UNIT-6: GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

UNIT-6: GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

In one type of gas turbine power plant, a gas is compressed by an axial or centrifugal compressor and delivered to a heat exchanger where the gas is heated at nearly constant pressure. Enthalpy of the resulting high temperature, high-pressure gas is converted to kinetic energy in the nozzles of a turbine, and again converted to shaft work by the blades on the rotor of the turbine. Part of the energy output from the turbine is utilized to run the compressor. The remaining energy is used for work external to the plant. This unit describes the theory of such a plant and its variations. 6.1 APPLICATIONS OF GAS TURBINES Gas turbine power plants are used: For aircraft propulsion In gas turbine electric power plants For mechanical drives 6.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF GAS TURBINES Compared to reciprocating IC engines gas turbines are Simple in construction and easy to maintain Light and more compact for the same output Able to run on cheaper fuels Thermodynamically less efficient at full load and even more so at part load Expensive

Compared to thermal power plants using steam turbines, a gas turbine plant is Light, more compact for similar output Easier to start and stop Thermodynamically less efficient

CLOSED CYCLE AND OPEN CYCLE GAS TURBINES The working fluid is re-circulated in a closed cycle gas turbine power plant. Heat supply and removal is by means of heat exchangers. An open cycle gas turbine plant is an internal combustion engine, with fuel added directly to air in a combustion chamber between the compressor and the turbine. The turbine exhausts heat and combustion products directly into the atmosphere. Compared to closed cycle plants of similar capacity, these are Lighter, simpler in configuration, and less expensive Usually less efficient Less flexible in using fuels of lower class

6.3 THE STEADY-STATE STEADY-FLOW ENERGY EQUATION For an SSSF process (Fig. 6.1), (6.1) where suffix i and e represent the inlet and exit conditions. When the kinetic and potential energies or changes in these are negligible, (6.2) For an SSSF system such as a compressor or turbine, where it is assumed that the process is adiabatic, q = 0; and hence (6.3)

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 2013

UNIT-6: GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

Figure 6.1 A Steady-state Steady-flow System When the working fluid is assumed to be an ideal gas with constant specific heats (6.4) since for an ideal gas h = cpT. When the SSSF system is a heat exchanger or a combustion chamber, no work is done by or on the system. In such cases, using Eq. 6.2, (6.5) 6.4 THE AIR-STANDARD BRAYTON (OR JOULE) CYCLE In the air-standard Brayton cycle (or Joule cycle) air is assumed to be an ideal gas and the working fluid of the plant. The closed air standard Brayton cycle (Fig. 6.2) comprises of isentropic compression (1-2) of air, and subsequent constant pressure heat addition (2-3). The high-pressure, high-temperature air is then isentropically expanded in a turbine (3-4), and then cooled at constant pressure in a heat exchanger (4-1). The cooled, reduced-pressure air then returns to the compressor, completing the cycle.

Figure 6.2 The Brayton Cycle When the cycle is open, air is inducted from atmosphere into the compressor and exhausted to atmosphere from the turbine. The actual open turbine cycle may have a combustion chamber, rather than a heat exchanger after the compressor, where a fuel undergoes combustion with air.

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 2013

UNIT-6: GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

EFFICIENCY OF BRAYTON CYCLE With plant work output as wNet, the thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle is derived as follows:

But

; therefore

; hence (6.6)

where , called the pressure ratio. Clearly, higher the pressure ratio, higher the efficiency of the simple air standard Brayton cycle. PRESSURE RATIO FOR MAXIMUM WORK The lowest temperature T1 in an air standard Brayton cycle is decided by the state of atmosphere from which air is taken into the system, or the temperature of the coolant in the heat exchanger in the case of a closed cycle. The highest temperature T3 is the temperature that the combustion chamber and turbine can withstand in safe operation. These two temperatures are then known constants in design. It can be shown that, under these circumstances, there exists a pressure ratio which is a function of T1 and T3, for which the plant delivers maximum net work. Net plant work output wp = turbine work compressor work; i.e., (6.7) The temperature ratios are replaced with pressure ratios as further simplification the above equation is possible as and ; and since ,

where

. Differentiating the expression on the right side of the above equation with respect to x . Therefore, for given

and equating the derivative to zero, it is seen that maximum work results when minimum and maximum cycle temperatures, the optimum pressure ratio is

(6.8) Under the maximum work condition,

Since

, for maximum work

Similar reasoning also gives

.Thus, for maximum work (6.9)

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 2013

UNIT-6: GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

Using Eq. 6.7 and Eq. 6.9,

Therefore, maximum realizable plant work output from a simple Brayton cycle with constraints on the extreme temperatures would be (6.10) Further, using Eq. 6.6 and Eq. 6.9, when work output is maximum in a simple Brayton cycle, (6.11) IDEAL VS. ACTUAL BRAYTON CYCLE The actual processes in turbines and compressors are not isentropic, resulting in higher power requirement to drive the compressor and reduced power output from the turbine. Apart from this, viscous effects in the flow of air causes pressure drops within and between other components of the power plant. These effects are shown in the T-s diagram (Fig. 6.3a) given below.

Figure 6.3 The Ideal and Actual Brayton Cycles With reference to Fig. 6.3b, in which the pressure drops are ignored, isentropic efficiency of the compressor is defined as (6.12) Similarly, isentropic efficiency of the turbine is (6.13) 6.5 BRAYTON CYCLE WITH REGENERATION High temperature of the exhaust gas at state (4) can be utilized heat to the air at the compressor exit, and thus reduce the heat added in the combustion chamber. This increases the efficiency of the cycle. Transfer of energy between the compressed air and turbine exhaust is carried out in a counterflow heat exchanger (Fig. 6.4) called regenerator.

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 2013

UNIT-6: GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

Figure 6.4 Regenerative Brayton Cycle State of the air leaving the regenerator and entering the combustion chamber is denoted by X. State of the working fluid leaving regenerator is denoted by Y. The maximum possible value of TX is equal to T4, which happens only in an ideal regenerator. Efficiency of Brayton cycle with ideal regeneration can be expressed as

where wT and wC are the turbine and compressor work. However, substitution in the above equation leads to the result

and

(6.14) Thus, unlike in the simple Brayton cycle, efficiency decreases with increasing pressure ratio in a regenerative Brayton cycle. REGENERATOR EFFICIENCY To approach the maximum possible heat transfer condition of the ideal regenerator, i.e., for Tx to be equal to T4, the real regenerator surface area will have to be excessively large. Therefore, in practice, Tx < T4 and this leads to the concept of regenerator efficiency, which is defined as (6.15) 6.6 BRAYTON CYCLE WITH INTERCOOLING Multi-stage compression with intercooling reduces the overall compression work. Intercooling is the process of constant-pressure heat removal from the fluid being compressed between successive compressor stages. This heat transfer takes place in a heat exchanger called an intercooler. Coolant in the intercooler is often water entering it at atmospheric temperature. Compression is carried out in two (or, sometimes, three) stages with an intercooler between the stages, as shown in Fig. 6.5a. Temperature TB at the exit of the intercooler could be close to the initial temperature T1. It may be noted that, owing to the flaring of the constant pressure lines in the T-s diagram of a perfect gas towards the right side, the length B-2 is less than the length A-2. Thus, intercooling reduces the overall work of compression, and leads to increased net work output from the plant. The work saved is represented by the shaded area in Fig. 6.5b. However, intercooling tends to reduce efficiency of the gas turbine power plant since the average heat addition temperature of the new cycle is lower.

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 2013

UNIT-6: GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

Figure 6.5 Brayton Cycle and Intercooling 6.7 THE REHEAT BRAYTON CYCLE Reheating the working fluid in a Brayton cycle increases the turbine work output without increasing the backwork, which boosts the net plant work output. In a power plant employing reheating, there are two (and rarely more than three) turbines, exhaust from one turbine further heated before it is supplied to the next turbine. A reheat scheme with two stages is shown in Fig. 6.6.

Figure 6.6 Brayton Cycle with Reheat Usually the reheating is carried out to nearly the same temperature as at the entry to the first turbine. The temperature difference (TD T4) will be more than the temperature difference (TC T4) for reasons mentioned before. The increased turbine output owing to this is shown as the shaded area in Fig. 6.6b. As with intercooling between compressor stages, reheating between turbine stages decreases the plant efficiency, because reheating increases the average temperature of heat rejection from the system. However, adding a regenerator to a gas turbine plant with intercooling and reheating improves the cycle efficiency as well as the net work output.

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 2013

UNIT-6: GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

Figure 6.7 Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration Fig. 6.7 shows a flow diagram and corresponding T-s diagram for a gas turbine plant comprising intercooling, regeneration and reheating. 6.8 GAS TURBINE JET PROPULSION In transport applications, gas turbines are used primarily to propel aircraft. (Fig. 6.8.) Air drawn into the gas turbine power plant is compressed in a series of axial flow compressor stages, and added with a fuel. The process of combustion takes place in a space called the combustion chamber downstream the compressor, after which the hot combustion gases are expanded in a number of turbine stages.

Figure 6.8 Various Gas Turbine Aircraft Engines

The energy extraction from the gases is only sufficient to drive the compressor and accessories in a pure turbojet engine. The residual energy of the combustion products is converted to kinetic energy in a nozzle downstream the turbine to generate the propulsive force. The shaft power extracted using the turbine is in a higher proportion in a turbo-propeller engine, and this additional energy drives a propeller to fly the aircraft, the jet of gases supplementing the thrust. In turbofan engines, commonly used in commercial aircraft, a ducted fan replaces the propeller. The fan provides certain propulsive force as well as a bypass stream of air to envelop the jet stream and dampen its noise. The turbo-prop engines are more efficient than the other two types at low aircraft speeds whereas the turbojet engines have higher efficiency at high Mach number speeds. The turbofan engines are more efficient in the in-between speeds.

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UNIT-6: GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

6.9 THE RAM JET A ramjet (Fig. 6.9) does not use rotary compressors to pressurize air before fuel addition in the combustion chamber, but rather depends upon the ram effect of the incoming high -velocity air. Air entering at high velocity is diffused to high pressure at the inlet of the engine. Fuel is sprayed into this high pressure stream and undergoes combustion. The hot combustion products are expanded in a nozzle like in other jet engines. A ram jet does not require a turbine since it does not include a rotary compressor.

Figure 6.9 The Ram Jet Engine Principle Ramjets must operate at high aircraft speeds (above 320 km/h) to obtain sufficient compression from the decelerating air inside the engine. Therefore a vehicle powered by a ramjet must first be accelerated by some other means to a sufficiently high speed. TUTORIAL PROBLEMS 1. A simple ideal Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid has a pressure ratio of 3. The air enters the compressor at 300 K and the turbine at 1200 K. Neglecting the variation of the specific heats with temperature determine (a) the air temperature at the compressor and turbine exits, (b) the back work ratio, and (c) the thermal efficiency. [Ans. T2 = 410.61 K, T4 = 876.74 K, wC = 111.16 kJ/kg, wT = 324.87 kJ/kg, W. R. = 0.34, t = 26.94%] 2 2. Air enters the compressor of an open cycle gas turbine at 100 kN/m and 27C. The pressure after 2 compression is 400 kN/m . The isentropic efficiencies of compressor and turbine are 80% and 85%, respectively. The air-fuel ratio is 80:1. The rate of flow of air is 2.5 kg/s. Determine the power developed and thermal efficiency of the cycle. Take cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K and = 1.4 for both air and the gases. The calorific value of fuel used is 42 000 kJ/kg. [Ans. T2a = 482.5 K, T3 = 999.0 K, T4a = 721.5 K, P = 238.5 kW, t = 18.4%] 3. Air enters a gas turbine working on air standard Brayton cycle at 1 bar and 16C. Air leaves the compressor at 1MPa and the combustion chamber at 1100C. If the compressor efficiency is 80%, turbine efficiency is 85%, and the pressure drop between the compressor and turbine is 15 kPa, find the compressor work, turbine work, and the cycle efficiency. [Ans. wC = 336.9 kJ/kg, wT = 562.1 kJ/kg, qA = 751.4 kJ/kg, wP =225.2 kJ/kg, t = 30%] 4. The extreme pressures and temperatures in an open cycle air standard gas turbine cycle are 1 bar and 5 bar, and 27C and 550C. Isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and the compressor are 87% and 85%. Determine the thermal efficiency of the plant without regeneration, and with a regenerator of 60% efficiency. [Ans. Without regeneration: wC = 207.4 kJ/kg, wT = 265.4 kJ/kg, qA = 317.7 kJ/kg, wP =58 kJ/kg, t = 18.2%; With regeneration: qA = 286.2 kJ/kg, t = 20.3%] 5. A simple gas turbine plant operating on Brayton cycle has air entering the compressor at 100 kPa and 27C. The pressure ratio is 9 and the maximum cycle temperature is 727C. What will be the percentage change in cycle efficiency and work output if the expansion in the turbine is divided into two stages of pressure ratio of 3, with the intermediate reheat to 727C? [Ans. Without reheat: wC = 262.3 kJ/kg, wT = 468.1 kJ/kg, qA = 440.4 kJ/kg, wP = 205.8 kJ/kg, T = 46.7%; With reheat: : wC = 262.3 kJ/kg, wT = 539.8 kJ/kg, qA = 710.4 kJ/kg, wP = 277.5 kJ/kg, T = 39.1%] 6. Consider an ideal gas-turbine cycle with two stages of compression and two stages of expansion. The pressure ratio across the compressor and turbine is 3 with equal pressure ratios for each stage. The air enters each stage of the compressor at 300 K and each stage of the turbine at 1200 K. Determine the back work ratio and the thermal efficiency of the cycle, assuming (a) no regenerator is used and (b) a regenerator with 75 percent effectiveness is used. Use constant specific heats at room temperature. [Ans. Without regeneration: wP = 247.83 kJ/kg, W. R. = 29.3%, t = 24.1%; With regeneration: wP = 247.83 kJ/kg, W. R. = 29.3%, t = 47.67%]

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UNIT-6: GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

ASSIGNMENT DESCRIPTIVE 1. Explain with a neat sketch the difference between open and closed cycle gas turbine. 2. What are the advantages of closed cycle gas turbine plants over open cycle gas turbine plants? 3. Show that the efficiency of air standard Brayton cycle is a function of isentropic pressure ratio. 4. For a gas turbine working on ideal Brayton cycle, show that the maximum net work produced can be 2 expressed in terms of maximum and minimum temperatures in the cycle as [wnet]max = Cp(Tmax Tmin) . 5. Derive an expression for optimum pressure ratio, for maximum net work output in a Brayton cycle. What is the corresponding cycle efficiency? 6. With a neat block diagram and T-s diagram explain how intercooling increases the thermal efficiency of a gas turbine plant. 7. Explain the use of regenerator in gas turbine power plants. 8. List the methods used to improve the efficiency of Brayton cycle. 9. Sketch the flow diagram of and T-S diagram of a gas turbine plant having 2-stage compression with intercooling, 2-stage expansion with reheating and regeneration indicating state points clearly on both diagrams. 10. With neat sketches explain the principle of turbo jet and ram jet propulsion. NUMERICAL 1. A gas turbine power plant works on simple Brayton cycle with air as working fluid and delivers 32 MW of power. The minimum and maximum temperatures in the cycle are 310 K and 900 K, and the pressure of air at the compressor exit is 8 times the value at the compressor inlet. Assuming isentropic efficiency of 80% for the compressor and 86% for turbine, determine the flow rate of air through the cycle. 2. A gas turbine unit has a pressure ratio of 10:1 and a maximum cycle temperature of 700C. The isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are 0.82 and 0.85 respectively. Compute the power output of the turbine when air enters the compressor at 15C and at the rate of 15 kg/s. Take cp for air as 1.005 kJ/kg K and = 1.4 for compression and cp = 1.11 kJ/kg K and = 1.333 for expansion process. 3. A gas turbine plant draws in air at 1.013 bar and 10C and has a pressure ratio of 5.5. The maximum temperature in the cycle is limited to 750C. Compression is conducted in an uncooled rotary compressor having isentropic efficiency of 82% and expansion takes place in a turbine of isentropic efficiency of 85%. A heat exchanger with efficiency of 70% is fitted between the compressor and the combustion chamber. For an air flow rate of 40 kg/s find the overall cycle efficiency, turbine output, and air-fuel ratio if the calorific value of the fuel used is 45.22 MJ/kg. 4. A simple gas turbine plant operating on the Brayton cycle has air entering the compressor at 100 kPa and 27C. The pressure ratio is 9.0 and the maximum cycle temperature is 727C. What will be the percentage change in cycle efficiency and net work output if the expansion in the turbine is divided into two stages each of pressure ratio 3, with intermediate reheating to 727C? 5. Air enters the compressor of an open cycle constant pressure gas turbine at a pressure of 1 bar and temperature of 20C. The pressure of the air after compression is 4 bar. The isentropic efficiencies of compressor and turbine are 80% and 85% respectively. The air-fuel ratio is 90:1. The flow rate is 3 kg/s. Find the power developed and the thermal efficiency of the cycle. 6. In a reheat gas turbine cycle comprising of one compressor and two turbines, air is compressed from 1 bar, 27C to 6 bar. The highest temperature in the cycle is 900C. The expansion in the first stage of the turbine is such that work from it is just sufficient to run the compressor. Air is reheated between the stages to 850C. Assume that the isentropic efficiency of the first and second stage turbines are 85% each and the working substance is air. Calculate the cycle efficiency. 7. In a gas turbine plant working on the Brayton cycle with a regenerator of 75% effectiveness, air at the inlet is 0.1 MPa, 30C. The pressure ratio is 6 and the maximum cycle temperature is 900C. If the turbine and compressor each have an efficiency of 80%, find the percentage increase in the cycle efficiency due to regeneration.

APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS 2013