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The Monthly Journal

Kurukshetra
MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT Vol. 59 No. 4 Pages 52 February 2011

CHIEF EDITOR NEETA PRASAD EDITOR KAPIL KUMAR Joint Director J.K. CHANDRA COVER DESIGN Rajat naik EDITORIAL OFFICE ROOM NO. 661, NIRMAN BHAVAN A-WING (GATE NO.5), MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT, NEW DELHI-110011 TEL. : 23061014, 23061952 FAX : 011-23061014 E-MAIL : kurupage@yahoo.co.in FOR SUBSCRIPTION ENQUIRIES, RENEWALS AND AGENCY INFORMATION PLEASE CONTACT: Business Manager EAST BLOCK-IV, LEVEL-VII, R.K. PURAM, NEW DELHI-110066 TEL. : 26105590, 26100207 FAX : 26175516 E-MAIL : pdjucir_jcm@yahoo.co.in WEBSITE : publicationsdivision.nic.in SUBSCRIPTION : INLAND 1 YEAR : RS. 100 2 YEARS : RS. 180 3 YEARS : RS. 250 ABROAD (AIR MAIL) ONE YEAR RS. 500 (NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES) RS. 700 (OTHER COUNTRIES)
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CONTENTS
DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION DURING FIVE-YEAR PLANS IN INDIA Need to Augment Irrigation Capacity in Agriculture CREATING NEW IRRIGATION POTENTIAL The Global Water Crisis: Issues and Solutions Dr. N. T. Somashekaraiah Dr. Harender Raj Gautam Dr. R.S.Sapehia Dr. Yashbir Singh Shivay Dr. Anshu Rahal Manzoor K.P Raju Narayana Swamy Dhurjati Mukherjee Dinesh Sahu Amod K. Thakur, Souvik Ghosh Amod K. Thakur, Souvik Ghosh Rajeeb K. Mohanty S.P.Vasudeva 3 6 9 15 18 23 26 28

FROM THE GROUND PEOPLES STRUGGLE FOR DRINKING WATER Shrinking Rivers: Ganga Could Disappear Inter-Linking of Rivers FROM THE GROUND More to toilet training than this Saving Water in Rice Cultivation: Technological Options BAMBOO IN THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF HIMACHAL PRADESH

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Monitoring and Evaluation of Rural Development Programmes BROCCOLI : A VEGETABLE THAT FIGHTS CANCER : Dr. Ramesh Chandra Parida Dr. Pranab Kumar Ghosh

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Kurukshetra seeks to carry the message of Rural Development to all people. It serves as a forum for free, frank and serious discussion on the problems of Rural Development with special focus on Rural Uplift. The views expressed by the authors in the articles are their own. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the government or the organizations they work for. The readers are requested to verify the claims in the advertisements regarding career guidance books/institutions. Kurukshetra does not own responsibility.

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ways to manage the water resources are being worked out. India draws 80 per cent of its irrigation water from groundwater which often leads to drying up of wells and creates groundwater shortages. Experts have cautioned that the entire replenishable ground water of the world could be utilized by 2025 AD. Due to lack of adequate storage and related infrastructure, infrastructure. While efforts are being made to store the runaway water to rivers, there are studies which say, that the rivers themselves are drying up due to climate changes. A recent study of 900 rivers in the world has found that the Ganga is one of the worlds rapidly shrinking rivers. Despite the constraints and problems associated with the scarce water resource the irrigation potential of India has been increasing over the years. The irrigation potential created up to the beginning of the First year plan was only 23 million hectares which has increased to 103 hectares by the end of the ten plan. The 11th Plan envisages creation of an additional potential of 16 million hectares at an estimated required outlay of about 2,10,000 crore Rupees . Since irrigation is a State subject, most of this amount has been earmarked for financing by States and an analysis of States own preliminary 11th Plan allocations shows that this might actually be exceeded. We discuss the various issues related to increasing irrigation potential and managing the scarce water resources. We also carry a study from the ground on how some private sector companies are over exploiting water at the cost of the local people. around 48

Inside
demand from other sectors, and need to augment food production, efficient

ndias agriculture sector consumes over 90 per cent of the total water resources, yet the full potential of irrigation has not been achieved. With increasing

per cent of the rainfall ends up in the rivers due to lack of storage and related

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DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION DURING FIVE-YEAR PLANS IN INDIA

Dr. N. T. Somashekaraiah

The 11th Plan envisages creation of an additional potential of 16 million hectares at an estimated required outlay of about Rs. 2,10,000 crore. Since irrigation is a State subject, most of this (about Rs. 172,000 crore) has been earmarked for financing by States and an analysis of States own preliminary 11th Plan allocations shows that this might actually be exceeded.
he outstanding feature of Indian agriculture is its dependence on rainfall. Due to unequal distribution of rainfall during the year and its variation from year to year-in respect of quantity, incidence and duration, the Indian agriculture gets affected. Hence the development of irrigation was accorded priority in the Indias Five-year plans. Considerable amount was spent for the development of irrigation in the Five-year plans. Irrigation accounted for an expenditure of Rs.456 crore during the first Five-year plan and the irrigation potential created was of the order of 3.66 million hectares.

The expenditure on major, medium and minor irrigation projects during second & third Five-year plans was Rs.522 crore and Rs.909 crore respectively. An irrigation potential of 2.83 million hectares and 4.52 million hectares has been created during the second and third Five-year plans respectively. Total outlay for irrigation in the Eleventh Plan (2007-12) has been kept at Rs. 2,32,311 crore (at current prices). Substantial expenditure has gone in for developing the major and medium irrigation potential especially the major river valley projects like the Bhakra Nangal Project (Punjab), Beas Project (Punjab and Haryana), Hirakud Dam Project (Orrisa), Damodar Valley Corporation (Bihar and West

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Bengal), Nagarjunasagar Project (Andra Pradesh and Karnataka) etc. However, minor irrigation continues to occupy an important place as its share in the total irrigation potential of 102.8 million hectares created upto the end of Tenth Plan (2006-07) was 58.8 per cent (60.4 million hectares). The expenditure in annual plans (1966-69) and Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) accounted for Rs. 760 crore and 1,750 crore respectively. A total irrigation potential of 3.49 million hectares and 7.10 million hectares has been created in the annual plans and the Fourth Five Year Plans. The expenditure in the Fifth Five Year Plan was Rs.3, 073 crore and 7.92 million hectares of irrigation potential has been created. An account of Rs 2,553 crore has been spent on irrigation in the annual plans of 1978-79 and 1979-80. A potential of 4.48 million hectares was created in the annual plans of 1978-1980. During the Sixth Five Year Plan, the total expenditure on irrigation was Rs. 9,318 crore and a potential of 11.30 million hectares has been created in the Sixth Plan. During the Seventh Five Year Plan, the total expenditure on irrigation was 14,360 crore and the potential of 13 million hectares has been created in the Seventh Plan. The outlay on major, medium and minor irrigation projects during Eighth and Ninth Five Year Plans was Rs.36, 649 crore and Rs. 63,682 crore (including flood control) crore respectively. An irrigation potential of 95.40 million hectares has been created during 2000-2001. The outlay on irrigation and flood control in the Tenth Plan (2002-2007) was kept at Rs. 95,743 crore. It has been estimated that India has around 166 million hectares of agricultural land out of which 140 million hectares of land would ultimately be irrigated. By 2000 only 95 million hectares were provided irrigation facilities. That leaves still 45 million hectares of potential irrigation for the successive five year plans. According to the Irrigation Commission, the cost of exploiting this potential would workout at Rs.30, 000 crore (at 1980-81prices); it would cost more than Rs. 75,000 crore now (in current prices). As the financial resources available to the Government are limited, the Seventh and Eighth Plans took up only a few major and medium projects but laid emphasis on the completion of ongoing projects.
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In order to expand irrigation facilities, the Government of India has adopted the following programmes. (a) NABARD has set up Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF) under which loans are granted to States for speedy completion of minor irrigation projects. (b) The Government of India has launched, since 1996-97, a programme called Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) under which the Centre is providing additional Central assistance by way of loans to the States for early completion of selected large irrigation and multi-purpose projects. AIBP was specifically started because a large number of river valley projects-both major and medium-have spilled from plan to plan, mainly because of financial constraints of state government. Some of these projects were in an advanced stage of construction and could provide irrigation benefits in four or five agricultural seasons. The completion of these projects, however, was beyond the resources capability of the State Governments. Under AIBP, funds were provided to the States in the form of Centre loan assistance. The Central Government also introduced in February 2002 a Fast Track Programme for completion of some irrigation works in two or three working seasons with full Central assistance. From April 2002, AIBP has been further modified, with the adoption of a grant component- i.e. 30 per cent grant for General Category States and 90 per cent grant for Special Category States. Between 1997 and 2004, the Government of India has released Rs. 14,670 crore as loan assistance under AIBP for 181 irrigation works and 3,810 minor irrigation works. So far 28 projects have been completed and irrigation potential of 2.2 million hectares has been created up to March 2003. Under Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP), the State Governments were provided Rs 24,867.4 crore as Central Loan Assistance
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(CLA)/grant for 229 major/medium irrigation projects and 6,205 Surface Minor Irrigation Schemes up to January 29, 2008. So far 91 major/medium and 4,605 surface MI Schemes have been completed. In the current year, as on January 29, 2008, Rs. 3,127.5 crore has been released for AIBP. To cover a larger area under irrigation, the Government sanctioned a National Project for Repair, Renovation and Restoration of Water Bodies directly linked to agriculture, in January 2005 with an estimated cost of Rs. 300 crore to be shared by the Centre and States in 3:1 ration. The water bodies having cultivated command areas of more than one ha and up to 2,000 ha were included under the pilot scheme in one or two districts in each State. The scheme was approved for 26 districts in 15 States. Central share of Rs. 179.3 crore has been released to the States till November 30,2007, covering 1,098 water bodies. The physical work for restoration has been completed for 733 water bodies and the work is in progress in the remaining 365 water bodies. Following the pilot scheme, restoration of water bodies has also been taken up in States having considerable number of water bodies with the World Bank assistance. The World Bank Loan Agreement has been signed with Tamil Nadu for Rs. 2,182 crore to restore 5,763 water bodies having a cultivated command area (CCA) of 4 lakh ha. The Rs. 835 crore Andhra Pradesh Community Based Tank Management Project was signed with the World Bank in June 2007 for restoration of 3,000 water bodies with a CCA of 2.5 lakh ha. The project of Karnataka was signed for Rs. 259 crore with World Bank in November 2007 for restoration of 1,225 water bodies involving a CCA of 0.52 lakh ha. The proposals from Orissa and West Bengal Governments have also been submitted to the World Bank.

172,000 crore) has been earmarked for financing by States and an analysis of States own preliminary 11th Plan allocations shows that this might actually be exceeded. Further, although financial resources appear adequate except in some poorer States, guidelines for the Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP) have already been changed to expand its scope and to increase the Central share for selected areas. The Government has also been creating irrigation potential through public funding and assisting farmers to create potential on their own farms. Substantial irrigation potential has been created through major, medium and minor irrigation schemes. The total irrigation potential in the country has increased from 81.1 million ha in 1991-92 to 102.8 million ha in 2006-07. The potential created so far is estimated to be 73.5 per cent of the ultimate irrigation potential ( Table-8 ). Of the total potential created, however, only 87.2 million ha (84.9 per cent) is actually utilised.
Table 8: Irrigation Potential Created and Utilised -2002-2007
(Million hectares)

Source Major and Medium Irrigation Minor Irrigation Total Irrigation

Potential Potential Per cent created utilised utilisation 42.4 60.4 102.8 34.4 52.8 87.2 81.3 87.4 84.9

Source; Ministry of Finance, Economic Survey 2007-08

Irrigation in the 11th Plan


The 11th Plan envisages creation of an additional potential of 16 million hectares at an estimated required outlay of about Rs. 2,10,000 crore. Since irrigation is a State subject, most of this (about Rs.
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Irrigation is one of the six components for the development of rural infrastructure under the Bharat Nirman and aims at creating the irrigation potential of 10 million ha by 2008-09. The target under Bharat Nirman is to be met largely through the completion of ongoing major and medium irrigation projects/schemes. During 2005-06 and 2006-07, 1.68 million ha and 1.94 million ha of irrigation potential, respectively, is reported to have been created. (The author is HOD, Department of Economics, Government First Grade College, Channarayapatna, e-mail: ntsomu88@yahoo.in).
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Need to Augment Irrigation Capacity in Agriculture


Dr. Harender Raj Gautam and Dr. R.S.Sapehia According to two independent studies which used satellite data from GRACE (the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment) indicate that northern India was losing more groundwater than anywhere else in the world except for the Arctic ice sheets.
f the 182.7 million hectares of land used for cultivation, only about 62 million hectares is currently irrigated; the rest depend entirely on monsoon rains. Hence, from the agriculture sectors point of view, enlarging the cropped area under assured irrigation is critical for the economy. Indias agricultural sector currently uses about 90 per cent of total water resources. Irrigated agriculture has been fundamental to economic development, but unfortunately caused groundwater depletion. India draws 80 per cent of its irrigation water from groundwater. As water scarcity becomes a bigger and bigger problem, rural and farming areas will most likely be hit the hardest. India receives an

average of 4,000 billion cubic meters of rainfall every year. Unfortunately, only 48 per cent of rainfall ends up in Indias rivers. Due to lack of storage and crumbling infrastructure, only 18 per cent can be utilized. Rainfall is confined to the monsoon season mainly from June to September, when India gets, on an average, 75 per cent of its total annual precipitation. Once again, due to Indias storage crunch the government is unable to store surplus water for the dry season. The latest official figures show that more than 60 per cent of Indias 62 million irrigated hectares is fed by groundwater. According to two independent studies which used satellite data from GRACE (the Gravity Recovery and Climate

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Experiment) indicate that northern India was losing more groundwater than anywhere else in the world except for the Arctic ice sheets. One of the studies put the annual net groundwater loss in Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan at 109 cubic km, which is roughly equivalent to 109 billion tonnes. The water table has dropped dramatically in many areas and this is one of the main problems Indian agriculture faces today. In order to augment the depleting ground water resources, it is essential that the surplus monsoon runoff that flows into the sea is conserved and recharged to augment ground water resources. Ground water storage that could be feasible has been estimated as 214 billion cubic meters (BCM) of which 160 BCM is considered retrievable. Central Ground Water Board has prepared a conceptual plan for artificial recharge to ground water for the country. Out of total geographical area of 3,28,7263 sq. km. of the country, an area of 4,48,760 sq. km. has been identified suitable for artificial recharge. The total quantity of surplus monsoon runoff to be recharged works out as 36.4 BCM. Rainwater harvesting is of course a focus area for sustainable agricultural production but attention should also be paid for efficient management of the available water resources. Even if 5 per cent of annual rainfall were harvested properly, that will produce a substantial quantum of water to the tune of 900 million litres. There are two main practices of rainwater harvesting. In the traditional method, storage of rainwater is done on the surface for future use in the form of underground tanks, ponds, check dams, weirs etc. Other method is a new concept of rainwater harvesting where different type of structures like pits, trenches, dug wells, hand pumps, recharge wells, recharge shafts, lateral shafts with bore wells and spreading techniques are generally used. Rainwater harvesting saves water, improves soil moisture, improves the quality of water, allows drought-proofing, prevents flooding, saves energy required to lift water, reduces soil erosion and above all it is an ideal solution of water problem in areas having inadequate water resources.
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Several measures for development and management of water resources are undertaken by the respective State Governments with a view to optimally utilize the available resources which include creation of storages, restoration of water bodies, rain water harvesting, artificial recharge to ground water and adoption of better management practices etc. Storage capacity of about 225 Billion Cubic Metre (BCM) has been created so far. The total estimated storage capacity of the various projects under construction is about 64 BCM as per present assessment. Further, the State Governments have identified various other schemes for investigation and planning and the estimated storage for such schemes is about 108 BCM. The Central Government has implemented a scheme since 2008 in which 4,455 million wells will be dug up for recharging groundwater in 110 blocks of the identified states for the benefit of farmers. The scheme has been implemented before monsoon of 2008. The Artificial Recharge of Ground Water Through Wells scheme was launched keeping in view the concerns of over exploitation of groundwater resources in the country as well as to ensure sustainable water resource management and irrigation facilities in the affected rural areas. About 80 per cent of these groundwater stressed areas- over-exploited, critical and semi-critical areas are located in hard rock areas in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu where rapid decline of groundwater levels have been observed on long-term basis. It is a state sector scheme and will be implemented by the respective state government in association with the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), the Central Groundwater Board, the NABARD and NGOS. The farmer who has dug well in their agricultural land in the identified areas is beneficiary for the scheme. The Artificial Recharge of Ground Water through wells scheme was launched keeping in view the concerns of over exploitation of groundwater resources in the country as well as to ensure sustainable water resource management and irrigation facilities in the affected areas. The
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scheme approved for a total cost of Rs. 1,798.71 crores with 100 per cent subsidy to marginal and small farmers and 50 per cent subsidy to other farmers. The Central Ground Water Board has prepared a Manual and subsequently a Guide on Artificial Recharge to Ground Water which provide guidelines on investigation techniques for selection of sites, planning & design of artificial recharge structures, economic evaluation & monitoring of recharge facility. These are of immense use to States/ U.T.s in planning and implementation of recharge schemes for augmentation of ground water in various parts of the country.

our old water recharge systems are sustained and enhanced, new recharge systems are developed, harvest water where it falls, regulate groundwater use and massively promote conservation methods like drip irrigation and rice intensification. In Australia, water consumption in agriculture has been reduced by 30 per cent in the past 20 years by good agricultural practices. There is need to encourage modern methods of irrigation like drip irrigation. Micro management is also needed for efficient use of the irrigation water. Farmers should avoid one time flood irrigation in their fields and instead should give more number of irrigation at intervals for higher output. Weeds should be managed effectively in annual and perennial crops. The Union Ministry of Water Resources Moisture conservation techniques like mulching constituted a standing sub-committee for should also be used in crops. Waste water of kitchen assessment of availability and requirement of water. and toilet can also be recycled and channelled for They have put forward a multi-pronged approach farming or charging of the underground water highlighting the need for completion of storage resources. Irrigation efficiency can also be improved dams, interlinking of rivers, recycling of domestic by computer-controlled systems that supervise soil water and of industrial used water, desalination moisture and provide water only when necessary. of sea water and artificial Farmers can switch to more recharge of ground water. water-efficient, droughtIn Australia, water A committee on Artificial resistant and salt-tolerant crop Recharge of Groundwater consumption in agriculture varieties. Moreover, farmers has also been constituted. has been reduced by 30 can use organic farming Availability of irrigation per cent in the past 20 techniques which result in water is an important factor higher crop yields per hectare years by good agricultural in increasing the food grain and require only one-fourth practices. production but availability of the water and commercial of water is decreasing fertiliser of conventional each day due to overuse of farming. Better farming underground water. The Central Ground Water techniques, such as leaving crop residue on fields Board has identified 1,065 assessment blocks as and ground cover on drainage ways, intercropping, over exploited or critical. The strategy proposed use of mulches, and low volume or drip irrigation, for water recharge is to divert rain water into dug could reduce these water losses dramatically. Thus, wells. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) there is need to efficiently conserve the available has set up one teaching-cum-demonstration model water resources and use them judiciously with of water harvesting in each of 32 selected State modern technological tools. Agricultural Universities and ICAR institutes to train 100 trainers and 1000 farmers every year. Irrigation accounts for an enormous portion of the worlds water use. Thus, more efficient utilisation of even a small amount of irrigation water would free large amounts of water for other uses. Experts recommend that we should ensure that (The authors are Senior Scientist and Assistant Scientist respectively in Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Department of Soil Science at Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni-173230, Solan, Himachal Pradesh , e-mail : hrg_mpp@yahoo.com)
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CREATING NEW IRRIGATION POTENTIAL


Dr. Yashbir Singh Shivay and Dr. Anshu Rahal The entire replenishable ground water is also assumed to be utilized by 2025 AD.Therefore, to bridge the gap between water availability and requirement, inter-basin water transfers by inter-linking of rivers may be a viable alternative, which would also take care of the requirement of the water short areas, including drought prone areas.
fficient use of water resource is basic to survival of the ever increasing population of a country. In arid and semi-arid climatic conditions, the timing and amount of rainfall are not adequate to meet the moisture requirement of crops. Therefore, supplementary irrigation is essential to raise the crops, necessary to meet the needs of food and fiber for the growing population. Scientific irrigation water management provides the best insurance against weather induced fluctuations.

of 400 km3 with a variation of 100 mm per annum in western most regions to 1100 mm per year in eastern region. The water resources of the country, which occur as natural run-off in the rivers, are estimated to be 18,697 km3 considering both ground water and surface water contributions. Due to various constraints of topography, distribution over time and space, 1,122 km3 water can be put to beneficial use, 690 km3 of which is due to surface water resources.

Water resources
Precipitation is the main source of renewable water supply. India receives a total annual rainfall

Irrigation potential
The total ultimate potential was earlier estimated at 113.8 million hectares, which has now

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been revised to 140 million hectares. The share of major and medium schemes that are surface water based is 58.5 million hectares, whereas that of minor schemes, based on surface water is 17.4 million hectares. The ground water based minor irrigation schemes are expected to contribute 64 million hectares compared with the earlier estimates of 40 million hectares.

Command area development


There has been large scale irrigation development but there was short fall in utilization of the potential created. To focus attention on efficient utilization of the created resources, a multi-disciplinary agency, the command area development authority was constituted in 197475. The command area development programme broadly covers: a) b) On-farm development works; Introduction of rotational system of water distribution within the out let command (warabandi); Adoption of suitable cropping pattern rostering of irrigation system; Development of ground water for conjunctive use; Arrangement and supply of agricultural inputs and services including short-term credit; Development of necessary infrastructure in the shape of roads, markets and ware housing/cold storages.

India is a very fortunate country to have many rivers whose total catchments area is estimated to be 252.8 million hectares. Central water commission, Government of India, has divided the whole country in 20 river basins comprising 12 major basins, each having catchments area exceeding 20,000 km2 and 8 composite river basins combining suitably together all the other remaining medium and small river systems. Major basins are: i) Indus; ii) GangaBrahamputra-Meghna; iii) Godavari; iv) Krishana; v) Cauvery; Mahanadi; vi) Pennar; vii) BrahmaniBaitarni; viii) Sabarmati; ix) Mahi; x) Narmada and xi) Tapi Likewise 8 composite river basins are: i) Subarnarekha - combining Subarnarekha and other small rivers between Subarnarekha and Baitarni; ii) East flowing rivers between Mahanadi and Pennar; iii) East flowing rivers between Pennar and Kanyakumari; iv) Area of inland drainage in Rajasthan desert; v) West flowing rivers from Tapi to Tadri; vi) West-flowing rivers from Tadri to Kanyakumari; Minor rivers draining into Myanmar (Burma) and Bangladesh. Total surface water resources of the country (yearly average streams flow) are about 1,869 km3. Due to uneven distribution of rainfall, both spatial and temporal, only 37% (690 km3) of the surface renewable water resources are estimated to be potentially utilizable. This low proportion is primarily due to low potentially utilizable water resources in the MeghnaBrahamputra river basins. The Brahamputra River covers only 7.6% of the geographical area, accounting of 31% of the total renewable water resources. According to Central Water Commission, potential utilizable for India are 690 km3 of the surface water and 432 km3 of the ground water (total 1,122 km3 or BCM).
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c) d) e) f)

Command area development programme has been implemented in more than 100 irrigation projects with good results.

Basin-wise water resources


Monsoonal climate causes a highly skewed distribution of the resource availability and calls for its conservation in soil profile, aquifers, ponds, lakes, reservoirs and rivers for use during the lean period.
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Water availability
Indias total renewable per caput water resources in 1985 were 2,011 m3 which stands at 1,820 m3 on 31 March 2001 (Table 1). The total renewable water resources per person, excluding those people in the Brahamputra river basin, are only 1,345 m3. About 103 million people living in the basins of Sabarmati, Kutch and Saurashtra and basin between Pennar and Kanyakumari have per caput total renewable water resources below 500 m3. More than 90 million people living in the 4 basins of Pennar, Tapi, Cavery and east-flowing rivers between Mahanadi and Pennar have per caput total renewable water resources below 1,000 m3. The per caput renewable water resources in Indus, Ganga, Krishna and Subarnarekha basins are less than 1,700 m3. Table 1. Per capita water availability in India
Year Population (million) Per capita water availability (cubic metre) 5,177 4,732 2,209 1,820 1,341 1,140

viable alternative, which would also take care of the requirement of the water short areas, including drought prone areas.

Irrigation demand
Irrigation demand of a region depends upon the areas irrigated with surface water and goround water, different crop water requirements and irrigation application efficiency. The irrigation demand ranges from 193 m3 per person in Brahamputra basin to 1,617 m3 per person in Indus basin. Irrigation efficiencies range from a low of 31% whereas most of the area is surface irrigated to a high of 62% (where most of the area is irrigated from ground water). Irrigation is the largest sector of water demand and irrigated agriculture shall further be called upon to produce a sizable portion of the food grains requirements for the growing population. Considering the rapid changes in the dietary habits and standard of living of the Indian population, it may be difficult to make correct estimates for future food grain requirements.

1951 1955 1991 2001 2025 2050

361 395 846 1,027 1,394 (projected) 1,640 (projected)

Irrigation
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to partially meet the crop evapo-transpiration requirements. It is essential for sustaining crop productivity in many regions of the country mainly because the rainfall is inadequate and unevenly distributed to meet crop water demands. Irrigation water is a costly and scare input, and it is becoming more difficult to increase the area under irrigation to meet the demand for food, fodder and fiber for growing human and livestock population. The competing demands of water for other uses viz. urbanization and industrialization are also restricting the availability of water for crop production. Therefore, it is essential to optimize the use of water according to availability on sustainable basis in the decline water table areas, and to allow minimum loss of water by efficient water
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Water demand
Countrys water demand is dominated by irrigation needs. The total water demand for agriculture, domestic and industrial sectors of India in 1995 was estimated to be about 650 km3, of this about 90% is withdrawn for agriculture sector. There will be a large gap even at the aggregate level between the water availability and requirement by 2050 AD, when the population of the country is expected to stabilize. The entire replenishable ground water is also assumed to be utilized by 2025 AD. Therefore, to bridge the gap between water availability and requirement, inter-basin water transfers by inter-linking of rivers may be a
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management techniques in areas where water table is continuously rising.

1. Surface irrigation
In surface irrigation systems water moves over and across the land by simple gravity flow in order to wet it and to infiltrate into the soil. Surface irrigation can be subdivided into furrow, border-strip or basin irrigation. It is often called flood irrigation when the irrigation results in flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land. Historically, this has been the most common method of irrigating agricultural land. Where water levels from the irrigation source permit, the levels are controlled by dikes, usually plugged by soil. This is often seen in terraced rice fields (rice paddies), where the method is used to flood or control the level of water in each distinct field. In some cases, the water is pumped, or lifted by human or animal power to the level of the land.

Irrigation requirements important crops

of

some

Irrigation requirement at the field level refers to the amount of water, exclusive of precipitation, required to mature the crops (Table 2). It is usually expressed in depth at the given time. It thus, includes the amount of water needed to meet the losses through evaporation and transpiration, both occurring simultaneously and hence termed evapo-transpiration (ET), application losses and the special needs. It does not include transit losses.

Types of irrigation
Various types of irrigation techniques differ in how the water obtained from the source is distributed within the field. In general, the goal is to supply the entire field uniformly with water, so that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little.

2. Localized irrigation
Localized irrigation is a system where water is distributed under low pressure through a piped

Table 2. Irrigation requirements of some important crops S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 12 Rice Sorghu Maize Sugarcane Summer pulses Pearl millet Sunflower Cotton Wheat Berseem Potato Lentil Mustard Barley Soybean Chickpea Crops (Kharif) Crop duration (days) 130-140 110 110 330 70 90 110 180 135 200 110 135 150 125 90 150 Irrigation requirement (mm) 700-800 150 150 700 210 150 210 280 350 800 450 150 150 210 350 150 Kurukshetra February 2011

network, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to it. Drip irrigation, spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation and bubbler irrigation belong to this category of irrigation methods.

3. Drip Irrigation
Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests. Water is delivered at or near the root zone of plants, drop by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient method of irrigation, if managed properly, since evaporation and runoff are minimized. In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing evaporation, and is also the means of delivery of fertilizer. The process is known as fertigation. Deep percolation, where water moves below the root zone, can occur if a drip system is operated for too long of a duration or if the delivery rate is too high. Drip irrigation methods range from very high-tech and computerized to low-tech and labor-intensive. Lower water pressures are usually needed than for most other types of systems, with the exception of low energy center pivot systems and surface irrigation systems, and the system can be designed for uniformity throughout a field or for precise water delivery to individual plants in a landscape containing a mix of plant species. Although it is difficult to regulate pressure on steep slopes, pressure compensating emitters are available, so the field does not have to be level. High-tech solutions involve precisely calibrated emitters located along lines of tubing that extend from a computerized set of valves.

mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-set irrigation system. Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotors and are driven by a ball drive, gear drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle.

5. Center pivot irrigation


Center pivot irrigation is a form of sprinkler irrigation consisting of several segments of pipe (usually galvanized steel or aluminum) joined together and supported by trusses, mounted on wheeled towers with sprinklers positioned along its length. The system moves in a circular pattern and is fed with water from the pivot point at the center of the arc. These systems are common in parts of the United States where terrain is flat.

6. Lateral move (side roll, wheel line) irrigation


A series of pipes, each with a wheel of about 1.5 m diameter permanently affixed to its midpoint and sprinklers along its length, are coupled together at one edge of a field. Water is supplied at one end using a large hose. After sufficient water has been applied, the hose is removed and the remaining assembly rotated either by hand or with a purpose-built mechanism, so that the sprinklers move 10 m across the field. The hose is reconnected. The process is repeated until the opposite edge of the field is reached. This system is less expensive to install than a center pivot, but much more labor intensive to operate, and it is limited in the amount of water it can carry. Most systems utilize 4 or 5-inch (130 mm) diameter aluminum pipe.

4. Sprinkler irrigation
In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to one or more central locations within the field and distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or guns. A system utilizing sprinklers, sprays, or guns
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Sub-irrigation
Sub-irrigation also sometimes called seepage irrigation has been used for many years in field crops in areas with high water tables. It is a method of
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artificially raising the water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the plants root zone. Often those systems are located on permanent grasslands in lowlands or river valleys and combined with drainage infrastructure. A system of pumping stations, canals, weirs and gates allows it to increase or decrease the water level in a network of ditches and thereby control the water table.

Dry terraces for irrigation and water distribution


In subtropical countries as Mali and Senegal, a special type of terracing (without flood irrigation or intent to flatten farming ground) is used. Here, a stairs is made through the use of ground level differences which helps to decrease water evaporation and also distributes the water to all patches (sort of irrigation).

Manual irrigation using buckets or watering cans


These systems have low requirements for infrastructure and technical equipment but need high labor inputs. Irrigation using watering cans is to be found for example in peri-urban agriculture around large cities in some African countries.

Sources of irrigation water


Sources of irrigation water can be groundwater extracted from springs or by using wells, surface water withdrawn from rivers, lakes or reservoirs or non-conventional sources like treated wastewater, desalinated water or drainage water. A special form of irrigation using surface water is spate irrigation, also called floodwater harvesting. In case of a flood (spate) water is diverted to normally dry river beds (wadis) using a network of dams, gates and channels and spread over large areas. The moisture stored in the soil will be used thereafter to grow crops. Spate irrigation areas are in particular located in semi-arid or arid, mountainous regions. While floodwater harvesting belongs to the accepted irrigation methods, rainwater harvesting is usually not considered as a form of irrigation. Rainwater harvesting is the collection of runoff water from roofs or unused land and the concentration of this water on cultivated land. Therefore this method is considered as a water concentration method. (The first author is Senior Scientist, Division of Agronomy, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 110 012, and the second author is Assistant Professor, Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar 263 145, Uttarakhand, e-mail: ysshivay@hotmail.com)
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Automatic, non-electric irrigation using buckets and ropes


Besides the common manual watering by bucket, an automated, natural version of this also exist. Using plain polyester ropes combined with a prepared ground mixture can be used to water plants from a vessel filled with water. The ground mixture would need to be made depending on the plant itself, yet would mostly consist of black potting soil, vermiculite and perlite. This system would (with certain crops) allow you to save expenses as it does not consume any electricity and only little water (unlike sprinklers, water timers,). However, it may only be used with certain crops (probably mostly larger crops that do not need a humid environment; perhaps e.g. paprikas).

Irrigation using stones to catch water from humid air


In countries where at night, humid air sweeps the countryside, stones are used to catch water from the humid air by condensation. This is for example practiced in the vineyards at Lanzarote.
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The Global Water Crisis:


Issues and Solutions
-Manzoor K.P
Water crisis is now a serious human issue that exists when supply of water is less than demand. The increase in population at geometrical rate and over use of water for industrial purpose are considered to be the major reasons for decreasing the water resources in the world. Many studies show that our finite source of fresh water are polluting and depleting by bad whether phenomenon.
e would like to believe there is an infinite supply of water on the planet. But the assumption is tragically false. In fact available freshwater represents less than half of 1 percent of the worlds total water stock. The rest is seawater, or inaccessible in ice caps, ground water and soil. And supply of this is finite. Most disturbingly, we are diverting, polluting and depleting that finite source of freshwater at an astonishing rate. United Nations argue that 31 countries are facing the water stress and scarcity

and over one billion people lack adequate access to clean drinking water. By the year 2025, as much as two-thirds of the worlds population-estimated to have expanded by an additional 2.6 billion peoplewill be living in conditions of serious water shortage and one-third will be living in conditions of absolute water scarcity.

Mismanagement of Water Resources


The water crisis is a serious human issue that exists when supply of water is less than

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demand. Environmental economists argue that the demand for water is increasing due to the subsequent growth of population in all over the world. When population grows there is no large source of water to satisfy the wants of all human kind, because the water becomes scarce. Demand for water among the urban people is very high compared to the rural people. Migration of rural people to urban places for jobs and business opportunities are the most important reasons for growing water demand in urban areas of many countries. An Amsterdam based ecological management foundation argues that the rainfall is our only renewable source of fresh water. It creates a constant global supply of 40,000 to 50,000 cubic km water per year. But the world population increases roughly by 85 million per year. Therefore the availability of fresh water per head is decreasing rapidly. The growing population at geometrical rate and subsequent fall in water supply disturbs the demand and supply curve of water. Here is the importance of producing the additional quantity of water for the existence of human beings in next decade. The ground water researchers find that our fresh water source has been declining in many countries since last so many years. The scientific studies conducted in major rivers of Asia and pacific shows the over all decline in the water amount flowing to worlds ocean. The climate changes strongly influence the reduction of water amount and quality because the large level of increase in carbon emission by the effects of global warming pollutes the drinking water resources dangerously. Mountainous forested watersheds are the most important fresh water yield area in the world. But we are loosing the supply of quality water due to the poor land management and the deforestation. Therefore, the sustainable and equitable water management is necessary for saving the world from human and economic tragedy.
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Liberal attitude of governments towards water use leads to decrease in water resources in major industrialist countries. This liberal attitude of governments are exploited by the big corporate for misusing water resources for their industrial purpose. The big plants misuse thousand gallons of clean water to create electricity for working their machines and tools. Thus, the industrialists are building their merchant power plant in rural areas where the plenty of natural water can acquire. Experts opine that industrialists use 84 million gallons of water (15% of total water use) a day in southwest Louisiana.

Annexure: I- Total world water Source: UN Water Kurukshetra February 2011

Solution for Water Crisis:


1) Water harvesting: This is a traditional technique first used by the Greeks and island people to save the water and obviously, it can be the first solution for water scarcity. Harvesting water means harvesting river. People are identifying the truth that the supply of water comes from the sky, which is rain. But in some countries are not getting adequate rain to meet their water demand. Therefore water harvesting being a great solution for those people. These people can find the solution for their water scarcity by the caught, stored of rain water. Water harvesting raises the supply of water. Consequently, we can manage the supplydemand curves of the water. Government should promote the rain water harvesters. In India, Delhi government announces the award for the best rain harvesters which provides 2 lakh rupees for group and one lakh rupee for individual.

preservation. The work shops on water economies, water policy and water ethics promotes the strong awareness on water scarcity and water use. 4) Water regulation and strict water policies: safe drinking water policy is necessary for the smooth distribution of water and intervenes of private parties on water distribution creates water conflicts in the society. Strong environmental law can control over pumping and ground water exploitation.

Conclusion:

2)

The United Nations reports that two third of world population will face serious problems from the shortage of drinking water by 2025. Thus shortage in water supply in coming years will have a great impact on our food security, because we use major portion of water (70% of global use) for agricultural purpose. The impact of water crisis is very dangerous, two third of world Develop sea water because the unlimited use and population will face serious d e s a l i n a t i o n pollution of water resources problems from the shortage t e c h n o l o g i e s : creates an adverse effect on of drinking water by 2025. Desalination of sea water our bio diversity. A strong is another big solution for Thus shortage in water environmental law is necessary water scarcity. Singapore supply in coming years will to save the world from water and Middle East countries have a great impact on our pollution and water scarcity. wholly depends this food security, because we The government can play an technology for increasing use major portion of water important role in detaining their water supply. Many (70% of global use) for the water exploitation by the technologies are using for agricultural purpose. strict water policy and strong the desalination of sea water regulation. But, instead water in different nations. of protecting our water More research and development on sea resources, some industrialist nations privatize the desalination technology will help us to reduce water supply that creates water conflicts in the the energy consumption because the major society. Public controls 97% of water distribution portion of water resources extremely using for in the poor countries and private investments in the creation of energy. Unfortunately, water water supply on these countries can have a negative desalination technologies are untouchable to poor nations due to its expensive nature. impact on the living status of poor people. Organize the training workshop on water use and recycle: the water work shops help the society to be more vigilant on water (The author is Lecturer of Economics, Irshadiya College, Calicut, Kerala, e-mail: manzkp@gmail. com.)
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3)

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PEOPLES STRUGGLE FOR DRINKING WATER

FROM THE GROUND

Raju Narayana Swamy


The Plachimada ground water dispute may be seen as a microcosm of what many believe is a coming century of global water conflict. In this paper, we argue that privatization of water is a violation of basic rights of citizens and that privatization creates water monopolies and brings about more disparity in access to water.
he earth, with its varied and copious life forms, including over six billion humans, is facing a serious water crisis. This crisis is one of water governance, essentially caused by the ways in which we mismanage water. But the real heartbreak is the effect it has on the everyday lives of poor people, who are shattered by the burden of water-related disease, living in degraded and often dangerous environments, struggling to earn a living, and to get enough to eat. Global consumption of water is doubling every 20 years, more than twice the rate of human population growth. At present

more than one billion people on earth lack access to fresh drinking water. By the year 2025 the demand for freshwater is expected to rise to 56% above what currently available water can deliver if current trends persist. The paper examines water privatization in the context of national water policy- using the experience gained from the case study-Plachimada. Plachimada village of Perumatty panchayat in Chittoor taluk is a small hamlet in Palakkad district in Kerala. The site of the factory is located barely

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three kilometres to the north of the Meenakkara Dam reservoir and a few hundred meters west of the Kambalathara and Venkalakkayam water storage reservoirs. The Moolathara main canal of the Moolathara barrage passes less than ten metres north of the factory compound and the main Chittoor River runs very close to the Coca Cola plant. The Plachimada ground water dispute may be seen as a microcosm of what many believe is a coming century of global water conflict. In this paper, we argue that privatization of water is a violation of basic rights of citizens and that privatization creates water monopolies and brings about more disparity in access to water. The study examines the impact of Coca cola factory causing the destruction of ground water and the impact of these activities on the people. The human activities that are responsible for the water crisis have been extensively detailed. The problem is compounded by the growing interest in commercialisation of water resources and services. The corporate interests in water and the global nexus of big business lobby organisations, and for-profit water corporations to which it belongs is been analysed with.

Indias Water Policy Framework


The first National Water Policy was adopted by the National Water Resources Council in 1987. Since then a number of issues and challenges have emerged in the progress and administration of water resources. In the last few years a number of problems/ challenges have emerged in the development and management of water resources. On the one hand the after crisis (of its reduced availability per head and deteriorating quality) has grown and on the other hand local initiatives in water conservation have started to respond to the challenge strengthening there (Kathpalia, G.N. & Rakesh Kapoor, 2004). On 1st April, 2002 the National Water Resources Council met under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister and adopted the National Water Policy 2002, a revised version of the earlier policy of 1987.
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The new policy recognized water as a precious national asset. It embodies the nations resolve that planning, development and management of water resources could be governed by National Perspectives. The new policy integrated water resources development and management for optimal and sustainable utilization of the available surface and ground water, creation of well-developed information system, use of traditional methods of water conservation, nonconventional method for water utilization and demand management. Greater emphasis has been laid on water quality aspects. The policy belies the peoples expectations of decentralization of water development and management and encouragement of community-based water harnessing. The policy has left many loopholes for the market forces to take advantage. It does not have any punitive mechanism against wrong doers on a clause for encouraging those who harnessed water (Bansil, P.C., 2004, pp.520-21). The new policy holds that all sources of water, rainfall, river water, surface ponds, lakes and ground water are indivisible and part of a larger ecological system. It also recognises that water is necessary for sustaining all forms of life. This recognizes that water is essential for realizing the right to life and livelihood. The policy again recognizes that the existing water resources would have to meet the The national water Policy 2002 has also stressed on the private sector participation in the policy. Private sector participation should be encouraged in planning development and management of water resources projects for diverse uses, wherever feasible. Private sector participation may help in introducing innovative corporate management and improving service efficiency and accountability to users. Depending upon the specific situation, in building, operating, leasing and transferring of water resources facilities, may be considered. Source: Bansil, P.C.(2004), Water Management in India, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, p.518.
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needs of drinking water, household purposes and also the needs of the livestock.

Coca-Cola in Kerala
Plachimada village in the Palakkad district is located in Kerala, the southern most part of India. The Hindustan Coca-Cola Beverages Pvt. Ltd established a unit in 1998-99 in a 40 acre plot at Plachimada. The factory is located a few metres away from the main irrigation canal form the Moolathara barrage. The area is a predominantly agricultural area. Paddy being the dominant crop, sugar cane is also planted in some places. The main source of water for the villagers is the canals from the Malampuzha Reservoir which irrigates thousands of acres of fields. But water has been in short supply in these villages. The adivasis living here are mainly agricultural labourers. They had no land and no means to survive as the traditional ways of life came to a standstill because of massive drop in paddy cultivation. It was then the global giant came with their Cola factory to their village. Ecosystem people depend to a very large extent on natural resources in their immediate surroundings, the local ecosystem, where as omnivores have the power to draw on resources from a wide, sometimes even global, catchments area (Eva, Wramner, 2004). The Hindustan CocaCola Beverages was given the license to establish its unit in 1999 for producing the Coca-Cola brand of beverages including bottled mineral water. 200 truck loads of beverages containing 550-600 cases were produced everyday. For this 600,000 litres of ground water are extracted from 65 bore wells dug on the land. The water level in the wells and other sources dropped in an unusual manner and the village turned into a kind of a desert within a few months.

scarcity of drinking water in the village, and its pollution by factory effluents. Plachimada lies in a rainshadow area and the amount of withdrawal here is always in excess of the recharge component from the rainfall, and hence it is the excessive groundwater pumping from a rainshadow and overexploitation region that is the real issue in Plachimada (Ravi Raman, K., 2010). On April 7th 2003, the village panchayat of the area took a decision to cancel the license agreement granted to the company. Under the Kerala Panchayat Raj Act, the local panchayat has authority to issue or suspend a license or impose conditions on an industry. This decision was challenged by the Company in the High Court. On 16th December 2003, the Kerala High Court directed the Company to find out alternative sources of water and ordered the Panchayat not to interfere with the working of the Company if it used such alternative sources. It also directed the Company to use only that quantity of water which was available to the owner of 34 acres of land. On January 15, 2005 the local community people demanded the permanent closure of the factory. The Coca Cola Virudha Samithy (Anti Coca Cola peoples Struggle Committee) and the Plachimada Solidarity Committee are the two strong forces that lead the movement against Coca Cola in Plachimada. The residents of Plachimada have been on the vigil by 24 hours a day outside the gates of the Coca Cola factory in their village. The vigil has crossed the mark of 1280 days on October 22, 2005. People representing the five most affected colonies adjacent to the factory, who belong to Eravala, Malasar tribal communities and other scheduled caste communities have been holding demonstrations and sit-in strike in front of the factory. They picketed the Hindustan CocaCola Beverages Pvt. Ltd. At Plachimada and gave an ultimatum to the authorities to quit immediately. In March 2005, the Perumatty Panchayat refused to renew the license issued to Cola Company forcing it to shut down its operations (Ashish Kothari & Anuprita Patel, 2006). The Cola Company again
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Water Power and Resistance


The first major disagreement that erupted between the local people and the Company was regarding the pumping of water which was causing
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appealed to High Court on April 7, 2005 gave a further ruling allowing the company to extract 500,000 litres of water per day, under normal rainfall conditions. The Kerala State Pollution Control Board, on August 19, 2005, directed the Coca Cola plant in Plachimada to stop making of all kinds of produce with urgent effect because of high levels of cadmium around the plant. These water movements has already had a profound effect on global water politics, forcing global institutions such as the World Bank and the United Nations to address the inadequacies of their policies, and has helped formulate water policy inside countries. The growth of a democratic water justice movement is a critical and positive development that will bring needed accountability, transparency and public oversight to the water crisis as conflicts over the water Commons loom on the horizon(Maude Barlow). The problem of pollution due to solid wastes in Plachimada came to international attention through the BBC report on 25 July 2003. BBC reported the presence of heavy metals, lead and cadmium, in quantities higher than the approved limit in the sludge supplied by the Company, which was at the time dumping the sludge was a fertilizer. The heavy dumping of the sludge in the agricultural fields had been reported by Jananeethi, a non-governmental organization in Kerala in 2002 (Sujith Koonan, 2007-05). An expert panel (A thirteen member High Power Committee) was formed in September 2009 and was supposed to submit its report by December 31st 2009. It had held four public hearings, including one at the Perumatti panchayat within the jurisdiction of which the beverages unit was located, and visited the affected areas for an on-the spot study of the damage allegedly caused by the Coca-Cola unit. It stated in March 2010 that the Company was accountable for damages to the village economy and its environment. The Company should pay adequate compensation to the affected people for the agricultural losses, health problems and the pollution of water resources. The Committee also recommended for
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a Plachimada Claims Tribunal to be created by the a state legislature for the purpose of claiming the compensation, amounting to around Rs 2162.6 million, from the company and distributing it to the affected people. But the company discarded this ruling. The company has not accepted the decision to form the expert panel and had even questioned its authority to go into the compensation question. The Plachimada Struggle Solidarity Committee and the Adivasi Samrakshana Sanghom, which were in the forefront of the Plachimada struggle, have been campaigning for extraction of compensation form the company and had submitted a detailed memorandum to the panel seeking compensation for the people of Plachimada and initiation of prosecution measures against the company (Gouridasan Nair, 2010). This being the existing situation in Plachimada, it remains to be seen how the struggle further goes mainly on the question of appropriation of water for substitute enterprises, the reinstatement of Mailamma (anti Cola woman leader)-in her sixties with her four children had a long and arduous struggle. She belonged to a native tribal community, Eravalar. She was directly affected by Companys operations in Plachimada. She was a face that appeared at the satyagrahis, collecting everything from the public who supported their resist. She appeared at the satyagraha sight everyday; whether it was rain or sunny or she had job or not. She was the public face of the campaigning of the adivasi women who demanded that their water be resorted to them. This gender presence was of great significance, especially against the corporate hegemony. This aims at a reconfiguration of well-built power relations with micro effects that reach beyond the parochially defined and spatially situated notion of individuality. This she has maintained through democratic intervention, protest and arbitration. She played an important role in the campaign to hold Coca-Cola accountable for water shortages and pollution in the area. She died on January 6, 2007.
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ecosystem, and compensation for damages caused. Private interest groups systematically ignore the option of community control over water.

allocation of water resources, but also equity in their allocation and sustainability in the scale and mode of usage.
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Conclusion
Plachimada has become a metaphor for a political village-society of contemporary times. In a broader context, the issues involved are not those that should be of concern to the village community alone, rather it falls within the remit of the larger resistance against Multinational power. The authentic value of a movement lies not just in addressing a wider democratic politics of worldwide connotation. This is particularly true in this context of water-related struggle, for at this point in time it is water in its multi-dimensionality that forms the object of the business gaze.

India is yet to develop a well spelt out strategy on water privatisation and management of water resources. An urgent and early thought is necessary to certify a distinct framework on managing the process of water privatization. Build the custom of maintaining sustainably the community utilities. Long term neglect has always been the cause of failure. Encourage environmental conservation and protection, to facilitate sustainability of natural sources of water and hence avoid advanced technology for water extraction that has always been used as a motive to encourage privatization. Promote the local means of harvesting and reserving water.

Suggestions
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Indias National Water Policy should ensure that the water law not only achieve efficiency in the

(The author is a Senior IAS Officer, currently posted as Secretary in the Kerala Government, e-mail: narayan5@ias.nic.in)

Storage of Important Reservoirs in the Country


with the Department of Agriculture and Co-operation and providing information of the weekly storage position to the Crop Weather Watch Group for evolving suitable crop strategies and also appraising the situation to various Departments and Ministries involved in Water Resources Planning. Basin wise storage position as on November 25, 2010 is as follows: The storage position in Indus, Narmada, Tapi, Sabarmati, Rivers of Kutch, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery & NEFRs and West Flowing Rivers of South basins are flowing better than average of previous 10 years and Ganga, Mahi and Mahanadi & NEFRs basins are flowing close to average of previous 10 years. Out of 36 reservoirs with significant hydro potential 9 reservoirs have storage build up less than the average of last 10 years capacity.
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entral Water commission (CWC) under Ministry of Water Resources is monitoring storage position of 81 important reservoirs spread all over the country, of which as many as 36 reservoirs are having significant hydro-power benefits with installed capacities of more than 60MW each. The combined live storage in these 81 reservoirs at the beginning of monsoon i.e. June 1, 2010 was 14% of their designed capacity and stood at 75% of designed capacity as on November 25, 2010. The present storage is 128% of last years storage and 127% of last 10 years average storage during the same period. Out of these 81 reservoirs there are presently 16 reservoirs where this years storage is 80 % or less than the average of previous 10 years and in remaining 65 reservoirs the storage is more than 80% of the average of previous 10 years. In order to derive the best possible benefits from the available water, CWC is keeping in touch

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Shrinking Rivers :
Ganga Could Disappear
-Dhurjati Mukherjee Gangaisoneoftheworldsrapidlyshrinkingrivers.Oneofthecountrysmostculturallyandeconomically important rivers, the Ganga is among 45 in the study that showed a statistically significant reduction in discharge to the ocean. The Ganga in 2004 had 20 per cent less water than it did 56 years ago. In the coming decades, it is likely to shrink even faster and could disappear in another 50 years.
recent study of 900 rivers in the world has found that the Ganga is one of the worlds rapidly shrinking rivers. One of the countrys most culturally and economically important rivers, the Ganga is among 45 in the study that showed a statistically significant reduction in discharge to the ocean. This group includes the Colombia, Mississippi, Niger, Parana, Congo and a few others.

According to the study titled, Changes in Continental Freshwater Discharge, conducted by the National Centre for Atmospheric Research in Colorado, the Ganga in 2004 had 20 per cent less water than it did 56 years ago. In the coming decades, it is likely to shrink even faster and could disappear in another 50 years. The waning of the 2500 km. Ganga has obviously huge ecological and economic ramifications to India. It will reduce the countrys

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supply of drinking water and water for irrigation. The region will lose a crucial vehicle for channeling sewage into the sea. The Ganga is losing water for two reasons the glaciers that feed it are in retreat which means they are losing mass and rainfall in the region has been decreasing over the years. In fact, most climate models predict a weaker monsoon over South Asia as carbon-dioxide induced warming continues. It is a well known fact that glaciers all over the world are in retreat because of global warning. Moreover rainfall over north India has gradually fallen over the years. The causes may be attributed to the El Nio effect and atmosphere above the Indian Ocean becoming warmer as also the weakening of the south-west monsoon. Temperature fluctuations have become the order of the day and may be related to global warning, as the IPCC reports have pointed out. The increase in floods, droughts and other natural calamities specially in the tropical countries, is also linked to the El Nio effect. Apart from the Ganga, the Jamuna has been under threat. A report prepared by the National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) largely in the context of the Delhi stretch observed that the river too has died its natural death without fresh water from upstream. As per official data in the 11thPlan document, the Jamunas BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) level recorded in Delhis Nizamuddin Bridge is 31, the figure for Agra canal is 28 while at Mathura, Agra city and Etawah this is around 15 (summer average, March-June, 2006). These figures reveal that despite massive amounts spent under the Jamuna Action Plan and also the Ganga Action Plan (Phase I and II) which also covered the major tributaries of the two rivers. There is massive pollution in both the rivers, primarily because of industrial effluents and also sewage and the objectives of these action plans have virtually
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failed. It is estimated that around Rs 900-Rs1000 crores or even more have been spent on the Ganga Action Plan over the last two decades. Meanwhile seven IITs have plunged into a government effort to clean the Ganga, promising to recommend a slew of river management and technology strategies to improve its ecological health. The consortium will develop a Ganga River Basin Management Plan under an agreement signed recently. The plan will take into account the future growth of population and the increasing demand for land, energy and water as well as requirements of sewage treatment plants in cities along the river. It is also expected to ensure that the biological water flow remained unaffected throughout the year, according to Prof. Vinod Tare of IIT, Kanpur who is coordinating the Rs 15 crore project. Meanwhile, the Centre promised the Supreme Court recently that the Ganga will be pure and free of pollutants by 2020. in its affidavit before the Court, the National River Conservation Directorate under the Ministry of Environment & Forests, said: An assistance of $ 1billion has been indicated in the first phase by the World Bank. A project preparation facility advance of $ 2.96 million has been sanctioned by the WB. It may be mentioned here that in India, as also in many other countries pollution of rivers has been a big problem. The developing world, particularly India and China, needs to learn from Europes experience of reviving and maintaining rivers. In our country, the Supreme Court judgments along these lines have been quite significant but not much effective action has been taken in this regard. The projects that have been taken up are far from satisfactory and not efficiently monitored. As per 2006 official audit of the Ganga Action Plan, only 3940 per cent of its sewage treatment target has been accomplished and the Plan is behind schedule by over 13 years. The same holds true of the Yamuna Action Plan where progress has also been not quite unsatisfactory.
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In the case of Yamuna, apart from the problem of sewage entering the river, the large-scale extraction of water in the upstream of Delhi for drinking and irrigation purposes, leading to negligible flow in the river after Wazirabad, as per reports of the Ministry of Environment & Forests has indeed been a big problem. This problem has also been witnessed in Kolkata (of the Hooghly river, an offshoot of the Ganga) after the water sharing agreement formula was signed between India and Bangladesh. Some of the states are facing severe water crisis, both in the urban and rural areas, while Assam, Bihar face floods almost every year or once in two years. Meanwhile the 11thPlan aimed at expanding irrigation by 2.5 million hectares a year, and, at meetings of the National Development Council (NDC), most states have voiced the need for more allocations for increasing their irrigated area. In such a scenario, there is need for judicious management of water and ensuring its optimum use throughout the country which possibly the new plan of the Ganga proposes to do. Another aspect of the problem is the drying up of rivers. In the case of West Bengal, ecologists have found that as many as 9 rivers such as Saraswati, Adi Ganga, Kana Damodar Maja Damodar, Ganur, Behula, Anjana, Bhoirab and Bidyadhari have completelt gone dry. The condition of Jalangi, Ichchamati, Churni and Yamma is extremely poor as they are about to dry up. It is understood that considering the gravity of the situation, the West Bengal Pollution Control Board (WBPCB) has embarked upon a drive and appointed a special committee to assess the status of many rivers navigating across the state. The study, headed by Kalyan Rudra, a river scientist, is expected to be completed in the next two years and will ascertain areas such as sediment load, toxicity, ecological flow, velocity and changing course. It is quite obvious that demands of water would increase considerably more so because of the rapid pace of industrialization and urbanization in the coming years. It is thus necessary that the rivers, at least the major ones, have to be protected and all
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matters pertaining to water sharing, water pollution and water management have to be seriously examined by the Central authorities, if necessary in consultation with the respective state governments. It is in this context that the question of river interlinking may need to be reconsidered in a judicious manner by experts, keeping into consideration the geological, environmental, economic and practical aspects. It is also necessary that the Himalayan rivers may be allowed to meander for which vast stretches of free river banks are needed. They fulfill the crucial role of conserving flood water and rain water in the porous land. This ecological role is particularly important for cities like Delhi that face water shortage. Experts believe that concrete structures should not be built on the river bank land and flood plains should be opposed in view of the fact that substantial parts of these plains have already been lost to the urban sprawl and what remains need to be saved. With the rivers drying up and the rivers deprived of the minimum requirement of fresh water, the consequences would be disastrous unless specific steps are taken at this juncture. The per capita water availability is declining and India is expected to fall in the list of water-stressed countries by the year 2014-15 along with the added problem of contamination of groundwater, resulting in a jump in water-borne diseases. A water management and river conservation plan needs to be drawn up at the earliest to recharge our water resources and save them from extinction. A clean flowing river could be of immense benefit to the country. Apart from its tourism potential, it could also create lot of employment. Asian rivers have been untouched by the leisure economy except for pilgrimage tourism in India. While the polluter pay principle should be enforced, rivers and its banks would also have to be kept environmentally clean. (The author is a freelance writer on development issues, based in Kolkata, e-mail: dhurjatimukherjee54@gmail.com)
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Inter-Linking of Rivers
he schemes of inter-linking of rivers of the country is under consideration with Government, The Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR) (erstwhile Ministry of Irrigation) had formulated a National Perspective Plan (NPP) for Water Resources Development in 1980 envisaging inter-basin transfer of water from surplus basins to deficit basins/areas which comprises two components, namely, Himalayan Rivers Development Component and Peninsular Rivers Development Component. The National Water Development Agency (NWDA) was set up under the MOWR in 1982 for carrying out various technical studies to establish the feasibility of the proposals of NPP and to give concrete shape to them.Based on various studies conducted, NWDA has identified 30 links (16 under Peninsular Component & 14 under Himalayan Component) for preparation of Feasibility Reports (FRs). Out of these,FRsof 14 links under Peninsular Component and 2 links (Indian Portion) under Himalayan Component have been completed. Five links under Peninsular Component namely (i) Ken-Betwa, (ii) Parbati-KalisindhChambal, (iii) Damanganga-Pinjal, (iv) ParTapi-Narmada & (v)Godavari (Polavaram)Krishna (Vijayawada) were identified as priority links for building consensus among the concerned states for taking up their Detailed Project Reports (DPRs). DPR of one priority link namely, Ken Betwa was completed and sent to the Governments of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh for comments.The Government of Madhya Pradesh suggested an alternative proposal based on which two phases of the project are envisaged. The DPR of the phase-I has been prepared and sent to the Government of Madhya Pradesh
26

and Uttar Pradesh in May 2010 for comments. Further, NWDA has taken up the DPRs of two more priority links after concurrence of the concerned states, namely Par TapiNarmadaandDamangangaPinjalwhich are planned to be completed by December, 2011. Another priority link namely,Godavari(Polavaram)Krishna (Vijawada) link is part of the Polavaram project of the Andhra Pradesh. Planning Commission has given investment clearance to the Polavaram Project and the Government of Andhra Pradesh has taken up the above project including link component as per their proposals. The names of the links and the names of rivers likely to be interlinked under NPP and their present statusisgiven below: List of Water Transfer Links Identified Under Npp and Their Status Peninsular RiversDevelopment Component 1. Mahanadi(Manibhadra) -Godavari(Dowlaiswaram) link

- FR completed

2. Godavari(Polavaram) -Krishna(Vijayawada) link* - Taken up by the state as per heir own proposal 3. Godavari(Inchampalli) - Krishna(Pulichintala) link - FR completed

4. Godavari(Inchampalli)- Krishna(Nagarjunasagar) link - FR completed 5. Krishna(Nagarjunasagar) -Pennar(Somasila)link - FR completed


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6. Krishna(Srisailam) Pennarlink 8. Pennar(Somasila)-Cauvery (GrandAnicut) link 9. Cauvery(Kattalai) VaigaiGundarlink 10. Parbati Kalisindh Chambal link*

- FR completed

8. Chunar-Sone Barrage link - S&I works completed 9. Sone Dam - Southern Tributaries of Ganga link - S&I works taken up 10. Manas-Sankosh-Tista-Ganga (M-S-T-G) link - S&I works taken up 11. Jogighopa-Tista- Farakka (Alternate to M-S-T-G) link - S&I works taken up 12. Farakka-Sunderbans link - S&I work completed 13. Ganga-DamodarSubernarekha link - S&I work completed 14. SubernarekhaMahanadi link - S&I work completed * Priority links PFR-Pre-Feasibility Report; FR- Feasibility Report; DPR- Detailed Project Report S&I-Survey & Investigation in Indian portion The link proposals firmed up by NWDA under NPP envisage additional irrigation benefits of 25 million hectares of irrigation from surface waters, 10 million hectare by increased use of ground waters and generation of 34000 MW of power apart from the benefits of flood moderation navigation, water supply, fisheries, salinity, pollution control etc. However this is subject to the consensus among the States involved in each project. By transferring water from a surplus basin to a water deficient basin, problems relating to irrigation and potable water can be mitigated significantly. (Source PIB)
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7. Krishna(Almatti)-Pennarlink - FR completed - FR completed - FR completed - FR completed

11. Damanganga Pinjal link* - FR completed & DPR taken up 12. ParTapi Narmada link* - FR completed & DPR taken up 13. Ken Betwa link* - DPR of phase-I Completed 14. PambaAchankovil Vaippar link 15. Netravati - Hemavati Link 16. Bedti - Varda link - FR completed. - PFR completed - FR taken up

Himalayan Rivers Development Component 1. Kosi-Mechi link - Entirely lies in Nepal 2. Kosi-Ghaghra link - S&I works taken up 3. Gandak-Ganga link - S&I works taken up 4. Ghaghra-Yamuna link - FR completed (for Indian portion) 5. Sarda-Yamuna link - FR completed (for Indian portion) 6. Yamuna-Rajasthan link - S&I works completed 7. Rajasthan-Sabarmati link - S&I works completed
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FROM THE GROUND

More to toilet training than this


Dinesh Sahu

desar village in Rajnandgaon, Chhattisgarh is an innocuous village by the one of the main roads that run through the district. Development in terms of infrastructure or industry has not really made its presence felt here despite it proximity to the main road which in rural areas is always an indicator of the level of development or the programmes reaching the people. Unlike Bastar where tribal communities predominate, in Rajnandgaon, it is a mix of tribal and non-tribal population largely earning their livelihoods through cultivation of corn and wheat. So what is unique about Adesar? Nothing except it is one of the villages in the district, which was supposed to have benefited from the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) initiated by the Ministry of Rural Development and implemented by the Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) in Chhattisgarh.

The motivation is no doubt laudable; to inculcate good sanitation practices among rural masses. More specifically, to eradicate open defecation, the root of many diseases and pollution of the environment. For this the modus operandi has been to promote the construction of dry toilets to all rural households meant to reach the optimum coverage by 2012. In purely a theoretical way, it has been ingeniously designed to promote not only coverage in physical terms but promote a sense of participation from the community. For all BPL families, the scheme extends an amount of Rs.2,200 to construct a toilet, which would cost Rs.2,500/-, with the contribution of Rs.300/- designed to encourage community participation. It is noteworthy that Chattisgarh is the only state where even the APL families are allocated an amount of Rs. 1900 for toilet construction.

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However any such move that aims to change fundamental practices which the community has carried on for generations however will require softer skills rather than hard implementation. There would be questions, apprehensions even opposition from different quarters of society for which the programme was not equipped. What was interesting is that village women were largely supportive of such a programme. They feared going to the forests sometimes one or two kilometers from their homes. It was not just the fear of sexual molestation but an underlying threat of Naxal attacks which runs in the minds of people. It is true that Rajnandgaon is not in the eye of the storm of the conflict as is Bastar, yet the reverberations are there. The presence of Naxals is there. Conversely, the elders in the villages see little reason to incorporate toilets in their homes and are not convinced or could not care about its benefits. Whatever be the divergent reasons, the response from the community has not been forthcoming. They are not ready to cough up the amount of Rs.300/- or Rs.600/- as the case may be for BPL and APL families respectively. The implementation process has not been able to capture the pulse of the people even though there have been attempts to create awareness through Rangmanch or skits, songs and dances held at village common grounds to promote the message. In villages like Manpur and some in Chauki block, this was done but many others like Ambagard, Seoni and Kahadabri were left out. Was it the lack of funds or just poor planning that the awareness programme was done in such an arbitrary way? Somehow bungling through all this, during this period, dry toilets came up all over the place but the construction was poor, the design shoddy. It seemed obvious to even an untrained eye that there was a scrounging and skimping of material that compromised these structures. These toilets were literally built with one sack of cement and 100 pieces of bricks. Sometimes the lack of building material was so obvious that literally a curtain of sorts was hung from the basic structure. It was not uncommon to find old saris or sackcloth substituting for walls! The toilets in Chauki block Rajnandgaon
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district has many such structures or apologies for structures. Many of them do not have doors to ensure privacy nor a proper structure to make the squatting convenient. By not listening to the people nor drawing them to the idea and its practice, the government agencies seem to be losing a golden opportunity to bring about a much-needed change on the ground. The programme could play a critical role in augmenting the health and creating awareness of sanitation amongst rural communities. Instead it seems to going in the direction of what has sadly become endemic especially in rural areas; poor implementation of programmes which are brilliant conceptually and also flush with funds. The coverage is poor. In Chhattisgarh it is meant to cover all districts and to build toilets for 15, 53,540 BPL families by 2012. Coming back to Adesar village, the shoddy structures makes a mockery of the programme intent and also of the villagers who have squatted under the open sky for as long as they can remember and have known their parents and grand-parents doing the same. The socalled toilets cannot cope with the rains and are flooded. Some of these are being used as dump garbage. Toilets built for BPL families in Bhanpur, Mohla and Antagadh Chauki are in a bad shape. Villagers in these areas allege that departmental officials had no compunctions in demanding their share in incentive amount. At a macro level, the figures of sanitation coverage show a rise. From 2.6% in 2001 it is now 8.9%. The government has put in place an evaluation system which recognizes Nirmal Gram Panchayats; or panchayats which are open-defecation free. Of the 90 in Chhattisgarh, 16 are in Rajnandgaon. Yet there is a flip side to the pretty picture as many many villages in the district would bear testimony to. If any programme is to be universal, it needs to take into account the hurdles for non-implementation and effectively remove them. Without that commitment or accountability, the political will to bring about development for the rural communities seems a sham. (Charkha Features)
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Saving Water in Rice Cultivation:


Technological Options
Amod K. Thakur, Souvik Ghosh and Rajeeb K. Mohanty
Water scarcity has become a major threat for growing thirsty paddy crop and foremost challenge for sustaining the global food demand. Now it is high time farmers, researchers and policymakers rethink about strategies to cope with this severe problem for the survival of humankind.

ice, a global food grain is grown in 114 countries with 90% of worlds rice is produced and consumed in Asia. The

Land preparation
Land preparation lays the foundation for the whole cropping season and it is important to plan and adopt proper water management during land preparation itself. It includes field channels, land leveling, tillage and puddling, and bund preparation.

demand for rice increases with population, which is expected to rise by a further 38% within 30

years, according to the United Nations. To save water in rice cultivation, farmers can use following technological options during land preparation, before main crop establishment, and actual crop growth period.

Field channels
In India, most of the rice fields get irrigation water from plot-to-plot (flooding method of

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irrigation) due to absence of field channels and the amount of water flowing in and out of a rice field cannot be controlled and field-specific water management is not possible. Mostly farmers may not be able to drain their fields before harvest because water keeps flowing in from other fields. The water that continuously flows through rice fields also removes nutrients from the field. Constructing separate channels to convey water to and from each field (or to a small group of fields) greatly improves the individual control of water and is the recommended practice in any type of irrigation system.

Soil compaction using heavy machinery is another option to decrease soil permeability in sandy soil with loamy sub-soils having at least 5% clay. Government support can only make this technology feasible on a large scale as most of the farmers cannot afford to compact their soils by their own.

Bund preparation and its maintenance


Good bunds are a prerequisite to reduce seepage and underbund loses of water. Bunds should be well compacted and any cracks or rat holes should be plastered with mud at the beginning of the crop season. To avoid overbund flow during heavy rainfall, bund height should be at least 20 cm. Researchers have used plastic sheets in bunds in field experiments to reduce seepage losses which are probably financially not feasible to farmers.

Land leveling
A well-leveled field is a prerequisite for proper water management and good crop. Unleveled fields results in uneven crop emergence and uneven early growth, uneven fertilizer distribution, and extra weed problems.

Raised beds
One of the recently proposed innovations to deal with water scarcity in the rice-wheat system in the Indo-Gangetic Plain is the use of raised beds. In the system of raised beds, rice is grown on beds that are separated by furrows through which irrigation water is coursed. Though dimensions may vary, beds are usually around 35 cm wide, separated by furrows that are 30 cm wide and 25 cm deep. Rice can be transplanted or direct-seeded on the beds. So far, the raised-bed system has mostly been tested with current lowland rice varieties, and yield gains can be expected when suitable aerobic varieties are developed/used. Tractor-pulled equipment has been developed that shapes the beds and drills seed (sometimes together with fertilizers) in one operation. Among the suggested benefits of raised beds are improved water-use and nutrientuse efficiency, improved water management, higher yields, andwhen the operations
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Tillage and Puddling


Rice fields with few rat holes or cracks rapidly lose water by seepage and percolation during soaking of field. Shallow soil tillage before land soaking close the cracks and amount of water used in wet land preparation can be reduced by 350 mm. Thorough puddling results in a good compaction of soil, reduces permeability and percolation rates throughout the crop growing period. The efficacy of puddling in reducing percolation depends on soil properties. Puddling is very effective in clay soil (that form cracks during fallow period) and ineffective in coarse soils (do not have enough fine clay particles). Puddlings is not necessary in heavy clay soils and in such soils, direct dry seeding (without puddling but tilled) with minimum percolation losses can be practiced.
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are mechanizedreduced labor requirements and improved seeding and weeding practices. In the Indo-Gangetic Plain, farmers are experimenting with raised beds for rice and other crops with different degrees of success. More information on raised beds can be obtained from the Rice-Wheat Consortium (www. rwc.cgiar.org/index.asp).

Before main establishment

crop
decreases the seepage and percolation flows. SSC in practice means that a shallow irrigation is given to obtain about 1 cm of ponded water depth a day or so after the disappearance of ponded water. By following SSC, water input decreased on average by 23% from the continuously flooded check. Raised beds can be an effective way to keep the soil around saturation. Rice plants are grown on beds and the water in the furrows is kept close to the surface of the beds.

Minimizing the time between land soaking for wet land preparation and transplanting reduces the period when no crop is present and when outflows of water from the field do not contribute to production. In largescale irrigation systems with plot-to-plot irrigation, farmers raise seedlings in part of their main field and whole main field is soaked when the seedbed is prepared and remains flooded during the entire duration of the seedbed. Under such condition, time between land soaking and transplanting can be minimized by the installation of field channels, the adoption of common seedbeds, or the adoption of direct wet or dry seeding. With field channels, water can be delivered to the individual seedbeds separately and the main field does not need to be flooded. Common seedbeds, either communal or privately managed, can be located strategically close to irrigation canals and be irrigated as one block. With direct seeding, the crop starts growing and using water from the moment of establishment onward.

Alternate wetting and drying


In alternate wetting and drying (AWD), irrigation water is applied to obtain flooded conditions after passing certain number of days of disappearance of ponded water. The number of days of nonflooded soil in AWD before irrigation is applied can vary from 1 day to more than 10 days. AWD treatments results in yield reductions varying from 0% to 70% compared to flooded fields with increased water productivity. Total (irrigation and rainfall) water inputs may be decreased by 1530% without a significant impact on yield. The benefits of AWD are improved rooting system, reduced lodging (because of a better root system), periodic soil aeration, and better control of some diseases such as golden snail. On the other hand, rats find it easier to attack the crop during dry soil periods.
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Crop growth period 1. Irrigation methods a. Saturated soil culture


In saturated soil culture (SSC), the soil is kept as close to saturation as possible, which
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Crop establishment methods a. Dry-seeding


Under direct dry seeding method of rice cultivation, dry seeds are broadcasted on plowed and well leveled soil (without puddling). The soil should be moist but not saturated from sowing to till emergence, or else the seeds may rot in the soil. After sowing, a flush irrigation is applied if there is no rainfall to wet the soil. The soil needs to be saturated the soil when plants have developed three leaves, and gradually depth of ponded water is to be increased with increasing plant height.

b. Wet-seeding

In wet-seeding method, farmers generally broadcast pre-germinated seeds directly on the puddled and levelled field, which are free from standing water. The soil should be kept at saturation from sowing to 10 days after emergence, and then the depth of ponded water Conservation agriculture should gradually increase with increasing plant height. This method saves water up to 25% by With aerobic rice, technologies of minimizing water loss through reducing the time conservation agriculture, such as mulching and between land soaking and zero- or minimum tillage as transplanting. This method One of the recently practiced in upland crops, is also suitable for areas proposed innovations to become available to rice where labour availability is deal with water scarcity in farmers as well. Various major constraint during peak the rice-wheat system in methods of mulching (e.g., transplanting time. the Indo-Gangetic Plain is using dry soil, straw, and the use of raised beds. In plastic sheets) are being Aerobic rice the system experimented in non-flooded rice systems in China and have A fundamentally different been shown to reduce evaporation as well as approach to reduce water requirements from percolation losses while maintaining high yields. rice fields is to grow the crop like an upland crop, such as wheat or maize. Unlike lowland rice, upland crops are grown in non-puddled, nonsaturated (i.e., aerobic) soil without ponded water. The amount of irrigation water should match evaporation from the soil and transpiration
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by the crop (plus any application inefficiency losses). The potential water reductions at the field level when rice can be grown as an upland crop are large, especially on soils with high seepage and percolation rates. Besides seepage and percolation losses declining, evaporation decreases since there is no ponded water layer, and the large amount of water used for wet land preparation is eliminated altogether. Upland rice varieties are drought tolerant, but have a low yield potential and tend to lodge under high levels of external inputs such as fertilizer and supplemental irrigation. Alternatively, highyielding lowland rice varieties grown under aerobic soil conditions, but with supplemental irrigation, have been shown to save water, but at a severe yield penalty. Achieving high yields under irrigated but aerobic soil conditions requires new varieties of aerobic rice that combine the drought-tolerant characteristics of upland varieties with the high-yielding characteristics of lowland varieties.

(The authors are from Water Technology Centre for Eastern Region, Chandrasekharpur, Bhubaneswar- 751023, Orissa, e-ma il: ghosh_ wtcer@yahoo.com)
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BAMBOO IN THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF HIMACHAL PRADESH


S.P.Vasudeva
amboo is an important plant species from the grass family Gramineae to which wheat and rice also belong. It is found in tropical, sub-tropical and temperate region of all continents except Europe and West Asia. Bamboo has been and is still playing its role in the socio-economy of the people especially in rural areas and constitutes in integral part of their culture. It is one of the fastest growing plants and a quick renewable resource. It grows three times faster than eucalyptus and can be harvested four times as often. Most of the species are ready to be harvested in four to five years. Multiple harvest is subsequently possible every second year and beyond. It produces maximum biomass per unit area, per unit time compared

to other forest plants producing 30% of the total biomass per year. In India about 23 genera and 130 species of bamboo both indigenous and exotic are found making it the second largest place for bamboos in the World after China (Bhatt, 1997). This diversity can be made use of not only in utilizing it in raw form but also through its value addition in producing various products. Bamboo scientists and workers around the world have identified around over a thousand applications of Bamboos. In India bamboo sector generates 432 million workdays annually. Bamboos have vast economic potential, capability to generate employment and ability

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of giving ecological and environmental stability. This makes it an ideal species to be used for the socio-economic development of the people in a sustainable way especially in rural areas.

Socio-economic Bamboo:

Perspective

of

The socio-economic potential of bamboo, ingrained in the cultural life of people of all walks, can be utilized to make the life of people better in the times to come. Till recently it was estimated that most of the bamboos produced in India were being used for non industrial purposes (Table 1) such as construction, scaffolding, fencing, ladder making and articles of daily use (Tewari, 1992). The diversification of the production and utilization of bamboos by taking up new ventures through the constitution of self help groups in rural areas and by initiating new commercial ventures its socio-economic potential can be increased manifolds. The new technological developments along with scientific and novel applications have given new dimensions to this wonder plant. This socio-economic potential is further interwoven with the environmental benefits because of its soil holding capacity and carbon sequential properties. Table1: Bamboo Consumption Pattern in India After Tewari (1992)
S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Plup Housing Non-residential Rural uses Fuel Packing/basketry Transport Furniture Other wood working industries Other uses (Ladder, Mats etc.) Utilisation Consumption % 35.0 20.0 5.0 20.0 8.5 5.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 3.0

Bamboo has capacity to replace wood products by manufacturing of new generation bamboo products such as mat board, mat veneer, composite mat, corrugated sheets etc. The introduction of such products will help in conservation of forests by replacement of the wood based products in addition take the bamboobased industry to an outlay of Rs 26000 crores by the end of 11th Plan (National Bamboo Mission). It is thus an ideal example to show as to how we can bridge the sustainable subsistence of the past with the unsustainable industrialization of the present into sustainable future.

Distribution of Bamboo in Himachal Pradesh (H.P.).:


India is endowed with diverse bamboo species with more than 50% of these distributed in NorthEast. Bamboo forests occupy an area of 10.03 M. Ha. of the total forest area of the country. Bamboo bearing areas in H.P. is 238.95 Sq.Km. (91.45 Sq.Km. in Govt Forests and 147.50 Sq.Km. in private areas). This area in H.P. although lowest in the country has high potential for socio-economic development of the state especially from bamboo growing on private areas. The distribution of bamboos in the private land makes its harvesting easy. The main bamboo species found in H.P. are a) Indigenous species: Dendrocalamus strictus (Bans); Arundinaria falcata (Nirgal); A. spathiflora (Nirgal).

b) Cultivated species: Dendrocalamus hamilltonii (Maggar); Bamboosa nutans (Nal). Bamboo forests in H.P. are managed scientifically and are either exploited when the bamboos flower and get dried down or through the felling programme prescribed in the working plans. Bamboos growing on private lands are exploited commercially under the three year felling programme approved under H.P. Land Preservation Act, 1978 wherein 1/3rd of the bamboos in culms are exploited commercially.
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Socio-economic returns from Bamboo in Himachal Pradesh (H.P.):


To illustrate the socio-economic benefits which bamboo can bestow in H.P. Kangra district has been chosen. In this district two species of bamboos having social and commercial value are grown on the private lands i.e., Bans (Dendrocalamus strictus) and Maggar (Dendrocalamus hamilltonii). They are also found in Private lands and Govt. forests of Bilaspur, Una, Hamirpur and Solan districts. These two species provide direct economic benefits to the people mostly in the form of exporting these

bamboos as commercial material out of the state in raw form to the neighboring states of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan where they are put to various uses. The rate of these bamboos during 2001-02 and 2005-06 varied from Rs. 7 to Rs. 9/per piece for bans and for those of maggar from Rs. 13/- to Rs. 15/- per piece. The returns from selling of Bamboo from private land in Kangra district during these five year period in four forest divisions of Palampur, Dharamshala, Dehra and Nurpur under Dharamshala forest circle ranged approximately between Rs. 25/- lakh to Rs. 50 lakh per year (Table-2). The economic returns from exploiation of

Table 2: Yearly Economic Returns from Bamboos and Maggar grown in private areas in Kangra District of H.P.
S.No. 1 Year 2001-02 Forest Division Dharamshala Dehra Nurpur Palampur Total 2 2002-03 Dharamshala Dehra Nurpur Palampur Total 3 2003-04 Dharamshala Dehra Nurpur Palampur Total 4 2004-05 Dharamshala Dehra Nurpur Palampur Total 5 2005-06 Dharamshala Dehra Nurpur Palampur Total The benefits that bamboos accrue are as under: 36 Kurukshetra February 2011 Economic Returns (Lakhs). Bamboos 8.25 3.00 6.00 17.25 4.50 11.00 5.00 20.50 4.00 11.00 2.25 17.25 2.25 11.50 12.00 3.00 28.25 6.50 16.00 5.00 27.50 Maggar 7.50 2.00 9.50 5.00 6.00 11.00 13.50 15.00 28.50 0.75 11.75 10.50 23.00 19.00 2.00 21.00 Total amount in lakhs 15.75 5.00 6.00 26.75 9.50 17.00 5.00 31.50 17.50 26.00 2.25 45.75 3.00 23.25 22.50 3.00 51.75 25.50 18.00 5.00 48.50

bamboos on Govt. forests to the people are only in the form of labour as revenue from their sale goes to the Govt. exchequer. The non-tangible benefits in the form of social and environmental services that bamboos provide are more than the tangible benefits listed below. a) Social Benefits: The returns from bamboos grown in the private land such as fodder, small timber and in making household products, houses etc. are ingrained in the social life of people in Kangra district and in H.P. Bamboos have a strong family orientation and if it can be built into family business it will not only strengthen the social fabric, but also offer a safe frame work for trade and commerce from which they can earn their likelihood. About 20% of bamboo is used for household purposes with rest of it exported out.

bamboo based applications, appropriate marketing of the products so produced is resorted to a number of jobs can be created in rural areas. This can bridge the gap between subsistence and cash flow thus improving the socio-economic status of the people of the state. The production cost of bamboos and its products is quite low as energy requirements for its processing is minimal making it economically more advantageous than other products. c) Environmental Benefits: Bamboos grown in the private land in Kangra and other districts of the state is helping in the stabilization of soil, preventing erosion, protecting agricultural fields etc. If people are encouraged to use bamboo based houses instead of wood the quality of forests and their biodiversity will improve. The bamboos have high carbon sequential properties which besides helping in cleaning the air can also be used in getting carbon credits. It is also an ideal species for watershed management.

b) Economic Benefits: The economic potential of the bamboos can be enhanced by supporting its applications, by facilitating micro/small enterprises and by establishing cottage and small-scale industries. This will involve value addition of raw bamboos into products such as handicrafts, construction material, furniture agricultural implements, pickle making, medicines, fisheries etc. The income of raw bamboos can be increased by 10 to 20 times through such a value addition. This will help in increasing and supplementing the income of people. Such an approach and strategy of dealing with bamboo is still missing in Kangra district and other parts of the the state. There is thus need to create self-help groups of Youth, Manila Mandals and Ex-servicemen which can manufacture small scale value added products. It can also be linked to major economic sectors such as paper and pulp industry, housing, textiles (rayon) etc. through appropriate marketing. Both these endeavors will result in not only direct employment but self-employment as well. If economic value is added to wide range of subsistence level
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Post Harvest Technology:


The post-harvest technologies and their application to bamboos can be divided into three broad categories as indicated below: A) Preservation and Processing: To prolong the durability of bamboos, to protect them from pathogen attacks and to increase their market value preservation of bamboos is absolutely necessary. Processing is carried out to reduce waste and improve quality and productivity of bamboos. Processing technologies being used include high temperature drying as an anti-splitting technique, microwave bending to flatten bamboos, stream explosion for chemical digestion etc. These two processes are still missing from the bamboo based industry in H.P. and need to be adopted for better marketing and bringing ameliorative economic returns from bamboos.
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B) Value Addition: The economic potential of the bamboos in H.P. can be enhanced by supporting its application through creation of self-help users groups, setting up small/micro enterprises and utilizing it in cottage, smallscale medium or big industries. Let us take into account the average annual return of bamboos to be Rs 40 lakhs in Kangra district and apply this to value addition of bamboos. Further, it is presumed that 20% of bamboo is sold in the raw form as is being done at present with rest of 80% being utilized by adding value to it as under: i) Cottage/Handicrafts: The products such as table mats, trays, lamp shades and other household items can be manufactured through the creation of self-help groups or by setting up handicraft/small scale industries in the rural areas. Such an endeavor can utilize 20% of bamboos and returns in this case can increase by about 10 times. Industrial Uses: Bamboo based industries in India range from cottage industries listed above to capital intensive, large pulp and paper mills where bamboo can be used as a raw material.

a)

ii)

Bamboo Mat board: Bamboo mat board is a composite material compromising several layers of bamboo mats woven in a particular manner and bonded together with a rigid adhesive (Damodran and Jagadesh, 1994). Such a board has lower tensile strength and moduli of rapture and elasticity. Bamboo mat board is made of 2-6 mm thickness where it is more flexible than the plywood. Such a board can be put to use where it requires flexibility and high sheer modulus such as storage bins and packing boxes. The board with higher thickness (6-12 mm) can be used as a substitute for structural plywood for applications such as in roofing panels doors and windows. Due to cold weather conditions people mostly use wood penalled houses and so also the floors are made up of wood. These boards which will be much cheaper than wood can replace it not only in Kangra district but other parts of the state and the adjoining states as well. 20% bamboo can be used for such a purpose where there can be 20 times increase in value. There is a need to adopt such industries in the Industrial Policy of the State immediately because of the easy availability of the raw material in the state and the high potential it has got in the market.

Table 3: Increase in Economic Returns from bamboos in Kangra district due to Value Addition S.No. Products Percentage utilization of bamboos for value addition 20% 20% 10% 25% 5% 20% 100% 38 Average Returns per year (Rs. in lacs) 8.00 8.00 4.00 10.00 2.00 8.00 40.00 Increase due to value addition (X times) Rs in lakhs 80.00 (10) 160.00 (20) 60.00 (15) 100.00 (10) 10.00 (5) 410.00 Amount of increase (Rs. In lakhs) 72.00 152.00 56.00 90.00 8.00 378.00

1 2 a b C 3 4

Cottage/Handicraft Industrial Uses Bamboo boards Furniture Paper and Pulp industry Building material Other/ Sold market

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b) Furniture: Bamboo furniture of various forms can be manufactured by the self-help groups and by small and micro enterprises. Although bamboo furniture is less durable than the teak/ wood based furniture but its cheap rates and aesthetic looks give it an advantage, which can be used in a big way by marketing it in towns and cities. 10% bamboos can be used for manufacture of furniture with an increase to 15 times this being a labour intensive effort. c)

40 lakhs (Table 3). If we take into account the present value of these bamboos this estimate will be much more, the benefits and profit by selling these products will depend on the marketing strategy adopted. The impact such an approach will bring in whole of the state can be well understood and need to be adopted. C) Appropriate Marketing of Bamboo and Bamboo Products: The marketing of bamboos can be done in raw form, processed form and as a value added products. Each of these would require a separate marketing strategy.

Paper and Pulp Industry- 25% bamboo can be utilized in this industry and if demand is more, quantity from that being sold in raw from a) The raw form of bamboos would require the can be increased. The return in this case will be around 10 times. This industry has lot of intervention of the Govt. by fixing a minimum potential as at present support price for each the raw material for species of the bamboos. Bamboo is an important plant paper and pulp industry This will ensure a minimum species from the grass family is being imported from price for the produce and Gramineae to which wheat outside. generate competition for and rice also belong. It is the purchase of bamboos iii) Building Material: found in tropical, sub-tropical which will help in bringing Bamboo being strong, remunerative economic and temperate region of all flexible and light weight returns to the farmers. continents except Europe and is one of the oldest and West Asia the versatile building b) The processed material being easily and value added products available in rural areas in so manufactured should be taken to the state. It gains good texture and aesthetic the explored markets for appropriate value when treated physically and chemically. marketing. This is also required as the The bamboo can and is going to work as nature of market are changing very fast alternative to wood in construction due to ban since the domestic market are shrinking on felling of trees, decrease in wood resource and the export market is growing base, growing environmental awareness and enormously. The production of handicraft biodiversity conservation. Five (5) percent of and those made in small scale enterprise the commercial bamboo can be sold for this should be based on the market demand purpose and returns in this case will be 5 times including export market. These products because of the initial competition with wood. can also be marketed at tourists points on the highways, places of pilgrimage and If bamboos are allotted to various products important tourists destinations in H.P. such as per their consumption pattern in Kangra as Shimla, Dharamshala, Dalhousie Manali district the increase in its returns due to value etc. These products can also be marketed to addition will be about Rs. 3.78 crores per nearby places such as Jullundur, Ludhiana, year with the total returns reaching the level Amritsar, Chandigarh and Delhi. of Rs. 4.10 crores from a meager value of Rs.
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Kurukshetra February 2011

c)

The supply of bamboos to the big industries such as paper and pulp, rayon etc. will also help in a bringing a competitive market price of bamboos because of increased demand and competition and for the farmers to get remunerative price of their produce. Further there is need to link the production of bamboo with industries and industrialization in the state for better returns for the produce. Such a marketing strategy need to be adopted immediately in the industrial policy of the state.

Marketing as explained above should be competitive and taken to both the exploited and explored markets. The export potential which henceforth has remained unexplored need to be tapped. The constitution of multi-disciplinary nodal agency taking care of all aspects of bamboo production and utilization will help in taking this strategy forward. The adoption of bamboo in the state industrial policy and involving the participation of business associations such as CII, FICCI etc. will add to the utilization of the economic potential of bamboo.

Conclusions and Discussion: There is thus Management Strategy of Bamboo in a need to devise a demand driven, carefully Himachal Pradesh (H.P.): The sustainable programmed and coordinated strategic approach management and utilization of bamboo growing that should link social on the private land must needs, with economic look into first the traditional The supply of bamboo to the worth for management social use of the people big industries such as paper and and marketing of bamboo followed by the commercial bamboo based pulp, rayon etc. will also help in and use in handicrafts micro products. Small scale and small scale enterprises a bringing a competitive market and micro enterprise followed by in the big price of bamboos because development employment industries all leading to boost of increased demand and generation, gender issues in trade and commerce. competition and for the farmers sustainable management This has to be matched by and environment to get remunerative price of adopting a people centred rehabilitation must also their produce and market driven approach. be kept into account The concentration of such while taking this strategic an effort should first be in approach forward for propagating the concept Bilaspur, Kangra, Hamirpur, Solan and Una districts and strategies ingrained in National Bamboo where bamboo is grown on private lands. Mission. The adoption of strategic people centred and market driven approach of bamboo This strategy will sustain if the production of cultivation and utilization into the industrial bamboo is enhanced through the improvement policy of the state is the need of the hour. of existing varieties and introduction of new This will help in uplifting the socio-economic high productive varieties. There is need to have condition of people of Kangra and other parts in sustained supply of these bamboos to the artisans the state of Himachal Pradesh where bamboo is engaged in handicrafts, micro enterprises and being grown on private lands. the big industries. This can be made possible through pre-determination of annual demand/ (The author is the Chief Conservator of and or increased demand followed by sustained Forests, Office of Principal CCF Shimla, (H.P.)., regulated felling of bamboos to meet this e-mail : spvasudeva@yahoo.com) demand.
40 Kurukshetra February 2011

Monitoring and Evaluation of Rural Development Programmes


TheefficacyofthevariousprogrammesoftheMinistryofRuralDevelopmentbeingimplementedinrural areasallacrossthecountryiscarefullymonitoredandthenevaluatedwiththehelpofseveralmechanisms, as explained by Shri N.K.Sahu,Dir. Monitoring&Evaluation, Ministry of Rural Development. Effective monitoring of the Ministrys programmes is considered very important for effi cient delivery at the grassroot level, particularly in view of the substantial increase in the allocation of funds for rural development programmes since the Eighth Five Year Plan, which can be observed in the table below.
Plan Outlay and Actual Expenditure of Ministry of Rural Development Department-wise (Rs. in crore) 11th Plan Outlay Department of Rural Development Department of Land Resources Department of Drinking Water Supply Ministry of Rural Development 194933.28 19459.90 47306.13 261699.31 10th Plan Outlay 56748.00 6526.00 13500.00 76774.00 Actual 90014.11 5687.82 18366.24 114068.17 9th Plan Outlay 32869.87 1353.93 8650.00 42873.80 Actual 40435.22 2478.42 8984.64 51898.28

The Ministry has evolved a comprehensive, multi-level and multi-tool system of monitoring the implementation of its programmes. Appropriate and objectively verifiable performance indicators have been developed for each of the specific programmes, both by the Ministry of Rural Development and the State Governments for effective monitoring at the District, Block, Gram Panchayat and Village levels so that alarm signals can be picked up well in advance for mid-course corrections.

The efficient implementation of various Rural Development schemes, especially the wageemployment, self-employment and rural infrastructure/amenities schemes have resulted in the reduction of poverty in rural areas. The Government has instituted an in-built monitoring mechanism in the guidelines of each scheme so as to ensure that the objectives of the schemes are achieved. The Outcome Budget is an instrument of quarterly monitoring which was introduced in 2005. The important instruments of the Monitoring and Evaluation mechanism are briefl y outlined as under:

Periodic Progress Reports & Returns


The prog rammes of the Ministry are continuously monitored through periodical
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progress reports received from the State Governments depicting the financial and physical progress of the programmes. The Monitoring Division has streamlined the data processing system and the Monthly Progress Report is received by the 10th of every month. These reports give the State-wise and Programmewise performance of the schemes. District-Level information on the performance of various schemes is also being generated and disseminated to all concerned. The Monitoring Division has developed a District-wise Data Management System of the Rural Development Programmes. The system is used for the data management of both State and District levels, regarding physical and financial progress of the schemes of the Ministry. The system, a user-friendly web-based application, was developed and implemented for entry, validation and report generation of the Districtwise data. This data, provided by the States/ Districts was entered through the software and requisite periodic reports were generated. These reports are very useful in tracking the progress of expenditure as well as physical works taken up under various Schemes. The inputs for various review meetings were also devised from these Reports. On-Line Reporting of Monthly Progress Reports (MPRs) In accordance with the Ministrys emphasis one-governance, all States/DRDAs were requested to ensure that the MPRs compiled by the DRDAs and implementing agencies are sent through the electronic medium. More than 590 DRDAs are already submitting their progress reports of rural development programmes of SGSY, IAY, NREGA, DRDA Administration, Integrated Wastelands Development Programme (IWMP), Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) and Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) through the OnLine system.
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Utilisation Certifi cates/Audit Reports


The State Governments are required to furnish Utilisation Certifi cates stating that the funds have been utilized for the purpose for which these were sanctioned and no diversion has been made. The auditing of accounts and reports thereon are a precondition for the release of the second and the subsequent installments. State Governments have been advised to ensure the authenticity of Utilization Certifi cates. The requirement of these documents also checks the diversion of funds, if any. The States/UTs have also been advised to furnish utilization certifi cates for each of the funds released to them under the rural development programmes, even if the expenditure during the financial year is zero.

Visits and Review by Union Ministers


The Minister and the Ministers of State for Rural Development visit the States/ UTs and review the performance of programmes with the Chief Ministers, Ministers and officials of the State Government concerned with the implementation of the programmes. Such review meetings provide the much needed impetus in the implementation of the programmes by energizing and motivating the implementing agencies. The need for ensuring better utilization of funds and effective delivery of benefits to the targeted groups is emphasized in these review meetings. Such reviews have taken place in most of the States. These review meetings were quite useful in resolving policy issues and problems of programme implementation.

Area Officers Scheme


At the Central Government level, the Ministry has introduced an Area Officers Scheme which aims at monitoring the major programmes of the Ministry with special reference to quality, adherence to implementation schedule, of low of funds, proper utilisation of funds and achievement of physical and financial targets, etc., through field visits. Officers would visit their
Kurukshetra February 2011

assigned State and districts at regular intervals. The important observations of Area Officers are shared with the State Government concerned advising them to take appropriate corrective measures wherever shortcomings are noticed. The Area Offi cers, during their visits to allocated States, also look into the complaints received by the Ministry regarding implementation of the Programmes. The following new initiatives have been taken for making the Area Officers Schemes more objective: i) Each district of the country to be covered by the scheme, in a year. All Area Officers allotted specific districts in a State and they were to visit at least ten villages in each district while on tour.

under all the programmes of the Ministry of Rural Development. The Vigilance and Monitoring Committees seek to include the MPs and other elected representatives in State Legislatures and Panchayati Raj Institutions, in the implementation of the rural development programmes. They also monitor the execution of the Schemes, effectively as per the prescribed guidelines and within the given time frame, as a result of which, the public funds are put to optimal use and the programme benefit flows to the rural poor in full measure. Detailed Guidelines containing the composition of the committees and quarterly frequency of their meetings are circulated. The Committees are to liaise and coordinate with the Ministry of Rural Development and State Governments to ensure that all schemes are implemented as per the programme guidelines. Meetings of the Vigilance & Monitoring Committee at each level are to be held at least once every Quarter, after giving sufficient notice to all the Members, including the Honble MPs/ MLAs.

ii) A set of structured questionnaires was designed with the help of the Programme Divisions and circulated to the Area Offices. The objective is to help the Area Officers to gather objective information to monitor the programmes. iii) All the Area Officers were requested to submit their observations on-line.

National Level Monitors (NLMs)


To ensure effective implementation of rural development programmes in a transparent manner, the Ministry has a panel of National Level Monitors (NLMs) comprising ex-servicemen and retired Civil Servants. The involvement of third party independent monitors of NLMs is to ensure unbiased and objective monitoring, quality control, transparency, vigilance and awareness creation among the masses about rural development programmes. Special monitoring of NREGA, IAY, SGSY and IGNOAPS was undertaken by the NLMs. The NLM reports contain physical and financial progress of rural development programmes, correctness of these reports submitted through official channels, verification of physical assets created and reported by the agencies, its quality and maintenance of assets, etc. The NLMs submit their reports to the Ministry.
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Performance Review Committee


In pursuance of the suggestions made by the Planning Commission, the Ministry has constituted the Performance Review Committee (PRC) under the chairmanship of Secretary (RD), which comprises State Secretaries in-charge of rural development schemes, representatives of the Planning Commission and Central Ministries i.e. Ministries of Finance, Statistics & Programme Implementation and Environment & Forests. Similarly the other two departments also hold PRC meetings to review the programmes/schemes administered by them.

Vigilance & Monitoring Committees


The Vigilance and Monitoring Committees were constituted with the objective of ensuring optimal expenditure, particularly for large public funds,
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A copy of the report is also made available to the District Magistrate and Chairman of the District Level Vigilance and Monitoring Committee. The reports are crucial inputs for policy formulation, achieving transparency and check on corrupt practices. Personal contact of these monitors among the benefi ciaries has generated awareness and confidence in implementation of rural development programmes of the Ministry. The Ministry also receives complaints from various sources i.e. peoples representatives, NGO and public regarding implementation of rural development programmes. In cases of serious and specific complaints, NLMs are deputed to visit the concerned district and to verify the facts. In such cases, if preliminary enquiries by the NLMs establish the facts, reports of NLMs are sent to the State Governments for follow up and the concerned programme divisions for taking necessary action. The NLMs before proceeding on a field visit hold discussions with the District Departmental heads including the District Collector to have an update on the status of funding pattern, staffing
PRC Meeting in Progress

position and programme implementation progress. On completion of the field visits, a wrap-up meeting is convened with the District Collector in the presence of the mkey implementing functionaries including the bank officials to share the preliminary findings and ascertain the facts and the reasons thereof for deviation in the implementation, if any. All the discussed instruments of Monitoring and Evaluation thus go a long way in better implementation of the rural development schemes and programmes.
(Courtesy : Grameen Bharat)

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A VEGETABLE THAT FIGHTS CANCER :


Dr. Ramesh Chandra Parida, Dr. Pranab Kumar Ghosh
s the growing industrialization is continuously spitting out carcinogens into our environment and cancer of various hues are spreading their tentacles to take an everincreasing toll on human life, an apparent relief has been discovered in lowly fruits and vegetables rich in anti-oxidants, polyphenols and other cancer preventive chemicals.

BROCCOLI :

Among these, Italian broccoli, which is simply called as broccoli, a vegetable belonging to the Brassicacea family has proved to be a most potent one. Besides, the unique anti-cancer and other medicinal properties, it is also rich in various nutrients (Table 1), that can ensure sound health and long life. Particularly, its vitamin C content is very high.

Table 1 : Nutritional constituents of Broccoli (per 100g of raw edible part) Energy = 30 kcals Sl. No. 1 Constituents Carbohydrates Sugar Dietary fibre Fat Protein Water Vitamin A equiv. B-carotene Thiamin (Vit. B1) Riboflavin (Vit. B2) Niacin (Vit. B3) Pantothenic acid (B5) Vitamin B6 Folate (Vit. B9) Vitamin C Calcium Iron Magnesium Phosphorus Potasium Zinc Quantity 6.64 g 1.7 g 2.6 g 0.37 g 2.82 g 89.30 g 31 g 361 g 0.071 mg 0.117 mg 0.639 mg 0.573 mg 0.175 mg 63 g 89.2 mg 47 mg 0.73 mg 21 mg 66 mg 316 mg 0.41 mg

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Source : USDA Nutrient database. 46 Kurukshetra February 2011

Green Bud of Broccoli

Green Bud of Broccoli


This cool-weather crop is rich in vitamin-C, folic acid and soluble dietary fibres. It contains a number of nutrients with potent anti-cancer properties, including diindolyl methane and selenium. Particularly, 3, Diindolyl methane is an active modulator of the minnate immune response system with anti-viral, anti-bacterial and anti-cancer activities. Similarly, like other Brassica vegetables, broccoli is also rich in glucosinolates, which are metabolized to cancer preventive substances like isothio-cyanates. Glucoraphanin, a compound present in it can be processed into sulphoraphane, a known anti-cancer agent. Broccoli leaf is edible and it contains a lot of beta-carotene. Therefore, a high intake of broccoli has been found to reduce the risk of many types of cancer, especially prostate cancer. Recently, a research team from the US National Cancer Institute has found that eating

broccoli and cauliflower once in a week, decreases the aggressiveness of the disease by 45% to 52%. Similar effects have also been observed in case of colon cancer. Methods of storage and cooking have varying impacts on anti-cancer effects of broccoli. Domestic storage of the vegetable at ambient temperature in a refrigerator shows only minor loss of glucosinolate levels over 7 days. However, when stored at a much lower temperature the loss may be up to 33% by fracture of vegetable material during thawing. On the other hand, a total loss of 77% glucosinolate has been observed after boiling it for 30 minutes, but steaming for 2 minutes, microwave cooking for 3 minutes and stir-fry cooking for 5 minutes do not have any significant effects on those, except when the vegetable is finely shredded. Therefore, in order to derive the maximum benefits from broccoli the later three methods of cooking should be adopted. However, if it is boiled, it should be done with less water, which should be consumed along with the vegetables and the boiling time should also be reduced. [About the authors: [Dr. Ramesh Chandra Parida is Retd. Professor, Orissa University of Agriculture & Technology (OUAT), Bhubaneswar, Orissa; Dr. Pranab Kumar Ghosh is Research officer, CAPART, Regional Committee, 304, Bharati Nagar, Dharwad 580 001]
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Broccoli Field Kurukshetra February 2011

17-30 percent hike in wages under Mahatma Gandhi NREGA


The wage rates under MGNREGA have been increased by the Ministry of Rural Development with effect from 1st January 2011. This will result in 1730% enhancement of wages under the premier flagship program of the UPA Government across the country. This was announced by the Union Minister for Rural Development and Panchayati Raj Dr. C.P.Joshi at a Press Conference in Krishi Bhawan December 6.. The decision to hike wages under MGNREGA comes in the wake of recommendations of National Advisory Council and consultations with the different Ministries. The move is likely to benefit more than 5 crore beneficiaries under MGNREGA across the country. The wage rates have been enhanced on the basis of Consumer Price Index for the agricultural labour calculated on the basis of Rs. 100 or the actual wage rate, whichever is higher as on April 1st, 2009. The Minister said that linking the wages to CPI- Agricultural labour will result in annual revision of the wage rates. He reiterated that the Government will not lag behind in providing adequate livelihood security to the poor, down trodden, and members of SC and ST communities. Dr. Joshi also informed that the Government is waiting for the report of the Pranob Sen Committee constituted to deliberate upon a separate index for MGNREGA. The recommendations once submitted by this Committee will also be considered by the Government. The new wages under Mahatma Gandhi NREGA which are higher than the prevailing wage rates under MGNREGA at present in many states are as follows:

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Kurukshetra February 2011

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