Coordinate Geometry:

Chapter 5 General Equations of Second Degree

DEFINITION A equation of the following form is called a general equation of second degree:
ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy +c =0(*)

THEOREM 1 Every general equation of second degree represents a conic.

PROOF
Rotate the axis through u. Then (*) becomes
a(xcosu ysinu)
2
+2h(xcosu ysinu)(xsinu +ycosu) +b(xsinu +ycosu)
2

+2g(xcosu ysinu) +2f (xsinu +ycosu) +c =0(**)

coefficient of xy in (**) =2(b a)sinu cosu +2h( ) u u
2 2
sin cos
=(b a)sin 2u +2hcos 2u.
So, the coefficient of xy is zero if tan 2u =
b a
h

2
.

If u satisfies the above condition (notice that such u must exist), (**) will become:
Ax
2
+By
2
+2Gx +2Fy +c =0.
Case 1: A = 0, B = 0
The equation is an ellipse or a hyperbola (which includes circles and pairs of straight
lines).
Case 2: A =0, B = 0, G = 0
The equation is a parabola.
Case 3: A =0, B = 0, G =0
The equation is a pair of parallel lines (which are horizontal).
Case 4: A = 0, B =0
Results similar to cases 2 and 3 would be obtained.
Hence, (*) represents a conic section in all cases.

REMARK By comparing coefficients, A =acos
2
u +2hcosu sinu +bsin
2
u and
B =asin
2
u 2hcosu sinu +bcos
2
u.
A B =(a b)cos 2u +2hsin 2u
=| | u u 2 sin 2 2 cot ) ( h b a +
=
h
h b a
2
4 ) (
2 2
+
sin 2u, as tan 2u =
b a
h

2
.
Assume that 0 <u s
2
t
. Then sin 2u >0.
if h >0, then A >B and
if h <0, then A <B.

DEFINITION Consider ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy +c =0. If (m, n) is the unique solution of
the system

= + +
= + +
0
0
f by hx
g hy ax
, then it is called the centre of the above conic section.
(Compare this definition with that of pairs of straight lines.)





Coordinate Geometry: Chapter 5 General Equations of Second Degree Page 2
THEOREM 2 If the axes are translated to the centre (m, n) of ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy +c =0,
then the equation becomes ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+c' =0 where c' =gm +fn +c =
2
h ab
A
and
A =
c f g
f b h
g h a
.

PROOF
After the translation to (m, n), the equation becomes
a(x +m)
2
+2h(x +m)(y +n) +b(y +n)
2
+2g(x +m) +2f (y +n) +c =0
ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2(am +hn +g)x +2(hm +bn +f )y +c' =0
where c' =am
2
+2hmn +bn
2
+2gm +2fn +c.
By definition, am +hn +g =0 and hm +bn +f =0 and by solving this system, we have
m =
2
h ab
bg hf

and n =
2
h ab
af gh

.
the equation becomes ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+c' =0 and
c' =am
2
+2hmn +bn
2
+2gm +2fn +c
=(am +hn +g)m +(hm +bn +f )n +(gm +fn +c)
=gm +fn +c
=
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
h ab
bg hf g fg hc h f bc a
h ab
h ab c af gh f bg hf g

+
=

+ +

=
2
h ab
A
.

REMARK Recall that if the equation represents a pair of straight lines, then A =0. i.e. c' =0
and the equation becomes homogeneous.

NOTE A conic section will have a centre if and only if ab h
2
= 0.

THEOREM 3 If the axes are rotated and ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy +c =0 becomes
a
1
x
2
+2h
1
xy +b
1
y
2
+2g
1
x +2f
1
y +c
1
=0, then c =c
1
, a +b =a
1
+b
1
, and ab h
2
=a
1
b
1
h
1
2
.

PROOF
Rotate the axis through angle u, the conic becomes
a(xcosu ysinu)
2
+2h(xcosu ysinu)(xsinu +ycosu) +b(xsinu +ycosu)
2

+2g(xcosu ysinu) +2f (xsinu +ycosu) +c =0.
By comparing coefficients with a
1
x
2
+2h
1
xy +b
1
y
2
+2g
1
x +2f
1
y +c
1
=0, we have
c =c
1
,
2a
1
= ( ) u u u u
2 2
sin cos sin 2 cos 2 b h a + +
=(a +b) +(a b)cos 2u +2hsin 2u, as 2cos
2
u =1 +cos 2u, 2sin
2
u =1 cos 2u,
2b
1
= ( ) u u u u
2 2
cos cos sin 2 sin 2 b h a +
=(a +b) (a b)cos 2u 2hsin 2u,
2h
1
=2asinu cosu +2hcos
2
u 2hsin
2
u +2bsinu cosu
=(a b)sin 2u +2hcos 2u,
Therefore, a
1
+b
1
=a +b and
( ) ( ) ( ) | | ( ) | |
( ) ( ) ( ). 4 4
2 cos 2 2 sin 2 sin 2 2 cos 4
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
h ab h b a b a
h b a h b a b a h b a
= + =
+ + + = u u u u

i.e. a
1
b
1
h
1
2
=ab h
2
.
REMARK a +b, ab h
2
are called invariants.
Coordinate Geometry: Chapter 5 General Equations of Second Degree Page 3
y
'

THEOREM 4 The conic ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy +c =0 is an ellipse, a parabola or a
hyperbola according as h
2
ab <0, h
2
ab =0 or h
2
ab >0.

PROOF
The conic is an ellipse if the equation can be transformed to a
1
x
2
+b
1
y
2
=1 where a
1
, b
1
are of the
same sign. i.e. a
1
b
1
<0.
by theorem 3, h
2
ab =h
1
2
a
1
b
1
<0 as h
1
=0.
Similarly, the conic is a hyperbola if h
2
ab >0.
The conic is a parabola if the equation can be reduced to b
1
y
2
+2g
1
x =0. i.e. a
1
=h
1
=0.
by theorem 3, h
2
ab =h
1
2
a
1
b
1
=0.

REMARK Consider the general equation ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy +c =0 and let
o =h
2
ab and A =
c f g
f b h
g h a
. Then the equation can be classified as follows:
o <0 A = 0 Ellipse (real A <0 or complex A >0)
A =0 Point-ellipse
o >0 A = 0 Hyperbola (In particular, if a +b =0, it is a rectangular hyperbola.)
A =0 Pair of straight lines
o =0 A = 0 Parabola
A =0 Pair of parallel lines

NOTE If o =0, the conic will not have centre.

EXAMPLE 1 Determine the type of the curve described by the following equations.
(a) 2x
2
3xy 2y
2
+x 2y 1 =0.
(b) 3x
2
2xy 3y
2
+2x 6y +2 =0.
(c) 4x
2
4xy +y
2
+6x 3y +2 =0.
(d) 3x
2
2xy +3y
2
+2x 6y +2 =0.

EXAMPLE 2 Trace the conic 5x
2
2xy +5y
2
6x 18y +9 =0.

EXAMPLE 3 Trace the conic 7x
2
+48xy 7y
2
+20x 110y 50 =0.

EXAMPLE 4 Trace the conic x
2
4xy +4y
2
6x 8y +5 =0.













THEOREM 5 (To find the axis and the length of latus rectum of a parabola)
When the axis of the parabola is chosen as the
Coordinate Geometry: Chapter 5 General Equations of Second Degree Page 4
x-axis and its vertex as origin, the directrix
being parallel to the y-axis, the equation of the
parabola is y
2
= 4ax where 4a is the length of
latus rectum. Hence the equation of a parabola
whose tangent at vertex is lx +my +n =0 and
whose axis is ox + |y + = 0 will be
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ +
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ +
2 2
2
2 2
4
m l
n my lx
p
y x
| o
| o
where 4p is
the length of latus rectum.

EXAMPLE 5 Trace the conic 4x
2
+4xy +y
2
+2x +6y +3 =0.

EXERCISE Trace the following conics:
(a) 4x
2
4xy +y
2
3x 6y +3 =0.
(b) 3x
2
+12xy +12y
2
+10x +10y 3 =0.
(c) 3x
2
10xy +3y
2
+14x 2y +3 =0.
(d) 11x
2
+4xy +14y
2
4x 28y 16 =0.

THEOREM 6 (Asymptotes of conics)
The asymptotes of the conic ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy +c =0 are given in the combined
equation ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy +c =
2
h ab
A
.

PROOF
Note in standard position: Hyperbola: 1
2
2
2
2
=
b
y
a
x
.
Asymptotes: 0
2
2
2
2
=
b
y
a
x
.
These two equations differ only in constant term. This property is also preserved under the
transformations of translation and rotation applied to these equations.
Hence let the equation of the asymptotes be ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy +c =(1),
where is a constant.

Since (1) represents a pair of straight lines,
c f g
f b h
g h a
=0

+
f g
b h
h a
c f g
f b h
g h a
0
0
=0 ( )
2
h ab A =0 =
2
h ab
A
.

NOTES 1. The asymptotes of the conic ( )( )
1 1 1
c y b x a c by ax + + + + = where is a constant,
have equation ( )( )
1 1 1
c y b x a c by ax + + + + =0.
2. The hyperbola conjugate to the hyperbola ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy +c =0 has
equation ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy +c =
2
2
h ab
A
.

PROOF
H: Hyperbola ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy +c =0.
A: Asymptotes ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy + |
.
|

\
|

2
2
h ab
c =0.
H ': Conjugate hyperbola.
Coordinate Geometry: Chapter 5 General Equations of Second Degree Page 5
H: 1
2
2
2
2

b
y
a
x
=0 A:
2
2
2
2
b
y
a
x
=0
H ': 1
2
2
2
2

a
x
b
y
=0
H A =1 and H ' +A =1
A +H =H ' +A =constant =
2
h ab
A
.
H ' =A +
2
h ab
A
= ( )
2
2 2
2
2 2 2
h ab
c fy gx by hxy ax

A
+ + + + + + .
the hyperbola conjugate to (*) is ax
2
+2hxy +by
2
+2gx +2fy +c =
2
2
h ab
A
.
EXAMPLE 6 Find the equation of the hyperbola whose asymptotes are parallel to the line
x +y =0 and 3x +2y =0 which touches the x-axis at the origin and passes through (1, 2).

EXAMPLE 7 Find the separate equations of the asymptotes of the hyperbola
3x
2
+2xy 8y
2
8x +14y +2 =0.
Find the hyperbola whose asymptotes are parallel to those of the given hyperbola, which touches
the line y =x at (1, 1), and which passes through (3, 2). Also find the separate equations of the
asymptotes.

<END>