potential age of the individual. Other abnormalities noted included bone degradation due to diseases (Rheumatoid arthritis) and wounds, fractures and healed bones. The skeleton was digitally photographed systematically, so as many clues as possible could be obtained and catalogued. Areas of particular interest were sex determination, wounds, diseases and age.

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Results and Discussion Taking into consideration all the information we gained from the experimental procedure, there were many decisions to be made about the individual. The most obvious things to be determined are age, sex and location, so I will begin with them. The male was 160cm tall, which is 5 3 inches tall. The absence of wisdom teeth, (figure 10) combined with the height leads me to believe that this individual was young, less than 17 or 18 years old. The sex of the individual was determined by looking at the narrow pelvis, curved coccyx, rounded prominent chin and developed brow ridge. All the above data combined leads me to believe the individual was a 17 or 18 year old male. There were six different types of organism found with the skeleton. By looking at figure 1 we can see that all organisms are found in Europe, supporting the theory that the individual was an European descendant. Xanthoria parietina, Sphagnum and maritime diatoms could all also be found in coastal areas. Considering this, along with the sand in the cranium (figure 2), we could assume that the person was killed or buried near the coast on a beach.

According to Hermanussen (2003), early male Neolithics had an average height of 169.6 cm. The skeleton was measured at 160cm, which indicates an age of around 16 years. The male also had the absence of the third molars (common for the Neolithic period), which suggests he could have come from the early Neolithic period. During our examination of the skeleton we found one key clue in determining what period the individual could be from. A piece of triangular flint was lodged in the individuals lower vertebral column, (figure 3). The material of flint reveals that the remains come before the Bronze Age. Looking at the close up of the flint (figure 4), it is not aerodynamic enough or to be an arrow head, and it is too short to be a dagger. I predict it was used as a spear head, judging by its composition and comparing it to spear heads found during that period. To support date of death, Gibbs (1987) stated that stone weapons were used in the Neolithic period. Looking at all the above evidence I diagnose that the 16-18 year old male teenager lived in Europe during the Neolithic period, which was between 7000 and 5000 BC. The location of the star shaped hole on the left parietal bone (figure 5) indicated it was a blow from above, definitely fatal as it penetrated the skull. The back injury shown in figure 4 from the spear head could have paralysed or crippled the person, perhaps causing him to fall forward or to his knees, leaving him exposed to the fatal blow delivered to the skull. The shape of the hole in the skull indicates sharp force trauma rather than blunt force trauma, perhaps through the use of a flint dagger. Furthermore, slash marks on the left and right femurs indicates additional perimortem damage, as healing has not yet occurred. The individual may not have fell from the spearhead and was perhaps hit by an axe in both femurs. Figure 6 shows these wound marks on the right and left femurs. To evaluate the lifestyle in communities around this period and to comment on the individual lifestyle of this individual, identification of all the skeletal remains must be carried out. Therefore, evidence of anti-mortem damage, such as medical care, was observed. The breakage and repair of the fibula (figure 7) and 6th left rib (figure 8) indicates the person either had a very active lifestyle, or an underlying bone condition causing bones to become brittle and break easily. The Osteoarthritis on the medial condyle of the tibia, head of the femur, metatarsals and ankle, adds further weight to the theory of a bone condition

The fact that the rib and fibula had healed, indicates the person had access to good medical care and facilities, as these injuries limit mobility. He must have been of significant importance for others to provide nutrition whilst he recuperated, or perhaps had high social status, such as royalty. The left hand had rheumatoid arthritis on the phalanges, whilst fingers from the right hand had disappeared completely (see figure 9). I believe this was due to predation post mortem, although it could possibly be due to leprosy. Conclusion The examination of skeletons can provide information on ancient communities, their lifestyles and the way they interacted. I conclude the skeleton examined was that of a young teenage male, who lived in Northern Europe during the Neolithic period. He was well nourished and had accessed to good medical care, judging by the healing of broken bones. I assume the male was in good social standing within the community, perhaps the son of someone importance. I suggest that he died as a result of an altercation, personal or perhaps a conflict between opposing tribes or settlements. The wounds found present support this theory. It is also apparent that the individual suffered from many bone diseases such as arthritis, which would have caused discomfort. References KARIM, K., et al., 2001. Physical activity and bone health. Leeds: Human Kinetics. LUCY, D., POLLARD, A.M., and ROBERTS, C.A., 1995. A comparison of three dental techniques for estimating age of death in humans. Journal of Archaeological Science, 22 (3), pp.417-428. GIBBS, L., 1987. Identifying gender representation in the archaeological record: a contextual study. In: I. HODDER, ed. The archaeology of contextual meanings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, pp.79-89. HERMANUSSEN, M., 2003. Stature of early Europeans. Hormones, 2 (3), pp.175-178. VAUGHAN, J., 1981. The physiology of bone. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press ALT, K.W., et al., 2003. Climbing into the past-first Himalayan mummies discovered in Nepal. Journal of Archaeological Science, 30 (11), pp.1529-1535. FRANKLIN, D., 2010. Forensic age estimation in human skeleton remains: current concepts and future directions. Legal Medicine, 12 (1), pp.1-7.