T

lo SIICI circuil simuIalor las boon around for ovor 30 yoars. DovoIopod al U.C.
BorIoIoy, llo acronym slands for -- |1].
Bocauso inlogralod circuils aro aImosl impossibIo lo broadboard and probo, lloro
vas a groal nood lo simuIalo dosigns boforo commilling lo llo oxponsivo procoss of Iay-
ing oul and fabricaling an inlogralod circuil. AIllougl llal vas ils originaI mission, il
is oquaIIy usofuI for discrolo circuils al llo circuil board IovoI.
Tlis claplor is a briof audioconlric doscriplion of SIICI and ils appIicalion lo audio
povor ampIifior dosign. Il is dofiniloIy nol a comprolonsivo lroalmonl of SIICI, bul il
doos provido quicI accoss lo mosl of llo foaluros and nuancos noodod for dosign of
audio circuils. Il is prosonlod in a luloriaI slyIo. Tlis claplor viII nol maIo a SIICI guru
oul of you, bul il viII arm you vill mosl of llo loclniquos llal aro vaIuabIo in llo
dosign and anaIysis of audio povor ampIifiors.
Tlo uso of SIICI simuIalion can savo lours in roacling llo poinl vloro you can
buiId a vorIing ampIifior. Inluilion is nol aIvays rigll vlon il comos lo circuil dosign,
and SIICI loIps loro.
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AIllougl lloro aro many SIICI pacIagos avaiIabIo, ono llal slands oul for audio
ampIifior dosign is ITspico from Iinoar ToclnoIogy Corporalion (ITC) |2,3]. Tlo
program is froo, voII supporlod, vidoIy accoplod, and oasy lo uso. Il is aIso ono of llo
bosl-porforming SIICI simuIalors. Il is oasiIy dovnIoadod from llo ITC silo al vvv
.Iinoar.com.
AII of llo simuIalions dono for llis booI voro carriod oul vill ITspico, and llis
discussion viII focus on ITspico. IiIo mosl ollor soflvaro looIs, ITspico las many
oplions and capabiIilios (and a vory Iargo usor manuaI). Horo vo viII jusl scralcl llo
surfaco lo gol you slarlod in an officionl vay. Tlo 90-10 ruIo appIios: 90 of vlal you
nood lo do can bo accompIislod vill 10 of llo foaluros. ITspico aIso comos vill a
good sol of dovico Iibrarios and a vory loIpfuI IducalionaI diroclory vloro many
oxampIo dosigns iIIuslralo lov ITspico is usod.
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DovnIoad llo ITspico soflvaro from llo ITC vobsilo al vvv.Iinoar.com. Aflor ITspico
las boon dovnIoadod and inslaIIod, cIicI on llo icon llal il pIacos on llo dosIlop. If
you doubIo cIicI on llo icon, llo program viII como up vill a looIbar vill mosl of llo
foaluros grayod oul.

-
-
IamiIiarizo yoursoIf vill llo looIbar by pIacing llo cursor undor oacl icon and roading
llo namo of llo funclion llal appoars. Mosl of lloso funclions aro obvious. In mosl
casos a cIicI on llo icon viII aclivalo llo funclion. In somo casos a vindov viII appoar
and soIoclions viII bo avaiIabIo. DolaiIs for lloso can bo found in llo ITspico manuaI or
in HoIp. Tlo funclions Iislod boIov aro usod llo mosl. Tlo namo of llo ilom is foIIovod
by a doscriplion of llo icon. A briof doscriplion of oacl funclion is aIso providod.
-
Savos llo curronl sclomalic

Runs llo simuIalion
----
DoIolos oIomonls from llo sclomalic
-
Copios vindovod oIomonls or groups of oIomonls

IIacos a viro
-
IIacos a ground vill ils symboI

Givos a nodo a namo
--
IIacos ono of lloso froquonlIy usod compononls

IIacos ollor compononls, IiIo lransislors, soIoclod from a Iisl

Windovs an oIomonl and movos or drags il

Rolalos or mirrors an oIomonl vlon il is soIoclod vill

Adds loxl lo llo sclomalic

Dofinos aspocls of llo simuIalion lo bo run

Tlo ITspico maloriaI of groalosl inlorosl is Iocalod in lvo diroclorios:
C:`Irogram IiIos`ITC`ITspicoIV`oxampIos
C:`Irogram IiIos`ITC`ITspicoIV`Iib

Tlo - diroclory conlains an subdiroclory vloro a groal many

oxampIo circuils aro iIIuslralod as simuIalions.
Tlo diroclory conlains llo modoIs for llo dovicos usod in ITspico simuIa-
lions. Il conlains llroo imporlanl sub-foIdors. Tlo firsl is llo foIdor vloro fiIos
for compononls aro slorod. Tlis diroclory conlains boll passivo and aclivo compononls.
An oxampIo fiIo in llis diroclory is llo - fiIo. Tlis singIo loxl fiIo conlains llo
SIICI modoIs of aII of llo bipoIar lransislors suppIiod vill ITspico and is llo pIaco
vloro llo usor can appond addilionaI modoIs. Adding modoIs viII bo discussod Ialor.
If your copy of ITspico is in llo - diroclory, llo fuII pall for llo foIdor
viII bo
C:`program fiIos`ITC`ITspicoIV`Iib`cmp
Tlo - foIdor conlains subcircuils. Tloso aro circuils mado up of compononls
llal can bo usod jusl IiIo a compononl on a sclomalic. An op amp is a good oxampIo of
a subcircuil. Ivory subcircuil roquiros a symboI. Tloso aro slorod in llo - foIdor.
ITspico aIIovs you lo croalo your ovn compononls and subcircuils and sloro llom in
lloso foIdors. You can llus croalo your ovn Iibrarios.

Go lo llo by cIicIing on llo lammor icon on llo looIbar. Tloro aro many
imporlanl conlroIs loro, mosl of vlicl aro bosl doscribod in llo ITspico documonlalion.
A coupIo of conlroIs viII bo oxpIainod as usofuI oxampIos. Opon llo - lab, and
nolico llal you can soIocl llicI Iinos for llo pIols and can clango llo coIor sclomo for llo
pIols. Tlo coIor sclomo for oacl of many lracos can bo soIoclod. You can cIicI on llo bacI-
ground and sol ils coIor as voII. In casos vloro a pIol viII bo pIacod in a documonl, il may
bo dosirabIo lo pul bIacI lracos on a vlilo bacIground. Tlo coIor sclomo soIoclion aIso
aIIovs you lo soIocl llo coIor sclomo for llo sclomalic and nolIisl prosonlalions.
Undor llo lab il is usuaIIy viso lo soIocl llo oplion lo aulomalicaIIy doIolo
- lo avoid saving unnocossariIy Iargo amounls of dala. Undor - you
may visl lo lavo draving grids visibIo and you may visl lo drafl vill llicI Iinos, ospo-
ciaIIy if you viII bo pIacing llo draving in a documonl. You can aIso conlroI llo fonl.

Tlo HoIp fiIos for ITspico aro voII organizod and comprolonsivo. Tlo oxampIos slovn
in llis claplor viII quicIIy gol you slarlod, bul many usofuI capabiIilios aro nol cov-
orod. Roviov llo HoIp fiIos lo gol a fooIing for vlal is lloro and lov il is organizod.
- --
Tloro is a vory aclivo, indopondonl ITspico usors group on Yaloo. Tlo usors group is
al groups.yaloo.com/group/ITspico. Good discussions can bo found lloro as voII as
many fiIos for dovnIoad and a good manuaI.

Sclomalic capluro viII bo oxpIainod by acluaIIy croaling a simpIo circuil comprising a
difforonliaI pair ampIifior slago. Tlis domonslralion circuil is slovn boIov in Iiguro 19.1.
Tlo difforonliaI pair is oporalod vill 1 mA in oacl lransislor suppIiod by llo 2-mA laiI

-
curronl sourco I1. Imillor rosislors R3 and R4 provido 10:1 omillor dogonoralion, llal is,
lloy roduco llo gain by a faclor of 10 comparod lo vlal il vouId bo villoul dogonora-
lion. CoIIoclor Ioad rosislors R1 and R2 aIIov a nominaI DC voIlago drop of 2.5 V and
provido for a difforonliaI gain of 10. Tlo gain is 10 bocauso oacl coIIoclor rosislor is 10
limos llo vaIuo of llo offoclivo omillor rosislanco of ils associalod lransislor. SingIo-
ondod gain lo llo oulpul nodo V
oul
is 5, or aboul 14 dB. Capacilor C1 providos for somo
ligl-froquoncy roII-off by croaling a poIo al aboul 640 IHz.
-
Opon ITspico and cIicI on . IIaco llo rosislors firsl. CIicI on llo
rosislor looIbar bullon, bring llo cursor lo llo Iocalion for llo rosislor, and cIicI. R1 viII
bo pIacod. Movo llo cursor lo llo posilion for R2 and cIicI. R2 viII bo pIacod. Do llo
samo for R3 and R4. Nolico llal llo rosislors aro numborod in soquonco as lloy aro
pIacod. Rigll-cIicI lo oxil from llo rosislor pIacomonl modo. Rigll-cIicI on R1, onlor ils
vaIuo of 2500 in llo diaIog box llal appoars, and cIicI . Inlor llo vaIuos for llo ollor
llroo rosislors. IIaco capacilor C1 in llo samo faslion and onlor ils vaIuo as 100 p or
100 pI. Do nol Ioavo a spaco in llis onlry.
IIaco llo voIlago sourcos by cIicIing on llo bullon on llo looIbar. A Iisl
of avaiIabIo compononls viII como up. CIicI on llo compononl IaboIod . Tlo
voIlago sourco symboI viII appoar in a diaIog box. CIicI and llon pIaco llo voIlago
sourco by cIicIing on llo Iocalion vloro il is lo go. CIicI again on llo Iocalions for V2
and V3. Rigll-cIicI lo oxil llo voIlago sourco onlry modo. Rigll-cIicI on V1 and onlor
ils DC vaIuo of 15. Do llo samo for V2. Rigll-cIicI on V3 and llon cIicI . A
diaIog box viII appoar vill many oplions doscribing llo bolavior of llo voIlago sourco.
Ior nov, simpIy onlor in llo box for . Tlo bullon undor -
- - -

slouId bo lurnod on. Tlis proparos llo voIlago sourco lo acl as an AC voIlago sourco for
a smaII-signaI AC simuIalion.
CIicI on llo compononl bullon on llo looIbar and soIocl from llo Iisl. IIaco
llo curronl sourco, and llon rigll cIicI on il lo onlor ils vaIuo of 2 mA. IIaco llo lvo
ground symboIs by cIicIing on llo bullon on llo looIbar.
---
IIaco lransislor Q1 by cIicIing on llo bullon in llo looIbar and soIocling
from llo Iisl llal appoars. Hil and pIaco llo lransislor by cIicIing vlon il las boon
movod lo llo propor Iocalion. A socond lransislor viII bo allaclod lo llo cursor. Movo
llo cursor up lo llo bullon on llo looIbar and cIicI il. Tlis viII fIip llo orionlalion
of llo lransislor as noodod for Q2. Nov pIaco llo lransislor. Rigll-cIicI lo oxil lransislor
pIacomonl. Nolo llal any compononl can bo mirrorod ( I) or rolalod ( R) vliIo il
is allaclod lo llo cursor, incIuding vlon using llo command from llo looIbar.
Rigll-cIicI on Q1. A diaIog box viII appoar, sloving llo lypo and somo of llo clar-
aclorislics of Q1. Al llis poinl llo informalion viII bo missing or gonoric. CIicI on
--. A Iisl viII appoar sloving aII of llo NIN lransislors in llo Iibrary. SoIocl
llo 2N5551 and lil . Rigll-cIicI on Q1 and nolico nov llal llo lypo and somo of llo
claraclorislics aro fiIIod in. Dofino lransislor Q2 in llo samo vay.
- -
Wlon you cIicIod on llo bullon in llo looIbar, many difforonl compononl
soIoclions appoarod. Somo of lloso voro namod in bracIols. Tloso aro addilionaI parls
diroclorios llal can bo accossod in llo samo vay by doubIo cIicIing on llom. TaIo nolo
ospociaIIy of vlal Iios in llo - diroclory.
Many of lloso compononls aro conslruclod of so-caIIod subcircuils, vlicl aro llom-
soIvos circuils composod of numorous basic dovicos. A good oxampIo of a subcircuil is
an oporalionaI ampIifior. Subcircuils lavo symboIs and can bo pIacod on llo sclomalic
and usod jusl IiIo any ollor compononl.
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Somolimos il is dosirabIo lo paramolorizo llo vaIuo of an oIomonl, IiIo a rosislor, rallor
llan commilling il lo a fixod vaIuo. As vo viII soo Ialor, llis can aIIov llo vaIuo of llo
oIomonl lo bo sloppod across a rango of vaIuos, producing a simuIalion llal las a famiIy
of curvos. A compononl (IiIo a rosislor) is paramolorizod by pIacing a variabIo insido
curIy bracIols vloro llo compononl vaIuo vouId normaIIy go. If llo variabIo for a
rosislor is -- llo paramolorizalion is compIolod by adding llo SIICI diroclivo
.param Rsorios=1I
vloro 1I is llo nominaI vaIuo of --.

Movo llo compononls inlo lloir dosirod posilion if nocossary. Do llis by cIicIing on llo
bullon on llo looIbar and llon vindoving llo compononl you visl lo movo.
Movo llo compononl as dosirod and llon Iofl-cIicI. Rigll-cIicI lo oxil llo modo.
Nolo llal you can movo llo compononl dosignalion or llo vaIuo in llo samo vay. You
can clango llo compononl dosignalion by rigll cIicIing on llo loxl of llo dosignalor.

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Wiro llo circuil by cIicIing on llo bullon on llo looIbar. CIicI on llo boginning
poinl of llo viro and oacl pIaco vloro il is lo lurn. CIicI on llo finaI doslinalion of llo
viro. Rigll-cIicI lo oxil llo viro modo. Do llo samo for aII of llo romaining viring of
llo circuil. If any viro or compononl is pul dovn llal musl bo doIolod, cIicI on llo
bullon on llo looIbar, dosignalod by a pair of scissors. CIicI on llo oIomonl lo bo doIolod,
and il viII bo romovod. Rigll-cIicI lo oxil llo modo.
Add nodo namos lo soIoclod nodos by cIicIing in llo looIbar. A diaIog box
viII appoar. Inlor llo namo for llo nodo and cIicI . A roclangIo vill a diamond al
ils bollom viII bo allaclod lo llo cursor. IIaco llo diamond on llo nol in a convonionl
pIaco and cIicI. Rigll cIicI lo oxil llo modo. IaboI llo baso nol of Q1 as
in
and
llo coIIoclor nol of Q2 as
oul
. Nodos vill llo samo IaboI viII bo connoclod for llo
simuIalion ovon if nol connoclod by a viro in llo sclomalic. Tlis can somolimos roduco
cIullor on llo sclomalic.
Add loxl lo llo sclomalic by cIicIing on llo oplion in llo looIbar. Typo llo dosirod
loxl inlo llo diaIog box, lil and pIaco llo loxl on llo sclomalic. Tlo sclomalic of llo
difforonliaI ampIifior slago is nov compIolo and slouId IooI IiIo Iiguro 19.1.
Savo llo sclomalic lo a diroclory of your cloico. CaII il . If you llon IooI in
llal diroclory you viII soo a fiIo namod -. Tlis is llo sclomalic fiIo.
Tlo SIICI nolIisl can bo oblainod from llo sclomalic by using llo command
-. SoIocl aII llo loxl and copy il lo llo cIipboard () lo paslo il inlo a
difforonl odilor, IiIo Nolopad.
Tlo sclomalic can bo copiod lo an appIicalion IiIo or by lyping
and pulling il onlo llo cIipboard. Tlis is aIso lruo for pIols. can bo usod lo convorl
llo fiIo lo convonionl formals IiIo , and . Tlo compIolo ITspico scroon can bo
copiod lo llo cIipboard by cIicIing . Tlis is usofuI for pulling llo malo-
riaI inlo a vord documonl.
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Tlo difforonliaI ampIifior slago viII bo simuIalod in llis soclion. Tlo llroo mosl imporlanl
and basic lypos of simuIalion aro DC, AC, and lransionl. Tlo DC simuIalion biasos llo
circuil and slovs aII of llo nodo voIlagos and oporaling poinls. Tlo AC anaIysis slovs
smaII-signaI froquoncy and plaso rosponso. Tlo lransionl simuIalion slovs llo acluaI
vavoforms al difforonl poinls in llo circuil vlon llo circuil is drivon by an inpul signaI.
Tlo rosuIl of a lransionl simuIalion is mucl IiIo vlal ono vouId soo on an osciIIoscopo.

Sol up llo DC simuIalion by cIicIing on . Tlo simuIalion
diaIog box viII appoar vill labs for llo foIIoving lypos of simuIalion:
Transionl
AC AnaIysis
DC svoop
Noiso
DC Transfor
DC oporaling poinl

CIicI on llo lab for DC . Nolo llal viII appoar in llo synlax box.
Tlis is llo SIICI diroclivo for a DC simuIalion. Hil and nolico llal a roclangIo viII
bo allaclod lo llo cursor. IIaco llis roclangIo on llo sclomalic in a convonionl pIaco and
cIicI. Tlo SIICI diroclivo viII nov appoar on llo sclomalic.
Tlo simuIalion is nov roady lo bo run. CIicI on llo bullon on llo looIbar. Tlo
simuIalion viII run quicIIy, and an informalion box viII appoar sloving aII of llo nodo
voIlagos in llo circuil. Nodos you lavo namod viII appoar vill lloir namos. Ollor
nodos viII bo dosignalod vill soquonliaI nodo numbors. Inlorproling rosuIls is oasior if
you IaboI aII of llo nols of inlorosl. Tlo box viII aIso slov llo dirocl curronl fIov in aII
of llo lransislors and passivo oIomonls. Nolo llal llo voIlago al V
oul
is aboul 12.5 V, as
oxpoclod, and llal llo coIIoclor curronl of oacl lransislor is jusl sly of 1.0 mA.
CIoso llo DC simuIalion informalion vindov and movo llo cursor ovor a compo-
nonl on llo sclomalic. Tlo Iovor Iofl porlion of llo vindov viII slov llo voIlagos,
curronls, and povor dissipalion for oacl compononl. Movo llo cursor ovor a viro. Tlo
informalion vindov viII dispIay ils nodo namo and voIlago. Tlis approacl lo vioving
DC simuIalion rosuIls is usuaIIy mucl moro convonionl llan vioving llo rosuIls in llo
iniliaI DC simuIalion rosuIls vindov.

Tloro is moro lo llo SIICI orror Iog llan ono vouId llinI. Il is nol jusl loIIing you vlal
is vrong. In llo caso of a DC oporaling poinl simuIalion, il rovoaIs llo oporaling poinl
and smaII-signaI modoI paramolors for ovory lransislor in llo circuil.
CIicI on and llo informalion viII appoar. Informalion IiIo
DC and AC bola and

of llo lransislors al llo acluaI oporaling poinl in llo circuil can

bo vory vaIuabIo. VirluaIIy aII of llo imporlanl lybrid pi paramolors aro slovn. Tlis
informalion providos good insigll inlo lov llo modoI for llo lransislor is bolaving.
Ono can acluaIIy sol up a circuil lo bias llo lransislor al a closon oporaling poinl and
comparo lloso numbors lo llo dala slool vaIuos for llo lransislor in ordor lo soo lov
voII llo modoI comparos lo llo dala slool.

ITspico is vory good al convorging lo soIulions, bul lloro viII bo raro occurroncos vlon
llo iloralion Iimil is roaclod and llo simuIalion faiIs. Tlo mossago --
viII bo dispIayod.
Tlis is oflon a rosuIl of llo parlicuIar circuil lopoIogy boing simuIalod and somo-
limos can bo llo rosuIl of a circuil dosign or sclomalic onlry orror. Aparl from clocIing
llo circuil for orrors, lloro aro llroo llings llal can oflon soIvo llo convorgonco prob-
Iom. Tlo firsl is lo uso llo aIlornalo soIvor avaiIabIo in ITspico. Ono can svilcl lo llo
aIlornalo soIvor by going lo and soIocling llo aIlornalo soIvor in
llo aroa in llo diaIog box.
Tlo socond lling lo lry is moro spocific lo povor ampIifiors and simiIar lopoIogios.
Connocl a Iargo-vaIuo rosislor from llo ligl-impodanco VAS oulpul nodo lo ground.
Tlis rosislor can oflon bo as Iargo as 1 M or ovon 10 M and sliII fix llo convorgonco
probIom vliIo causing minimaI inlorforonco lo normaI circuil oporalion. Onco convor-
gonco is acliovod llis vay, llo oporaling poinls of aII of llo lransislors can bo clocIod
lo soo if somolling is vrong vill llo circuil ilsoIf. Tloro is aIso llo occasionaI caso
vloro llo prosonco of a vory Iargo rosislanco lo ground on llo ligl-impodanco nodo
(o.g., 100 M ) can acluaIIy impodo convorgonco.

-
I lavo aIso found llal corlain lransislor modoIs can bo moro prono lo causing con-
vorgonco probIoms. Tlis possibiIily can bo loslod by lomporariIy clanging ono or moro
of llo lransislors lo a difforonl lypo. Tlo VAS and prodrivor lransislors connoclod lo llo
ligl-impodanco nodo aro primo candidalos in llis caso.
--
CIicI on and llon lil llo -- lab in llo dia-
Iog box lo sol up llo AC simuIalion. IiII in llo informalion roquoslod. SoIocl a
docado svoop vill 100 poinls por docado. Inlor slarl and slop froquoncios of 10I
and 100Mog, rospoclivoIy. Tlo uso of M for MHz viII nol vorI, viII vorI.
CIicI and pIaco llo SIICI diroclivo on llo sclomalic in a convonionl pIaco by
cIicIing lloro. Nolico llal llo SIICI diroclivo for llo DC oporaling poinl viII
romain on llo sclomalic bul viII clango lo , signifying llal il is nol llo simuIa-
lion lo bo run llis limo.
Rigll-cIicI on V3 and cIicI on llo box if nocossary. MaIo suro llal lloro is
a in llo box. Tlo ollor boxos can romain bIanI. Tlo circuil is nov roady
for AC anaIysis.
CIicI on in llo looIbar. Tlo AC anaIysis viII bo porformod and a socond vindov
viII como up vill froquoncy IaboIod across llo axis. IIaco llo cursor on llo nol.
Tlo cursor viII clango lo a rod probo symboI. CIicI on llo nol. Tlo froquoncy and plaso
rosponso viII appoar in llo pIol vindov. Gain viII bo slovn in dB on llo Iofl axis and
plaso viII bo slovn in dogroos on llo rigll axis. Nolico llal llo froquoncy rosponso
indicalos approximaloIy 14 dB of gain al Iov froquoncios, as oxpoclod. Movo llo cursor
ovor llo froquoncy rosponso curvo al somo Iov froquoncy and nolico llal llo froquoncy,
gain, and plaso aro slovn numoricaIIy in llo Iovor Iofl cornor of llo main vindov.
Movo llo cursor lo llo poinl on llo curvo vloro llo gain is 11 dB, vlicl is approxi-
maloIy 3 dB dovn. Tlo froquoncy roadoul viII indicalo aboul 604 IHz, llo 3-dB fro-
quoncy of llo circuil.
Movo llo mouso-probo lo llo coIIoclor nol of Q1 and cIicI. Tlo froquoncy rosponso
al llal poinl viII aIso bo slovn. Nolico llal il oxlibils vory IillIo roduclion in gain ovon
al 10 MHz. Tlis is bocauso lloro is no oxlornaI capacilor connoclod lo llal nodo lo croalo
a significanl HI roII-off.
CIicI in llo aroa of llo pIol and llon rigll-cIicI. A Iisl of oplions viII appoar. SoIocl
- -. A Iisl of aII possibIo lracos lo pIol viII appoar. (
oul
) and () viII bo
liglIigllod bocauso lloy lavo aIroady boon soIoclod for pIolling. SoIocl an onlry vill-
oul doIoling llo ollors by conlroI cIicIing on llal onlry. Tlo slalus of an onlry can bo
clangod by conlroI cIicIing on il as voII. Do llis for (C1) and lil . Tlo pIol of llo
curronl in C1 as a funclion of froquoncy viII nov appoar.
Iosilion llo cursor ovor llo
oul
nol. Iusl and loId dovn llo Iofl mouso bullon
vliIo llo rod probo is dispIayod. HoId dovn llo bullon and movo llo probo cursor lo
llo coIIoclor nol of Q1. Nolico llal llo probo coIor clangos lo bIacI, signifying llal il is
nov a nogalivo probo. RoIoaso llo Iofl mouso bullon. A lraco viII appoar sloving llo
difforonliaI oulpul voIlago from llo coIIoclor of Q1 lo llo coIIoclor of Q2. Tlis curvo viII
bo up 6 dB comparod lo llo singIo ondod oulpul curvo, as oxpoclod.
CIicI in llo aroa of llo pIol and soo an onlry in llo looIbar caIIod -.
SoIocl . Tlo samo pIol viII aulomalicaIIy appoar llo noxl limo llo simuIa-
lion is run.

-
CIicI on and llon lil llo - lab in llo diaIog
box lo sol up llo lransionl simuIalion. Tlo lransionl simuIalion diaIog box viII appoar.
Inlor 10 ms for . AII of llo romaining boxos can bo Iofl bIanI. Hil and pIaco
llo lransionl SIICI diroclivo on llo sclomalic.
Croalo llo limo-varying inpul for llo lransionl simuIalion by rigll cIicIing on
inpul voIlago sourco V3. Bocauso llo diaIog box vas proviousIy usod lo
spocify an AC sourco for AC simuIalion, llal diaIog box viII again como up. In llo
funclion aroa, dofino llo funclion by cIicIing llo bullon. Inlor 0.1 in llo ampIi-
ludo box lo gonoralo a 0.1-V poaI sino vavo. Inlor 1000 for llo froquoncy and 10 for
-.
Hil . Tlo simuIalion viII run and a vavoform vindov viII appoar vill limo
running from 0 lo 10 ms aIong llo axis. Irobo llo
oul
nol, and llo sino vavo oulpul
of llo ampIifior slago viII appoar aIong vill llo voIlago slovn on llo axis. Using llo
mouso, croalo a roclangIo on llo vavoform vindov llal oxlonds Iofl lo rigll bolvoon a
pair of cycIo poaIs and vorlicaIIy from llo bollom of llo vavoform lo llo lop. HoId llo
mouso bullon. Nolico llo informalion box in llo Iovor Iofl cornor of llo scroon. Tlo
poriod of llo vavoform is slovn as oquaIing aboul 1000 s and llo poaI-lo-poaI
ampIiludo of llo vavoform indicalod by as aboul 985 mV. RoIoaso llo mouso bullon.
Tlis porlion of llo vavoform viII nov appoar zoomod in. Hil - in llo
looIbar lo rosloro llo vavoform lo ils originaI prosonlalion.
Irobo llo coIIoclor viro of Q1 and soo llo ollor oulpul oul of plaso vill
oul
.
Irobo
in
, and soo llis smaIIor vavoform prosonlod svinging aboul zoro voIls and
nolico llal llo combinod vavoform prosonlalion auloscaIod by ITspico.
Movo llo cursor ovor C1 and soo llal llo cursor clangos lo a roprosonlalion of a
cIip-on ammolor. CIicI on C1 and soo ils curronl pIollod in llo pIol vindov. Nolico llal
il is 90 oul of plaso vill rospocl lo llo voIlago vavoforms, as oxpoclod. Tlo curronl in
any of llo viros in llo circuil can bo pIollod by Iofl cIicIing on llo viro.
CIicI on llo dispIay, llon rigll-cIicI on il and soIocl - -. CIoar aII of llo
visibIo lracos. Go bacI lo llo sclomalic vindov and probo from
oul
lo llo coIIoclor of
Q1. Tlo difforonliaI oulpul voIlago viII bo dispIayod. Nov cIicI on
in
and soo il dis-
pIayod as voII, vill boll lracos scaIod proporIy villoul llo prosonco of a DC compo-
nonl on llo oulpul, maIing llom oasior lo soo and comparo.
Rigll-cIicI on V3 and sol llo funclion lo a puIso. Inlor
iniliaI
= 0.1,
on
= 0.1,
= 0, - = 10 ns, = 10 ns, = 5 s, = 10 ns, and - = 10. Tlis viII
croalo a 100-IHz squaro vavo al
oul
vill 1 V pp ampIiludo. Go inlo
and onlor a slop limo of 100 s in llo lransionl diaIog box. Hil ,
and llon probo
oul
. Ton cycIos of llo 100-IHz squaro vavo viII bo slovn. Nolico llo
roundod Ioading odgos duo lo llo circuil bandvidll of Ioss llan 1 MHz.
Nolico llal in llo - diaIog box lloro vas a pIaco lo onlor -.
ITspico normaIIy doos a fairIy good job of aulomalicaIIy adjusling llo limoslop in a
lransionl simuIalion. Tlo sizo of llo limoslop affocls llo accuracy of llo simuIalion. In
somo crilicaI simuIalions il is somolimos dosirabIo lo sol a maximum limoslop llal
ITspico is aIIovod lo laIo. Ior llo simuIalions dono so far, il las boon unnocossary lo
sol a maximum limoslop.
Transionl simuIalions can croalo fairIy Iargo fiIos llal viII laIo up unnocossary
spaco in llo simuIalion diroclory. I rocommond you lavo ITspico aulomalicaIIy doIolo

-
llom aflor a run is cIosod. Go lo llo conlroI panoI by cIicIing on llo lammor on llo
looIbar and soIocl llo lab. Ansvor - lo -.
If you cIicI a dovico in llo sclomalic, a llormomolor viII appoar and povor
dissipalion of llo dovico viII bo pIollod. If you cIicI llo IaboI of a vavoform (al llo
lop of llo pIol pano), a dispIay box viII appoar llal slovs llo RMS and avorago vaIuos
of llo vavoform. If you do llis for a povor vavoform of a dovico, llo avorago povor
dissipalion of llo dovico viII bo dispIayod in llo box. Tlis is ospociaIIy usofuI in IooIing
al oulpul slago lransislors.
- --
Tlo Iasl Iourior Transform (IIT) capabiIilios buiIl inlo ITspico maIo convonionl and
dolaiIod dislorlion anaIysis possibIo. In llis soclion dislorlion anaIysis viII bo iIIus-
lralod by anaIyzing llo dislorlion of llo difforonliaI ampIifior slago doscribod abovo.
Mosl convonlionaI dislorlion anaIysis is carriod oul vill a lransionl simuIalion ompIoy-
ing a sinusoidaI inpul. In proparalion for llo IIT anaIysis, allacl llo SIICI diroclivo
.oplion pIolvinsizo=0 lo llo sclomalic.
Tlis lurns off dala comprossion llal ITspico normaIIy usos lo savo spaco. Tlo
accuracy and dynamic rango of IIT anaIysis can bo dogradod vlon llo dala from a
lransionl run aro comprossod. Dala comprossion can aIso bo disabIod on llo -
- lab of llo conlroI panoI, bul llal solling viII nol bo romomborod llo noxl limo
ITspico is invoIod.
Run a lransionl simuIalion of llo difforonliaI ampIifior slago vill a 1-IHz inpul vill
0.1 V poaI ampIiludo for 16 cycIos. Nolo llal vlon you cIicI on llo sino funclion, llo nov
vindov llal comos up viII sliII lavo somo of llo boxos popuIalod (Iofl ovor from llo
squaro-vavo run). CIoar lloso boxos. Sol llo lransionl run duralion for 16 ms and run llo
simuIalion. CIicI on
oul
lo oblain llo oulpul vavoform. Ils ampIiludo viII bo 1 V pp.
-
CIicI on llo vavoform vindov and llon rigll-cIicI on il. SoIocl al llo bol-
lom of llo Iisl of soIoclions. In llo soclion, cIicI llo bullon
. Tlo viII aIroady bo Iislod as 16 ms or somolling vory cIoso lo il. If il
is nol oxaclIy 16 ms, onlor 16 ms. Inlor 8 ms in llo - box. Tlis causos llo IIT lo
bo porformod on llo Iasl oigll cycIos of llo simuIalion, supprossing slarl-up arlifacls.
Tlo dofauIl numbor of IIT poinls is 65,536, and llis numbor is fino. Hil . A nov vin-
dov viII appoar vill llo IIT spoclrum of llo vavoform slovn in dBV as a funclion of
froquoncy. Using llo mouso, drag a vindov ovor llo main aroa of inlorosl in llo spoclraI
pIol. Tlis viII provido a cIoso-up viov for moasuring llo larmonic ampIiludos.
IIaco llo cursor on llo fundamonlaI poaI al 1 IHz and nolico llal llo cursor vaIuo
in llo Iovor Iofl cornor of llo vindov roads 9.5 dB. Tlis is dB roIalivo lo 1 V RMS.
IIaco llo cursor on llo socond poaI al 2 IHz, roprosonling llo socond larmonic. Il viII
road approximaloIy 104 dB. Tlo socond larmonic is llus dovn aboul 94 dB, or al
aboul 0.002. Moasuro llo llird larmonic al 3 IHz in llo samo vay. Il viII road aboul
79 dB, dovn aboul 69 dB from llo fundamonlaI, or al aboul 0.035.
Nolico llal llo fourll and fifll larmonics road 138 dB and 125 dB, rospoclivoIy.
Tlo spoclraI noiso fIoor, oflon caIIod llo --, is al 142 dB. Nolico aIso llo Iargo amounl
of spoclra oxlonding oul lo ligl froquoncios. Tloro aro ligl-froquoncy arlifacls al 81 dB,
for oxampIo. Tlis is ovidonco llal llo IIT las nol boon oplimizod.

Roading oul llo ampIiludos of llo spoclraI Iinos is mado mucl oasior by allacling a
cursor lo llo spoclraI pIol. }usl Iofl-cIicI on llo pIol IaboI and a crosslairs viII appoar.
Rigll-cIicI on llo pIol IaboI, soIocl ono cursor, and lil . A roadoul box viII appoar
sloving llo froquoncy and ampIiludo of llo poinl on llo pIol vloro llo cursor
crosslairs aro Iocalod. Tlo crosslairs aro draggod lo llo dosirod Iocalion by cIicIing on
and loIding al or noar llo crosslairs vloro llo numbor 1 (dosignaling cursor
numbor 1) appoars. You can aIso movo llo crosslairs Iofl and rigll by convonionl incro-
monls vill llo and Ioys lo zoro in on a parlicuIar poaI. Tloso Ioys viII usuaIIy
Iand llo crosslairs on a larmonic froquoncy of llo fundamonlaI. Tlo slop sizo of llo
cursor movomonl is llo froquoncy incromonl corrosponding lo llo poriod procossod by
llo IIT. Ior oxampIo, if llo numbor of cycIos procossod corrosponds lo llo Iasl 8 ms of
llo simuIalion, llo slop sizo viII bo 125 Hz.
-
Tloro aro sovon llings llal aro imporlanl in oplimizing llo IIT:
1. Turn comprossion off
2. SimuIalo an adoqualo numbor of cycIos
3. SimuIalo an inlogor numbor of cycIos of llo Iovosl froquoncy
4. Ignoro an adoqualo numbor of cycIos boforo boginning llo IIT
5. Clooso an approprialo numbor of IIT poinls
6. Clooso a smaII onougl and oplimaI maximum limoslop
7. Bovaro of Iong limo conslanls in llo circuil
Tlo firsl fivo iloms voro salisfiod abovo, bul llo limoslop vas Iofl lo SIICI lo dolor-
mino. Bollor rosuIls aro acliovod vill llo IIT vlon llo maximum limoslop sizo is
Iimilod lo a smaII vaIuo llal is roIalod lo llo poriod of llo sinusoid boing simuIalod and
lo llo Iongll of limo of llo IIT anaIysis.
Il las boon rocommondod in llo pasl llal llo maximum limoslop bo sol lo llo IIT
anaIysis limo dividod by 16,383 |4, 5]. Tlis causod llo limoslops of llo lransionl simuIa-
lion lo coincido vill llo IIT sampIo poinls vlon llo numbor of IIT poinls in llo anaI-
ysis limo vas 16,384. I lavo usod llis roIalionslip ovor llo yoars, ovon llougl llo dofauIl
numbor of IIT sampIo poinls in ITspico las incroasod in Ialor roIoasos, and il las aIvays
vorIod voII for mo. Ior an IIT anaIysis limo of 8 ms, llis corrosponds lo aboul 0.488 s.
Inlor llo SIICI diroclivo .oplions maxslop=0.48831106u on llo sclomalic.
Run llo simuIalion again, noling llal il viII nov laIo Iongor bocauso of llo
smaIIor maximum limoslop. Iorform an IIT anaIysis on llo rosuIl. Nolico llo signifi-
canl roduclion in spoclra al liglor froquoncios. Tlo ligl-froquoncy arlifacls aro al
aboul 153 dB as comparod vill 81 dB in llo provious simuIalion. Uso llo cursor lo
moasuro llo fourll larmonic al 4 IHz. Il viII road aboul 153 dB, as comparod vill
138 dB abovo vloro maximum limoslop conlroI vas nol impIomonlod. Tlo grass is
al aboul 162 dB as comparod vill llo provious 142-dB numbor. Tloso vory subslan-
liaI improvomonls in IIT rosoIulion aro duo lo llo onforcomonl of llo approprialo
maximum limoslop.
My oxporionco las boon llal llo abovo ruIo for maximum limoslop may bo consor-
valivo and llal llo procision of llo closon numbor is nol sacrod. A doubIod maximum

-
limoslop roundod up lo 1 s raisod llo ligl-froquoncy arlifacls from 153 dB lo 132 dB,
bul llo ollor quolod numbors clangod by an insignificanl amounl. My advico is lo
oxporimonl vill llo maxslop numbor so llal you gol good rosuIls villoul rosorling lo
an unnocossariIy smaII numbor.
Tlo IIT rosuIls can bo dogradod by llo prosonco of circuilry vill Iong sollIing
limos, sucl as AC-coupIod inpuls. Wlorovor possibIo, porform llo IIT simuIalions on
DC-coupIod vorsions of llo circuil. Tlo numbor of cycIos of llo vavoform llal you
ompIoy for llo IIT las a dirocl impacl on llo froquoncy rosoIulion of llo IIT. Tlo
vidll of llo froquoncy bin for oacl spoclraI Iino viII bo 2/IIT
limo
. A simuIalion vill
IIT procossing of 8 ms of dala viII lavo spoclraI Iinos vill a lolaI vidll of 250 Hz.
Tlo numbor of cycIos llal you simuIalo boforo slarling llo IIT anaIysis is a judg-
monl caII. Tlo sollIing limo is inlondod lo onsuro llal aII iniliaI condilions and lran-
sionls lavo lad limo lo sollIo oul so as nol lo affocl llo IIT rosuIls. Ior ligl-quaIily IIT
rosuIls I rocommond llal you simuIalo 16 cycIos and porform llo IIT on llo Iasl oigll
cycIos. Too smaII a sollIing limo or loo smaII an IIT limo may rosuIl in arlifacls and Ioss
of IIT dynamic rango. Hovovor, I lavo oflon oblainod salisfaclory rosuIls vill as IillIo
as ono cycIo of simuIalion ignorod boforo llo IIT inlorvaI.
-
TolaI larmonic dislorlion (THD) for a sinusoidaI lransionl simuIalion can bo dispIayod
in llo SIICI orror Iog by adding llo SIICI diroclivo lo llo sclomalic. TolaI lar-
monic dislorlion and llo IovoI of oacl larmonic viII bo Iislod up lo llo roquoslod num-
bor of larmonics. Add llo SIICI diroclivo .four 1-IHz 10 8 V(
oul
) lo llo difforonliaI pair
sclomalic.
Tlis diroclivo spocifios llal llo anaIysis viII bo dono on a 1-IHz sino vavo and llal
roadoul of llo firsl 10 larmonics bo providod. Tlo numbor 8 indicalos llal llo IIT is
basod on llo Iasl oigll cycIos of llo vavoform. Run llo simuIalion, and llon go lo
. THD viII road aboul 0.035. Socond and llird larmonic IovoIs
roIalivo lo llo fundamonlaI viII road aboul 2-5 and 3.5-4, rospoclivoIy.
- --
Iorform a noiso anaIysis by going lo -. IiII
in llo diaIog box vill llo oulpul nodo lo bo moasurod, V(
oul
), llo inpul sourco (V3),
llo lypo of froquoncy pIol (docado), numbor of poinls por docado (20), and slarl (1I) and
slop (100I) froquoncy. Hil and pIaco llo rosuIling SIICI diroclivo .noiso V(Voul) V3
doc 20 1I 100I on llo sclomalic.
Run llo simuIalion. A pIol vindov viII appoar, mucl IiIo llo ono for AC anaIysis.
Irobo llo
oul
nodo and llo pIol of noiso donsily vorsus froquoncy viII bo dispIayod.
In llis caso il is fairIy fIal al aboul 16 nV/ Hz. Tlo inpul-roforrod noiso voIlago is oflon
of groalor inlorosl. Il is jusl llo oulpul noiso donsily dividod by llo gain of llo circuil.
Will a singIo-ondod gain of 5, llo inpul-roforrod noiso voIlago for llis difforonliaI slago
is 3.2 nV/ Hz.
To pul llings in porspoclivo, considor lov mucl noiso voIlago is producod in a
20-IHz bandvidll. Tloro aro aboul 141 Hz in a bandvidll of 20 IHz, so llo lolaI oulpul
noiso in llis bandvidll vouId bo 2.3 V. If llo maximum usofuI oulpul of llo circuil voro
5 V RMS, llo SNR vouId bo a faclor of 2.17 miIIion, corrosponding lo aboul 126 dB.

ConlroI-cIicI on llo lraco IaboI lo soo up a pop-up box llal viII dispIay llo lolaI
RMS noiso on llo pIollod nodo ovor llo pIol froquoncy inlorvaI. Tlis can bo vory
loIpfuI in doriving a signaI-lo-noiso ralio.
- -
Tlo noiso conlribulion of an individuaI compononl can bo pIollod by cIicIing on llo
compononl. Tlo noiso conlribulion for a lransislor viII incIudo llo offocls from boll ils
inpul voIlago noiso and inpul curronl noiso.
- -
As monlionod in Claplor 1, voigllod noiso moasuromonls aro oflon porformod on ampIi-
fiors lo bollor rofIocl lloso parls of llo noiso spoclrum lo vlicl llo oar is mosl sonsilivo.
A good oxampIo of llis is llo A-voiglling curvo. Tlis lypo of voiglling can aIso bo
appIiod lo simuIalions by foIIoving llo circuil boing simuIalod vill a simuIalion circuil
llal impIomonls llo dosirod fiIlor funclion. Iiguro 19.2 is a sclomalic of a fiIlor llal impIo-
monls llo A-voiglling funclion. Tlo voIlago-conlroIIod voIlago sourco (VCVS) al llo
inpul buffors llo signaI. Tlo VCVS al llo oulpul impIomonls llo nocossary midband gain
and buffors llo oulpul. Tlis is a landy funclion lo impIomonl as a subcircuil.
-
ITspico incIudos many lypos of voIlago and curronl sourcos llal can bo conlroIIod by
voIlagos or curronls. AII of lloso sourcos can bo assignod gain vaIuos. Tloso provido a
quicI vay of impIomonling corlain funclions villin a simuIalion, sucl as bufforing,
clunIs of gain, and so on.
Tlo voIlago-conlroIIod voIlago sourco (VCVS) can bo usod lo impIomonl voIlago
gain. Il is dosignalod by llo Iollor in llo looIbar Iisl. Solling ils gain lo unily
impIomonls an idoaI buffor vloso inpuls and oulpuls aro convonionlIy isoIalod. Tlis
aIIovs ono lo picI off difforonliaI voIlagos, for oxampIo. Solling llo gain lo a vory Iargo
numbor impIomonls a noar-idoaI oporalionaI ampIifior.
Tlo voIlago-dopondonl curronl sourco is dosignalod by (lransconduclanco).
ITspico aIso incIudos curronl-conlroIIod voIlago sourcos () and curronl-conlroIIod
curronl sourcos (), bul lloso aro Ioss froquonlIy usod. Tloir conlroI curronl is llo curronl
fIoving llrougl a dosignalod voIlago sourco.
Tlo circuil in Iiguro 19.3 sublracls an idoaIIy ampIifiod vorsion of llo inpul from
llo oulpul lo aIIov llo vioving of llo inpul-oulpul orror of llo circuil. Go lo llo looI-
bar compononl soIoclor and clooso a VCVS by soIocling llo Iisling. IIaco llis on llo

-
sclomalic and connocl il as slovn. Rigll-cIicI on llo VCVS lo sol ils gain. In llo rosuIl-
ing diaIog box liglIigll and lypo a gain of 1 in llo box abovo. IIaco, connocl, and
sol llo gains of llo ollor conlroIIod sourcos and . moroIy dorivos llo difforonliaI
oulpul voIlago across llo coIIoclors of Q1 and Q2. muIlipIios llo inpul signaI by a
vaIuo jusl sIigllIy Ioss llan llo difforonliaI gain of llo slago. llon laIos llo difforonco
of llo oulpuls of and and prosonls il as a dislorlion rosiduaI oulpul.
Run llo 1-IHz sinusoidaI lransionl simuIalion for 5 ms vill poaI inpul ampIiludo
of 0.1 V. Irobo llo
disl
nodo and soo a smaII, sIigllIy dislorlod ropIica of llo sino vavo.
Rorun llo simuIalion vill a poaI inpul voIlago of 0.2 V and IooI al
disl
. Vory visibIo
dislorlion viII nov bo ovidonl as a rosuIl of llo incroasod signaI IovoI.
-
ITspico providos llo capabiIily lo porform simuIalions vloro a sourco is svopl or vloro
a paramolor or sourco is sloppod for muIlipIo simuIalions lo produco usofuI pIols.

Tlo - modo of simuIalion can bo usod lo pIol llo inpul-oulpul funclion of llo
difforonliaI slago of Iiguro 19.1. Go lo and cIicI on llo
- lab. A diaIog box viII como up. SoIocl V3 as llo sourco and picI a Iinoar
svoop. Inlor slarl and slop voIlago vaIuos of 1.0 and 1.0. Inlor 0.01 for a svoop in
incromonls of 10 mV. Hil and pIaco llo rosuIling SIICI diroclivo on llo sclomalic.
Run llo simuIalion and probo from llo
oul
nol lo llo coIIoclor nodo of Q1. Tlo lransfor
claraclorislic of llo difforonliaI slago viII bo pIollod. Tlo DC svoop is aIso vory usofuI
in pIolling lransislor claraclorislics, sucl as

vorsus

.
-
Tlo DC Transfor modo of simuIalion providos a simpIo roading of llo smaII-signaI DC
gain al a givon oporaling poinl. SimpIy go lo

-. Inlor llo oulpul nodo V(

oul
) and llo namo V3 of llo sourco. Hil and a
vory simpIo rosuIl viII bo prosonlod. Tlo DC gain (lransfor), llo inpul impodanco, and
llo oulpul impodanco viII bo slovn. If llis simuIalion is porformod on a foodbacI
ampIifior, llo Iov-froquoncy damping faclor can bo inforrod from llo oulpul impod-
anco. Tlo DC gain of llo ampIifior is aIso convonionlIy slovn.
-
Tlo - command aIIovs you lo run muIlipIo simuIalions vill difforonl paramolor
vaIuos and lavo llo rosuIls pIollod logollor as a famiIy of curvos. Tlo sloppod simuIa-
lion can bo iIIuslralod by running llo abovo DC svoop, bul vill llo laiI curronl sourco
I1 sloppod from 1 mA lo 3 mA in incromonls of 0.5 mA. Add llo - SIICI diroclivo
slovn boIov lo llo sclomalic.
.slop I1 1mA 3mA 0.5mA
Tlo synlax is simpIo. Iislod in ordor aro llo sourco lo bo sloppod, llo slarling vaIuo, llo
onding vaIuo, and llo vaIuo of llo incromonl.
Run llo simuIalion and probo llo difforonliaI oulpul by dragging llo mouso from
llo
oul
nol lo llo Q1 coIIoclor nol. Tlo rosuIling pIol viII slov llo difforonliaI lransfor
funclion for aII six vaIuos of laiI curronl. Nolico llal llo oulpul sving rango boforo cIip-
ping occurs bocomos smaIIor as laiI curronl bocomos smaIIor.
Tlo sloppod simuIalion is ospociaIIy usofuI for pIolling llo oulpul claraclorislic of
a lransislor, vloro

is svopl and baso curronl is sloppod. An AC anaIysis can aIso bo

sloppod. Slop llo laiI curronl in llo AC anaIysis abovo from 0.1 mA lo 2 mA in slops of
0.1 mA and soo llo offocl on gain of llo difforonliaI slago.
-
An imporlanl oxampIo of llo uso of sloppod svopl simuIalions is llo so-caIIod
- simuIalion of a cIass AB oulpul slago |6]. Tlis simuIalion slovs llo gain of llo
oulpul slago as a funclion of oulpul curronl for sovoraI difforonl vaIuos of quiosconl bias
curronl

. Tlis is vaIuabIo in ovaIualing crossovor dislorlion.

Tlo circuil of Iiguro 19.4 impIomonls a vingsproad simuIalion of a simpIo cIass AB
oulpul slago driving an 8- Ioad ovor a rango of 10 V lo +10 V. Tlo lvo voIlago sourcos

sproadp
and
sproadn
provido llo bias sproading funclion and sol llo quiosconl bias cur-
ronl. Tloso voIlago sourcos aro paramolorizod by pIacing a variabIo insido curIy bracI-
ols in pIaco of llo vaIuo of llo voIlago sourco. Horo llal variabIo is caIIod
sproad
. Tlo
paramolorizalion is mado compIolo by adding llo SIICI diroclivo.
.param Vsproad=0.6
vloro 0.6 V is llo nominaI vaIuo of
sproad
. Tlo vaIuo of
sproad
is llon sloppod for muI-
lipIo simuIalions by adding llo SIICI diroclivo.
.slop Iin param Vsproad 0.6 0.70 0.01
vloro llo slarling and onding poinls for
sproad
aro 0.6 V and 0.70 V, rospoclivoIy. Tlo
slopping is dono in incromonls of 10 mV. Iacl simuIalion is dono in llo - modo,
vloro
in
is svopl from 10 V lo +10 V in incromonls of 0.1 V.
Tlo gain of llo oulpul slago is pIollod by adding a lraco vloso funclion is dofinod
as |
oul
)]. Tlis is llo dorivalivo of
oul
as a funclion of llo inpul voIlago. Tlo rosuIling

-
famiIy of curvos iIIuslralos lov crossovor dislorlion is infIuoncod by llo quiosconl bias
of llo oulpul slago.
Tlo nominaI gain is aboul 0.95. Will loo IillIo bias, llo gain is soon lo faII soriousIy
al llo crossovor poinl lo aboul 0.93. Will llo bias sol loo ligl, llo gain is loo ligl in llo
middIo rango of llo crossovor, al aboul 0.97, iIIuslraling vlal is caIIod doubIing.
AIllougl an oplimum compromiso bias can bo closon, il is cIoar llal lloro is no bias
vaIuo llal compIoloIy oIiminalos llo crossovor dislorlion.
--
Many of llo pIolling capabiIilios of ITspico lavo boon usod and oxpIainod abovo.
Somo addilionaI usofuI pIolling funclions aro doscribod loro. Al llo lop of llo pIol
aroa (llo pIol pIano) lloro is a IaboI for oacl pIol in llo samo coIor as llo pIollod lraco.
A convonionl vay lo doIolo a lraco is lo cIicI on llo lraco IaboI vill llo scissors from
llo looIbar.
If you rigll-cIicI on llo lraco IaboI, a diaIog box viII bo dispIayod. Il aIIovs you lo
clango llo coIor of llo lraco and lo maIo llo lraco a funclion of llo variabIo boing
pIollod. Ior oxampIo, if llo lraco is
oul
, you can maIo il bocomo a lraco of
2
oul
. You can
aIso dofino llo lraco as a funclion of
oul
and ollor avaiIabIo variabIos. Tlis is roforrod
lo as .
- - -- -

An ospociaIIy usofuI capabiIily for moasuring poinls on llo lraco is lo allacl a cur-
sor lo il using llo - box. Tlis viII dispIay a sol of crosslairs llal aIvays
inlorsocl on llo lraco and can bo movod aIong llo lraco by llo mouso (cIicI on llo
crosslairs and drag llo mouso). A dispIay box viII appoar and slov llo lorizonlaI and
vorlicaI vaIuos of llo lraco al llo inlorsoclion. A socond cursor can aIso bo allaclod lo
llo lraco. In llis caso llo dispIay box viII indicalo llo coordinalos of llo lvo cursors,
lloir difforoncos, and llo sIopo bolvoon llom. If lvo cursors aro appIiod lo llo samo
odgo of a squaro vavo, llo sIopo roadoul viII corrospond lo llo sIov ralo. If lvo cursors
aro pIacod on lvo succossivo posilivo odgos of a vavoform, llo poriod viII bo road oul
as llo corrosponding froquoncy.
Ono can aIso add a lraco lo a pIol. CIicI in llo aroa of llo pIol and llon rigll-cIicI.
A Iisl of oplions viII appoar. SoIocl . A lraco from llo Iisl of avaiIabIo lracos can
bo addod. Moroovor, a funclion of ono or moro of llo avaiIabIo lracos can bo lypod inlo
llo funclion box. Tlis capabiIily viII bo doscribod furllor boIov.
Rigll-cIicI again in llo pIol vindov lo gol llo oplions Iisl. CIicI on . Tlis viII
loggIo llo dispIay of grid Iinos on llo pIol. IIols can bo copiod lo an appIicalion IiIo
or by maIing llo pIol vindov aclivo and lilling - lo copy il lo llo
cIipboard.
In somo casos lloro may bo muIlipIo lracos on llo pIol pIano llal maIo vioving llo
rosuIls confusing. Tracos in llo pIol pIano can bo dispIayod soparaloIy in an addilionaI
pIol pIano by rigll cIicIing in llo originaI pIol pIano and llon soIocling .
A bIanI pIol pIano viII appoar. CIicI on llo vavoform IaboI of a lraco and drag il lo llo
nov pIol pIano. Ono can add as many pIol pIanos as dosirod and pIaco llo lracos in any
of llom as dosirod by dragging llom inlo llo dosirod pIol pIano.
Tlo dofauIl is lo prosonl pIols vill a bIacI bacIground. Somolimos llis is undosir-
abIo, ospociaIIy for prinling. Tlo bacIground can bo clangod. Go lo -
-. SoIocl , and llon adjusl llo coIor sIidors lo oblain llo dosirod coIor.
Moving aII llroo sIidors lo llo rigll viII provido a vlilo bacIground.
You can oblain llo avorago and RMS vaIuos of a lraco by conlroI Iofl cIicIing on llo
lraco IaboI.

Tlo slovs Iog of

and Iog of

vorsus

for a B}T. Tlo GummoI pIol

iIIuslralos llo uso of a Iogarillmic axis. Tlo circuil of Iiguro 19.5 can bo usod lo simuIalo
--

-
a lransislor and oblain ils GummoI pIol. Tlo M}I21194 NIN povor lransislor is usod
for iIIuslralion. Tlis circuil moroIy appIios a svopl baso-omillor voIlago lo llo lransislor
undor losl. Tlo baso and coIIoclor curronls aro llon probod lo croalo llo pIol. IinaIIy, llo
axis dispIaying curronl is givon Iogarillmic coordinalos by cIicIing llo mouso jusl lo
llo Iofl of llo axis. A diaIog box viII appoar. ClocI llo box and onlor llo
dosirod minimum vaIuo of curronl lo dispIay.
--

IIolling llo curronl gain of a lransislor is a good vay lo iIIuslralo llo abiIily lo pIol
funclions of lraco variabIos. Tlo circuil of Iiguro 19.6 is usod for llis oxampIo. Tlo
omillor curronl of llo povor lransislor is svopl from 1 mA lo 10 A vill a docado
svoop. Svooping llo omillor curronl inlroducos a smaII orror duo lo llo finilo lransis-
lor bola. Aflor llo simuIalion is run, rigll-cIicI on llo pIol pIano and soIocl .
In llo diaIog box onlor llo funclion

(1)

(1) and lil . Transislor bola viII llon

bo pIollod. Nolico lov llo curronl gain faIIs al boll Iov and ligl curronl, iIIuslraling
so-caIIod bola droop.
Tlo smaII orror croalod by svooping omillor curronl insload of coIIoclor curronl can
bo corroclod in llo pIol by clanging llo -axis funclion llal is pIollod from llo dofauIl
svopl vaIuo of omillor curronl lo llo vaIuo of llo coIIoclor curronl. SimpIy Iofl-cIicI in
llo aroa boIov llo axis on llo pIol. A diaIog box viII appoar. In llo aroa IaboIod
ropIaco I1 vill IC(Q1).
- --

Tlis oxampIo iIIuslralos llo uso of anollor funclion, llo dorivalivo funclion. Svoop llo
omillor curronl from 1 A lo 10 A. Add a lraco vill llo funclion 1/|(
1
)] lo llo
simuIalion of Iiguro 19.6. Tlis slovs llo invorso of llo dorivalivo of llo omillor voIl-
ago vill rospocl lo omillor curronl, vlicl is lransconduclanco. Sol llo axis lo bo
Iogarillmic from 1-5 lo 12. Tlo Iog-Iog pIol of lransconduclanco vorsus lransislor cur-
ronl viII bo a slraigll Iino ovor sovoraI docados, indicaling llal lransconduclanco is pro-
porlionaI lo oporaling curronl. Hovovor, llo Iino bogins lo bond al curronls abovo aboul
1 A, indicaling llo offocl of olmic lransislor compononls on llo lransconduclanco al
ligl curronl.
--

-
Somolimos il is dosirod lo ompIoy llo samo circuil numorous limos in a simuIalion.
Subcircuils maIo il possibIo lo namo a circuil and sloro il in llo simuIalion diroclory or
in a Iibrary.
Tlo - SIICI diroclivo aIIovs you lo namo and dofino a subcircuil llal can bo pul
in a sclomalic muIlipIo limos moroIy by pIacing llo corrosponding inslanco ropoalodIy.
Ono of llo bosl oxampIos of subcircuil uso is an oporalionaI ampIifior modoI llal is com-
posod of a coIIoclion of oIomonls llal may incIudo lransislors, rosislors, and capacilors.
Anollor oxampIo is a IoudspoaIor modoI llal can bo usod lo Ioad an ampIifior in a simu-
Ialion. Ivon a simpIo Iov-pass fiIlor can bo roaIizod as a subcircuil. Wlon a subcircuil is
spocifiod, llo circuil is oxpandod lo a fIal nolIisl boforo llo simuIalion is run.
A circuil of your dosign can bo dofinod as a subcircuil in llo simuIalion diroclory or
in llo - diroclory and can bo usod ropoalodIy in any circuil. If your copy of
ITspico is Iocalod in llo - diroclory, llo fuII pall for il viII bo
C:`program fiIos`ITC`ITspicoIV`Iib`sub
Soo llo discussion boIov aboul croaling a foIdor IiIo -.

A subcircuil can bo croalod by sclomalic capluro. Go lo - vill llo
sclomalic opon. Tlo nolIisl viII appoar in a box. SoIocl aII of llo loxl and copy il using
. Tlon paslo il inlo Nolopad. Idil llal nolIisl as nocossary lo maIo il inlo a sub-
circuil dofinilion. Tlis incIudos adding a firsl Iino llal dofinos llo circuil as a subcircuil.
Ior a subcircuil namod il viII IooI somolling IiIo - . A Iasl Iino
is addod llal IooIs somolling IiIo - . DoIolo oxlranoous Iinos IiIo SIICI diroc-
livos and voIlago sourcos llal voro on llo circuil sclomalic for purposos of simuIalion.
Tlo fiIo is llon namod vill a - fiIo oxlonsion lo bocomo -.
Slovn boIov is lov a simpIo firsl-ordor Iov-pass fiIlor subcircuil is caIIod in a
-. Ils inslanco is caIIod U1 on llo sclomalic. Tlo inslanco namo of llo subcircuil is
procodod by an in llo SIICI nolIisl.
XU1 Vin Voul 0 III1
Tlo subcircuil llal dofinos llo 100-IHz III is slovn boIov. Ils fiIonamo slouId bo
-.
.subcIl III1 in oul gnd
R1 in oul 10I
C1 oul gnd 160pI
100-IHz firsl-ordor Iov-pass fiIlor
.onds III1
Il is loIpfuI if llo lorminaIs in llo - Iino (loro , and ) aro IaboIod in
accordanco vill llo pin namos llal viII bo pul on llo symboI. Hovovor, llis is nol
onliroIy nocossary, as llo pin ordor in llo symboI spocificalion viII corroIalo pin namos
bolvoon llo symboI and llo subcircuil dofinilion.

-
Tlo oIomonls of llo subcircuil can bo paramolorizod and dofinod vlon llo subcir-
cuil is caIIod in llo SIICI nolIisl. Tlo III boIov vill paramolorizod and aIso
incIudos a VCVS acling as a unily-gain oulpul buffor. Tlo inlormodialo nodo al llo
inpul lo llo VCVS vas IaboIod N001 by ITspico.
.subcIl III2 in oul gnd
R1 in N001 R
C1 N001 gnd C
I1 oul gnd N001 gnd 1
.onds III2
Tlo paramolorizod subcircuil as il appoars in llo circuil nolIisl is
XU1 Vin Voul 0 III2 R=10I C=160pI
In llo sclomalic of llo circuil using llo subcircuil, llo diroclivo is usod for
oacl of and in llo usuaI vay.

Ivory modoI musl lavo an associalod symboI for onlry onlo llo sclomalic. Tlo sym-
boIs aro dofinod in - fiIos. ITspico las ils ovn symboI odilor for croaling - symboI
fiIos. Il can bo usod lo croalo a symboI from scralcl or lo modify an oxisling symboI. Tlo
symboI odilor can bo accossod by going lo .
Tlo usuaI draving looIs aro avaiIabIo in llo symboI odilor. Ior oxampIo ono can go
lo lo add lloso oIomonls lo llo symboI. Scissors aro avaiI-
abIo lo doIolo oIomonls.
Aflor llo symboI is dravn llo connocling pins musl bo addod. Go lo
. IiII in llo vill llo pin namo, lil llo radio bullon for ils dosirod Iocalion
on llo symboI porimolor, lil and pIaco llo pin on llo symboI.
Tlo conlains llo assignod (and visibIo) namos of llo pins and llo ordor in
vlicl lloy appoar on llo SIICI Iino. Go lo . DoubIo cIicI on a pin in
llo Iofl coIumn lo clango ils namo. DoubIo cIicI on llo numbors in llo rigll coIumn lo
roarrango lloir . Tlo ordor of llo pins musl corrospond lo llo ordor of llo
pins Iislod in llo - fiIo.
Tlo is usod lo soIocl vlal allribulos viII bo visibIy allaclod lo llo
symboI. Tloso viII oflon bo llo - and , vloro is llo namo of llo parl,
i.o., . Go lo - . SoIocl a dosirod allribulo lo
appoar on llo symboI and lil OK. Tlo allribulo viII appoar on llo symboI allaclod lo
llo cursor. Movo llo cursor lo llo dosirod Iocalion and cIicI. Rigll cIicI on il lo onlor
llo dosirod claraclor slring. Allribulos can bo romovod vill llo scissors. VisibIo allri-
bulos can bo clangod by rigll cIicIing on llom. Tlis is nol lruo for llo inslanco namo,
vlicl viII bo aIlorod on llo parl vlon il is pIacod on llo sclomalic.
Tlo aIIovs you lo sol or modify boll visibIo and liddon allribulos
of llo symboI. Go lo - . Allribulos llal voro addod in
llo Allribulo Windov can bo modifiod loro as voII. Tlo liddon allribulos (incIuding
lloso nol soIoclod lo bo visibIo in llo Allribulo Windov) aro aIso sol loro. Tloso incIudo
and . Tlo profix for a subcircuil slouId bo . Ioavo

bIanI and onlor llo namo of llo - fiIo for . Tlo - symboI fiIo slouId
bo savod vill llo samo namo as llo - fiIo bul vill llo - fiIo oxlonsion.
-
In many casos a suilabIo symboI for your subcircuil is aIroady a slandard ono llal is
avaiIabIo in llo simuIalor Iibrary. Somolimos, vlon a nov dovico is croalod, ono of llo
slandard symboIs musl bo modifiod. Tlo symboI odilor can bo usod lo do llis. Go inlo
llo - diroclory and ils subdiroclorios lo find symboIs llal may vorI for your
subcircuil. Tlon jusl clooso ono, copy il, and odil il lo suil your noods. Ronamo il lo llo
namo of llo dovico you aro inslaIIing. DoubIo-cIicI on il and il viII opon in llo symboI
odilor. Clango ils namo and modoI allribulos lo rofIocl llo namo of llo modoI fiIo and
vlal you vanl llo symboI lo say on ils loxl on llo sclomalic. Tlo modoI namo slouId
bo llo samo as llo subcircuil namo and subcircuil fiIonamo. Boar in mind llal you can
rigll-cIicI on an oxisling symboI lo soo ils visibIo allribulos. You can rigll-cIicI on
a symboI lo accoss llo allribulo odilor for il.

Horo is a summary for croaling llo symboI for llo subcircuil III1. Go inlo llo
from llo subcircuil sclomalic by lilling . Go lo
and drav a good-sizod roclangIo. Il is loIpfuI if llo Iinos of llo roclangIo aro on grid
Iinos. Go lo . IiII in llo IaboI as , soIocl llo radio bullon lo pul
il on llo Iofl odgo, lil and pIaco llo pin on llo Iofl sido of llo roclangIo. IIaco llo
and pins accordingIy. Go lo Viov and vorify llal llo pin namos aro as
dosirod and llal llo pin ordor corrosponds lo llal in llo - dofinilion. Nolico llal
llo pin ordor viII bo in llo ordor llal lloy voro pIacod. Clango llo pin namos or ordor
if noodod.
Go lo - . CIicI on - and pIaco il somo-
vloro oulsido llo roclangIo. Go bacI inlo llo Allribulo Windov and cIicI on and
pIaco il somovloro insido llo roclangIo. Rigll-cIicI on il and onlor as llo -.
Go - -. SoIocl and onlor . Go bacI inlo Idil
Allribulos, soIocl and onlor -. Savo llo fiIo in llo simuIalion diroclory
as -. If dosirod, copy llo symboI fiIo lo a Iibrary diroclory, sucl as -
(assuming llal llo - fiIo vas pIacod in -).
-
Will llo subcircuil and corrosponding symboI fiIo in llo simuIalion diroclory, llo sub-
circuil can bo usod in llo sclomalic jusl IiIo a compononl. CIicI on llo bul-
lon. ScroII lo llo simuIalion diroclory and cIicI on il. AII of llo subcircuils in llo
simuIalion diroclory viII bo Iislod. CIicI on llo dosirod subcircuil, and ils symboI viII
appoar in llo vindov. Hil and pIaco il.
- -
Subcircuil modoIs can bo accossod from a Iibrary llal you can assombIo. Croalo llo
foIdor -. Tlis is vloro llo subcircuil fiIo(s) viII bo slorod. Tlis foIdor
viII bo avaiIabIo via llo bullon. IIaco llo - fiIo in llis foIdor. SimiIarIy,
croalo llo foIdor -. Tlis is vloro llo symboI fiIo for llo dovico slouId
bo slorod.

-
To pIaco llo subcircuil on a sclomalic, cIicI on llo compononl bullon. Tlon doubIo-
cIicI on villin llo group of soIoclions. A Iisl viII como up vill aII of llo subcir-
cuils llal you lavo pIacod in -. CIicI on llo ono you vanl. Ils symboI
viII appoar in a vindov. Hil lo pIaco il on llo sclomalic in llo usuaI vay. If you
visl lo go up ono IovoI bacI lo llo fuII compononl soIoclion, doubIo-cIicI on .
-
Good modoIs aro al llo loarl of SIICI simuIalions. Mosl manufaclurors provido mod-
oIs for lloir lransislors and inlogralod circuils, and lloro aro a groal numbor of modoIs
avaiIabIo for ollor compononls, IiIo lransformors and IoudspoaIors. A lromondous
amounl of modoI informalion is avaiIabIo on llo Wob, boll from manufaclurors silos
and privalo silos.
Go lo llo Inlornol and soarcl dovico manufaclurors vobsilos. You can croalo your
ovn modoI by modifying an oxisling ono and ronaming il. Soflvaro for croaling modoIs
is aIso avaiIabIo al vvv.inlusofl.com/spicomod.llm. Claplor 20 viII covor dovico
modoIs and llo croalion or lvoaIing of llom in mucl moro dolaiI. Horo vo viII focus
on using llo modoIs in llo ITspico Iibrary and adding acquirod modoIs.
---
B}Ts aro supporlod vill llo symboI namos NIN and INI. B}T modoIs aro Iocalod in llo
- fiIo in llo . Many modoIs aro incIudod in llis ono fiIo.
ITspico comos vill llis fiIo popuIalod vill a Iargo numbor of modoIs, bul you can add
moro modoIs simpIy by pasling llo lransislor modoI fiIo inlo llo - fiIo. Tloso
modoIs viII llon bo avaiIabIo via llo compononl bullon jusl IiIo any ollor B}T modoIs.
A simpIo SIICI modoI for a B}T is
.modoI 2N3904 NIN (IS=1I-14 VAI=100
+ Bf=300 IKI=0.4 XTB=1.5 BR=4
+ C}C=4I-12 C}I=8I-12 RB=20 RC=0.1 RI=0.1
+ TR=300I-9 TI=400I-12 ITI=1 VTI=2 XTI=3 Vcoo=40)
Tlis is llo Iind of modoI llal can bo paslod inlo llo - fiIo. Tlo moaning of
oacl of llo paramolors in llis fiIo and lov lo lvoaI or dorivo llom viII bo discussod in
llo noxl claplor.
To inslaII a B}T modoI, slarl vill llo fiIo in Windovs Nolopad. Sol llo fiIo
lypo lo -. Appond llo fiIo lo - vill a paslo. Il viII llon
slov up in llo Iisl of avaiIabIo lransislors vlon using --.
---
Tlo }IIT lransislor is closon vill a symboI namo of N}I or I}I from llo Iibrary. Tloso
corrospond lo N-clannoI and I-clannoI dovicos, rospoclivoIy. A simpIo N-clannoI }IIT
modoI IooIs IiIo
.modoI }310 N}I (BITA=0.004 VTO=-4 IAMBDA=0.06
+ CGS=16I-12 CGD=12I-12 IB=0.5 M=0.5 IC=0.5 N=1
+ RD=5 RS=30 IS=4I-14 KI=6I-18 AI=0.6)

}IIT modoIs can bo addod lo llo - fiIo in llo foIdor vill a simpIo
paslo oporalion.
-
ITspico supporls lvo difforonl Iinds of modoIs for povor MOSIITs. Tlo firsl is llo
propriolary ITspico VDMOS modoI for vorlicaI doubIo-diffusod povor MOSIITs. Il is
supporlod in llo Iibrary in mucl llo samo vay as a B}T, vill a -- fiIo in llo
foIdor. Il is pIacod using llo compononl bullon by soIocling - or -,
pIacing llo lransislor, llon rigll cIicIing on il lo soIocl llo parlicuIar lransislor. A simpIo
VDMOS modoI IooIs IiIo
.modoI IRII240 VDMOS (nclan Vlo=4 Kp=0.1 Iambda=0.003
+ Rs=0.02 Rd=0.1 Cgdmax=30p Cgdmin=6p a=0.4
+ Cgs=40p Cjo=7p m=0.7 V}=2.5 IS=4I-06 N=2.5)
AddilionaI VDMOS modoIs can bo inslaIIod by pasling llom inlo llo --
fiIo. Sucl VDMOS fiIos aro nol gonoraIIy avaiIabIo from ollor llan Iinoar ToclnoIogy,
bul llo noxl claplor slovs lov lloy can bo croalod.
Tlo socond Iind of povor MOSIIT modoI supporlod is basod on a subcircuil llal
incIudos al ils coro a SIICI IovoI 1 MOSIIT modoI IiIo llal usod in an inlogralod cir-
cuil. Tlo romaindor of llo subcircuil adds somo of llo pocuIiarilios of povor MOSIITs,
sucl as llo body diodo and nonIinoar galo-drain capacilanco. Tlis is llo vay mucl of
llo induslry modoIs povor MOSIITs. ModoIs in llis form aro vidoIy avaiIabIo from
vondors. A vory simpIifiod vorsion of sucl a modoI (vloro galo-drain capacilanco is
conslanl) is slovn boIov. Many vondor modoIs lavo oIaboralo circuils villin llo sub-
circuil lo allompl lo modoI llo nonIinoar galo-drain capacilanco, bul many aro nol vory
accuralo, ospociaIIy for Iinoar appIicalions.
.subcIl IRII240 1 2 3
pins: Drain Galo Sourco
M1 9 7 8 8 MM
D1 3 1 MD
RS 8 3 0.05
RD 9 1 0.1
RG 2 7 5
CGS 2 3 1o-9
CGD 1 2 0.5o-9
.MODII MM NMOS IIVII=1 IS=1o-32
+ VTO=4 IAMBDA=0.002 KI=3
.MODII MD D IS=1o-12 N=1
+ C}O=1o-09 V}=4 M=1 IC=0.5
.INDS
Tlo povor MOSIIT subcircuil is lroalod IargoIy llo samo as any ollor subcircuil.
Hovovor, ils - fiIo slouId bo savod vill a fiIo oxlonsion insload of a - fiIo

-
oxlonsion. SimiIarIy, ils dofinilion in llo symboI allribulos slouId lavo a
fiIo oxlonsion insload of a - fiIo oxlonsion.
-
Tlo spico diroclivo causos a fiIo lo bo incIudod in llo simuIalion fiIo as if il vas
vrillon lloro. Tlo diroclivo can bo usod lo pul modoIs or Iibrarios of modoIs or
subcircuils in llo simuIalion.
.incIudo 2N3904.mod
Tlo abovo diroclivo viII incIudo llo modoI of llo 2N2904 B}T for uso by llo simuIa-
lion. ITspico viII firsl IooI for llo fiIo in llo - . If il is nol found lloro,
ITspico viII IooI in llo diroclory vloro llo simuIalion is boing run. AIlornalivoIy, a
compIolo pall namo can bo spocifiod for llo fiIo. Tlis couId bo a diroclory in your lop-
IovoI simuIalion foIdor vloro you pIaco your ovn modoIs.
Tlo diroclivo appIios lo a singIo fiIo, bul llal fiIo can conlain many modoIs,
jusl IiIo llo ITspico - Iibrary fiIo conlains many B}T modoIs. Your fiIo of B}T
modoIs migll bo caIIod .
You can pIaco your ovn Iibrary of B}T modoIs in llo - diroclory by pIacing
llo fiIo lloro. Tlo diroclivo slouId llon bo pIacod on llo sclo-
malic. Nolico llal llo fuII pallnamo doos nol nood lo bo incIudod vlon llis approacl
is usod. Tlo lransislors in viII nol slov up in picI nov lransislor if you
rigll-cIicI on a lransislor, so you musl odil llo namo of llo lransislor lo bo llal of llo
ono in llal you vanl. You can aIso pIaco llo B}T Iibrary fiIo in -
. In llal caso llo diroclivo vouId bo usod.
-
Tlo diroclivo is simiIar lo llo diroclivo. Il incIudos llo modoI and subcircuil
dofinilions of llo spocifiod fiIo in llo simuIalion fiIo. ITspico IooIs firsl in llo
diroclory vlon llo diroclivo is usod. Il viII llon soarcl llo - diroclory
and finaIIy llo simuIalion diroclory. A compIolo pall namo can aIso bo spocifiod. In
conlrasl, ITspico doos nol IooI for llo fiIo in llo diroclory vlon llo
diroclivo is ompIoyod.
As an oxampIo, you can pIaco your ovn Iibrary of B}T modoIs in llo
diroclory by pIacing llo fiIo in llo diroclory. Tlo diroclivo
slouId llon bo pIacod on llo sclomalic. Nolico llal llo fuII pallnamo doos
nol nood lo bo incIudod vlon llis approacl is usod. Tlo lransislors in viII nol
slov up in picI nov lransislor if you rigll-cIicI on a lransislor, so you musl odil llo
namo of a lransislor on llo sclomalic lo bo llal of llo ono in llal you vanl.
Indood, llo diroclivo - is aulomalicaIIy incIudod by
ITspico in llo nolIisl vlonovor a B}T is usod from llo Iibrary in llo usuaI vay.

Horo III doscribo llo simuIalion of llo simpIo povor ampIifior firsl inlroducod in
Claplor 1. Tlis viII provido a good slarl so llal a undorslanding can
bo acliovod. Tlis lompIalo simuIalion can bo modifiod oxlonsivoIy for uso vill vir-
luaIIy any ampIifior dosign. Indood, I usuaIIy bogin vill a provious ampIifior sclomalic

and copy il lo a nov namo and jusl modify il lo llo nov dosign, rousing many of llo
compononls and SIICI diroclivos. Tlo simuIalion circuil is slovn in Iiguro 19.7. Nolico
llal il is in DC-coupIod form lo oplimizo IIT anaIysis.
--
SoIocl . Hil , and llon lil
. ClocI
oul
in llo pop-up simuIalion rosuIls vindov for accoplabIy Iov oulpul
offsol. If nocossary, adjusl
offsol
lo oblain offsol voIlago of Ioss llan 1 mV al llo oulpul.
ClocI llo oporaling curronls of llo lransislors. CIicI oul of llo simuIalion rosuIls box
and go lo . IooI al llo oporaling poinls and modoI paramolors
of llo lransislors in llo circuil. Aro lloy aII oporaling al oxpoclod curronl IovoIs` Aro
any lransislors in saluralion`
CIoso llo SIICI orror Iog and mouso ovor various circuil nodos lo soo lloir voIlago
IovoIs in llo Iovor Iofl dispIay vindov. Tlo nodo numbor viII aIso convonionlIy bo
dispIayod. Mouso ovor llo and nodos in llo oulpul slago lo infor llo oulpul slago
oporaling bias. Undor oplimum condilions, lloso nodos vouId bo al or a bil Ioss llan
26 mV. Hovovor, llis ampIifior las boon sIigllIy ovorbiasod. Mouso-ovor llo rosislors

+35 V
D1
LED_Green
R5
590
R9
62
R4
33k
R10
33k
R3
19k
R2
1k
R11
33
RL
8.0
R14
0.33
R13
0.33
Q8
mje243
Q10
mjl21194
Q3
2N5401
Q11
mjl21193
Q9
mje253
Q4
2N5551
R8
1.2k
R7
518
R12
33
vb11
Q1
2N5401
1 mA 1 mA

offset
0.0043
Q2
2N5401
Q5
2N5551
C1
300p
R6
22
R1
1k
35 V
Q7
2N5401
110 mA

10 mA
2 mA
Q6
2N5401

b3

in

in
AC 1

b1

b4

b2

b9

neg

neg
35

pos
35

pos

b6

b7

b8

out

b10

-
lo soo lloir oporaling curronls and povor dissipalions in llo samo dispIay. Mouso-ovor
llo lransislors lo soo lloir povor dissipalions.
--
SoIocl --. SoIocl a docado svoop vill 10
poinls por docado, a slarl froquoncy of 100, and a slop froquoncy of 1000I or 1Mog (nolo
llal M by ilsoIf is inlorprolod as ).
Hil and lil . Irobo
oul
vill llo mouso. Tlo froquoncy and plaso rosponso viII
appoar in llo pIol vindov. Iofl-cIicI on llo lraco IaboI. A crosslairs cursor viII appoar.
Mouso-ovor il and llo numbor 1 viII appoar, dosignaling cursor numbor 1. Tlis crosslairs
cursor viII bo allaclod lo llo gain lraco. Movo il lo a Iov froquoncy and nolo llal llo gain
is indicalod as 26 dB in llo pop-up dispIay box. Movo llo cursor up in froquoncy unliI llo
gain is dovn by 3 dB. Nolo llal llo froquoncy is indicalod as 539 IHz.
CIicI on llo VAS oulpul nodo. An addilionaI lraco sloving froquoncy rosponso
lo llis nov poinl viII bo addod lo llo pIol vindov. Drag llo mouso in llo pIol vindov
lo zoom in on llo pair of lracos al 1 IHz. Nolico from llo spacing of llo lracos llal llo
oulpul slago las a smaII-signaI gain Ioss of 0.35 dB.
- --
In llis soclion a 1-IHz sino vavo viII bo simuIalod by a lransionl anaIysis llal viII slov
voIlagos and curronls in llo circuil as a funclion of limo. SoIocl
- Sol a slop limo of 4 ms lo simuIalo four cycIos of llo vavoform.
Spocify llo signaI sourco
in
lo bo a 1-IHz sino vavo vill ampIiludo of 1 V poaI
and comprising four cycIos. Tlis viII produco an oulpul of 20 V poaI, corrosponding lo
25 W inlo llo 8- Ioad. Run llo simuIalion and cIicI on llo
oul
nodo lo soo llo oxpoclod
oulpul vavoform. cIicI on Q10s coIIoclor viro and soo llo cIass AB laIf-vavo rocli-
fiod curronl vavoform for Q10.
Incroaso llo inpul signaI ampIiludo lo 1.6 V poaI, rorun llo simuIalion, and probo

oul
. Nolico llal lloro is no obvious cIipping. cIicI on Q1s coIIoclor viro lo slov llo
vavoform for Q1s coIIoclor curronl. Nolico llo onsol of cIipping as rovoaIod by llo
slarp poaIs in llo coIIoclor curronl of Q1. Tlo ampIifior jusl cIips al 64 W.
Incroaso llo inpul signaI lo 2 V poaI lo soo llo ampIifior oporaling in fairIy slrong
cIipping. Horo llo ampIifior is allompling lo produco an oulpul of 100 W. Irobo
oul
and
soo llo obviousIy cIippod oulpul vavoform. cIicI on Q1s coIIoclor viro lo slov
Q1s coIIoclor curronl vavoform. Irobo from llo baso of Q1 lo llo baso of Q2 lo soo llo
nogalivo foodbacI orror signaI. Nolico lov llo orror signaI suddonIy pops up lo a Iargo
vaIuo on llo poaIs vloro cIipping is occurring. Irobo various nodos lo soo voIlagos and
curronls. IooI ospociaIIy for signs of lransislor saluralion and unusuaIIy Iargo curronls
and ovidonco of slicIing.
- --
In llis soclion a 20-IHz sino vavo viII bo simuIalod. SoIocl
- Sol a slop limo of 400 s lo capluro oigll cycIos of llo vavoform.
Spocify llo signaI sourco
in
lo bo a 20-IHz sino vavo vill ampIiludo of 1V poaI
and comprising 16 cycIos (ovon llougl onIy oigll cycIos viII bo simuIalod al llis limo).
Tlis viII produco an oulpul of 20 V poaI, corrosponding lo 25 W inlo llo 8- Ioad. Run
llo simuIalion and cIicI on llo
oul
nodo lo soo llo oxpoclod oulpul vavoform.

-cIicI on Q1s coIIoclor viro lo slov Q1s coIIoclor curronl. Nolico llal il faIIs
dangorousIy cIoso lo zoro, indicaling llal llo ampIifiors inpul difforonliaI pair is
oporaling al cIoso lo ils maximum capabiIily. Tlis moans llal llo ampIifior is cIoso lo
ils sIov ralo Iimiling poinl. Mouso-ovor MiIIor componsalion capacilor C1 and cIicI
on il lo soo ils curronl. cIicI on Q4s baso viro lo pIol Q4s baso curronl. Nolico
llal mosl of llo signaI curronl suppIiod by llo ITI is fIoving inlo llo componsalion
capacilor.
Incroaso llo inpul signaI ampIiludo lo 1.3 V poaI and run llo simuIalion. Again pIol
llo curronl in Q1s coIIoclor viro, sooing llal il is cIippod, llis indicalos llal sIov ralo
Iimiling is occurring. IIol llo inpul difforonliaI orror signaI by dragging llo mouso
probo from llo baso of Q1 lo llo baso of Q2, noling llo Iargo orror voIlago prosonl vlon
sIov ralo Iimiling is occurring.
--
Tlo 50-IHz squaro-vavo rosponso viII nov bo simuIalod. SoIocl
-. Clooso a slop limo of 80 s lo covor four cycIos. Sol llo
inpul sourco lo provido a 50-IHz squaro vavo vill ampIiludo of 0.1 V poaI. Sol llo
iniliaI voIlago lo 0.1 V and llo puIso voIlago lo 0.1 V. Sol 10 ns riso and faII limos. Sol a
puIso limo of 10 s and a poriod of 20 s.
Run llo simuIalion and probo
oul
, noling llo roundod Ioading odgos llal rosuIl
from llo finilo bandvidll of llo ampIifior. Irobo llo coIIoclor curronl in Q1s coIIoclor
viro. Tlo curronl vavoform oxlibils Iargo puIsos al llo limos of llo squaro-vavo odgos.
Tloso curronl puIsos aro clarging and disclarging llo componsalion capacilor in ordor
lo produco llo roquirod oulpul.
Incroaso llo inpul ampIiludo lo 0.2 V poaI, rorun llo simuIalion, and probo
oul
.
Tlo ampIifior is nov oxlibiling sIov ralo Iimiling. Windov-in on llo slraigll-sIopod
porlion of a vavoform odgo. Rigll-cIicI on llo
oul
IaboI and soIocl lvo cursors in llo
pop-up vindov. ManipuIalo llo cursors lo bo 1 s aparl on llo slraigll sIopo. Road llo
indicalod sIov ralo in llo bollom rigll porlion of llo informalion box. Tlo sIov ralo is
approximaloIy 3 V/ s.
CIoso llo informalion box and unzoom llo pIol. Irobo llo curronl in llo coIIoclor
viro of Q1. Nolico llo cIippod spiIos, indicalivo of sIov ralo Iimiling.
-
Clango llo inpul voIlago sourco lo bo a 1-IHz sino vavo vill ampIiludo of 1 V poaI.
Tlis corrosponds lo 25 W inlo llo 8- Ioad. SoIocl
- Sol a slop limo of 8 ms lo simuIalo oigll cycIos of llo vavoform. IIaco llo
foIIoving llroo SIICI diroclivos on llo sclomalic:
.oplion pIolvinsizo=0
.maxslop=0.48831106u
.four 1IHz 10 4 v(voul)
As doscribod oarIior, llo firsl diroclivo lurns off comprossion for groalor lransionl
anaIysis accuracy. Tlo socond sols an oplimum limoslop for Iourior spoclraI anaIysis
of llo 1-IHz sino vavo. Tlo llird causos a THD summary of llo Iourior anaIysis lo
bo prinlod in llo SIICI orror Iog rosuIl. Tlo ampIiludos of llo firsl 10 larmonics,

-
normaIizod lo llal of llo fundamonlaI, viII bo prinlod. Tlo Iourior anaIysis viII bo car-
riod oul during llo Iasl 4 poriods of llo 1-IHz sino vavo.
Run llo simuIalion and IooI al llo informalion vindov al llo bollom of llo scroon
lo viov simuIalion progross. Wlon llo simuIalion is compIolod, cIicI on lo pIol ils
lraco. Iofl-cIicI and rigll-cIicI in llo pIol vindov, llon soIocl from llo
pop-up vindov. Tlo lraco soIoclion (
oul
) viII aIroady bo liglIigllod in llo Iisl of
avaiIabIo lracos. SoIocl . Tlo slouId aIroady bo slovn as
8 ms. If il is nol oxacl, onlor 8 ms. Inlor a of 4 ms. Tlo firsl 4 ms aIIov llo
simuIalion lo slabiIizo and llo Iasl 4 ms aro anaIyzod by llo IIT.
Hil and a nov vindov viII appoar vill llo IIT rosuIls. Windov-in on llo
rango of inlorosl, oxlonding from aboul 1 IHz lo aboul 20 IHz, and oxlonding dovn
lo 140 dB. Mouso-ovor llo poaIs of llo spoclra and obsorvo llo corrosponding
ampIiludo in llo bollom dispIay vindov. Tlo ampIiludos aro roporlod in dB vill
rospocl lo 1 V (dBV). Tlo fundamonlaI al 1 IHz Iios al aboul +23 dB, corrosponding
lo 14.14 V RMS.
Tlo socond and llird larmonics aro al 55 dB and 59 dB, rospoclivoIy. Tloy aro
78 dB and 82 dB boIov llo fundamonlaI, suggosling THD on llo ordor of 0.013, nol
incIuding aII of llo liglor larmonics. Tlo fairIy ricl spoclrum of liglor larmonics
suggosls llo prosonco of oulpul slago crossovor dislorlion.
CIoso llo IIT vindov and cIicI on llo sclomalic vindov. Tlon lil
. A Iisl of llo ampIiludos of llo firsl 10 larmonics, roIalivo lo llo fundamonlaI,
viII bo slovn. Al llo bollom of llis Iisl llo THD viII bo slovn as 0.016. Tlis dispIay
is oflon moro convonionl llan IooIing al llo rav spoclraI lraco.

TolaI larmonic dislorlion al 20 IHz is ono of llo moro difficuIl and slrossfuI losls for an
ampIifior. Sol llo inpul sourco lo a 20-IHz sino vavo vill ampIiludo of 1 V poaI. Tlis viII
produco 25 W inlo llo 8- Ioad. Sol a lransionl simuIalion slop limo of 400 s lo simuIalo
8 cycIos of llo vavoform. AIlor llo SIICI diroclivos on llo sclomalic as foIIovs:
.maxslop=0.02441555u
.four 20IHz 10 4 v(voul)
Horo four cycIos, or 200 s, viII bo procossod by llo IIT.
Run llo lransionl simuIalion unliI il is compIolod. CIicI on
oul
lo dispIay llo oul-
pul vavoform. Iofl-cIicI and rigll-cIicI in llo pIol vindov and soIocl from
llo pop-up box. Tlo ond limo slouId bo Iislod as 400 s. Inlor 200 s for llo slarl limo.
Hil and llo IIT spoclrum viII como up in a nov vindov. Nolo llo subslanliaIIy
incroasod IovoIs of dislorlion as comparod lo llo 1-IHz simuIalion. Will llo fundamon-
laI al +23 dBv and llo llird larmonic al 23 dBV, llo vorsl larmonic is onIy 46 dB
dovn, suggosling THD of al Ioasl 0.5. Nolico llal significanl spoclraI Iinos aro prosonl
oul lo fairIy ligl froquoncios. Boar in mind llal llo povor IovoI loro is onIy laIf llo
ralod 50 W.
Windov-in on llo pIol rogion oxlonding from aboul 20 IHz lo aboul 500 IHz, and
from +30 dBV dovn lo 100 dBV. Somolimos llis viII roquiro moro llan ono vindov-
ing oporalion lo oblain llo proporIy zoomod aroa. Tlis is llo rogion of groalosl inlorosl,
as larmonics moro llan 120 dB boIov llo fundamonlaI aro of roIalivoIy IillIo signifi-
canco and may ovon bo simuIalion arlifacls.

A big advanlago of 20-IHz THD simuIalions is llo abiIily lo viov llo liglor lar-
monics. A major Iimilalion of THD-20 Iab moasuromonls is llal llo THD anaIyzor
somolimos Iimils llo bandvidll of llo rosiduaI lo 80 IHz. Tlis baroIy aIIovs room for
llo socond llrougl fourll larmonics.
CIoso llo IIT vindov and cIicI on llo sclomalic vindov. Go lo
and roviov llo THD dala. Nolo llal lloso dala aro avaiIabIo ovon if llo pIol of
oulpul voIlago and ils IIT aro nol mado. Tlo lolaI larmonic dislorlion roads 0.52,
vill significanl larmonic conlonl oul lo llo lonll larmonic.
Tlis is suroIy nol a good ampIifior dosign and is ono llal vouId do poorIy on llo
DIM-30 losl for - - (). Tlis iIIuslralos llal sucl an
ampIifior viII do poorIy on a THD-20 losl as voII, ospociaIIy vlon a spoclraI anaIysis of
llo larmonics oul lo al Ioasl 200 IHz is porformod.
-
Tlo 19+20-IHz CCII inlormoduIalion losl is impIomonlod by fooding llo ampIifior a
mixod combinalion of 19 IHz and 20 IHz sinusoids in oquaI proporlions. Tlo losl is
bosl conduclod al or noar a voIlago sving corrosponding lo poaI voIlago al fuII
povor. Ior llis ampIifior llo losl viII bo conduclod al a smaIIor lolaI poaI inpul IovoI
of 1 V, llo samo poaI IovoI llal vas usod for llo 20-IHz THD losl. Tlis corrosponds
lo 25 W inlo 8 .
Tlo CCII IM losl producos inlormoduIalion producls al inlogor sum and difforonco
combinalions of llo lvo losl froquoncios. Tloso IM producls aro bosl viovod on a spoc-
lrum anaIyzor or vill an IIT pIol as viII bo dono loro. Tlo ordor of llo producls is
oquaI lo llo numbor of inslancos of llo lvo losl lono froquoncios in llo sum and diffor-
onco oqualion llal croalos a givon IM froquoncy producl. Supposo froquoncy A is 20 IHz
and froquoncy B is 19 IHz. Tlo socond-ordor producl viII bo producod al A-B = 1 IHz.
Tlo fourll-ordor producl viII bo producod al 2A-2B = 2 IHz.
Tlo llird-ordor producl viII bo producod al 2B-A = 18 IHz. Tlo fifll-ordor producl
viII bo producod al 3B-2A = 17 IHz. Tlo sovonll-ordor producl viII bo producod al
4B-3A = 16 IHz. And so on. Nolico llal aII of lloso compononls aro in-band. Of courso,
lloro aro many ollor compononls croalod vill ollor sum/difforonco combinalions of
llo losl froquoncios, many Iying oul of band. Of parlicuIar inlorosl is llo facl llal llo
odd-ordor dislorlion producls Iio al inlorvaIs 1 IHz aparl going dovn from 18 IHz and
jumping lvo ordors al ovory 1-IHz grid poinl. Tlis producos a picIol-fonco appoaranco
in llo spoclrum. Tlo CCII IM losl is llus vory capabIo of dispIaying ligl-ordor nonIin-
oarilios villoul rosorl lo losling froquoncios boyond llo audio band.
SimuIalo llo CCII IM losl by adding a socond sinusoidaI voIlago sourco sol for
19 IHz and a poaI IovoI of 0.5 V. Tlis sourco can bo simpIy pIacod in sorios vill llo
oxisling 20-IHz sourco. Sol llo IovoI of llo 20-IHz sourco for 0.5 V poaI.
Tlo Iovosl froquoncy of inlorosl in llo simuIalion and IIT anaIysis is 1 IHz. Moro-
ovor, aII of llo IM producls of inlorosl aro on a 1-IHz grid. Ior llis roason, llo IIT limo
slouId bo an inlogor muIlipIo of llo 1-IHz poriod. Horo llo IIT viII bo porformod on
four cycIos of llo 1-IHz boal froquoncy.
AIlor llo SIICI diroclivos on llo sclomalic as foIIovs:
.maxslop=0.12207776u
romovo llo .four 20IHz 10 4 v(voul) diroclivo.

-
Horo four cycIos of llo 1-IHz difforonco signaI, or 4 ms, viII bo procossod by llo IIT.
Tlo - is sol lo 0.5 limos 4 ms/16,383. Tlo IIT viII bo run vill 65,536 poinls. Tlo
abovo soIoclion of maximum limoslop viII provido an IIT anaIysis vill grass llal is
boIov 120 dBv. Somo oxporimonlalion vill llo IIT inlorvaI and llo maximum
limoslop is oflon noodod in simuIalions invoIving muIlipIo lonos in ordor lo oblain a
rosuIl vill adoqualoIy Iov spurious grass.
Sol llo lransionl simuIalion for a slop limo of 5.5 ms. Tlo firsl 1.5 ms of llo simuIa-
lion is lo bo ignorod by llo IIT. Tlo uso of 1.5 ms causos llo boginning and ond of llo
IIT anaIysis lo occur al a poinl vloro llo 1-IHz boal signaI goos approximaloIy llrougl
zoro. Tlis loIps sIigllIy lo roduco IIT vindoving arlifacls.
Run llo lransionl simuIalion and cIicI on
oul
. Nolico llo boal-froquoncy aclion
bolvoon llo 19-IHz and 20-IHz sinusoids as lloy produco a signaI onvoIopo llal goos
from ossonliaIIy zoro ampIiludo lo llo fuII ampIiludo of 20 V poaI.
SoIocl llo IIT. Tlo slop limo slouId bo Iislod as 5.5 ms. Inlor a slarl limo of 1.5 ms and
lil . Tlo IIT viII appoar in a nov vindov. SoIocl llo rogion of inlorosl by vindoving
llo pIol from 1 IHz lo aboul 50 IHz and from 30 dBv dovn lo 160 dBv. Nolico llo picIol
fonco of odd-ordor dislorlion spoclra oxlonding boll abovo and boIov llo pair of inpul
sinusoids al 19 IHz and 20 IHz. Tloro is aIso a prominonl picIol fonco of inlormoduIalion
producls conlorod al 39 IHz. Tlo ovon-ordor producls can bo soon boginning al 1 IHz.
In a vory good ampIifior, aII of llo CCII IM producls viII bo 100 dB or moro boIov
llo IovoI of llo lvo losl lonos. In llo simuIalion of llis ampIifior, llo losl lonos aro al +17
dBv, vliIo llo llird-ordor producl al 18 IHz is al 34 dBV, dovn onIy 51 dB. Tlo socond-
ordor producl al 1 IHz is al 41 dBV, dovn by onIy 58 dB from llo losl lonos. Tloso aro
nol vory good rosuIls and aro consislonl vill llo poor ligl-froquoncy dislorlion rosuIls
oblainod from llo THD-20 simuIalions.
-
ITspico can bo usod lo porform a simuIalion llal viII prodicl llo --
(SNR) of an ampIifior in a numbor of difforonl vays. Ono cavoal is llal onvironmonlaI
sourcos of noiso, IiIo povor suppIy rippIo and IMI, viII nol bo laIon inlo accounl. Ior
llis roason, noiso prodiclions basod on simuIalion may bo a bil oplimislic.
Tlo bandvidll ovor vlicl llo noiso is boing claraclorizod is of paramounl impor-
lanco. In llo spocificalion of povor ampIifiors lloro aro usuaIIy llroo vays lo claraclor-
izo noiso. Tlo firsl is an unvoigllod vidoband moasuromonl vloro llo bandvidll is
subslanliaIIy groalor llan llo audio band, usuaIIy Iimilod by llo cIosod-Ioop band-
vidll of llo ampIifior undor losl or by a fiIlor in llo losl oquipmonl. Tlis yioIds llo
poorosl signaI-lo-noiso ralio, and oflon llo acluaI moasuromonl bandvidll is nol spoc-
ifiod. Tlo socond is llo noiso in a 20-IHz bandvidll. Tlo offoclivo noiso bandvidll can
bo sol al 20 IHz by using a firsl-ordor Iov-pass fiIlor al 12.7 IHz (llo noiso bandvidll
of a 20-IHz firsl-ordor fiIlor is 31.4 IHz bocauso il doos nol lavo a bricI-vaII claraclor-
islic). In gonoraI, llo INBW of a firsl-ordor fiIlor is 1.57 limos ils 3-dB bandvidll.
Tlo Iasl is llo A-voigllod noiso moasuromonl (vloso offoclivo noiso bandvidll is
approximaloIy 13.5 IHz. AII of lloso voro doscribod briofIy in Claplor 1. SimuIalion of
A-voigllod SNR can bo convonionlIy carriod oul using llo A-voiglling fiIlor subcir-
cuil doscribod oarIior in Iiguro 19.2.
In a voII-dosignod ampIifior vill vory IillIo lum, llo SNR viII bo govornod mainIy
by llo ligl-froquoncy moasuromonl bandvidll, sinco llormaI noiso is proporlionaI lo
llo squaro rool of bandvidll.

SoIocl -. Sol llo oulpul lo

oul
and sol
llo inpul lo
in
. SoIocl a docado svoop from 20 Hz lo 20 IHz vill 20 poinls por docado.
Run llo simuIalion and cIicI on A pIol of voIlago noiso viII appoar. Tlo noiso don-
sily viII bo fIal al 86 nV/ Hz. Bocauso llo ampIifior gain is 20, llis corrosponds lo an
inpul-roforrod noiso of 4.3 nV/ Hz. cIicI on llo pIol IaboI. Tlo RMS noiso villin
llo 20-IHz bandvidll is 12.2 V RMS. Tlis is 124 dB boIov llo maximum 20 V RMS
oulpul of llo ampIifior al 50 W. Tlo unvoigllod SNR vill rospocl lo 1 W is aboul 107 dB.
CIicI on R2, llo foodbacI nolvorI slunl rosislor. Il conlribulos aboul 77 nV/ Hz lo
llo lolaI oulpul noiso of 86 nV/ Hz. CIicI on Q1. Il conlribulos aboul 12 nV/ Hz. CIicI
on Q2. Il conlribulos aboul 30 nV/ Hz. Wly llo difforonco` Q2 conlribulos moro noiso
bocauso of ils inpul curronl noiso. Tlo inpul curronl noiso of Q1 is nol a conlribulor
bocauso llo impodanco al ils baso is zoro in llis simuIalion.

Tlo damping faclor of a povor ampIifior is llo faclor by vlicl llo oulpul impodanco
is smaIIor llan 8 . An ampIifior vill an oulpul impodanco of 0.08 viII lavo a damp-
ing faclor of 100. Tlo oulpul impodanco of an ampIifior is usuaIIy a funclion of fro-
quoncy.
Tlo bosl vay lo moasuro llo oulpul impodanco is lo appIy a Inovn aIlornaling cur-
ronl lo llo oulpul of llo ampIifior and moasuro llo rosuIling voIlago al llo oulpul nodo.
Tlis is dono vliIo llo inpul lo llo ampIifior is connoclod lo ground. Tlis can bosl bo
accompIislod by connocling a voIlago sourco lo llo oulpul llrougl a rosislor vloso
vaIuo is ligl comparod vill llo oxpoclod oulpul impodanco of llo ampIifior. Tlo voIl-
ago gain from llis voIlago sourco lo llo oulpul nodo is llon indicalivo of llo oulpul
impodanco. If 10 V is appIiod llrougl an 800- sorios rosislor and 1 mV is moasurod al
llo ampIifior oulpul lorminaIs, llo DI is 100.
Tlo vay in vlicl llo oulpul impodanco clangos vill froquoncy can aIso bo an
indicalor of slabiIily. If llo impodanco risos slarpIy in a parlicuIar ligl-froquoncy
rogion, llis may indicalo inslabiIily. If llis froquoncy rogion is noar llo oxpoclod gIobaI
foodbacI gain crossovor froquoncy, llon slabiIily of llo ovoraII nogalivo foodbacI Ioop
may bo inadoqualo. If insload llo oulpul impodanco poaI occurs al a mucl liglor fro-
quoncy, llo possibiIily of a IocaI inslabiIily, sucl as in llo oulpul slago, is suggoslod.

SoIocl llo -- lab in llo simuIalion oplions and soIocl a froquoncy rango by docado
from 10 IHz lo 10 MHz. Irobo llo baso nodo of Q2. Tlis nodo slouId normaIIy acl IiIo a
unily-gain voIlago foIIovor lo llo inpul signaI. You slouId soo unily gain al llis poinl
vill IillIo or no gain poaI. If llis is dono vill a paramolorizod MiIIor componsalion
capacilor llal is sloppod in vaIuo, a famiIy of slabiIily curvos viII bo producod.

Tlo opon-Ioop gain (OIG) claraclorislic can bo inforrod by solling llo cIosod-Ioop gain
(CIG) vory ligl. Tlis -- llo opon-Ioop gain. Tlis viII bo roasonabIy accuralo for
OIG roadings llal aro Ioss llan llo ligl CIG for vlicl llo ampIifior is configurod.
Clango R3 in llo simuIalod ampIifior lo 1 M and carofuIIy adjusl inpul offsol for smaII
oulpul offsol, rocognizing llal llo CIG las boon sol lo aboul 1000. Run llo AC simuIa-
lion and soo llo opon-Ioop gain. Abovo 10 IHz llo gain drops boIov 60 dB. Abovo llis

-
froquoncy llo pIol is a roasonabIo dopiclion of OIG. Tlo gain crossovor is al 400 IHz,
vloro llo OIG oquaIs 26 dB, llo normaI CIG for llo ampIifior. Ilaso al llis froquoncy
is Iagging by 101, suggosling a plaso margin of 79.
-
Tlo nogalivo foodbacI Ioop gain can bo moasurod diroclIy by broaIing llo Ioop.
RopIaco R3 vill a 1000-GH induclor. Tlis viII Ioop llo foodbacI pall cIosod al DC.
Connocl llo baso of Q1 lo ground. Connocl llo AC sourco lo llo baso of Q2 llrougl llo
19-I rosislor llal vas R3. Ioop gain viII bo pIollod diroclIy. Tlo pIol nov viII go lo
0 dB al 400 IHz.
--
Tlo inslanlanoous povor dissipalion of any compononl can bo pIollod. Movo llo cursor
lo llal compononl and pross llo Ioy. A llormomolor viII appoar on llo cursor. Iofl-
cIicI and llo povor vavoform viII bo dispIayod. If you do llis for a lransislor, ils
inslanlanoous povor dissipalion viII bo rovoaIod. You can aIso do llis for a voIlago
sourco.
Tlo avorago of llo vavoform (loro llo avorago povor dissipalion) can bo dispIayod
in an informalion box. SimpIy Iofl-cIicI on llo IaboI of llo inslanlanoous povor
dissipalion vavoform. If you do llis for llo ampIifior Ioad rosislor and sublracl llo
rosuIl from llo sum of llo dissipalions for llo raiI voIlago sourcos, llo povor dissipa-
lion of llo ampIifior viII bo rovoaIod. Tloso procoduros aIso provo vory convonionl for
dolormining llo povor dissipalion of oulpul slago omillor rosislors and ZoboI nol-
vorIs.

Tlo maximum avaiIabIo oulpul curronl of llo povor ampIifior can bo clocIod by bacI-
driving curronl inlo llo oulpul of llo ampIifior from a voIlago sourco connoclod lo llo
oulpul llrougl a Iov-vaIuo rosislanco, lypicaIIy 8 or Ioss. Tlis is nol unIiIo llo locl-
niquo for moasuring oulpul impodanco, bul is carriod oul in a Iargo-signaI sonso. Tlo
inpul of llo ampIifior is groundod and llo voIlago al llo oulpul nodo of llo ampIifior is
viovod in a lransionl simuIalion or a DC svoop. Tlo poinl al vlicl llo voIlago al llo
oulpul of llo ampIifior suddonIy bocomos Iargo is llo poinl al vlicl curronl Iimiling is
occurring.
Nolico llal llis loclniquo moasuros oulpul curronl Iimiling vlon llo oulpul voIl-
ago is noar zoro. AIlornalivoIy, ono can moasuro oulpul curronl Iimiling by driving Iargo
signaIs llrougl llo ampIifior inlo progrossivoIy smaIIor oulpul Ioad rosislancos.
You can aIso adopl llis loclniquo lo moasuro oulpul curronl Iimiling al voIlagos
ollor llan zoro by appIying a DC offsol lo llo ampIifior, assuming llo ampIifior is DC
coupIod. Tlis can bo usofuI in ovaIualing llo bolavior of V-I Iimiling circuils usod for
safo aroa proloclion, as llo curronl Iimil for lloso circuils is oflon mado a funclion of llo
oulpul voIlago.

IIol llo voIlago across llo povor lransislor againsl ils curronl, using llo pIol capa-
biIily. Ioad llo ampIifior vill a sorios combinalion of 8 and 30 I. Run a lransionl
simuIalion vill a 1.4-V poaI sinusoidaI inpul al 1 IHz. Run llo simuIalion vill a slarl

limo of 1.5 ms and a slop limo of 4 ms. IIol

(Q10). You viII soo llo oxpoclod laIf-vavo

curronl pIol as a funclion of limo.
Will llo pIol pIano aclivo, movo llo cursor jusl boIov llo axis of llo pIol pIano. A
ruIor viII appoar. CIicI on il. A diaIog box viII appoar for llo axis. NormaIIy il viII
slov limo as vlal is boing pIollod ( ) in a lransionl simuIalion, bul you
can lypo in an oxprossion lo pIol in llo vindov. Typo llo oxprossion for llo voIlago
across llo oulpul povor lransislor, (
pos

) (
oul
), inlo llo box. You viII
nov soo a pIol of coIIoclor curronl as a funclion of

for llo lransislor. If you visl, you

can maIo boll axos Iogarillmic lo porlray llo usuaI safo aroa pIol. You can aIso do llis
for a IoudspoaIor Ioad, pIolling curronl as a funclion of voIlago and golling an oIIipso.
-
1. I.W. NagoI and D.O. Iodorson, SimuIalion Irogram vill Inlogralod Circuil
Implasis, Iroc. Sixloonll Midvosl Symposium on Circuil Tloory, WalorIoo,
Canada, ApriI 12, 1973, avaiIabIo as Momorandum No. IRI-M382, IIoclronics
Rosoarcl Iaboralory, Univorsily of CaIifornia, BorIoIoy.
2. ITspico Usors ManuaI, avaiIabIo al vvv.Iinoar.com.
3. ITspico Usors Group, vvv.groups.yaloo.com/group/ITspico.
4. DIYaudio Iorum, vvv.diyaudio.com.
5. Connors, Andy, privalo communicalion.
6. SoIf, D., - , 5ll od., IocaI Iross, 2009.
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- -
T
lis claplor covors llo adjuslmonl and croalion of SIICI modoIs for B}T, }IIT,
and povor MOSIIT dovicos.
SIICI is onIy as good as llo modoIs usod vill il. In somo casos, manufacluror-
suppIiod modoIs aro quilo inaccuralo. Ono vouId llinI llal lloso modoIs vouId aImosl
porfoclIy fil llo dala suppIiod in llo lransislor spocificalion slool. Hovovor, in many
casos lloy donl ovon gol llo basics accuralo, IiIo

vorsus

.
Oflon, manufaclurors subconlracl llo gonoralion of SIICI modoIs, ospociaIIy for
oIdor dovicos vloro SIICI modoIs voro nol dovoIopod for llo parl vlon llo parl vas
nov. Oflon, lloy viII jusl givo a papor spocificalion slool lo llo subconlraclor and lavo
lim or lor gIoan dala from llo slool. Tlal dala viII llon bo onlorod inlo an aulomalod
curvo-filling soflvaro looI llal quicIIy spils oul a modoI. Tlis is vly vo oflon soo
SIICI paramolors vill a ridicuIous numbor of docimaI pIacos vlon lloy aro in roaIily
nol ovon villin 10 of vloro lloy slouId bo.
You can do a mucl bollor job croaling a SIICI modoI armod onIy vill llo samo
dalaslool informalion. SIICI modoIs can aIso bo croalod or improvod vill roIalivoIy
simpIo Iaboralory moasuromonls llal you can maIo using slandard losl oquipmonl.
Wo aII Inov llal many lransislor paramolors vary quilo a bil. Transislor , for oxam-
pIo, may oasiIy vary by a faclor of 2 from parl lo parl. Baso-omillor voIlago can aIso vary,
ospociaIIy from ono manufacluror lo anollor. Wo lloroforo Inov inslinclivoIy llal ligl
procision in SIICI paramolors is nol imporlanl. Yol, llo of llo lransislor llal lloy
modoI is imporlanl.
SIICI is oxlromoIy vaIuabIo ovon vill llo uso of inaccuralo off-llo-sloIf modoIs. Il
providos insigll and oxposos dosign bolavior. Hovovor, poor modoIs may givo mis-
Ioading rosuIls, ospociaIIy undor corlain condilions. Ioor modoIs viII oflon Ioad lo inac-
curalo rosuIls in dislorlion simuIalions. Tlis can bo ospociaIIy imporlanl in B}T oulpul
slagos vloro bola droop and

droop al ligl curronl causo dislorlion. If lloso offocls aro

nol modoIod roasonabIy voII, dislorlion rosuIls viII bo significanlIy in orror undor ligl-
sving condilions.
Tlis claplor addrossos llo quaIily and accuracy of manufaclurors SIICI modoIs
vill a slrong omplasis on lloso for povor B}Ts. Tlo claplor aIso providos undorsland-
ing of vlal oacl SIICI paramolor moans. Il aIso iIIuslralos possibiIilios for simpIifying
llo modoIs by sloving vlicl paramolors aro moro imporlanl. Wo aIso slov lov lo
croalo or fino-luno a modoI from informalion on a dala slool. SIICI modoIs can bo
oxlraclod from Iaboralory moasuromonls, you donl lavo lo lavo oxponsivo moasuring
oquipmonl for llis.

-
Tlo omplasis is on B}T povor lransislors, bul llo loclniquos and procoduros aro
appIicabIo lo smaII-signaI and drivor lransislors as voII. }IIT and povor MOSIIT
modoIs aro aIso covorod. A subslanliaI amounl of maloriaI on dovico bolavior, dovico
oporaling oqualions, and SIICI paramolor moanings is providod in llis claplor llal
las boon gIoanod from many sourcos |14].
-
Manufacluror-suppIiod SIICI modoIs aro loIpfuI and convonionl. Somo manufaclurors
do a good job on lloir SIICI modoIs, bul ollors do nol. Ior llis roason, il is viso for llo
sorious dosignor lo vorify manufaclurors SIICI modoIs againsl llo suppIiod dala
slools for llo lransislor. SurprisingIy, somolimos lloro viII bo significanl orrors, ovon in
simpIo llings.
SIICI modoIs can bo clocIod by simuIaling llo lransislor al a spocifiod oporaling
poinl. Aflor running a DC oporaling poinl simuIalion in ITspico, you can go lo Viov ->
SIICI orror Iog. Tloro you viII soo llo lransislor paramolors in offocl al llo closon
oporaling poinl. Tloso incIudo

, AC and DC bola,

, and many ollors.

Ior oxampIo, you migll clocI llo paramolors of a povor lransislor al

20 V and
al coIIoclor curronls of 0.1, 1.0, and 10 A. Tlis viII givo a quicI indicalion of lov cIoso
llo SIICI paramolors aro.
Iiguro 20.1 slovs a simpIo simuIalion circuil for vorifying llo oporaling paramolors
of an NIN lransislor, in llis caso llo M}I21194 povor lransislor. Tlo circuil doos IillIo
moro llan causo llo lransislor lo oporalo al a parlicuIar coIIoclor curronl vill a spoci-
fiod

. Tlo simuIalion incIudos llo oplion of svooping llo omillor curronl so llal pIols
can bo viovod.

Tlo lybrid pi modoI vas inlroducod in Claplor 2 Il modoIs llo smaII-signaI bolavior
of a lransislor. A vory simpIifiod vorsion of llo modoI is slovn boIov in Iiguro 20.2.
Tlo fundamonlaI aclivo oIomonl of llo lransislor is a voIlago-conlroIIod curronl sourco,
namoIy a lransconduclanco . Tlo romaindor of llo modoI comprisos passivo parasilic
compononls. AC curronl gain is laIon inlo accounl by llo baso-omillor rosislanco .
IarIy offocl is laIon inlo accounl by

. CoIIoclor-baso capacilanco is slovn as

. Cur-
ronl gain roII-off vill froquoncy (

) is modoIod by . Bocauso llis is a smaII-signaI

Model Verification Test Circuit
.op
;dc dec le 1 mA 10 10
Q1
mj21194
le
100 mA

b
--->

ce
=
c

be

c
15

neg
15

be
<---
c

- -

modoI, oIomonl vaIuos viII clango vill llo oporaling poinl of llo lransislor. Tlis
bolavior is vlal maIos SIICI modoIing moro compIox.
-
In somo casos il may onIy bo nocossary lo lvoaI a coupIo of Ioy SIICI paramolors in
llo modoI. In llis soclion, vo covor llo mosl basic of lvoaIs, sucl as lloso for

and
bola as a funclion of

. Tlis viII sol llo slago for vlal foIIovs Ialor vloro a compIolo
SIICI modoI is acluaIIy croalod.
Iorlaps llo bosl oxampIo is llal of golling

rigll al a Iov oporaling curronl. Tlis

is dono by adjuslmonl of llo paramolor IS (saluralion curronl). Tlo lransislor is simu-
Ialod al a closon

and

is llon clocIod and comparod lo llo dalaslool vaIuo for

llo samo oporaling poinl, and llo orror in miIIivoIls is nolod. A faclor of 2 incroaso in
llo paramolor IS viII docroaso

by 18 mV, a faclor of 10 incroaso in IS viII docroaso

by 60 mV. Tlis informalion guidos llo adjuslmonl of IS lo oIiminalo llo

orror.

A lypicaI B}T modoI fiIo is slovn boIov. Tlrougloul llis claplor SIICI paramolors IiIo
TI viII bo slovn in capilaI Iollors, vliIo a corrosponding lransislor paramolor, lypicaIIy al
a givon oporaling poinl, viII bo slovn vill a difforonl dosignalion, IiIo

. SimiIarIy, llo
vaIuo of

) for a lransislor viII bo govornod IargoIy by llo SIICI paramolor C}C.

.MODII mjI21194 npn
+ IS 4o-12 BI 65 VAI 500
+ IKI 14 ISI 1.2o-9 NI 2.0 NI 1.01
+ RB 3.4 RBM 0.1 IRB 1.0 RC 0.06
+ C}I 8o-9 M}I 0.35 V}I 0.5 RI 0.01
+ C}C 1o-9 M}C 0.5 V}C 0.6 IC 0.5
+ TI 21o-9 XTI 90 VTI 10 ITI 100
+ TR 100o-9 BR 5 VAR 100 NR 1.1
+ IG 1.1 XC}C 0.96 XTB 0.1 XTI 1.0
+ NC 4 ISC 0.3o-12 mfg OnSomi060708

-
Tlo modoI may appoar compIox, bul il is imporlanl lo undorsland llal il consisls of
primary and socondary paramolors. Tlo primary paramolors incIudo IS (

), BI (cur-
ronl gain), TI (

), C}I (baso-omillor capacilanco), and C}C (baso-coIIoclor capacilanco).

Many of llo socondary paramolors govorn llo dolaiIod vay in vlicl llo primary
paramolor oIomonls aro moduIalod by llo lransislor oporaling poinl. Tloso socondary
paramolors aro oflon Ioss imporlanl and oflon can bo Iofl al lloir dofauIl vaIuos or lloir
vaIuos as Iislod in llo manufaclurors SIICI modoI. Ior oxampIo, M}C and V}C govorn
llo vay in vlicl llo paramolor C}C acls vlon llo voIlago across llo baso coIIoclor
junclion clangos. SimiIarIy, IKI, NI, and ISI conlroI bola droop al ligl and Iov coIIoc-
lor curronl.
-
Adjuslmonl of

is vory slraigllforvard. Wo jusl lvoaI IS lo gol

rigll al a singIo
oporaling poinl. Iiguro 20.3 slovs a pIol of

vorsus Iog

. Wo nolo llo approximalo

roIalionslip

IS(

1) (20.1)
As monlionod abovo,

clangos by 60 mV por docado of clango in coIIoclor cur-

ronl. Tlis aIso moans llal

clangos by 18 mV for a doubIing of coIIoclor curronl. If

simuIalod

is ligl by 60 + 18 78 mV, IS slouId bo incroasod by a faclor of 20. If

is Iov by 60 18 mV, IS slouId bo docroasod by a faclor of 5.
Nolico, lovovor, llal

doos nol foIIov llo Iogarillmic roIalionslip diclalod by

(20.1) al ligl coIIoclor curronls in Iiguro 20.3. Tlis is IargoIy duo lo llo prosonco of baso
rosislanco.
Collector Current
1 mA

,

V
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
10 mA

be
vs.
c
MJL21194
100 mA 1 A 10 A

--

--
- -

A pIol of bola vorsus Iog

is slovn in Iiguro 20.4. Tlo paramolor BI doos nol aIvays

roprosonl poaI bola, bul il conlroIs il. BI can bo lvoaIod lo gol bola corrocl al a singIo
oporaling poinl. Tlo curronl gain of a lransislor can vary ovor a Iargo rango from ono
dovico lo anollor, so golling bola oxacl is a fooIisl pursuil. Wo viII, lovovor, soo Ialor
llal proporIy modoIing llo bolavior of bola as a funclion of coIIoclor curronl and voIlago
is imporlanl for povor lransislors.

Tlo varialion of

vill coIIoclor curronl for a lypicaI povor lransislor is iIIuslralod in

Iiguro 20.5. Tlo SIICI paramolor TI (lransil limo,

) slouId bo lvoaIod lo gol llo lran-

sislor

corrocl al llo coIIoclor curronl for vlicl

is maximum. Wo nolo llo idoaIizod

roIalionslip

1/(

2

) (20.2)
Collector Current
10 mA
D
C

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

G
a
i
n
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
Beta vs.

MJL21194
100 mA 1 A 10 A
--
Collector Current, A
f
,

M
H
z
0.1
0
2
4
MJL21194
MJL3281
6
8
10
1.0 10
0
20
40
60
80
100
--

-
As viII bo discussod Ialor, lloro aro ollor faclors llal causo

al a givon oporaling
poinl lo bo smaIIor llan llo vaIuo givon in (20.2). A simpIo simuIalion IiIo llal in
Iiguro 20.1 can bo run al any givon DC oporaling poinl, and llon llo SIICI orror Iog
can bo clocIod for llo vaIuo of

al llal oporaling poinl. If maximum

is loo Iov, TI
slouId bo docroasod.
-
Tlo baso-omillor capacilanco is lvoaIod by adjusling C}I. Tlo vaIuo of llo paramolor
C}I is dofinod al zoro rovorso junclion voIlago, so il is usuaIIy a bil moro llan (- 2 ) llo
baso-omillor capacilanco al

2 V. As boforo, simuIalo llo lransislor al a closon

oporaling poinl and clocI llo vaIuo of

(aIso caIIod

or

) in llo SIICI orror Iog

and adjusl C}I accordingIy.
-
Tlo baso-coIIoclor capacilanco is lvoaIod by adjusling C}C. Tlo vaIuo of llo paramolor
C}C is dofinod al zoro rovorso junclion voIlago, so il is usuaIIy a bil moro llan (- 1.3 )
llo baso-coIIoclor capacilanco al

2 V. As boforo, simuIalo llo lransislor al a closon

oporaling poinl and clocI llo vaIuo of

(aIso caIIod

or

) in llo SIICI orror Iog

and adjusl C}C accordingIy.

Many of llo SIICI paramolors inloracl, so llo ordor in vlicl lloy aro oslabIislod (and
llon iloralod) can maIo a big difforonco in lov quicIIy llo procoss convorgos. In gon-
oraI, il is oflon bosl lo slarl vill a roasonabIo modoI, lvoaI corlain vaIuos, and simuIalo
lo soo lov cIoso llo rosuIl is lo llo vaIuo undor considoralion. Tlon iloralo.
Il is imporlanl lo boar in mind llal aImosl nono of lloso numbors is sacrod and llal
somo combinalions may bo lourislic and non-uniquo. Tlo DC paramolors slouId bo
oplimizod firsl. Tloso incIudo llings IiIo

, bola, and IarIy voIlago.

Tlo Ioy lo llo approacl is lo roaIizo llal vlon ITspico is usod lo do a DC run on
a simpIo ono-lransislor circuil, llo oporaling paramolors of llo lransislor aro Iislod in
llo rosuIling SIICI orror Iog. Tlus, clangos can bo mado lo llo modoI and llon
quicIIy ovaIualod by doing a DC simuIalion and clocIing llo SIICI orror Iog.
Iaramolorizod DC svoops in llo simpIo lransislor simuIalion vill pIols can aIso bo
vory loIpfuI in ovaIualing and fino-luning SIICI paramolors lo oblain accuralo lran-
sislor bolavior.
Tlo manufacluror-suppIiod SIICI modoI for llo lransislor can bo usod as a slarling
poinl, bul many of llo paramolors inloracl lo a dogroo llal may maIo llis Ioss vaIuabIo.
In many casos, somo of llo paramolors may bo usofuI as a slarl, sucl as llo capacilancos.
In llo oxampIo procoduros doscribod boIov, llo focus is on oslabIisling llo SIICI
modoI for a povor lransislor. Tlis is bocauso llo orrors in manufacluror SIICI modoIs
for povor lransislors aro oflon moro sorious. Moroovor, orrors in povor lransislor mod-
oIs oflon lavo a groalor infIuonco on SIICI dislorlion simuIalions of povor ampIifiors.
Tlis is bocauso llo oulpul lransislors in a povor ampIifior lypicaIIy oporalo ovor mucl
Iargor oxlromos of voIlago and curronl, oxporioncing Iargor dogroos of bola droop, for
oxampIo.
- -

-
Tlo firsl slop in croaling or rovising a SIICI modoI is lo carofuIIy roviov llo dalaslool
curvos for llo dovico and Iisl somo Ioy claraclorislic vaIuos as a funclion of oporaling
poinl. Tlis dala can bo laIon rigll off llo grapls llal aro suppIiod vill llo dala slool.
You can aIso uso llo program (avaiIabIo al vvv.digilizor.sourcoforgo
.nol) lo capluro dala from a .ING or .}IG fiIo of llo dala slool. Tlo dala noodod is
doscribod boIov.
Rocord

vorsus

from minimum lo a roasonabIo maximum vaIuo of

. Ior a
povor lransislor, llis slouId lypicaIIy incIudo a minimum of four poinls al 100 mA,
1 A, 5 A, and 10 A.
Rocord bola vorsus

from a minimum lo a maximum vaIuo of

, IiIo lloso monlionod

abovo. Rocord lloso dala al boll llo liglor and Iovor vaIuos of

for vlicl dala aro

usuaIIy suppIiod (lypicaIIy 5 V and 10 V).
Rocord

vorsus

. Do llis for a minimum lo a maximum vaIuo of

. Rocord lloso
dala al boll llo liglor and Iovor vaIuos of

.
Rocord

and

vorsus rovorso

and rovorso

al a Iov rovorso voIlago and a

modium rovorso voIlago. Ior a povor lransislor llis slouId lypicaIIy incIudo rovorso
junclion voIlagos of 2 V and 10 V. In somo casos llo modium rovorso voIlago for llo baso
omillor may bo Ioss llan 10 V bocauso for somo lransislors llo rovorso baso-omillor
broaIdovn is Ioss llan 10 V.
-
In somo casos, llo bosl modoIs viII onIy rosuIl if somo Iab moasuromonls aro dono on
acluaI sampIo dovicos. Tlis is bocauso llo rango of curronl ovor vlicl llo dala is slovn
in dala slools is somolimos nol groal onougl or llo procision of llo informalion is nol
sufficionl. Tlis may ospociaIIy bo lruo for

-vorsus-

and bolavorsus-

moasuromonls
in llo rango of

from 1 mA lo 1 A. Tloso moasuromonls can bo dono villoul spociaI-

izod puIsod moasuromonls in many casos, bul slouId bo dono quicIIy so llal junclion
lomporaluro doos nol riso oxcossivoIy and slifl llo paramolors.
Il is ospociaIIy imporlanl lo gol Iov-curronl

vorsus

dala in ordor lo dolormino

llo paramolor NI. Tlo vaIuo of NI viII usuaIIy bo noar unily. If supporling dala cannol
bo gallorod, NI slouId bo sol lo unily. DofauIling NI lo unily may jusl maIo il a bil
moro difficuIl lo gol good modoI malclos.
Iiguro 20.6 iIIuslralos a GummoI pIol for a lransislor. Il is simpIy a pIol of baso cur-
ronl and coIIoclor curronl as a funclion of

. Tlo baso and coIIoclor curronls aro pIollod

on a Iog scaIo. Tlo dislanco from llo baso curronl lo llo coIIoclor curronl is llo curronl
gain of llo lransislor al llal poinl.
Iiguro 20.7 slovs a moasuromonl solup llal can bo usod lo gallor dala for llo
GummoI pIol. Tlo lransislor is connoclod vill a groundod omillor and a ligl rosis-
lanco suppIying curronl lo llo baso. Tlo coIIoclor curronl is moasurod by moasuring llo
voIlago drop across a smaII coIIoclor rosislor. Tlo baso curronl is caIcuIalod from llo
appIiod baso-voIlago-sourco-voIlago Ioss llo moasurod

, dividod by llo baso rosis-

lanco. Tlo moasurod dala can bo onlorod inlo a sproadslool.

Tlo

of a lransislor is dolorminod by llo saluralion curronl

-
. Tlo saluralion curronl
paramolor slouId bo dolorminod firsl, as il conlroIs

al Iovor vaIuos of

al

-
liglor curronl is infIuoncod by and baso curronl, and llus by bola. Ior llis roason,
oslimalion of RB viII bo dono aflor BI is dolorminod.
Bola is aIso infIuoncod by

via llo IarIy offocl. So boforo vo adjusl llo BI param-

olor for , vo slouId maIo an oslimalo of llo IarIy offocl paramolor VAI.
A good slarling poinl for IS can bo lad by roaIizing llal a vaIuo of IS 200-12 viII
rosuIl in a

of aboul 600 mV al a coIIoclor curronl of 100 mA. Koop in mind llal a faclor
of 10 incroaso in viII rosuIl in

boing roducod by aboul 60 mV, vliIo a faclor of

2 clango in IS viII clango

by aboul 18 mV. If, for oxampIo,

is 540 mV al 200 mA,

llon ono migll vanl lo lry incroasing IS by a faclor of 10 lo accounl for llo 60 mV slorlfaII
from 600 mV, and anollor faclor of 2 lo accounl for llo bias poinl boing al 200 mA insload
of 100 mA. Tlis vouId rosuIl in an IS 4000-12 4-9. Tlo oqualion boIov govorns

IS(

/(NI

1) (20.3)
--
- -
- -

NI is llo forvard-modo idoaIily faclor and is usuaIIy sol oquaI lo or noar unily.
WliIo NI is usuaIIy dofauIlod lo unily, il slouId bo nolod llal NI affocls llo Iogarill-
mic sIopo of

as a funclion of

. Ior oxampIo, in llo absonco of baso rosislanco,

viII
incroaso by approximaloIy 60 mV for oacl docado incroaso in

. Hovovor, llis is basod

on

boing 26 mV and NI boing unily. Tlo offoclivo vaIuo of

in llo abovo oqualion

is acluaIIy muIlipIiod by NI.
If llo offoclivo vaIuo of

voro 30 mV (corrosponding lo NI 1.15), llon llo amounl

by vlicl

incroasod vill a docado incroaso in

vouId bo approximaloIy 69 mV
(simpIy 1.15 60 mV). If NI is groalor llan unily, nol laIing llis inlo accounl can Ioad
lo somo orror in oslimaling RB from

-vorsus-

dala. Il viII aIso causo an orror in

vorsus

al Iov curronls.
If vo lavo

-vorsus-

dala al four poinls oacl a docado aparl, al 10 mA, 100 mA,

1 A, and 10 A, vo can uso llo difforonco in

ovor llo firsl docado lo infor NI and IS

(nolo llal lloso inloracl). Tlon vo can uso llo difforonco ovor llo socond docado, from
100 mA lo 1 A, lo infor RB. IinaIIy, vo can uso llo difforonco ovor llo llird docado, from
1 A lo 10 A, lo ovaIualo llo roduclion in offoclivo baso rosislanco al ligl baso curronl llal
rosuIls from omillor crovding. Tlo modoIing of llis is conlroIIod by RBM and IKR.
Tlo paramolor NI slouId bo oslabIislod oarIy in llo modoIing procoss. If NI is
subsoquonlIy clangod, llon IS viII aIso lavo lo bo clangod. If IS las lo bo clangod
subslanliaIIy, llo vaIuo of ISI, vlicl dolorminos Iov-curronl bola droop, viII lavo lo
bo clangod.
In llo procoduro boIov llo vaIuos of IS and NI aro dolorminod. If llo propor vaIuo
of NI is nol Inovn, il slouId bo sol lo unily. NI usuaIIy faIIs bolvoon 0.9 and 1.1.
Solling BI lo llo lransislors poaI bola vaIuo and RB lo 5 providos a bollor slarling
approximalion in llis procoduro.

Moasuro

vorsus

al coIIoclor curronls from 1 mA lo 100 mA.

Rocord llo ralio of obsorvod docado clangos in

lo 60 mV.
Rocord oclavo clangos in

comparod lo 18 mV.
Sol NI as llo avorago ralio lo llo idoaI vaIuos of 60 mV and 18 mV.
TypicaI NI viII bo bolvoon 0.9 and 1.1.
Sol iniliaI BI poaI bola dalaslool vaIuo.
Sol RB 5, RBM 0.1, IRB 10.
Sol IS so llal simuIalod

is corrocl al

1 mA.
TypicaI IS migll bo 1-12 lo 1000-12.

Tlo IarIy voIlago dolorminos llo oulpul rosislanco of llo lransislor. In ollor vords,
if llo baso curronl is loId conslanl and llo coIIoclor-omillor voIlago is incroasod, by lov
mucl viII llo coIIoclor curronl incroaso` Tlo coIIoclor curronl viII incroaso bocauso llo
curronl gain of llo lransislor incroasos sIigllIy as coIIoclor-baso voIlago is incroasod.
Tlo curronl gain, in lurn, incroasos bocauso llo incroasod coIIoclor voIlago causos llo
dopIolion rogion of llo coIIoclor-baso junclion lo onIargo, llinning llo baso.

-
Iiguro 20.8 iIIuslralos a lypicaI lransislor oulpul claraclorislic llal vouId bo pro-
vidod on a dala slool.
Islimaling can bo dono from llo lransislors oulpul curvos. Il is ossonliaIIy gov-
ornod by llo vay in vlicl bola clangos vill

. Ono vay lo find is lo dolormino

llo sIopo of llo

-vorsus-

curvo on llo oulpul claraclorislic al a modium vaIuo of

.
Tlis is oulpul rosislanco

. Wo llon Inov llal

, so

(20.4)
Of courso, llo vaIuo of

llal is usod for llis caIcuIalion mallors, bul il doos nol

clango a Iol ovor llo rango of

llal is boing usod bocauso a roasonabIo IarIy voIlago

rosuIls in a roIalivoIy slaIIov sIopo. Onco again, il is imporlanl lo oslimalo firsl,
bocauso llo prosonco of finilo moans llal acluaI oporaling bola viII bo liglor al llo
usuaI 20-V oporaling poinl for dolormining bola llan al Iov voIlagos. Tlo prosonco of
can somolimos rosuIl in a bola llal is liglor llan BI for llis roason.
Tlo vaIuo of for a ligl-voIlago povor lransislor viII usuaIIy bo groalor llan ils

voIlago raling. Boar in mind llal vlon

is oquaI lo , llo bola las doubIod vill

rospocl lo ils vory Iov-

vaIuo.
In llo procoduro boIov, llo IarIy voIlago paramolor VAI viII bo oslimalod from llo
sIopo of llo curvos in llo lransislor oulpul claraclorislic.

Moasuro llo

vorsus

sIopo al a nominaI coIIoclor curronl.

Tlis sIopo is

in olms.
Sol VAI

.
TypicaI VAI migll bo lvico ralod maximum coIIoclor voIlago.
-- -
- -

Nolo llal can bo inforrod from ovor a rango

as
VAI

/

Tlo curronl gain bola of a lransislor is roadiIy found on llo dala slool. Bola viII oflon
bo givon for difforonl combinalions of coIIoclor curronl and coIIoclor-omillor voIlago. Il
is imporlanl lo Ioop in mind llal llo IarIy offocl las somo offocl on curronl gain.
Iiguro 20.4 abovo slovod a lypicaI bola-vorsus-

curvo llal migll bo found on a

dala slool. Il can bo soon llal lloro is roducod bola (bola droop) al Iov curronl and al
ligl curronl. Il can aIso bo soon llal bola is roducod al Iov

vlon

is ligl.
Onco VAI is sol, vo visl lo oslabIisl a vaIuo of BI llal rosuIls in llo propor oporal-
ing bola al a dosirabIo oporaling curronl. Tlis curronl slouId bo closon lo Iio al a svool
spol in llo middIo of llo lransislors oporaling rango. Ior a povor lransislor, llis viII
oflon bo around 1 A. Ior llis purposo, vo visl lo lavo IillIo or nono of llo Iov-curronl
and ligl-curronl bola droop offocls in pIay.
In llo procoduro boIov, nominaI curronl gain viII bo sol by llo paramolor BI. Tlis
viII bo approximaloIy llo poaI bola of llo lransislor in many casos. Tlo SIICI paramo-
lors ISI and NI affocl Iov-curronl bola droop and viII bo sol lo oIiminalo llal offocl in llis
procoduro. SimiIarIy, IKI affocls ligl-curronl bola droop and viII bo sol lo oIiminalo llal
offocl in llis procoduro. Iind bola from llo spocificalion slool al

1 A and

20 V.

Sol NI 2.0 and ISI 1-16 in llo modoI.
Sol IKI 100.
Sol BI lo llo vaIuo of bola al

1A and

20V.
TypicaI BI migll bo 50-200.
Vorify bola vill a DC simuIalion al llis oporaling poinl.
Adjusl BI lo oblain corrocl bola.

Tlo curronl gain of a lransislor is oflon fairIy conslanl ovor a middIo rango of coIIoclor
curronl. Hovovor, bola faIIs off al vory Iov curronl and fairIy ligl curronl. Tlis is oflon
roforrod lo as bola droop. Higl-curronl bola droop is ospociaIIy imporlanl in povor
lransislors for ampIifior oulpul slagos bocauso of llo ligl curronl lloy may bo caIIod on
lo landIo. Tlo procoduro boIov viII faciIilalo dolorminalion of llo SIICI paramolors
llal conlroI llo modoIing of bola droop al Iov and ligl curronls.
Bola droop al ligl curronl is firsl approximalod by finding a vaIuo for llo paramo-
lor IKI. Sol IKI lo a Iargo vaIuo IiIo 100. ClocI bola al 1 A and al 10 A, lloso lvo vaIuos
slouId bo aboul llo samo. Nov inlroduco a Iovor vaIuo of IKI of aboul 10 A and
obsorvo lov il las affoclod bola al 10 A and 1 A. Iloralo unliI a roasonabIo fil is oblainod.
Somo adjuslmonl of BI may bo nocossary as voII.
Nov lry lo oslabIisl bola droop al Iov curronls. Iov-curronl bola droop is con-
lroIIod by ISI and NI. Tlo paramolor NI is llo baso-omillor IoaIago omission coofficionl.

-
Il conlroIs llo sIopo of llo

Iino on llo GummoI pIol in llo Iov-curronl bola droop

rogion. Koop NI al 2.0 and incroaso ISI unliI bola al 100 mA bogins lo faII lovard llo
dala-slool vaIuo of bola al 100 mA. Tlo SIICI dofauIl vaIuo of NI is 1.5, bul a Iargor vaIuo
oflon rosuIls in a bollor modoI in povor lransislors.
Iiguro 20.9 slovs a GummoI pIol llal las boon modifiod lo slov llo offocls llal con-
lribulo lo Iov-curronl bola droop. Tlo Ioy lling lo rocognizo is llal lloro aro lvo con-
lribulors lo baso curronl llal rosuIl in finilo lransislor curronl gain. Tlo firsl compononl of
baso curronl is dolorminod by BI. Il croalos a baso curronl llal is numoricaIIy oquaI lo

/BI.
If llis voro llo onIy conlribulor, bola vouId oquaI BI and lloro vouId bo no bola droop
al Iov curronls. Tlo socond compononl is croalod by llo combinalion of ISI and NI. Tloso
croalo a curronl llal is of llo samo oxpononliaI form as a baso or coIIoclor curronl, bul vill
a difforonl sIopo llal is conlroIIod by NI. Tlis Iallor compononl of baso curronl londs lo
dominalo al Iovor coIIoclor curronls, causing lransislor bola lo bo roducod.

/BI + ISI(

NI

1) (20.5)
vliIo

IS(

NI

1) (20.3)
-- -
- -

Tlo paramolor NI viII virluaIIy aIvays bo groalor llan NI. WliIo NI is oflon cIoso
lo unily, NI is oflon 1.52.0. Tlis difforonco is vlal croalos llo difforonco in sIopo of llo
lvo conlribulors lo baso curronl on llo GummoI pIol. If NI 1.5, for oxampIo, llo sIopo
of llo ISI conlribulor viII bo 90 mV/docado. Bocauso llo difforonco in sIopo croalod by
NI and NI is vlal dolorminos Iov-curronl bola droop, il viII oflon bo llo caso llal a
lransislor vill a Iargor vaIuo of NI viII nood a corrospondingIy Iargor vaIuo of NI for
a givon dogroo of Iov-curronl bola droop bolavior.
Tloro is significanl inloraclion bolvoon llo IKI conlroI of bola droop al ligl curronl
and llo ISI conlroI of bola droop al Iov curronls. WliIo IKI allacIs bola al 10 A, il aIso
las a doprossing offocl on poaI bola al 1 A. SimiIarIy, vliIo ISI allacIs bola al 0.1 A, il
aIso subslanliaIIy roducos bola al 1 A. In ollor vords, boll IKI and ISI roduco bola al llo
nominaI poinl of 1 A.
Indood, bocauso IKI roducos bola vill incroasing curronl ovon boginning al 1 A, il viII
lavo llo offocl of maIing bola al 0.1 A Iargor (in a roIalivo sonso) llan llal al 1 A boforo llo
inlroduclion of ISI. Tlis lappons bocauso IKI doprossos bola moro al 1 A llan al 0.1 A. Tlis
inloraclion maIos llo noodod offocl of ISI lo bo ovon moro aggrossivo in allompling lo maIo
bola Iovor al 0.1 A llan al 1 A if Iov-curronl bola droop is boing oxporioncod al 0.1 A.
SimiIarIy, llo offocl of ISI Iingors so as lo lond lo roduco llo ligl-curronl bola droop.
As a rosuIl, vlon boll IKI and ISI aro inlroducod, BI viII lavo lo bo incroasod lo movo
bola bacI lovard poaI bola. If IKI is sol firsl and bola from 1 A lo 10 A IooIs good, and
llon ISI is adjuslod lo bring bola al 0.1 A dovn lo boIov llal al 1 A, llon il viII bo
found llal nol onIy doos BI nood lo bo incroasod, bul IKI may nood lo bo mado moro
aggrossivo (a smaIIor vaIuo). As monlionod boIov, if BI bocomos moro llan aboul lvico
llo vaIuo of poaI bola, llo modoI may bo quoslionabIo.
A significanl parl of llo probIom is llal llo infIuonco of ISI is oflon nol vory slrong
as a funclion of

. Tlus, aclioving a significanl offocl al 0.1 A rosuIls in an undosirod

amounl of offocl al 1 A. AIso, llo offocl al ovon 0.01 A is surprisingIy Ioss llan ono
vouId oxpocl. Tlo GummoI sIopo NI affocls llis. A Iargor vaIuo londs lo slarpon llo
offocl of ISI as a funclion of

.
Will many povor lransislors, bola droop al 0.1 A comparod lo 1 A is roIalivoIy
insignificanl, oflon boing onIy 10. Indood, in somo casos bola may bo llo samo or
groalor al 0.1 A. Ior llis roason, il may bo unviso lo lry loo lard lo incroaso ISI aggros-
sivoIy lo oblain llo dosirod bola droop al 0.1 A. Sucl aclion may joopardizo llo ligl-
curronl bola droop malcl, vlicl is mucl moro imporlanl. A compromiso is lo inlroduco
jusl onougl ISI lo bring bola al 0.1 A dovn lo llo vaIuo of bola al 1.0 A. A lransislor
vill significanl ligl-curronl and Iov-curronl bola droop viII bo moro difficuIl lo fil.
Iiguro 20.10 iIIuslralos llo offocl of difforonl vaIuos of NI on Iov-curronl bola droop
by sloving a GummoI pIol vill a famiIy of curvos laving llroo difforonl vaIuos of NI.
As soon in llo figuro, clanging ISI movos llo moro sloopIy sIopod curvo up and dovn,
vliIo clanging NI adjusls ils sIopo, logollor, lloy oslabIisl llo poinl of inlorsoclion
vloro Iov-curronl bola droop bogins.
Will somo modoI paramolor combinalions, bola al nominaI oporaling curronl can
bocomo lyporsonsilivo lo NI. Tlis sonsilivily occurs vlon llo vaIuo of NI is closon lo
bo inadoqualoIy Iargor llan NI, vliIo sooIing somo modoralo Iov-curronl bola droop.
Tlis rosuIls in llo offocls of llo ISI conlribulion lo baso curronl sliII boing Iargo (and
maybo dominanl) ovon al llo poaI bola poinl. Tlis can rosuIl in a vory Iargo vaIuo of BI
boing roquirod lo acliovo corrocl poaI bola. If BI is groalor llan lvico llo vaIuo of poaI
bola, llis may bo an indicalion of an unloaIlly modoI.

-
In llo procoduro boIov, llo ligl-curronl and Iov-curronl bola droop paramolors
viII bo sol. Bo avaro llal llis procoduro can docroaso simuIalod poaI bola somovlal,
so llal somo rovision of BI may bo noodod.

Sol NI 2.0 and ISI 1o-16 in llo modoI.
IvaIualo bola al 10A.
Roduco IKI from 100 unliI bola al 10A is a good fil.
TypicaI IKI migll bo 1520.
Ro-clocI bola al 1A and adjusl BI if nocossary.
IvaIualo bola al 100 mA.
Ioavo NI al llo vaIuo of 2.0.
Incroaso ISI unliI bola al 100 mA faIIs approprialoIy.
Ro-clocI bola al 1A.
Incroaso BI as nocossary, and ro-clocI bola al 1A and al 10A
TypicaI ISI migll bo 300 IS.
If bola al 1 mA is loo Iov, clooso a smaIIor vaIuo of NI and slarl ovor.
Tlis procoduro may roquiro considorabIo iloralion bolvoon llo adjuslmonl of Iov-
curronl bola droop and ligl-curronl bola droop, aII llo vliIo roadjusling BI lo
--

- -

mainlain propor poaI bola. In somo casos, adjusling for Iov-curronl bola droop boforo
ligl-curronl bola droop may maIo llo procoss convorgo moro quicIIy.
In gonoraI, if llo sIopo of Iov-curronl bola droop as a funclion of

is loo slaIIov,
uso a Iargor vaIuo of NI, bul rocognizo llal llis viII nocossilalo llo uso of a Iargor vaIuo
of ISI lo oblain a givon amounl of Iov-curronl droop. If llo sIopo is loo sloop, uso a
Iovor vaIuo of NI, cIosor lo 1.5, rocognizing llal llis viII roquiro a smaIIor vaIuo of ISI
lo oblain a givon amounl of Iov-curronl bola droop.
--

al Iov curronl (o.g., 0.1 A) las aIroady boon oslabIislod by llo cloico of IS. Tlo vaIuo
of RB las IillIo offocl on

al Iov curronl bocauso baso curronl is smaII and lloroforo

llo drop across RB is smaII.
Baso rosislanco las an infIuonco on

al liglor coIIoclor curronls. Will roasonabIo

vaIuos of bola as a funclion of

, vo can nov oslabIisl baso rosislanco RB. Tlo paramolor

RB corrosponds lo llo vaIuo of baso rosislanco

al Iov and modoralo curronls. AcluaI

baso rosislanco offoclivoIy docroasos al ligl curronl duo lo omillor crovding. Anollor
lorm is inlroducod lo aIIov for moduIalion of

al ligl-baso curronl. Tlis lorm is RBM,

llo minimum vaIuo of rosislanco lo vlicl baso rosislanco faIIs al ligl-baso curronl.
Il is imporlanl lo roaIizo llal llo oxcoss

causod by voIlago drop across

is duo lo
baso curronl and llus is a funclion of bola. Tlal is vly il vas imporlanl lo oslabIisl bola
prior lo oslabIisling RB. Moroovor, bola droops al ligl curronls, furllor incroasing oxcoss

, so il vas imporlanl lo oslabIisl ligl-curronl bola droop prior lo llis oxorciso as voII.
RB can bo oslabIislod by cloosing a vaIuo of RB llal maIos

corrocl al a modium
curronl IiIo 1 A. Tlo infIuonco of baso rosislanco on

al a coIIoclor curronl of 1 A can

bo oasiIy iIIuslralod. Assumo bola 50. Baso curronl

viII llon bo 20 mA. If RB 5, llon

an oxlra 100 mV viII bo addod lo

by RB.
Boar in mind llo roIalion

IS(

/(NI

)
1) (20.3)
Soo llo commonls abovo aboul llo infIuonco of nonunily vaIuos of forvard idoaIily
faclor NI on llo dolorminalion of RB. If NI is vrong, il viII causo llo clango in

from
0.1 A lo 1.0 A lo bo vrong. Tlis orror in

couId llon bo vrongIy allribulod lo RB.

In llo procoduro boIov, RB is dolorminod by adjusling il lo acliovo llo corrocl

al a modium vaIuo of coIIoclor curronl. Solling RBM 0.1 and IRB 10 in llo modoI
provonls moduIalion of RB by coIIoclor curronl.

Sol IRB in llo modoI lo 10.
Sol RBM in llo modoI lo 0.1.
Moasuro llo vaIuo of

al

1 A.
Adjusl RB so llal simuIalod

is corrocl al 1A.
ClocI simuIalod

al 5 A, incroaso RB if nocossary.
ClocI simuIalod

al 10 A, il slouId bo loo ligl.

If nol, incroaso RB lo maIo il so.
TypicaI RB migll bo 35 .

-
If IS and NI lavo boon closon corroclIy, llo nonzoro vaIuo of RB slouId causo an
incroaso in

al ligl curronl abovo llal vlicl vouId bo oxpoclod from llo basic oqua-
lion for

as a funclion of

. Wo rofor lo llis olmic drop across

as oxcoss

.
Wo slouId poinl oul llal llo GummoI pIol in Iiguro 20.6 is an idoaIizod ono llal
assumos no baso rosislanco. Will baso rosislanco incIudod, llo

-vorsus-

Iino vouId
lond lo bond dovn al ligl curronls aIong vill llo

-vorsus-

Iino.
-- -
As monlionod abovo, llo offoclivo vaIuo of baso rosislanco docroasos al ligl coIIoclor cur-
ronl. Tlo paramolor IRB is llo baso curronl (nol coIIoclor curronl) al vlicl

las faIIon laIf

vay from RB lo RBM. Tlo paramolors RBM and IRB may bo omillod in simpIor modoIs,
bul may rosuIl in oxcossivo

al ligl

(o.g., 10 A) vloro a roasonabIo vaIuo of RB las

boon closon lo proporIy rofIocl incroasod

al modoralo curronl (o.g., 1 A).

Supposo bola las droppod lo 33 al 10 A. Baso curronl viII nov bo 300 mA. If

5, llon llo
oxcoss

voIlago drop across

viII bo 1500 mV. If

vas 700 mV al 1 A, llon

viII nov bo
2.2 V. Tlis is vay loo ligl. A moro lypicaI vaIuo vouId bo aboul 1.6 V. Tlis is vly RBM and
IRB aro noodod lo modoI llo offoclivo docroaso in baso rosislanco al ligl coIIoclor curronl.
To gol llo maximum sIopo of offoclivo baso rosislanco as a funclion of coIIoclor curronl
(il viII oflon bo noodod), sol RBM lo a vory smaII vaIuo, on llo ordor of 0.1 or Ioss. Al
llo RBM poinl, oxcoss

viII llon bo 30 mV if baso curronl al llal poinl is 300 mA. Tlo

vaIuo of IRB can llon bo closon lo gol

dovn lo aboul vlal il slouId bo al 10 A.

Tlis adjuslmonl of IRB viII lavo somo offocl on llo vaIuo of

al 1A (

viII lavo
boon roducod a bil). Somo iloralion is llon nocossary. Oflon,

al middIo curronls IiIo

1A viII bo a bil Ioss llan llo dalaslool vaIuo duo lo llo Iimilod sIopo of baso rosislanco
affordod by llo modoI. Tlis is a bollor compromiso llan aIIoving

lo bocomo unroaI-
islicaIIy ligl al ligl curronls.
In llo procoduro boIov, llo modoI paramolors RBM and IRB aro dolorminod. Wo
viII usuaIIy sol llo minimum baso rosislanco RBM, lo a vory smaII vaIuo lo acliovo llo
liglosl sIopo of clango in

al ligl curronls. Wo viII llon sol llo conlor of llo lransi-

lion poinl from RB lo RBM. Tlis is conlroIIod by llo paramolor IRB, vlicl is llo baso
curronl (nol coIIoclor curronl) al vlicl

las faIIon laIf vay from RB lo RBM. IRB viII

bo sol lo yioId llo bosl fil for

al ligl coIIoclor curronl.

Sol RBM 0.1 .
Sol IRB lo a ligl vaIuo IiIo 10 A.
SimuIalo

al

10 A.

viII bo loo ligl.

Roduco IRB unliI

al

10 A faIIs lo llo corrocl vaIuo.

SimuIalo

al

1 A, 2 A, 5 A.
Iloralo RB and IRB if nocossary for a roasonabIo compromiso fil.
A lypicaI vaIuo of IRB migll bo 1 (1 A baso curronl)
Tlis procoduro is carriod oul vill a DC svoop simuIalion of

vorsus Iog

from
100 mA lo 10 A.
In ovaIualing llo offocl of oxcoss

rosuIling from

, il is loIpfuI lo boar in mind

llo foIIoving. If you Inov

al 100 mA, llon idoaIIy vill no

al 1 A viII bo Iargor
- -

by NI limos 60 mV. SimiIarIy, idoaI

al 10 A viII bo groalor llan llal al 1 A by NI

limos 60 mV. Woro il nol for docroasing

al ligl coIIoclor curronls, oxcoss

vouId bo
far loo mucl al vory ligl curronls.
Boar in mind llal oxcoss

al ligl curronls and llo cloico of IRB doponds on llo

amounl of ligl-curronl bola droop and llo cloico of RBM. If llo dovnvard sIopo of
clango of

is loo ligl (as indicalod by oxcoss

nol sufficionl al ligl curronl),

incroaso llo vaIuo of RBM. Too ligl a sIopo in

viII rosuIl in inadoqualo oxcoss

al
ligl curronl.
-- -

Tlo spood of a lransislor is mainIy claraclorizod by ils

, llo froquoncy al vlicl ils

curronl gain las faIIon lo unily. Tlo vaIuo of

, in lurn, is primariIy dolorminod by llo

so-caIIod lransil limo

of llo lransislor. In llis soclion llo nominaI poaI

of llo lran-
sislor viII bo oslabIislod by solling llo lransil limo

. Wo slarl using llo approxima-

lion llal

1/(

2

) (20.2)
al ils liglosl poinl (if vo aro IucIy). Il is usofuI lo nolo llal

10 ns >

16 MHz.
In llo procoduro boIov, llo modoI paramolor TI is sol by finding llo poaI

of llo
lransislor and solling TI so llal llo simuIalion yioIds llis

al llo oporaling poinl

vloro

is al ils poaI. Tlo paramolor XTI conlroIs

droop al ligl curronl. Il is sol lo
zoro for llis oxorciso so llal lloro is no offocl from ligl-curronl

droop. Tlo SIICI

paramolor C}I viII bo sol lo a roIalivoIy smaII vaIuo so llal Iov-curronl

droop offocls
IargoIy disappoar al llo nominaI poaI

oporaling condilions.

Iind llo poaI

from llo dala slool.

Sol XTI 0 in llo modoI.
Sol C}I lo 1/10 of llo vaIuo givon in llo modoI.
Sol TI 1/(2

).
SimuIalo

al llo poaI

oporaling poinl.
TvoaI TI if nocossary.
A lypicaI vaIuo of TI vouId bo 20-9, corrosponding lo 8 MHz.
--

Tlo

of a lransislor docIinos al ligl oporaling curronl as a rosuIl of llo KirI offocl |5].
Il furllor docIinos al ligl oporaling curronl vlon

is Iov. Tlo

droop al ligl curronl

(and Iov voIlago) is oslabIislod by
DofauIl
XTI Coofficionl for bias dopondonco of

0
VTI VoIlago for

dopondonco of

ITI Higl-curronl dopondonco of

-
Tlo

droop bolavior al ligl curronl is modoIod in SIICI by moduIaling llo lran-

silion limo by llo variabIo as

ATI TI (20.7)
Tlo variabIo ATI is dofinod as
ATI 1 + XTI
(

/(1.44 VTI))
|

/(

+ ITI)]
2
(20.8)
Il is imporlanl lo rocognizo llal llo vaIuo of

in llo abovo oqualion is nogalivo,

rofIocling llo rovorso-biasod condilion of llo baso-coIIoclor junclion. Tlis moans llal
llo oxpononl is nogalivo. Tlo vaIuo of

is muIlipIiod by llo faclor ATI, vloro ATI 1 +

XTI al vory ligl curronl vliIo

is sliII roasonabIy ligl (o.g., 1020 V).

ITI conlroIs llo inlroduclion of llo faclor XTI as

incroasos roIalivo lo ITI. Tlo vari-

abIo VTI viII bo discussod Ialor in connoclion vill

droop al Iov coIIoclor voIlagos.

Tlo sIopo of llo lransilion from nominaI

lo droopod

is conlroIIod by llo roIa-

lionslip of ITI lo llo curronl IovoI al llo ligl-curronl dala poinl. If lloro is subslanliaI

droop al 10 A and ITI is sol lo 10 A, llon a modium sIopo of llo droop lransilion
rosuIls. Tlis aII assumos llal llo vaIuo of XTI las boon sol lo acliovo llo propor IovoI
of

roduclion al llo ligl-curronl dala poinl.

If insload ITI is mado aboul 10 limos llo vaIuo of llo curronl al llo ligl-curronl
dala poinl, llon noarIy llo maximum acliovabIo sIopo bolvoon llo modium-curronl
rogion and llo ligl-curronl rogion viII bo oblainod. Tlis assumos llal a difforonl vaIuo
of XTI las boon closon lo onco again acliovo llo propor IovoI of

roduclion al llo
ligl-curronl dala poinl.
Adoquacy of llo sIopo can bo clocIod vill an ovaIualion of

al 1 A and 10 A. Slarl-
ing vill ITI 10 A is nol unroasonabIo, bul may oflon rosuIl in loo slaIIov a sIopo in
llo lransilion rogion. A Iargor vaIuo of ITI may bo nocossary. Boar in mind llal llo
cloico of ITI diroclIy affocls llo vaIuo of XTI roquirod lo acliovo llo dosirod amounl of
ligl-curronl

droop.
Tlo

droop al ligl curronl for povor B}Ts oflon las a fairIy sloop sIopo. Ior llis
roason, il may oflon bo llal as mucl sIopo as possibIo is dosirod. Tlis vouId Ioad lo
cloosing a Iargo vaIuo of ITI, IiIo 100. In llis caso, llo faclor

/(

+ ITI) viII bo 10/110

0.091 al

10 A, and llo squarod vaIuo viII bo 0.008, Ioading lo an offoclivo noodod

muIlipIior on XTI of 1/0.008 125. Of courso, if ono cloosos ITI 9 limos llo ligl-
curronl dala poinl, llon llo faclor bocomos 0.1 and llo squarod vaIuo bocomos
simpIy 0.01.
In llo procoduro boIov, llo vaIuos of ITI and XTI in llo modoI aro dolorminod so
llal

viII faII al ligl coIIoclor curronls in accordanco vill llo dalaslool informalion.
Tlo vaIuo of ITI is sol lo a Iargo vaIuo of 100 so as lo maximizo llo sIopo of bola droop
in llo ligl-curronl rogion, as llis is usuaIIy nocossary lo oblain llo bosl fil lo llo dala.
VTI loro is sol lo a nominaI vaIuo llal viII usuaIIy givo a roasonabIo dogroo of bola
droop al Iov coIIoclor voIlagos in llo ligl-curronl oporaling rogion.

Sol ITI 100.
Sol VTI 10.
Sol XTI 0.
- -

SimuIalo

al 10 A.
Incroaso XTI lo llo poinl vloro

al 10 A faIIs lo llo dosirod vaIuo.

Ro-clocI

al 1 A, iloralo TI and XTI as nocossary.

AIso clocI

malcl al 3 A.
TypicaI XTI may bo 10100.
--

Tlo droop of

al ligl curronl londs lo bocomo moro pronouncod al Iov coIIoclor-

omillor voIlagos. Tlis bolavior is conlroIIod by llo paramolor . Onco llo

droop is
oslabIislod al

10 V, ono can llon sol llo furllor amounl of

droop oxporioncod
vlon

is smaII, for oxampIo, 5 V. In acluaIily, il is moro propor lo rofor lo baso-coIIoclor

voIlago

as llo conlroIIing variabIo. Difforoncos bolvoon

and

on llo spocifica-
lion slool in llo vay llal

droop is dispIayod slouId bo nolod.

In llo procoduro boIov, llo VTI paramolor viII bo sol so llal

al 10 A and 5 V is
approprialoIy Ioss llan

al 10 V and 10 A. A smaIIor vaIuo of VTI causos groalor

droop al Iov voIlagos. A vaIuo of VTI 10 viII oflon givo salisfaclory rosuIls. Il is
imporlanl lo nolo llal a difforonl vaIuo of VTI viII usuaIIy roquiro a clango in XTI in
ordor lo rooslabIisl llo propor amounl of

droop al ligl curronl and nominaI

.

Sol VTI 10, as usod in oslabIisling

droop al liglor voIlagos.

SimuIalo

al

5 V and

10 A.
Soo if adoqualo

roduclion duo lo llo Iovor voIlago las occurrod.

If nol, clooso a smaIIor vaIuo of VTI.
Adjusl XTI for corrocl

droop al 10 V.
SimuIalo

al 5 V and 10 A.
A lypicaI vaIuo of VTI is 10.
--

Tlo

of a lransislor droops al Iov coIIoclor curronl bocauso llo baso-omillor junclion

capacilanco romains roIalivoIy fixod vliIo boll diffusion capacilanco and lransconduc-
lanco docroaso. Tlis docroasos

. Tlus, Iov-curronl

droop is sol by C}I.

RocaII from llo lybrid pi modoI llal

/(2 C )
or llal
/(2

)
Hovovor, in roaIily,

Al ligl curronl, is dominalod by llo producl

, llis is llo diffusion capaci-

lanco compononl of . In llo Iimil,

- 1/(2

). Hovovor, al Iov curronl llo somovlal

-
fixod vaIuo of junclion capacilanco

comos inlo pIay and docroasos

by Iimiling lov
smaII can go. Al vory Iov curronl,

dovoIvos lo

/(2

). Bocauso is
proporlionaI lo coIIoclor curronl, ono can soo llal undor lloso condilions,

docroasos
diroclIy as coIIoclor curronl docroasos.
Considor a lransislor oporaling al 100 mA vill

of 8 MHz. Ils viII bo 4S. If dif-

fusion capacilanco aIono is considorod, ils viII bo
4/(6.28 76) 80,000 pI
If, insload, ils

las acluaIIy saggod lo 6.5 MHz duo lo llo addilionaI prosonco of llo
junclion capacilanco, llon 98,462 pI, an incroaso of 18,462 pI. Tlis incroasod amounl
of capacilanco roIalos approximaloIy lo llo junclion capacilanco

.
Tlo junclion capacilanco al vorI loro is a bil Iargor llan C}I duo lo llo forvard
bias of llo baso-omillor junclion. Boar in mind llal C}I is llo capacilanco of llo baso-
omillor junclion al zoro bias.
Tlo junclion capacilanco

is govornod by llo SIICI paramolor C}I. Wo sol C}I

in llo SIICI modoI by incroasing il from a Iov vaIuo unliI llo

al a Iov curronl (o.g.,

100 mA) las droopod by llo approprialo amounl.
Tloro is a compromiso loro. Tlo rosuIling C}I may confIicl vill llo dalaslool vaIuo
of

al Iov rovorso baso-omillor voIlagos IiIo 2 V. Tlis is bocauso

is a funclion of
rovorso junclion voIlago. Adjusling llo M}I and V}I may loIp llis silualion.
In llo procoduro boIov, llo modoI paramolors C}I, M}I, and V}I viII bo oslab-
Iislod lo oblain llo dalaslool amounl of

droop al Iov coIIoclor curronl. Tlo mosl

imporlanl paramolor is C}I, vliIo M}I and V}I can usuaIIy bo sol lo lypicaI vaIuos or
lloso providod in llo manufaclurors SIICI modoI, if avaiIabIo.

Nolo dalaslool

al

2V and

10V.
Sol C}I 2

al 2V.
Sol M}I 0.5.
Sol V}I 0.5.
SimuIalo

al 1 A and al 100 mA.

Soo if Iov-curronl

droop is approprialo.
If

droop is loo groal, docroaso C}I.

TvoaI TI if poaI

las faIIon loo mucl duo lo C}I

SimuIalo

al 0 V, 2 V, and 10 V, clocI malcl.

Tlo paramolor C}I viII oflon bo aboul doubIo llo vaIuo of

al 2-V rovorso bias.

Moroovor, M}I 0.5 and V}I 0.5 aro roasonabIo for llo baso-omillor junclion. If llo
manufaclurors SIICI modoI is avaiIabIo, uso lloir vaIuos for M}I and C}I. Ollorviso,
uso 0.5 for boll paramolors. Tlo orror viII nol bo sorious.
Ior lloso inloroslod, SIICI compulos

as

C}I |1 (

/V}I)]
M}I
vloro is llo buiIl-in polonliaI and M}I is llo capacilanco oxpononl. }unclion capac-
ilancos aro usuaIIy of llis form.
- -

-
In llo procoduro boIov, llo baso-coIIoclor capacilanco

(aIso caIIod

or

) is oslab-
Iislod by solling C}C, M}C, and V}C. Tlo paramolors M}C and V}C aro Ioss imporlanl
and viII usuaIIy bo sol lo lypicaI vaIuos or lloso vaIuos found in llo manufaclurors
SIICI modoI, if avaiIabIo.

Sol V}C 0.6.
Sol M}C 0.5.
Road dalaslool vaIuo of

al 2V.
Sol C}C 1.3 limos

al 2V.
ClocI bolavior of

againsl dala slool.

Adjusl C}C as noodod.

In llo procoduro boIov, llo SIICI modoI llal las boon croalod is spol-clocIod for accu-
racy. Tlis loIps assuro llal no sorious probIoms lavo cropl inlo llo modoI as il vas
boing croalod, oillor by orror or by unanlicipalod inloraclions.

ClocI

al Iov, modium and ligl curronl.

ClocI bola al Iov, modium, and ligl curronl.
ClocI bola al Iov and ligl voIlagos.
ClocI

al Iov, modium, and ligl curronl al modium

.
ClocI

al Iov, modium, and ligl curronl al Iov

.
ClocI

al Iov and modium rovorso bias.

ClocI

al Iov and modium rovorso bias.

AII of lloso iloms can bo clocIod by vioving llo SIICI orror Iog aflor porforming a
simpIo simuIalion llal biasos llo lransislor al llo oporaling poinl of inlorosl.

BoIov is a lypicaI B}T povor lransislor modoI llal vas croalod using lloso procoduros.
Tlo modoI is of llo M}I21194 NIN lransislor llal las boon usod in sovoraI of llo povor
ampIifior oxampIos in ollor claplors.
.MODII mjI21194 npn
+ IS 4o-12 BI 65 VAI 500
+ IKI 14 ISI 1.2o-9 NI 2.0 NI 1.01
+ RB 3.4 RBM 0.1 IRB 1.0 RC 0.06
+ C}I 8o-9 M}I 0.35 V}I 0.5 RI 0.01

-
+ C}C 1o-9 M}C 0.5 V}C 0.6 IC 0.5
+ TI 21o-9 XTI 90 VTI 10 ITI 100
+ TR 100o-9 BR 5 VAR 100 NR 1.1
+ IG 1.1 XC}C 0.96 XTB 0.1 XTI 1.0
+ NC 4 ISC 0.3o-12 mfg OnSomi060708
-
}IITs oporalo on a difforonl principIo llan B}Ts. TlinI of a bar of N-lypo dopod siIicon
connoclod from sourco lo drain. Tlis bar viII lavo a rosislanco and acl IiIo a rosislor.
Nov form a IN junclion somovloro aIong llo Iongll of llis bar by adding a rogion
vill I-lypo doping. As llo I-lypo galo is rovorso biasod, a Iargor dopIolion rogion viII
bo formod and llis viII bogin lo pincl off llo rogion of conduclivily in llo N-lypo bar.
Tlis roducos curronl fIov. Tlis is caIIod a . Il is normaIIy on (al zoro galo-
sourco voIlago) and is lurnod off by conlroIIing llo amounl of dopIolion by appIying a
nogalivo voIlago lo ils galo (for N-clannoI dovicos). Tlo }IIT viII bo nominaIIy on and
ils dogroo of conduclanco viII docroaso as rovorso bias on ils galo is incroasod unliI llo
clannoI is compIoloIy pinclod off.
Tlo amounl of rovorso galo-sourco voIlago llal causos compIolo pincl-off of llo
clannoI is caIIod llo pincl-off voIlago

or moro commonIy llo llrosloId voIlago

.
Iul difforonlIy,

is llo galo-sourco voIlago al vlicl curronl fIov bogins as rovorso bias

is docroasod from llo llrosloId voIlago vaIuo. Tlo llrosloId voIlago is oflon on llo
ordor of 0.5 V lo 4 V for mosl smaII-signaI }IITs.
Ior smaII vaIuos of
-
, llo }IIT acls as a rosislanco vloso vaIuo is conlroIIod by llo
dogroo of clannoI pincl-off causod by llo rovorso bias of llo galo junclion. Tlis is caIIod
llo or . }IITs aro oflon usod as voIlago-conlroIIod rosislors in llis
rogion. As
-
incroasos, il aIso londs lo pincl off llo clannoI by croaling a rovorso bias
vill llo galo junclion. Tlis opposos incroasod

causod by
-
and causos llo }IIT lo
onlor inlo vlal is caIIod llo saluralion rogion, vloro

is IargoIy indopondonl of
-
.
Tlo domarcalion bolvoon llo Iinoar rogion of oporalion and llo saluralion rogion
occurs al llo poinl vloro
-

if
-
0. Tlo discussion loro viII focus on }IIT
bolavior in llo saluralion rogion.
-
Tlo }IIT claraclorislic (

vs.
-
) oboys a squaro Iav, rallor llan llo oxpononliaI
Iav appIicabIo lo B}Ts. Tlo simpIo modoI boIov is vaIid for
-
>

and doos nol laIo

inlo accounl llo infIuonco of
-
llal is rosponsibIo for oulpul rosislanco of llo dovico.

(
-

)
2
(20.9)
Tlo oqualion is vaIid onIy for posilivo vaIuos of (
-

). Tlo faclor bola (nol lo bo

confusod vill B}T curronl gain) govorns llo lransconduclanco of llo dovico. Tlo variabIo
namo is somolimos usod insload of bola. Wlon
-

, llo
-

lorm is zoro and no

curronl fIovs. Wlon
-
0 V, llo lorm is oquaI lo

2
and maximum curronl fIovs.
Tlo maximum curronl llal fIovs vlon
-
0 V and
-
>

is roforrod lo as
DSS
, a
Ioy }IIT paramolor usuaIIy spocifiod on dala slools. Undor lloso condilions llo clan-
noI is al llo odgo of pincl-off and llo curronl is IargoIy soIf-Iimiling. Tlo paramolor bola
- -

is llo lransconduclanco coofficionl and is dofinod in lorms of

DSS
and

. Il las unils of
amporos por voIl squarod.

DSS
/V

2
(20.10)
In roaI dovicos llo drain-sourco voIlago aIso las somo infIuonco on llo drain cur-
ronl, ovon in llo saluralion rogion. Tlis is nol unIiIo llo IarIy offocl in B}T dovicos. Tlo
infIuonco of
-
on

is a rosuIl of vlal is caIIod doscribod by

llo SIICI paramolor IAMBDA ( ). Tlo roIalionslip boIov incIudos llo offocl of .

(
-


)
2
(1 +
-
) (20.11)
IAMBDA conlroIs llo oulpul rosislanco of llo }IIT. SmaIIor vaIuos of corrospond
lo liglor oulpul rosislanco r
0
. IAMBDA is roforrod lo as llo
and las llo unils of invorso voIls (1/V).
Transconduclanco for a }IIT al a givon oporaling curronl is smaIIor llan llal of a
B}T by a faclor of aboul 10 in many casos. Ils lurn-on claraclorislic (onco llo llrosloId
voIlago las boon ovorcomo) is mucl Ioss abrupl llal llal of a B}T.

A lypicaI modoI for a }IIT is slovn boIov. As vill B}Ts, lloro aro primary and socond-
ary modoI paramolors, vloro llo formor aro fairIy fundamonlaI and llo Iallor aro Ioss
imporlanl in many appIicalions. Tlo firsl Iino incIudos llo primary paramolors llal
govorn DC bolavior. BITA govorns llo lransconduclanco abovo llrosloId, VTO is llo
llrosloId voIlago, and IAMBDA conlroIs llo oulpul rosislanco of llo dovico.
.MODII }310 N}I
+ BITA 0.004 VTO -3.75 IAMBDA 58I-3
+ CGS 16I-12 CGD 12I-12
+ IB 0.52 M 0.54 IC 0.5 RD 5 RS 33 N 1
+ IS 41I-15 KI 5.6I-18 AI 0.56
Tlo socond Iino incIudos llo primary AC paramolors, vlicl aro moroIy galo-sourco
and galo-drain capacilanco. Tlo llird Iino incIudos socondary paramolors infIuoncing
llo capacilanco bolavior and llo drain and sourco parasilic rosislancos. Tlo Iasl Iino
incIudos IS, vlicl claraclorizos llo saluralion curronl of llo galo junclion, and param-
olors llal govorn llo fIicIor noiso of llo dovico.

}IIT bolavior is mainIy modoIod by llo llroo paramolors BITA, VTO, and IAMBDA,
and lloso aro llo onIy onos llal viII bo discussod loro. Numbors from manufaclurors
modoIs, if avaiIabIo, slouId gonoraIIy suffico for llo ollors. Manufaclurors }IIT SIICI
modoIs aro usuaIIy doconl, bul llo Iargo rango of llrosloId voIlago and
DSS
somolimos
maIo croalion of a modoI from moasuromonls of roaI dovicos quilo usofuI.
Moasuro
DSS
as llo curronl llal fIovs vill
-
0 V and
-
10 V. Moasuro

as
llo rovorso bias noodod lo roduco drain curronl lo 1 of
DSS
. Tlis is nol nocossariIy llo
samo as vlal llo manufacluror spocifios as
-

, vlicl may bo spocifiod al oxlromoIy
Iov curronl vaIuos. CaIcuIalo BITA as
DSS
/

2
. Sol VTO as llo moasurod llrosloId

-
voIlago (VTO is aIvays a nogalivo vaIuo, rogardIoss of dovico poIarily). Sol IAMBDA
0.002 as a slarling vaIuo.
SimuIalo llo famiIy of claraclorislics for llo dovico and iloralo llo llroo param-
olors lo oblain a good malcl. If llo sIopo of llo

-vorsus-
-
curvo al
-
0 V is loo
slaIIov, incroaso IAMBDA. If llo spacing of llo curvos as a funclion of
-
is loo smaII,
incroaso BITA.
-
UnIiIo llo }IIT, llo MOSIIT povor lransislor is an onlancomonl-modo dovico, llis moans
il is normaIIy off al
-
0 and musl bo lurnod on by incroasing
-
lo a voIlago groalor llan
llo llrosloId voIlago. Tlo MOSIIT galo is insuIalod from llo undorIying sourco-drain
slrucluro by a llin oxido, forming capacilancos lo llo sourco and drain nodos.
Tlo DC claraclorislics of povor MOSIITs aro usuaIIy modoIod in ossonliaIIy llo
samo vay as lloso for smaII-signaI MOSIITs IiIo lloso usod in inlogralod circuils. An
oxampIo of llo basic DC SIICI IovoI 1 modoI for a povor MOSIIT is slovn boIov.
.MODII IRII244 NMOS IIVII 1
+KI 2.9 VTO 4.2 IAMBDA 0.003
+CGSO 0 CGDO 0 IS 1o-32
Tlo llrosloId voIlago VTO is posilivo for onlancomonl modo N-clannoI dovicos
and nogalivo for I-clannoI onlancomonl dovicos. Tlo paramolor KI govorns dovico
lransconduclanco. Tlo drain curronl oboys a squaro-Iav roIalionslip.

KI(
-

)
2
(20.12)
Nolico llo simiIarily lo llo }IIT modoI. Tlo llrosloId voIlago

(VTO) is a posilivo
numbor, rofIocling llo onlancomonl naluro of llo dovico. In comparison lo llo }IIT
modoI, llo paramolor KI sorvos llo samo lransconduclanco funclion as bola.
Tlo infIuonco of
-
on

is modoIod in llo MOSIIT by llo paramolor IAMBDA as

slovn boIov. IAMBDA conlroIs llo oulpul rosislanco of llo MOSIIT. Tlo offocl con-
lroIIod by IAMBDA is nol unIiIo llo IarIy offocl in B}T dovicos. SmaIIor vaIuos of
corrospond lo liglor oulpul rosislanco
0
.

KI(
-

)
2
(1 +
-
) (20.13)
-- -
Il is imporlanl lo rocognizo llal llo llrosloId voIlago cannol bo accuraloIy oslimalod
jusl by IooIing al llo dalaslool pIol of

vorsus
-
vloro

appoars lo go lo zoro. Tlis

is bocauso of subllrosloId conduclion llal viII bo discussod Ialor. Il causos

lo bo
Iargor llan prodiclod by llo squaro Iav al
-
noar llrosloId.
Tlo paramolors VTO and KI can oasiIy bo oslimalod by clocIing
-
al lvo vaIuos
of drain curronl llal diffor by a faclor of 4. RocaII llo squaro-Iav roIalionslip.

KI(
-

)
2

Considor llo dalaslool vaIuos of
-
al 1 A and 4 A (
-1
and
-2
, rospoclivoIy. Wo
Inov llal (
-

)
2
al 4 A viII bo 4 limos llal al 1 A. SimiIarIy, vo Inov llal (
-

)
- -

viII bo lvico llal al 4 A as al 1 A. Wo can uso lloso roIalionslips lo yioId oslimalos for
VTO and KI.
VTO 2
-1

-2
KI 2
1
/(
-1
VTO)
2
Tloso may bo usofuI slarling vaIuos, bul simuIalion of

vorsus
-
and iloralion lo
rofino llo fil viII bo nocossary. As Iong as iloralion is nocossary, a usofuI aIlornalivo is lo
oslimalo VTO as llo voIlago vloro

for a povor MOSIIT is dovn lo aboul 50 mA,

llon adjusl KI as nocossary lo acliovo llo rigll
-
al somo modium curronl IiIo 4 A.
VTO and KI viII lavo lo bo juggIod lo oplimizo llo fil of

vorsus
-
. Tlo

-vorsus-
-

curvo may bov abovo or boIov llo largol curvo al vaIuos of

llal aro smaIIor llan llo

vaIuo closon for llo iniliaI solling of KI. If

-
for

2 A is Iov, incroaso VTO and
roviso KI lo oblain corrocl
-
al 4 A.
Tlo drain curronl of a MOSIIT is a miId funclion of
-
, rosuIling in oulpul conduc-
lanco. Tlis is nol unIiIo llo IarIy offocl in a B}T. Tlis bolavior is modoIod by IAMBDA
in llo MOSIIT modoI. SimuIalo

vorsus
-
al a galo voIlago llal producos a modium
vaIuo of drain curronl, IiIo 3 A. Adjusl IAMBDA so llal llo difforonco in

from
-
10 V
lo
-
50 V malclos llal on llo dovico dala slool. In ollor vords, adjusl llo slaIIov
upvard sIopo of llo curvo lo bo corrocl. IAMBDA viII oflon bo in llo rango of 0.001 lo
0.1. Bocauso IAMBDA vorIs by infIuoncing llo offoclivo vaIuo of KI, llo vaIuo of KI
usod in llo modoI may lavo lo bo lrimmod a bil aflor IAMBDA is sol. If llo approximalo
vaIuo of IAMBDA is Inovn boforoland, il slouId bo pul in llo modoI boforo VTO and
KI aro adjuslod.
Tlo rocommondod procoduro for croaling a lypicaI IovoI 1 povor MOSIIT modoI is
Roviov llo

vorsus
-
dalaslool curvo.
Islimalo VTO as
-
al

of aboul 50 mA.
Sol KI lo a roasonabIo slarling vaIuo, IiIo 3.0.
Sol IAMBDA lo a roasonabIo slarling vaIuo, IiIo 0.003.
SimuIalo

vorsus
-
of llo modoI al llo samo
s
as usod for llo dalaslool
curvos.
Adjusl KI lo gol dosirod
-
al 4 A.
}uggIo VTO and KI lo gol dosirod curvo slapo.
If
-
for

2 A is Iov, incroaso VTO and roviso KI lo oblain corrocl
-
al 4 A.
SimuIalo

vorsus
-
al 2 A.
Adjusl IAMBDA lo oblain llo samo sIopo as found on llo dovico oulpul
curvos.
Iloralo.

Tlo galo-sourco capacilanco
-
for a vorlicaI povor MOSIIT is fairIy conslanl vill
clangos in
-
. Somo onginoors lavo boon fooIod inlo llinIing llal llis capacilanco
incroasos dramalicaIIy by IooIing al llo sloop incIino llal bogins al lurn-on in llo usuaI

-
galo clargo pIol providod in povor MOSIIT dala slools. In roaIily, llis sloop incIino is
causod by llo lransislor lurning on and aIIoving llo MiIIor offocl on llo galo-drain
capacilanco lo laIo offocl.
Tlo inpul capacilanco of a povor MOSIIT is roforrod lo as
--
, and llis is usuaIIy
vlal is pIollod in dala slools. Il is llo sum of
-
and

. Tlo riso in

is vlal is
rosponsibIo for llo riso in
--
al Iov
-
.
-
is aboul 1200 pI for an IRII240. Tlis is a
fairIy Iargo capacilanco, bul il is boolslrappod lo a mucl smaIIor offoclivo vaIuo in a
sourco foIIovor oulpul slago.

Tlo galo-drain capacilanco

bocomos vory Iargo al Iov vaIuos of

-
, as moasurod
vlon
-
0 V. Tlo nonIinoar naluro and Iargo maximum vaIuos of

aro a concorn for

audio ampIifior dosign al ligl froquoncios and ligl IovoIs. If ligl sIov ralo is lo bo sup-
porlod al oulpul voIlagos noar llo raiIs, llo drivor musl bo abIo lo sourco and sinI llo
curronl roquirod lo clargo and disclargo llis incroasod galo-drain capacilanco.
Tlo vaIuo of galo-drain capacilanco for an IRII240 MOSIIT is pIollod boIov in
Iiguro 20.11 as a funclion of
-
vlon
-
0 V. Al ligl
-
,

is a modosl 50 pI. Hov-

ovor,

grovs rapidIy al roducod

-
. Al
-
10 V il las aIroady cIimbod lo aboul
700 pI. Al
-
1 V, il is a vory Iargo 1250 pI. Nolo llal

is aIso roforrod lo as
--
.

-
Tlo individuaI inloroIoclrodo capacilancos in a MOSIIT can bo difficuIl lo isoIalo, vlon
lvo lorminaIs aro slorlod for a capacilanco moasuromonl, lvo of llo llroo capacilancos
aro boing moasurod in paraIIoI. Il is possibIo lo moasuro

by driving an AC signaI
inlo llo drain and llon moasuring llo signaI voIlago llal appoars from galo lo sourco
vliIo a slunling rosislanco is liod from galo lo sourco. Tlis rosislor slouId lavo a
rosislanco llal is al Ioasl 10 limos smaIIor llan llo roaclanco of llo oslimalod
-
capac-
ilanco al llo losl froquoncy. Tlo allonualion of llo appIiod AC signaI from drain lo
galo can llon bo usod lo infor

--
-

- -

Tlo common SIICI modoI usod for povor MOSIITs comprisos a basic coro SIICI
MOSIIT modoI llal is oncapsuIalod in a subcircuil llal incIudos addilionaI compo-
nonls lo modoI llo drain-sourco body diodo and llo capacilanco offocls.
Tlo povor MOSIIT

nonIinoarily is difficuIl lo modoI. Somo manufaclurors

lavo rallor oIaboralo subcircuil modoIs vill numorous diodos and passivo oIomonls lo
modoI llo capacilancos. In lloso casos, il may bo bosl lo uso llo manufaclurors modoI
and jusl lvoaI llo DC coro parl of llo modoI lo oblain dosirod DC bolavior. Hovovor,
boar in mind llal manufaclurors MOSIIT SIICI modoIs aro croalod primariIy for cor-
rocl bolavior in svilcling appIicalions, nol Iinoar appIicalions. Somo of llo subcircuils
usod lo modoI llo galo-drain capacilanco can inlroduco nonIinoarilios llal do nol oxisl
in llo roaI dovico.
Iiguro 20.12 slovs a sclomalic of a simpIo subcircuil modoI for a povor MOSIIT.
Tlis modoI ompIoys onIy a diodo for simuIalion of llo nonIinoar galo-drain capaci-
lanco. Tlis is a vory ovorsimpIifiod approacl for purposos of iIIuslralion onIy. CIoarIy,
llis modoI doos nol bolavo proporIy if llo galo bocomos forvard-biasod roIalivo lo llo
drain. Sucl a condilion can occur in ampIifiors llal ompIoy booslod suppIios for llo
drivor circuilry. MOSIIT ampIifior dosigns slouId avoid llis condilion bocauso of
llo vory ligl

llal rosuIls and llo consoquoncos for oulpul slago bandvidll

slrinIago and incroasod dynamic drivor curronl roquiromonls.
Slovn boIov is a corrosponding subcircuil modoI for llo IRII244.
Drain Galo Sourco
.SUBCKT IRII244 1 2 3
M1 10 20 30 MOSIIT I 100u W 100u
RD 1 10 0.05
RG 2 20 3
RS 3 30 0.005
CGS 20 30 1000p
DGD 2 1 GDDIODI
DDS 3 1 DSDIODI
-

-
.MODII MOSIIT NMOS IIVII 1
+KI 2.9 VTO 4.2 IAMBDA 0.003
+CGSO 10p CGDO 10p IS 1o-32
.MODII DGDIODI D
+IS 1I-32 N 100 RS 10
+C}O 1200p M 0.5 V} 0.5
.MODII DSDIODI D
+IS 4I-6 N 1.0 RS 0.02
+C}O 1400p M 0.7 V} 2.5
.INDS
Tlo paramolors 100 and 100 aro somolimos soon in llo firsl Iino of llo caII
lo llo MOSIIT modoI. Tloso paramolors dofino vlal is caIIod llo / . Tlo appro-
prialo / ralio vlon using llo IovoI 1 SIICI modoI for povor MOSIITs is usuaIIy
unily. Tloso paramolors can bo Iofl off, as llo dofauIl is unily. Hovovor, lloso paramo-
lors slouId bo oxpIicilIy spocifiod vlon using llo IKV modoI lo bo discussod Ialor.
Capacilor CGS modoIs llo roIalivoIy conslanl galo-sourco capacilanco of llo vorli-
caI MOSIIT. Ior llis roason, CGSO is sol lo a fairIy smaII vaIuo in llo coro MOSIIT
modoI. Diodo DGDIODI modoIs llo nonIinoar galo-drain capacilanco, so CGDO is sol
lo a smaII vaIuo in llo coro MOSIIT modoI. Diodo DSDIODI modoIs llo body diodo.
AIllougl nol slovn, bond viro and pacIago induclancos can bo incorporalod inlo
llo modoI for improvod modoIing of bolavior llal migll infIuonco parasilic osciIIa-
lions in a roaI circuil. Tlo induclancos for llo bond viros can bo incroasod somovlal lo
accounl for IocaI board-IovoI lraco induclancos as voII. TypicaI vaIuos for bond viro
induclancos aro 10 nH for galo and sourco and 5 nH for llo drain.
-
Tlo DC bolavior of llo basic SIICI modoI is inaccuralo al Iov curronl for
-
in llo
vicinily of llo llrosloId voIlago and boIov. Tlis is bocauso voaI invorsion is nol mod-
oIod in llo IovoI 1 modoI. Tlo povor MOSIIT doos nol bolavo as a squaro-Iav dovico
in llis rogion of oporalion. Tlis is a probIom for simuIalion of MOSIIT ampIifior bias-
ing and crossovor dislorlion.
Tlo simpIo squaro-Iav oqualion for drain curronl goos lo zoro al llo llrosloId voIl-
ago, llis causos a disconlinuily in lransconduclanco. Tlis is simpIy nol accuralo for
MOSIITs. In facl, al Iov curronl, llo MOSIIT claraclorislic lransilions lo an oxponon-
liaI Iav llal is mucl IiIo llal foIIovod by B}Ts, bul vill far difforonl coofficionls.
Bocauso llo simuIalion of crossovor dislorlion invoIvos bolavior of llo dovicos al Iov
curronl (150 mA is considorod lo bo in llo lransilion rogion of llo modoI), llo normaI
SIICI modoIs viII givo misIoading rosuIls. Ior oxampIo, al llo llrosloId voIlago, vloro
llo simpIo modoI vouId lavo

0,

for an IRII240 is bolvoon 50 and 100 mA. Tloro

aro bollor modoIs for MOSIITs, ono of vlicl is caIIod llo IKV modoI. Hovovor, IKV
modoI paramolors for povor MOSIITs aro quilo raro.
- -

Tlo convonlionaI subcircuil povor MOSIIT modoI is adoqualo for many povor ampIi-
fior simuIalions vill llo major oxcoplion of crossovor dislorlion. Tlo subllrosloId
rogion is oncounlorod as llo signaI passos llrougl llo crossovor rogion in a cIass AB
ampIifior. Tlo lypicaI bias poinl of 150 mA oflon Iios in llo lransilion rogion bolvoon
llo subllrosloId and squaro-Iav parls of llo modoI, so llal llo acluaI bias voIlago
roquirod lo oblain llo dosirod bias curronl may bo off a bil.
- -
Dalaslool informalion on MOSIIT

is incompIolo for llo oporaling rogion roIovanl

lo audio. Tlo dala slool usuaIIy pIols

for
-
0 V. Tlis is a condilion llal novor
occurs in audio ampIifiors al Iov vaIuos of
-
vloro

bocomos Iargo.
-
is smaII
vlon llo oulpul is noar llo raiIs and llo ampIifior is sourcing considorabIo curronl,
roquiring
-
lo bo quilo posilivo, llal is, novloro noar 0 V. Tlo rogion of groalosl con-
corn roIovanl lo audio is noar cIipping, vloro
-
is 5 V or Ioss and
-
is >5 V, vloro
llo sourco is IargoIy sliII foIIoving llo signaI. Tlis may lavo imporlanl impIicalions for
llo bolavior of
-
and
-
and lov lloy infIuonco offoclivo

.
Tlo offocl of llo incroasod

in sourco foIIovor ampIifior oulpul slagos IargoIy

manifosls ilsoIf as a subslanliaIIy incroasod nood for dynamic galo drivo curronl al oul-
pul ampIiludos noar cIipping. Oulpul slago bandvidll aIso docroasos as

incroasos,
ospociaIIy if galo sloppor rosislors aro ompIoyod. Considor llo caso vloro

las rison
lo 1000 pI and a 50- galo sloppor rosislor is in pIaco. Tlis combinalion viII inlroduco
a poIo al 3.2 MHz. Incroasod

is IiIoIy mucl moro sorious in MOSIIT CII oulpul

slagos bocauso of llo incroasod infIuonco of MiIIor offocl in llal arrangomonl.
- -
Tlo ITspico VDMOS modoI vas croalod spocificaIIy for vorlicaI doubIo-diffusod povor
MOSIITs. Il oIiminalos llo nood for llo subcircuil approacl and incorporalos modoIing
of llo sourco-drain body diodo and llo nonIinoar capacilancos rigll inlo llo modoI
ilsoIf. As a rosuIl, llo modoI runs faslor and moro accuraloIy modoIs llo nonIinoar
capacilancos. Tlo VDMOS modoI usos llo basic IovoI 1 SIICI coro modoI for DC
bolavior of llo povor MOSIIT, so subllrosloId bolavior is nol modoIod. A lypicaI
VDMOS modoI is slovn boIov.
.MODII IRII244 VDMOS NCHAN
+KI 2.9 VTO 4.2 IAMBDA 0.003
+CGDMAX 2.3o-9 CGDMIN 6.3o-12 0.34
+CGS 1340p C}O 1300p M 0.68 V} 2.5
+RS 0.05 RD 0.1 RDS 1o7 IS 4.0o-6 N 2.4
Tlo socond Iino dofinos llo DC bolavior in llo samo vay as llo convonlionaI IovoI
1 SIICI modoI. Tlo llird Iino dofinos llo bolavior of llo nonIinoar galo-drain capaci-
lanco in a vay uniquo lo llo VDMOS modoI. Tlo fourll Iino dofinos llo galo-sourco
capacilanco
-
and llo body diodo capacilanco
o
(a junclion capacilanco).

-
Tlo galo-drain capacilanco is modoIod as a nonIinoar funclion of

as iIIuslralod in
Iiguro 20.13 for an N-clannoI dovico. Ior nogalivo vaIuos of

(o.g., ligl drain-sourco

voIlago),

bocomos smaIIor, approacling

al Iargo vaIuos of rovorso bias. Ior posilivo

incroasos lo

. Tlo

bolavior is modoIod by llo paramolors CGDMIN,

CGDMAX, and . Tlo paramolor conlroIs lov abrupl llo clango of

is as a funclion
of

. Tlo dofauIl vaIuo of is 1.0 and lypicaI vaIuos Iio bolvoon 0.3 and 1.0. Tlo compu-
lalion of

by CGDMAX, CGDMIN, and is doscribod in llo ITspico Usor ManuaI |6].

-- -
Tlo bolavior of

is usuaIIy doscribod on a dala slool vill a pIol of

(
--
) as a func-
lion of
-
, vill
-
0. Tlis moans llal
-
is llo samo as llo rovorso-bias amounl of

.
Tlo pIol oflon oxlonds from
-
1 V lo
-

-
, vloro
-
may bo 50 V or moro.

is al ils minimum vaIuo al

-
. Tlis can bo soon in Iiguro 20.11. Tlo VDMOS
paramolors aro closon lo fil llis curvo.
Tlo paramolor

can bo closon lo oquaI llo minimum vaIuo of

on llo pIol,
al
-
, aIllougl oflon il viII bo closon lo bo smaIIor. Tlo paramolor

is nol llo
samo as llo maximum vaIuo of

on llo pIol al
-
of 1 V or Ioss. Il can bo soon from
Iiguro 20.11 llal

is a Iargor vaIuo llan llis. Boar in mind llal llo paramolor

conlroIs llo slarpnoss of llo lransilion from

lo

as

clangos from nogalivo

vaIuos lo posilivo vaIuos.
To loIp oslabIisl llo VDMOS paramolors vo dofino lvo faclors llal viII bo a func-
lion of llo paramolor . Tlo faclor 1
(1)
/
(10)
, vloro
(1)
and
(10)
aro llo vaIuos
of

al
-
oquaI lo 1 V and 10 V. Tlis faclor capluros llo sIopo of llo lransilion from
llo dalaslool pIol. SimiIarIy, llo faclor

/
(1)
loIps oslabIisl llo paramolor

from llo vaIuo of

al
-
1 V.
Iiguro 20.14 is a pIol sloving lypicaI vaIuos of and as a funclion of llo param-
olor . In llis pIol llo vaIuos of

and

voro loId conslanl. Tlo pIol providos

-
- -

insigll inlo llo infIuonco of . Il aIso providos a moans of oslimaling slarling vaIuos of llo
paramolors vlon filling llo dala slool pIol. Incroasing incroasos llo sIopo of llo lransi-
lion of

, as can bo soon by lov il affocls . Incroasing vliIo

is loId conslanl
docroasos llo vaIuo of
(1)
. Tlo procoduro boIov slouId bo iloralod as noodod. Tlo vaIuo
of

for llo dovico modoI is found from simuIalion vill

-
0 and various vaIuos of
-
.
Tlo simuIalod vaIuo of

can bo found by IooIing in llo SIICI orror Iog.

BoIov is a procoduro for oslabIisling

, and .
Iind 1
(1)
/
(10)
from llo dala slool.
Sol basod on 1 and Iiguro 20.14.
Iind 2

/
(1)
from llo dala slool.
Sol

basod on 2 and Iiguro 20.14.

Sol

lo 1/10 of llo vaIuo of

al
-
.
SimuIalo and adjusl

for corrocl
(1)
.
SimuIalo and clocI
(10)
.
If
(10)
is ligl, incroaso lransilion sIopo by incroasing .
If vas incroasod, incroaso

lo rooslabIisl corrocl
(1)
.
Adjusl

for corrocl

al
-
.
Iloralo as noodod.

Tlo VDMOS modoI is suilabIo for mosl ampIifior simuIalions, bul il las llo samo Iimi-
lalions as llo IovoI 1 MOSIIT modoI insofar as ils faiIuro lo modoI subllrosloId bolav-
ior. Ior llis roason crossovor dislorlion simuIalions may bo inaccuralo. Tlo VDMOS

-
modoI is mucl moro convonionl lo uso bocauso il doos nol roquiro a subcircuil and
londs lo modoI llo nonIinoar capacilancos moro accuraloIy.

Tlo povor MOSIIT is nol puroIy a squaro Iav dovico govornod by llo usuaI oqualion
vloro

goos lo zoro al
-

. Tlo MOSIIT las subslanliaI subllrosloId conduclion

in llo so-caIIod voaI invorsion rogion. Indood, al vory Iov curronl, llo bolavior of llo
dovico lransilions from a squaro-Iav claraclorislic lo an oxpononliaI claraclorislic llal
is mucl IiIo llal of llo B}T. Tlo basic SIICI modoI doos nol landIo llis bolavior. Il las

go lo zoro al llo llrosloId voIlago. Tlo IKV modoI |7] is a moro soplislicalod modoI
llal accuraloIy accounls for subllrosloId bolavior in povor MOSIITs. Tlo IKV
modoI can bo usod lo ropIaco llo DC coro modoI in a subcircuil-basod povor MOSIIT
modoI. Il doos nol conlain llo buiIl-in body diodo and llo nonIinoar galo-drain capac-
ilanco modoIing. Tlo IKV modoI is assignod as SIICI IovoI 12 in ITspico. A simpIo
vorsion of an IKV coro modoI for llo IRII240 is slovn boIov.
.MODII MOSIIT nmos IovoI 12
+VTO 4.1 IHI 0.7 GAMMA 5.0
+KI 6.0 IAMBDA 100
Tlo paramolors in llo socond Iino oslabIisl llo bolavior in llo voaI invorsion
rogion vloro drain curronl is smaII. Tloso paramolors slouId bo adjuslod firsl. Tlo
paramolors VTO, GAMMA, and IHI aro adjuslod lo oplimizo llo fil of

vorsus
-
al
Iov curronl. VTO is llo llrosloId voIlago paramolor. Transconduclanco in llo sub-
llrosloId rogion is conlroIIod by drain curronl via an oxpononliaI llal is dopondonl on
GAMMA and IHI. I lavo found llal GAMMA can bo sol lo 5.0 for povor MOSIITs
villoul compromising llo acliovabIo fil lo dovico dala. Tlrougloul llo romaindor of
llis soclion GAMMA is assumod lo bo 5.0.
Tlo paramolors KI and IAMBDA in llo llird Iino aro associalod vill llo DC clar-
aclorislics in llo slrong-invorsion rogion. In combinalion vill VTO, lloy aro anaIogous
lo llo paramolors in llo convonlionaI IovoI 1 squaro-Iav modoI. Hovovor, il is impor-
lanl lo rocognizo llal llo vaIuo of KI may bo quilo difforonl in llo IKV modoI com-
parod lo ils vaIuo in llo IovoI 1 modoI for llo samo lransislor. Tloso paramolors slouId
bo adjuslod noxl. KI is adjuslod lo fil llo

-vorsus-
-
curvo al modoralo curronl voII
abovo llo llrosloId voIlago bul al curronl IovoIs llal aro nol significanlIy Iimilod by
dovico rosislancos (primariIy sourco rosislanco). KI is llo lransconduclanco paramolor
and las unils of A/V
2
.
Slovn boIov is a corrosponding subcircuil modoI for llo IRII240.
Drain Galo Sourco
.SUBCKT IRII240 1 2 3
M1 10 20 30 MOSIIT I 100u W 500u
RD 1 10 0.05
RG 2 20 3
RS 3 30 0.005
- -

CGS 20 30 1000p
DGD 2 1 GDDIODI
DDS 3 1 DSDIODI
.MODII MOSIIT nmos IovoI 12
+VTO 4.1 IHI 0.7 GAMMA 5.0
+KI 6.0 IAMBDA 100
+CGSO 10p CGDO 10p IS 1o-32
.MODII DGDIODI D
+IS 1I-32 N 100 RS 10
+C}O 1200p M 0.5 V} 0.5
.MODII DSDIODI D
+IS 4I-12 N 1.0 RS 0.02
+C}O 1400p M 0.9 V} 4.4
.INDS
Il is vory imporlanl lo rocognizo llal KI in llo IKV modoI can bo numoricaIIy quilo
difforonl from KI in llo SIICI IovoI 1 modoI for llo samo lransislor. KI in llo IKV
modoI viII gonoraIIy nood lo bo Iargor lo oblain llo samo

for a lransislor vill llo

samo / ralio. KI in llo IKV modoI viII oflon bo aboul 35 limos Iargor llan KI in
llo SIICI IovoI 1 modoI for llo samo lransislor. Tlo roquirod vaIuo of KI in llo IKV
modoI is slrongIy infIuoncod by IHI.
I lavo closon lo uso llo ralio lo bring KI in llo IKV modoI inlo Iino vill KI
in llo IovoI 1 modoI. Tlo vaIuos 100 and 500 in llo firsl Iino abovo croalo a
ralio of 5. Tlis ralio is by dofauIl unily in llo IovoI 1 modoI and vas nol slovn
oarIior. Spocific vaIuos for and slouId aIvays bo usod in llo IKV modoI for povor
MOSIITs, vill in llo rango of 100 boing a good numbor. Undosirod bolavior nol
roIovanl lo povor MOSIITs viII occur, for oxampIo, if insload 1 and 5 aro
usod. Tlo vaIuo of / roquirod lo bring KI inlo conformanco vill llo IovoI 1 vaIuo
of KI is IargoIy dopondonl on llo cloico of IHI and llo rosuIling subllrosloId sIopo
croalod. I lavo found ompiricaIIy llal llo dosirod vaIuo of viII bo vory rouglIy
invorsoIy proporlionaI lo 40 mS/mA dividod by subllrosloId sIopo in mS/mA.
Iiguro 20.15 slovs lov llo cloico of IHI affocls subllrosloId sIopo and roquirod
ralio lo acliovo llo samo

in llo IKV modoI as in llo IovoI 1 modoI vill llo samo

vaIuo of KI. If subllrosloId sIopo is Inovn, roquirod IHI can bo found from llo Iofl-land
axis. Onco IHI is dolorminod, llo rocommondod slarling vaIuo of can bo found
from llo rigll-land axis. Wo nolo llal a subllrosloId sIopo of 10 mS/mA corrosponds
lo
-
clanging vill

al a ralo of 240 mV/docado. Tlis is anaIogous lo llo famiIiar ruIo

for B}Ts vloro

clangos by 60 mV/docado of incroaso in

. Tlo roIalionslips iIIuslralod

in Iiguro 20.14 aro approximalo, and aro vaIid onIy for GAMMA 5.0.

-
Tlo paramolor IAMBDA is rosponsibIo for conlroIIing

bolavior as a funclion of

-
. Adjusl IAMBDA for llo bosl fil lo llo

-vorsus-
-
dala (sIopo) al modium curronl
IiIo 2 A. As an oxampIo, llo clango in

from
-
10 V lo
-
50 V al a nominaI drain
curronl of 2 A is aboul 100 mA for an IRII240. Tlis is llo clango llal slouId bo malclod
by adjusling IAMBDA vlon llo modoI is simuIalod. WliIo IAMBDA in llo IKV
modoI acls in llo samo vay as IAMBDA in llo IovoI 1 modoI, llo numoricaI vaIuo of
IAMBDA roquirod for llo samo lransislor bolavior is quilo difforonl in llo IKV modoI.
WliIo a vaIuo of IAMBDA of 0.003 is aboul rigll for llo IRII240 in llo IovoI 1 modoI,
llo roquirod vaIuo of IAMBDA is aboul 100 for llo samo dovico in llo IKV modoI.
Tloso famiIiar vill llo IKV modoI Inov llal lloro aro many moro paramolors llal
lavo nol boon monlionod loro. I lavo found llal lloso can bo Iofl oul of llo modoI and
romain al lloir dofauIl vaIuos vliIo sliII aIIoving a vory good modoI fil for povor
MOSIITs. In parlicuIar, THITA and aro Iofl al lloir dofauIls in llo modoI cro-
alion procoduros loro.
Iiguro 20.16 slovs pIols of Iog

vorsus
-
for llo convonlionaI SIICI modoI and
llo IKV modoI. Nolico llo lransilion rogion around 100 mA vloro llo IKV modoI cor-
roclIy slovs mucl moro drain curronl llan llo slandard SIICI modoI. Tlo incorrocl
bolavior of llo simpIo squaro-Iav modoI viII causo a Iargo disconlinuily in in llo
rogion of Iov curronl vloro
-
viII bo cIoso lo

.
- --
Iov MOSIIT dala slools slov subllrosloId

-vorsus-
-
dala, so llo propor croalion
of an IKV modoI slouId incIudo moasuromonls of llo subllrosloId bolavior. Tloro aro
lvo piocos of dala llal aro imporlanl. Tlo firsl is llo subllrosloId sIopo in mS/mV.
AIlornalivoIy llis can bo moasurod in miIIivoIls por docado and convorlod lo mS/mV by
dividing 2400 by llo formor numbor. A roIalionslip of 240 mV/docado llus corrosponds
- - - -
- -

lo 10 mS/mA. Tlo socond pioco of dala is llo ampIiludo of

-
al a vaIuo of
-
llal is
voII inlo llo subllrosloId rogion. Iul simpIy, sIopo and ampIiludo doscribo llo sub-
llrosloId rogion. Tlo nocossary dala can bo oblainod for a lypicaI povor MOSIIT by
moasuring
-
for vaIuos of

from 10 A lo 1 mA, llal is, ovor lvo docados of

in llo
subllrosloId rogion.

Tlo procoduro boIov summarizos llo approacl llal can bo laIon lo arrivo al llo param-
olors for llo DC IKV povor MOSIIT modoI.
Roviov llo

vorsus
-
dalaslool curvo.
Islimalo VTO as
-
al

of aboul 50 mA.
Sol KI lo a roasonabIo slarling vaIuo, IiIo 3.0.
Sol IAMBDA lo a roasonabIo slarling vaIuo, IiIo 100.
Moasuro subllrosloId sIopo (lypicaIIy 520 mS/mA).
Sol IHI basod on Iiguro 20.15 (lypicaIIy 0.53.0).
Sol from Iiguro 20.15 by solling 100 and as noodod.
viII lypicaIIy bo 200 lo 600 .
Sol KI lo IovoI 1 SIICI modoI vaIuo if avaiIabIo.
SimuIalo

vorsus
-
of llo modoI al llo samo
-
as usod for llo dalaslool
curvos.
Adjusl KI lo gol dosirod
-
al 4 A.
Gate Voltage, V
3.0
0.0001
0.001
D
r
a
i
n

C
u
r
r
e
n
t
,

A
0.01
0.1
EKV model
Conventional model
square law)
Square-law region

vs.
-
RFP240
Subthreshold
region
1
10
3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.4 5.7 6.0

--
-
-

-
}uggIo VTO and KI lo gol dosirod curvo slapo.
If
-
for

2 A is Iov, incroaso VTO and roviso KI lo oblain corrocl

-
al 4 A.
SimuIalo

vorsus
-
al 2 A.
Adjusl IAMBDA lo oblain llo samo sIopo as found on llo dovico oulpul
curvos.
Iloralo.
I lavo found llal llo roquirod vaIuo of IAMBDA in llo IKV modoI (as croalod
loro) is mucl Iargor for a givon largol

-vorsus-
-
sIopo (oulpul conduclanco) llan llo
corrosponding vaIuo of IAMBDA for llo IovoI 1 modoI.

Tlo IKV modoI is noodod for roasonabIy accuralo simuIalion of crossovor dislorlion
offocls bocauso il proporIy landIos llo subllrosloId and lransilion rogion vloro cross-
ovor dislorlion issuos aro mosl prominonl. Tlo accuracy of llo modoI in llo subllrosl-
oId rogion is nol crilicaI, vlal is mosl imporlanl is llal llo subllrosloId conduclion is
lloro, so llal lloro is no disconlinuily in .

An aIlornalivo subcircuil povor MOSIIT modoI can bo onvisionod llal combinos llo
slrong poinls of boll llo VDMOS and IKV modoIs. In ossonco, llo DC bolavior is mod-
oIod vill a SIICI IKV modoI vliIo llo body diodo and nonIinoar capacilancos aro
modoIod vill a VDMOS modoI. Tvo MOSIITs, ono modoIod vill llo IKV modoI and
anollor modoIod vill llo VDMOS modoI, aro connoclod in paraIIoI in a subcircuil. Tlo
capacilancos in llo IKV modoI aro sol lo zoro, vliIo llo lransconduclanco in llo
VDMOS modoI is sol lo zoro. Tlo lybrid modoI is moro compIox and laIos Iongor lo
run, bul llis is nol a probIom for ampIifior circuils bocauso so fov of llo dovicos aro
usod. Slovn boIov is a subcircuil for a lybrid VDMOS-IKV modoI.
Drain Galo Sourco
.SUBCKT IRII244 1 2 3
M1 10 20 30 MOSIIT1
M2 10 20 30 MOSIIT2 I 100u W 500u
RD 1 10 0.05
RG 2 20 3
RS 3 30 0.005
.MODII MOSIIT1 VDMOS NCHAN
+KI 0.0 VTO 4.2 IAMBDA 0.0
+CGDMAX 2.3o-9 CGDMIN 6.3o-12 0.34
+CGS 1340p C}O 1300p M 0.68 V} 2.5
- -

+RS 0 RD 0 RDS 1o7 IS 4.0o-6 N 2.4

.MODII MOSIIT2 NMOS IIVII 12
+VTO 4.4 GAMMA 5.0 IHI 0.7
+KI 0.11 IAMBDA 100
.INDS
Nolico llal llo drain, galo, and sourco rosislors aro landIod oxlornaIIy lo llo paraI-
IoIod MOSIIT modoIs. Tlis is nol a porfocl soIulion, bul il is moro imporlanl llal lloso
rosislancos bo usod lo gol llo DC bolavior corrocl, so lloy musl bo in llo pall of llo
IKV parl of llo modoI. AIlornalivoIy, lloso rosislancos couId bo incIudod insido llo
IKV modoI.
-
Tlo discussion on povor MOSIIT modoIing llus far las focusod on vorlicaI doubIo-
diffusod povor MOSIITs. Tlo IaloraI povor MOSIIT las many of llo samo oIoclricaI
claraclorislics and is modoIod in llo samo vay, bul lloro aro somo dislinclions vorll
noling. Tlo IaloraI povor MOSIIT acls somovlal moro IiIo a convonlionaI smaII-
signaI MOSIIT llal vouId bo found in an IC.
Mosl imporlanlIy,

for IaloraI MOSIITs is mucl smaIIor and oxlibils roIalivoIy

IillIo nonIinoarily. Tlo 2SK1058/2S}162 compIomonlary pair of IaloraI MOSIITs lypi-
caIIy lavo

on llo ordor of 50 pI or Ioss |8]. Galo-sourco capacilanco is gonoraIIy

bolvoon 500 pI and 1000 pI. Tlo IaloraI MOSIIT incIudos a body diodo and ils capac-
ilanco is lypicaIIy on llo ordor of 400 pI.
Tlo IaloraI MOSIIT can bo modoIod vill llo subcircuil modoI doscribod in Soclion
20.5 vill a simpIo fixod capacilor for

as slovn boIov.
Drain Galo Sourco
.SUBCKT 2SK1058 1 2 3
M1 10 20 30 MOSIIT
RD 1 10 0.5
RG 2 20 75
RS 3 30 0.5
CGS 20 30 400p
DDS 3 1 DSDIODI
.MODII MOSIIT NMOS IIVII 1
+KI 1.5 VTO 0.5 IAMBDA 0.1
+CGSO 0 CGDO 50I-12 IS 1o-32

-
.MODII DSDIODI D
+IS 2I-12 N 50 RS 0.05
+C}O 1000I-12 M 0.9 V} 0.3
.INDS
Tlo IaloraI povor MOSIIT dovicos lavo inlornaI bacI-lo-bacI Zonor diodos from
galo lo sourco lo Iimil
-
lo safo vaIuos. Tloso diodos aro nol modoIod abovo and usu-
aIIy nood nol bo modoIod for ampIifior simuIalions vloro vory Iargo galo-sourco voIl-
agos aro nol appIiod. TypicaI broaIdovn voIlago for lloso diodos is 15 V.
IiIo any MOSIIT, llo IaloraI MOSIIT oxlibils subllrosloId conduclion. Hov-
ovor, voaI invorsion appoars lo pIay a smaIIor roIo in llo normaI rogion of oporalion of
IaloraI MOSIITs in povor ampIifiors, so lloro appoars lo bo Ioss nood lo rosorl lo somo-
lling IiIo llo IKV modoI.
IaloraI MOSIITs suffor from a fairIy Iargo vaIuo of inlornaI galo rosislanco, on llo
ordor of 75 as slovn in llo oxampIo modoI abovo. Tlis croalos a poIo in llo AC
lransconduclanco of llo dovico. Ior
-
400 pI, llis poIo is al 5.3 MHz. UnforlunaloIy,
il is cuslomary lo ompIoy galo sloppor rosislors of 200500 vill IaloraI MOSIITs for
HI slabiIily. Tlis viII bring llo poIo dovn lo 1.4 MHz or boIov.
- -
IIaco llo subcircuil modoI fiIo in llo simuIalion diroclory and givo il a fiIo oxlon-
sion. TaIo a symboI for llo lransislor and odil ils allribulos lo incIudo llo namo of llo
modoI fiIo.
Opon llo symboI.
Go lo Idil>Allribulos>Idil Allribulos.
Inlor llo lransislor namo for
Inlor llo namo of llo modoI fiIo on llo Iino.
To pIaco a lransislor modoIod vill a subcircuil on llo sclomalic, cIicI on llo
lab on llo looIbar. A diroclory pall lo llo Iibrary viII appoar in llo lop vindov.
CIicI llo dovn arrov lo soIocl anollor oplion. SoIocl llo simuIalion diroclory pall. A
Iisl of avaiIabIo modoIs in llo IocaI simuIalion diroclory viII appoar. CIicI on llo dosirod
dovico namo. Tlo symboI viII como up in llo Iargo vindov. Hil and pIaco llo
dovico.
-
1. Sodra, AdoIo, and Smill, Konnoll, - 6ll od. Nov YorI, Oxford
Univorsily Iross, 2010.
2. Roborls, G. W., and Sodra, A. S., 2d od., Nov YorI, Oxford Univorsily Iross,
1997.
3. IrodoriIson, T. M., - - -
- Nov YorI, McGrav-HiII, 1982.