3 types of volcano: Shield volcano Broad, slightly domed shaped Generally cover large areas Produced by mild eruptions

ions of large volumes of basaltic lava Example = Mauna Loa on Hawaii Low viscosity; Mafic; Low gas content Low profile, slopes 2-10 Large & long-lived Typically non-violent eruptions

Cinder cone Built from ejected lava (mainly cinder-sized) fragments Steep slope angle Small size Frequently occur in groups

Made up of loose fragments (pyroclasts) ejected by firefountaining, because of gas content, from a central vent: Very fine ah, blocks angular solid material, cinders, bombs- molten material rounded during trave Short life span(gas exhausted) Violent- due to gas content of the magma. Can form any magma composition

Small volcanoes with slopes ~30. Seldom >500 meters high.

Composite cone (stratovolcano) Most are located adjacent to the Pacific Ocean (e.g., Fujiyama, Mt. St. Helens) Large, classic-shaped volcano (1000s of ft. high and several miles wide at base) Composed of interbedded lava flows and pyroclastic debris Most violent type of activity (e.g., Mt. Vesuvius)

Intermediate slope angle, very large, sometimes >1,000 meters. Alternating layers of lava and pyroclasts Lava layers inhibit weathering and erosion Magma composition = intermediate, with a variable gas content (lava + pyroclasts). Very long-lived.

Difference between magma and lava Magma Molten rock Almost always a silicate solution Forms from partial melting of rocks inside Earth Temperature ranges from 550 to >1250 C All igneous rocks once were magma Mixture of all the elements that make up minerals Can contain dissolved gases water vapor Lava Magma that reaches the surface is called lava Lava: Hot (up to 1200 degrees C), fluid, molten rock that flows along the land surface. Lava can flow like viscous water, including forming lava fall carbon dioxide sulphur dioxide nitrogen oxides noble gases (helium, argon)

Lava flow Pahoehoe- (puh-hoy-hoy) Mafic lava cools rapidly and the surface of the flow forms a crust. Slowly it gets deformed and wrinkles form Aa (ah-ah) When mafic lava forms jagged edges due to cooling rapidly and deformation of lavas crust. Pillow Flow-Fissures on the ocean floor form blobs due to rapid cooling Melting rocks Partial melting- process whereby some minerals melt at lower temps, while other minerals remain solid (slushy mix) Factional crystallization- Different minerals crystallize at different temperatures. As liquid rock cools certain minerals crystallize before others.

Products of eruption Lava Flows Pyroclastic Debris Bombs Lapilli Ash Gases Steam Carbon Dioxide H2S SO2 HCl HF

Mudflows Landslides

Materials extruded from the volcano Pyroclastic fragments materialsFire

Where Does Magma Come From? Volcanic hazards Lava flow

Types of pyroclastic debris Ash and fragments dustFine, glassy

Lava tube Ash fall/ ash flow Pyroclastic flows Glowing cloud Lahar Landslides

PumicePorous rock from frothy lava CindersPea-sized material LapilliWalnut-sized material Particles larger than lapilli BlocksHardened or cooled lava BombsEjected as hot lava Earths interior is hot (25 C/km near surface = 1000 C at 40 km)

Pressure inhibits melting Mantle is solid

Never far below melting point

Rising hot material may melt Water can lower melting point

Volcanoes fed by small pockets 0-100 km deep

Viscosity of Lavas Less Viscous/Fluid- Mafic Fe and Mg Rich Dark Colored Lack Silica

Lack of Mg and Fe Viscosity: a liquids resistance to flow.

Honey: High viscosity Corn Oil: Medium viscosity Water: Low viscosity The more silica that is present in magma, the greater the viscosity of the magma.

More Viscous/Thick Felsic Silica Rich Intermediate Light Colored

What is mineral? A mineral is a naturally occurring, usually inorganic solid that has a characteristic chemical composition, an orderly internal structure, and a characteristic set of physical properties. made up of atoms of a single element, or of compounds. A compound consists of atoms of two or more elements chemically bonded together.

An ore mineral is a mineral that contains one or more elements of economic value.

What is an orebody? An occurrence of minerals or metals in sufficiently high concentration to be profitable to mine and process using current technology and under current economic conditions.

Partial melting minerals that have lower melting points are the first minerals to melt.

As the temperature increases and as other minerals melt, the magmas composition changes.

Fractional Crystallization When magma cools, the cooling process is the reverse of the process of partial melting.

Chemicals in magma combine to form minerals, and each mineral has a different freezing point. Minerals that have the highest freezing points crystallize first

Magmatic differentiation Difference between ore and gangue Ore the valuable material extracted Comprises the Ore mineral and the Gangue Gangue the unwanted part of the ore, comprises minerals such as calcite, quartz and iron pyrite

Magma Mixing: Magmas of different compositions are mixed together Crystal Settling: crystallized minerals have a density greater than the magma and settle to the bottom due to gravity Assimilation: magma reacts with the country rock which is adjacent to the magma chamber

Hydrothermal Process Precipitation of metallic ions from hot, ion-rich fluid Fluid could be Magmatic Groundwater Oceanic water

cools and precipitates (deposits) the metals

3 layers of earth Core, Mantle, Crust Magma can be found in the mantle

Magmas heat up the water Water flows into fractures, faults, joints, etc. where it

Sedimentary Process Clastic Weathering of rock also weathers out elements of interest Generally, the elements are heavy and are deposited when a streams competence is low. Placer deposits, i.e. gold

Chemical Precipitates Water with high concentrations of elements is evaporated Evaporation of water leaves the elements Ex. Salts, Iron, etc.

Earthquake

Used to describe both sudden slip on a fault, and the resulting ground shaking and radiated seismic energy caused by the slip Caused by volcanic or magmatic activity, Caused by other sudden stress changes in the earth.

Where do most earthquakes occur? ~80% of all earthquakes occur in the circum-Pacific belt most of these result from convergent margin activity ~15% occur in the Mediterranean-Asiatic belt remaining 5% occur in the interiors of plates and on spreading ridge centers more than 150,000 quakes strong enough to be felt are recorded each year

What causes the earthquake? Tectonic plates move past each other causing stress. Stress causes the rock to deform Plastic deformation does not cause earthquakes Elastic deformation rock stretches then reaches a breaking point, releasing energy. Earthquakes can be generated by bomb blasts, volcanic eruptions, and sudden slippage along faults.

Most natural earthquakes are caused by sudden slippage along a fault zone.