REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter enfolds reviews of literatures and related studies that support and explain the variables of the study.

Moro and Islamic Belief

Simplicity,

rationality and

practicality.

These

are

what

Quran

summarizes the definition of Islam. Islam is a religion without any mythology. Its teachings are simple and intelligible. It is free from superstitions and irrational beliefs. The oneness of God, the prophet hood of Muhammad, and the concept of life after death are the basic articles of its faith. They are based on reason and sound logic. All of the teachings of Islam flow from those basic beliefs and are simple and straightforward. There is no hierarchy of priests, no farfetched abstractions, no complicated rites or rituals (Yahaya, 2012). Moros come from all races, nationalities and cultures across the globe. They have varied languages, foods, dress, and customs; even the way they practice may differ. Yet, they all consider themselves to be Moro. Less Moros live in the Arab world; a fifth is found in Sub-Saharan Africa; and the worlds largest Moro community is in Indonesia. Substantial parts of Asia; and almost

13

all Central Asian Republic, are Moros. Significant Moro minorities are found in China, India, Russia, Europe, North America and South America (Abrahamov, 2002). Haddad (2005) examines Islamic culture by stating that during the preIslamic era, daughters were buried alive as they were not considered worthy. But the coming of Islam through divine revelations to the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) brought a new dawn to mankind. He brought to the world a universal message which was fresh, noble and the ultimate from the lord of the worlds. The Quran has a whole chapter dedicated to Women (Suratul- Nisaa) and numerous Hadith that demonstrate how the Rasul (SAW) treated his wives and other issues concerning the high regard given to them. A woman is equal to a man in the sight of Allah regarding to her rights, responsibilities and action (Skreslet, 2008). Thus, this verse is a perfect example of showing how men and women are from the same kind or of like nature: Every soul will be (held) in pledge for its deeds?(Q 74: 38). .. So their Lord accepted their prayers. (Saying): I will not waste the work of any of you whether male or female. You are members, one of another. In addition, the Quran makes no distinction between men and women in relation to their rights and duties: they are to be equally rewarded or punished for their actions (Ladbury & Khan, 2008). The following verses make their spiritual equality clear:

14

Moro men and Moro women, believing men and believing women, devoutly obedient men and devoutly obedient women, truthful men and truthful women, patient men and patient women, humble men and humble women, charitable men and charitable women, men and women who fast, men and women who protect their chastity, and men and women who remember God frequently, for them God has prepared forgiveness and a great reward. (Quran: 33:35).

Moro Women: Gender Bias

There are many grounds in determining how gender difference emerged in the society, thus leading to mass discrimination. In the family, children are considered good investments for future security. However, sons are preferred for both economic and social reasons. They also mean extra hands in the fields as well as support in old age (Walker, 2009). Marriage is also considered as a religious obligation of Moro women. It is observed that in Moro culture, a large family means social prestige and financial security. Hence, a woman can gain status and power only by becoming a mother of many sons and one day ruling an extended family. But even if marriage is an important subject in Moro culture, still divorce is recognized.

15

In the study of Yahaya (2012), she stated that the Hadith stressed that men and women have equal rights and claims on another except for leadership. Here the role is given to the husband due to his physique to provide and protect his family. Islam places great emphasis on the importance of counsel and mutual agreement in family decisions. However, the Quran basically declares the rights of women to be nominated, elected, hold political offices, and actively participate in public affairs. The first woman politician was Bilqis the Queen of Shaba, and the Quran speaks highly of her administration and consultation techniques (Q 27: 32-35). According to Presidential Decree No. 1083, embodying the Code of Muslim Personal Law of the Philippines, Moro practices on divorce have been made parts of the law of the land. The code defines a Moro as a person who testifies to the oneness of God and the Prophethood of Muhammad and professes Islam (Benito, 2005). Moreover, Jariahs case studies of women in Iran (as cited in Shojaei, 2010) say that the unequal look at mens and womens roles stem from gender stereotypes that are formed in the cultural and traditional structure of a society and are closely related with the process of recognition in it. The members of any society recognize individuals based on their conventional and gender roles, according to which different behaviours are expected from men and women.

16

An indicator of the attitude of the Qur'an to women in the workplace can be seen in the quotes regarding working women. These are the examples of two female shepherds Qur'an 28:23, and Muhammad's first wife Khadijah, who was an eminent businesswoman. Khadijah is called up as a role model for females in the Qur'an. Gender bias refers to a preference or prejudice toward one gender over the other. It can be a legitimate basis for a lawsuit under anti-discrimination statutes (Abd al-Ati, 2000). Family, society and ultimately the whole of mankind are treated by Islam on an ethical basis. Differentiation in sex is neither a credit nor a drawback for the sexes. The status of women in society is neither a new issue nor it is a fully-settled one. The teachings of Islam are based essentially on the Quran which are defined as the Gods revelation and Hadeeth which is defined as the elaborations by Prophet Muhammad. Gender-based inequality is a global human rights issue that transcends culture, religion and socio-economic status (WISE, 2006). Though such problems as domestic violence, inadequate access to technology, poor education, and lack of economic opportunity are widespread, Moro women in particular confront the limitations of discrimination and inequality. In fact, 20 of the 25 lowest-ranking countries on the World Economic Forums 2010 Gender Gap Index, which ranks womens participation in society, are Moro-majority countries. Although these womens lives are influenced by a complex

17

interaction of religious, cultural, social, economic, political and other factors, Islam wields enormous influence, and it is drawn upon to both empower and oppress women. Thus, reframing womens rights within an Islamic framework and approaching the numerous factors that disempower women must be addressed directly and collectively. Sexism is also one of the manifestations of inferiority of womens identity. Sexism or chauvinism is a belief that asserts the rights and the roles of people in the society should be governed by one sex. In the study of Lanuza, 2005 (as cited by Aranas, 2011), said that male chauvinism has been utilized by the feminists and supporters of womens movement to exemplify men as self-centered for not advocating the equal rights for women. This extends one major gender gap in assessing the problem of gender inequality. Additionally, the Cotabato Provincial Governors office under Population Division (Saliling, 2004) identified four (4) manifestations of gender bias. First, marginalization where women are not included in planning and decision making processes. Only few women are given the chance to get involved in politics, thus limiting their access and learning of political participation. Second manifestation is gender stereotyping which deals about fixed, unquestioned belief and images we carry at the back of our minds about men and women. This is transmitted from generation to generation. Third is subordination where women are weak and discriminated. And fourth, multiple roles at home which

18

isolate and oppress women in the political arena. It is generally known that women are isolated and have given a very limited room for improvement and empowerment, thus aggravating the status of inequality. Moreover, political thinkers, especially Plato, asserted that women are basically and primarily set only for domestic roles. They are admonished from getting involved in politics because they are only fit from home roles as being mothers and wives. This argument denotes the direct discrimination against women and has resulted to very low self-confidence on their part.

Self-Esteem: A Course for Confidence and Empowerment

People develop opinion about themselves based on how vulnerable to discrimination they have become as a result of how society treats them. Their sense of whether they have control over their lives develop over time and is highly dependent on how empowered they were made to feel (United Nations Report, 2001). Empowerment is defined as the processes by which women take control and ownership of their lives through expansion of their choices. It is the process of acquiring the ability to make strategic life choices in a context where this ability has previously been denied. The core elements of

19

empowerment have been defined as agency (the ability to define ones goals and act upon them), awareness of gendered power structures, self-esteem and self-confidence (Kabeer, 2001). Self-esteem is the totality of self-schemas and possible selves (Apruebo, 2009). Apruebo cited that perceiving selves as attractive, athletic, respected, recognized, smart, and destined to be rich and loved constitute self-esteem. People develop high self-esteem when they feel better about themselves just like perceiving themselves as accepted by others. However, Franzoi (1996) defined self as an individual who can reflect upon his or her own behavior. The self is an active agent involved in making decisions. John Dannes poem, No Man is an Island, states that man has a social identity. He is not an isolated unit, but rather he is always in relation to the society. Apruebo (2005) reinforces this view when he said that social-concept as the product of experience and as a result of the individual growth process and his personal-social development. It evolves from the culture he deals with and the individual situations and experiences that comprise his day-to-day dispositions. Thus, the self (person, ego, or identity) displays itself essentially in any human social nature or the socialization process. Persons are

characteristically associated with self-awareness, self-control, and exhibit

20

conscience and guilt in life with reference to what they are, what they have been, and what they hope to be. A project in El Salvador, Smallholders Agricultural Development Project in the Paracentral Region (PRODAP), conducted from 1993 to 2001, which studied income generation, Empowerment and self-esteem of women. The project found out three indicators that can help boosting the self-esteem of participating women: First, perception of ones capacities to exert leadership; second, absence of fear to express ones opinions and needs; and perception of ones capacity to achieve ones goals. These initiatives were seen basically, as being able to help eradicate violence against women. On the other hand, the Islamic Womens Welfare Council of Victoria Program (IWWCVP), a non-religious, community based organization was established and was managed by Moro women for Moro women. It is a nonreligious organization reflecting the ethnic, cultural, linguistic and sectarian diversity of Moro women, the Council was developed from the belief that meaningful change in the status of Moro women could only be achieved through improving the situation of individual women and improving their capacity collectively. It supports the development and empowerment of women through the self-esteem, identity, leadership and community (SILC) project (Matrah et al., 2005).

21

As an organization of women, they are driven by the belief that purposeful and meaningful power enacted for the good of the collective has always been the domain and quest of womens leadership and empowerment. The overall self-esteem, identity, leadership and community (SILC) goal was to work towards a sustainable process of Moro women's empowerment, selfagency and well-being, through their increased participation in the development of their own communities. The acquisition of knowledge and self awareness is crucial to Moro womens development and empowerment if sustainable change is to occur. A critical element in attitudinal change is knowledge and information. The road to well-being and purposeful and meaning power, therefore, begins with awareness, self-esteem, identity, leadership and community (SILC), therefore, asserts that in addition to enhancing Moro womens awareness, a focused effort to develop their individual and collective self-esteem and confidence and to facilitate positive attitudinal change towards their own development is critical to constructive change. The Sport for development and Peaces International working Group of the United Nations (2004) supports the essentiality of self-esteem to mental health and well-being. The empowerment of girls and women involves the increased ability to make strategic life choices in contexts where this ability was previously limited. They have enumerated three (3) aspects of barriers to

22

womens full social, cultural and economic participation: perception (perceived as wife, mother); domestic workload often perceived as their duty (childbirth, carrying for children and elderly) and; low education levels relative to men and socialization that discourages girls and women as potential leaders.

Political Participation

Electoral participation is considered an essential part of the democratic process. Understanding who participates and why is it important to determine who has a voice in politics. Suffrage is one of the most important elements in democratic country. It is very vital and beneficial to know the rights of every individual in exercising suffrage (Tessler et al., 2008). More proximate explanations of participation are levels of individual political knowledge and political interest, whether individuals are part of a social network, and whether they have a sense of political efficacy and a sense of duty. In every democracy, some citizens heed while others neglect their opportunities to take part in politics. Organizations and community groups are continuously finding ways to promote good governance that support and respect the voices and interests of a range of citizens (Ahern et al., 2000).

23

Thus, people with high regard for themselves with the help of empowerment will basically have more contact in participating in elections. Peoples involvement in the formal arena of politics is essential for a wide understanding and awareness on to what grounds the government has been taking to realize the public purpose and interest. Womens participation in politics would not have been possible without an active support of different responsible sectors. Thus, their engagement in political parties is one of the components of a more mobilized membership in the political arena. Being a member in a political party will allow an individuals knowledge on different schemas of advocacies (Karolak, 2012). However, if these manifestations would not suit ones desire, at least involvement in political organizations and working with the different parties that represent a particular group will also help broaden their level of participation in the community at large. There are many remaining obstacles to womens equal participation in elections, including gender stereotypes, psychological and traditional barriers, and inequalities in education, training and resources. Political parties, ethnic groups or clans may be dominated by a single, strong leader, usually a male, leaving little opportunity for women to enter the political process through established political groups. Having the capacity to support a particular

24

political body person or at least contribute a certain entity will somehow secure individuals interest (United Nations, 2005).

Socio-Demographic Characteristics and Political Participation

There

are

many

socio

demographic

determinants

of

political

participation. Numerous researches in many countries suggest that education and social status of individuals are among determinants of political participation. There is a tendency for individuals with high level of education and social status to develop feelings of efficacy and a sense of civic duty that may encourage political participation. They use opportunities for political involvement as well as possess the personal resources and skills that are easily converted into political participation when the need arises (Nor et al., 2011). Bartels (2005) examines the responsiveness of wealthy, middle-class, and poor constituents in politics. The study found out that wealthy constituents have more responsiveness in political participation such as voting in elections, and awareness on civil rights. The middle-class has lesser responsiveness on the same activities while the poor constituents have indirect contact in political participation because of their economic and social statuses.

25

Much positive theory purports to explain this development as a direct consequence of differing distributions of political (votes) and economic (money) resources (Fanzese, 2008). He stated in his study that wealthy individuals have higher propensity to participate politically and have dominance in political activities. With this, higher aggregate participation rates will generally coincide with increased democratic representation of the relatively less well-off. The Institute of Economic Affairs in Kenya 2008 profile of womens socio- economic status said that Gender inequalities are attributed to limited access and control over productive resources, access to financial services, insufficient access to education, lack of skill, limited access to technology, cultural impediments and other constraints limiting employment options and participation in decision making. All these serve to seriously constrain womens ability to effectively participate in and benefit from economic development. In here, Policy interventions towards removing barriers to general female well-being include economic and knowledge empowerment, increasing access to financial services, employment and participation in decision making. This will also require design and implementation of programmes to transform gender related norms and behaviour in relation to care, work and responsibilities.

26

The Electoral Commission Report (2005) in London said that political disengagement and social exclusion consolidate and drive each other. Political disengagement can itself be a form of social exclusion and there is much evidence to suggest that those socially excluded because of economic and social reasons are also excluded politically. They are less likely to turn out to vote and less likely to participate in non-electoral ways. As a result, democratic participation is falling and political influence is polarizing according to class and wealth.

Political Participation: Path into A Transformative Society

Political participation is one of the major ways to ensure womens empowerment, to increase decision-making power and greater ability and to influence matters that affect their lives in the community and the larger society. In the broader sense, participation in politics goes far beyond electoral politics, such as voting and election to public office. Womens empowerment begins with their consciousness - perceptions about herself and her rights, her capabilities and her potentials, awareness of her gender and socio-cultural, economic and political forces that affect her (Shamim & Kumari, 2002).

27

In their study, they stressed that religion had been a major source of enforcing the gender-gap in our society. Organization at the grassroots level allows people to contribute significantly to the governance of their communities. For women, successful grassroots experiences have meant a chance to form coherent voice, to be heard and to make a difference in their communities. Women are agents of change and their political engagement makes significant impact on various issues of human security issues; including peace building efforts (Molnar, 2009). The European Commission (2011) on Gender Stereotypes and Gender Attitudes in the Assessment of Womens Work clustered three major categories for having more empowered women: ethical/human rights arguments; utilitarian arguments; and common good arguments. The arguments on social justice and human rights make the claim that it is only fair that women should be able to reach these positions. Moreover, the utilitarian arguments focus on quality and efficiency and are grounded on argumentation pertaining to womens contribution to modern research as a supportive measure to enhance quality; and the arguments on the common good focus on the notion that ensuring gender equality in research decision making is demonstrative of social balance and bears economic benefits to society.

28

According to Simone de Beuvoir, in the essay, "Woman: Myth and Reality," Beauvoir argued that men had made women the "Other" in society by putting a false aura of "mystery" around them. She argued that men used this as an excuse not to understand women or their problems and not to help them, and that this stereotyping was always done in societies by the group higher in the hierarchy to the group lower in the hierarchy. She wrote that this also happened on the basis of other categories of identity, such as race, class, and religion. But she said that it was nowhere more truly than with sex in which men stereotyped women and used it as an excuse to organize society into a patriarchy. Section 2, chapter 1 of the Gender and Development Code of The Municipality of Kabacans general policy declares to uphold the rights and privileges of men, women, and children and the belief in their worth and dignity as human beings. Development process involves the active participation of men, women, and children and thereby recognizing their full potentials, skills, capabilities and intelligence in the achievement of its vision for a Gender-fair municipality where empowered people are living peacefully and giving access to opportunities thereby promoting sustainable development which is equitable shared by all stakeholders.

29

Thus, the moral bases of Gender and Development code are those defined and declared by the United Nations where the Philippines is a signatory: Women have the right to the prevention of, and protection from all forms of violence and coercion against their person, their freedom, their sexuality, and their individuality; Women have the right to freely and fully participate individually or collectively in the political processes of their communities and nations; Women have the right to the means for assuring their economic welfare and security; Women have the right to the necessary knowledge and means for the full exercise of their reproductive choice, according to their beliefs and preferences; Women have the right to choose a spouse in accordance with their values and preferences, maintain equality in marriage or its dissolution, and obtain adequate support for rearing and carrying of their children; Women have the right to an adequate, relevant and gender fair education throughout their lives, from childhood to adulthood; Women have the right to adequate nutrition and proper health care; Women have the right to humane living conditions;

30

Women have the right to nurture their personhood, collectively and individually, to secure an image of themselves as a whole and vulnerable human beings, build relationships based on respect, trust and mutuality; and Women have the right to equality before the law in principles as well as in practice. Moreover, Chapter 2, Article IV of the Gender and Development code emphasizes the cultural identity of women and indigenous and Moro cultural practices. It also states that indigenous and Moro women shall be allowed to enroll in schools and colleges and enjoy employment opportunities without prejudice to their birth and marriage rituals where no birth and marriage certificates are issued as evidence thereof. Failure to comply with this provision shall be subject to a maximum fine of P 2,500.00. The implementing rules and regulations of this section shall include the issuance of certificate by the office of the National Commission of the Indigenous Peoples and the Office of Muslim Affairs indentifying cultural community affiliation. Article IV of the same code specifies the Political and Public Sphere of Women: Sec. 36. Declaration of March 8 as a Womens Day. As declared by the United Nations, March 8 shall be observed as Womens Day through an issuance of an executive order by the Provincial Governor. The Municipal Government of Kabacan in coordination with the GAD council will be

31

conducting set of activities for women to increase their level of awareness and critical consciousness on the issue affecting them. Sec. 37. GAD Summit: A family Day. An annual Gender summit is being conducted by the Municipal Govenrment of Kabacan. Activities relating to the promotion of gender equality and improve the economic and sociopolitical spheres of both men and women will be initiated. These activities will be initiated and sphereheaded by ht Municipal GAD Council of Kabacan in coordination with the MLGU. Sec. 38. International Day of Action for Womens Health. The Municipal Governor of Kabacan shall cause the celebration of the International Day of Action for Womens Health every year where issues and concerns relative to the protection and promotion of womens health shall be examined, deliberated, projected and government action sought. Sec. 39. Barangay Level Self-Organization of Women. Self organization of women shall be recognized at the Barangay-level to include organizations of young women. Sec. 40. Election of Women Sectoral Representatives to the Sangguniang Bayan. Subject to the implementing rules that may be promulgated by the Congress or any duly designated authority of the government and in accordance with RA 7160, women sectoral representative

32

to the Sanggunian shall be elected as a concrete manifestation of women significant role in local governance. Sec. 41. Representation of Women in local Special Bodies. The Municipal Government of Kabacan shall ensure that women are duly represented in the Municipal Development Council and all local special bodies in the Municipal and Barangay level to strengthen government recognition of womens potentials in the formulation and planning of local development. Sec. 43. Barangay Integrated Development Program for Women. All Barangay Local Government Units of Kabacan, through the Municipal Social Welfare and Development and the GAD Council shall develop a program that shall facilitate empowerment for women. Active support for the preservation of womens knowledge of the environment shall be incorporated in the program.

Office of Muslim Affairs (OMA)

In 1978, then President Ferdinand E. Marcos created the Southern Philippine Development Authority (SPDA) which took over the government programs for the Muslims and later became the Ministry of Muslim Affairs and the Presidential Assistance on National Minorities (PANAMIN), which took over the government programs for the Non-Muslim or other tribal groups. One

33

of its main tasks was to integrate into the mainstream of society certain ethnic groups which seek full integration into the larger community and at the same time protect the rights of those who wish to preserve their original life ways beside the larger community (P.D. 1414, 1978). Before the collapse of the Marcos regime, however, PANAMIN Secretary Manuel Elizalde Jr., left the country and abandoned his organization. The interim government under Pres. Ferdinand Marcos created another agency, the Office for Muslim Affairs and Cultural Communities (OMACC) by virtue of the Executive Order No. 969 (relating the office of Muslim affairs and cultural communities). The OMACC catered to the needs of both the Muslims and the Non-Muslim communities as its clientele. This agency did not last long as government management soon realized that lumping the Islamicized groups and the ICCs into one office did not work well as envisioned. In January 1987, following the 1986 February Revolution, the OMACC was abolished and the Aquino government issued three Executive Orders creating three distinct and separate offices, as follows, E.O. No. 122-A, creating the Office for the Muslim Affairs (OMA); E.O. 122-B, creating the Office for Northern Cultural Communities (ONCC) and E.O. 122-C, creating the Office for Southern Cultural Communities (OSCC). These three Offices were attached to the Office of the President.

34

The provision of social services in the Moro areas has been very minimal or almost non-existent. Hence, the National Commission on the Role of Women has been devoting special attention to Moro women. Funds have been provided to establish an extension of the Commission in the Moro regions. The late Hadja Matabai Plang was one of the commissioners of the OMA. Republic Act 7192, an Act Promoting the Integration of Women as Full and Equal Partners of Men in Development and Nation Building and for Other Purposes, provides for the legal mandate for involving women in development. Rule 1, Section 2 of the R.A. asserts that the State recognizes the role of women in nation building and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law of women and men. The State shall provide women rights and opportunities equal to that of men. It also commits the Philippine government to addressing issues of poverty, violence against women and other abuses of womens human rights, and the continuing invisibility of women in public affairs. Additionally, an Act promoting the integration of women as full and equal partners of men in development and nation building and for other purposes (Republic Act No. 7192) recognizes the role of women in nation building and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law of women

35

and men. The State shall provided women rights and opportunities equal to that of men. The Republic Act No. 6725 (an Act Strengthening the Prohibition on Discrimination Against Women with Respect to Terms and Conditions of Employment, Amending for the purpose (Article 135 of the Labor code, as amended) supports the strengthening of the prohibition on discrimination against women with respect to terms and conditions of employment, amending for the purpose article one, hundred thirty-five of the labor code, as amended. The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) established in 1979 marked an important step towards explicit prohibition of discrimination against women. During preparations for the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna (1993), womens groups mobilized around the slogan of Womens rights are human rights! whi ch signifies the indivisibility of womens rights from universal human rights. Participants in the UN Beijing Womens Conference (1995) continued with this call, attempting to broaden the conception of rights to include social, economic, and cultural rights, as well as reproductive and sexual rights put on the agenda at the 1994 Cairo population conference. The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995 was a threshold in womens struggles for womens rights; 189 national governments signed a document that explicitly states that womens rights are

36

human rights and that all issues are womens issues. Ninety governments made commitments to take specific measures to implement the conference recommendations in their societies. For the first time in history women were situated at the center of global politics, associated with the concept and practice of power. The document in which this point is made most directly is the mission statement to the Platform for Action (PFA) of the Beijing conference. Since 1986, the Philippine government has been actively promoting gender equality, a policy that aims to eradicate gender based inequalities and enable women and men to equally contribute to and benefit from development (UNDP, 2002). The Beijing Platform of Action (PFA) recognizes that the amount of resources allocated for the implementation of gender equality policies is an important measure of the States commitment to the advancement of women. It is in the light that the Philippine Government endeavors to sustain and implement the Gender and Development (GAD) Budget Policy. Recognizing the invisibility of human rights and sustainable human development, UNDP continues to work towards developing the capacity for governance as the foundation to address poverty. Democratic governance ensures the political, social, economic priorities are based on a broad consensus, and the poorest and most vulnerable members of society are heard in decision-making.

37

UNDP is one with the National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women in working to promote the rights of both men and women, to have equal opportunities, participation, and access to resources to contribute to and benefit from development. It is committed to supporting the creation of an enabling environment where the legal, social and economic status of women is improved, and more gender responsive local governance policies and plans are implemented. Additionally, Article 8 of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) asserts that the United Nations shall place no restrictions on the eligibility of men and women to participate in any capacity and under conditions of equality in its principal and subsidiary organs. Section 26 of Republic Act No. 8371, an Act to Recognize, Protect and Promote the Rights of Indigenous Cultural Communities/Indigenous Peoples, Creating a National Commission on Indigenous Peoples, Establishing Implementing Mechanisms, Appropriating Funds Therefor, and for Other Purposes (as cited by Saliling, 2004), declares that women shall enjoy equal rights and opportunities with men, as regards to the social, economic, political and cultural spheres of the life. The participation of women in the decisionmaking process in all levels, as well as in the development of society, shall be given due respect and recognition.