Section One | Derivatives

A derivative is defined by Merriam-Webster as "the limit of the ratio of the change in

a function to the corresponding change in its independent variable as the latter
change approaches zero". This is rather hard to think about in those words,
however, so instead, a derivative is more simply defined as the slope at any point
on a function. This slope at that point is defined as the slope of the tangent line.
There are many ways to compute a derivative, ranging from the simple to the
complex, but we'll get to those later. Instead, let's return to the definition that
Merriam-Webster gives us.

To put this definition in equation form, you would get the following. Note, h = ∆ x.

limh →0fx+h- f(x)h

So, as the change in x gets smaller, the average rate of change will eventually
become the instantaneous rate of change. This equation can also be interpreted as
the change in f(x) over the change in x. You can use this formula for calculating a
derivative be substituting the function you want to find the derivative for into the
equation for x. So, let’s say you want to find the derivative of x3. So, plug in x3 for
the x’s in the above equation, and you will come up with this result:

= (x+h)3- x3h

= x3 + 3x2h + 3x2h2+ h3- x3 h

= h(3x2+ 3xh+ h2)h

= 3x2

So, the derivative of x3 is 3x2.

This can be applied to many functions, however. For simple functions, the way to
find a derivative is to bring the exponent that x is raised to down as a coefficient,
and then subtract the exponent by one to get the derivative. Below is a table of
examples of this property:

Function Derivative
x3 3x2
12 0
19x4 76x3
(5x2 + 12x +19) (10x + 12)
x (or, x1/2) 12x (or, ½x-1/2)

Similarly, to evaluate a derivative at a point (that is, give the numeric value for the
slope of the tangent line at that point), you simply plug in the x of the point that you
are given. So evaluating the previous table at x = 2 will give you a set of slopes.

Function Derivative Derivative at x

 =2
3 2
x 3x 12
12 0 none
19x4 76x3 608
2
(5x + 12x +19) (10x + 12) 32
x (or, x1/2) 12x (or, ½x-1/2) 122

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS:

Section Two | Continuity & Differentiability

There are not always derivatives at every point of a function, however. To be

differentiable at every point x on a function, the function must be continuous. A
simple definition of "continuous" is, if drawing the function, you have to lift your
pencil from the paper at any time to draw it, and it is not a continuous function. This
means that functions with asymptotes, holes, jumps, and other irregularities. There
are no derivatives at the ends of piecewise functions and at cusps as well.
There is also another special kind of function that has certain conditions for its
differentiability. With functions with the form xfraction, they must meet two
requirements to be differentiable at all points. To figure out those conditions, let's
use an example:

General Example Derivative Derivative at x =

Function Function 0
xeven/odd x2/5 25x-35 Undefined

xodd/odd x5/3 53x23 0

xodd/even x1/2 12x-12 Undefined

With these general functions, the only form to have a derivative at all is xodd/odd.
However, this is not always true either. For example, the function x3/5’s derivative is
undefined at zero. Whether the derivative is zero or undefined depends on the
following two criteria:

1. “X” is raised to a fraction that is an odd number over an odd number

2. This fraction is > 0

Cusps, which are made from the other fractional exponents, are not differentiable at
all values of x either. To see why that is, look at this graph of a cusp:

If you imagine a tangent line following this graph’s

path, then at the point where the negative slopes
become positive (the cusp point), a special tangent
line is formed. This line is a horizontal line, which has
an undefined slope. That is why this function isn’t
always differentiable, yet it is, technically,
continuous. On the other hand, when a derivative at
a point has a value of zero, this tangent line is
vertical, since that would mean its slope is zero.

Section Three | Tangent and Normal Lines

Tangent lines are, as mentioned, the line that is tangent to the graph at some point
x. To compute the equation for the tangent line, you need the slope of the tangent
line (given by evaluating a derivative) and the ordered pair of the point that this line
was evaluated at. For tangent lines, using the point-slope form of an equation from
a line is easiest. The point-slope equation of a line is m(x – x1) = y – y1, where m is
the slope, and (x1, y1) represents the ordered pair. So, for examples of how to form a
tangent line, let’s use those examples. However, I am leaving out f(x) = 12, since
this function does not have a proper equation.

Function Derivative Derivative at x Ordered Tangent line

=2 Pair
x3 3x2 12 (2, 8) 12(x – 2) = y –
8
19x4 76x3 608 (2, 304) 608(x – 2) = y –
304
(5x2 + 12x (10x + 12) 32 (2, 19) 32( x – 2) = y –
+19) 19
x (or, x1/2) 12x (or, ½x- 122 (2, 2) 122(x – 2) = y -
1/2
) 2

A normal line is a line which is perpendicular to the tangent line to the curve at that
point. This line can be calculated by taking the negative reciprocal of the slope. So,
for the examples above, their normal lines are in the table below:

Normal Line
-112(x – 2) = y – 8

-1608(x – 2) = y – 304

-132( x – 2) = y – 19

-22(x – 2) = y - 2

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS:

Section Four| Local Linearization

Local linearization is the concept that derivatives can be used to calculate the value
of a function. Linearization does not find the actual value of "a", but instead
approximates the output of a function near x = a. The equation for the linearization
of a function at this x = a is:

y=fa+ f'(a)(x-a)

This equation will give you another equation for approximating a value or a
function. Let’s say you want to approximate 9.003. We can use the knowledge that
9=3 to help us. To linearize this value into a function, simply replace that value of
9.003 with x.

fx= x (and at x=a…)

y= a+ 12a(x-a)

Then, use our known, close value of 9, so that a = 9. Then, after finding this
equation, we want to approximate this to x = 9.003, so plug this in.

y=3+ x-96

y=3+ 9.003-96=3.001

The actual value of 9.003 is close to 3.0004100, so the error in this approximation is
about 2%.

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS:

Section Five | Rates of Change

The general function of a derivative mentioned in section one is very closely tied to
the idea of rates of change. After all, as that value h gets smaller and smaller, it
eventually becomes the instantaneous rate of change rather than the average rate
of change that the overall function represents. However, geometrically, these ideas
are very different. The average rate of change (A.R.C.) is represented by a line, just
like the instantaneous rate of change (I.R.C.), but the A.R.C. is graphically
represented by a secant line, while the I.R.C. is represented by a tangent line. The
secant line connects two points, while the tangent line only touches a curve in one
point. The A.R.C. is the slope of the secant line, while the I.R.C. is the slope of the
tangent line.

To demonstrate the average rate of change, a graph and an equation are shown
below.

A.R.C.= f(x2) -f(x1)x2- x1

The average rate of change, in the application of

driving, is the average total speed for a trip. The
instantaneous rate of change, however, is the speed
at an exact moment, and the one you read from your
speedometer.

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS:

Section Six | Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

Position, velocity, and acceleration are all related concepts when it comes to
derivatives. After all, they are derivatives of each other. It’s possible to take the
derivative of a function multiple times, and this function will tell you something new
or different each time, especially in relation to motion. The original function
represents the position of the function. The derivative of the function is the velocity.
The second derivative of the function is representative of acceleration. There are
even further, though uncommon applications, such as a jerk, snap, crackle, and
pop. To find these values, you simply take the derivative of the previous derivative.
Of course, for most functions, there is a point where you cannot take the derivative
any further, because it eventually becomes a number rather than just a function.
Notable exceptions to this would be trigonometric functions. This property is
especially useful because since you evaluate a derivative at a single point, this
means that you would be finding the velocity and acceleration at a specific time
rather than over an interval.

Let’s take the function 4x4 + 12x3 - 17x2, for an example. So, when x = 1;

Degree Which Derivative At x = 1

Means
F(x) Position n/a -1
F’(x) Velocity 16x3 + 35x2 - 17
34x
F’’(x) Acceleratio 48x2 + 70x - 84
n 34

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS:

Section Seven | Approximate a Derivative

Derivatives can also be approximated from graphs, or from tables of values.

From a graph, you just need to remember what a derivative is. Since a derivative is
the slope of the original function, then you only need to generally keep track of the
slope of the original function. For example, when the original graph forms a
minimum or maximum, the derivative will be at the x-axis. Since in a minimum or
maximum, the slope is going from negative to positive or from positive to negative,
the graph of the slopes would have to cross the x-axis at this point. Similarly, just
like you can use the graph of f(x) to approximate the derivative, you can use the
graph of the derivative to approximate f(x). It’s simply applying those same
concepts and relations, but the other way around.

A graphic representation of this is below. The original function has a yellow

background, while the derivative has a blue background.

To approximate a derivative from a table of values, you simply look at the values
around them and subtract them. This is easier to see in an example, which you'll
see below. We want to approximate the derivative at g(2x) and g'(0.2), given a table
of values of the original function, f(x).

x 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

f(x) 3.17 3.27 3.70 4.07 4.66 4.80
1 9 5 6 6 4

Since we want 2x, the actual value we will be looking at on the table is 0.4, since
2(0.2) = 0.4. Since 0.3 and 0.5 are the values around 0.4, we will be subtracting the
f(x) values and then dividing by the difference of the x values. So;

g2x≈24.666-3.7050.5-0.3

which is 2.961.2

g2x≈9.61

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS:
Section Eight | Differentiation Formulas

As I mentioned in the earlier sections, there are lots of different ways to find
derivatives, and they can only be used in particular situations.

The basic rule that we have been using thus far is known is simplified into this
equation:

y= xn →y'= nxn-1

When you have a function whose x-value is in an exponent, you instead use the
following rule. In this case, a is a non-zero number.

y= af(x) →y'= af(x) ×lna×f'(x)

So, if y = 512x+4;

y= 512x+4
y'=512x+4 ×ln5 ×12

EXAMPLE PROBLEM:

When there is a logarithm in the function, you use this rule:

y=lnfx→y'= f'(x)f(x)

So, if y = ln(3x2 + 2x)

y = ln(3x2 + 2x)

y'= 6x+23x2+ 2x

EXAMPLE PROBLEM:
When there is a function inside another function, you use a rule called the Chain
Rule. F(x) is some function, while g(x) is another.

y=fgx→y'= f'gx×g'(x)

So, if y = (x2 + 9)3;

y=(x2+ 9)3

y'= 6x(x2+ 9)2

EXAMPLE PROBLEM:

When two functions are being multiplied together, you use the Product Rule.

y=fxgx→y'=f'xgx + fxg'(x)

So, if y = sec(x)tan(x);

y=secxtanx

y'=secxtan2x+ sec3(x)

EXAMPLE PROBLEM:

Similarly, when two functions are being divided by each other, you use the
Quotient Rule.

y= f(x)g(x) →y'= f'xgx - fxg'(x)g(x)2

So, if y = 4x32x+7;
y= 4x32x+7

y'= 12x22x+7- 8x3(2x+7)2= 16x3+ 84x2(2x+7)2

EXAMPLE PROBLEM:

Trigonometric functions are often used as a combination of the above rules, but
they have special derivatives of their own. These derivatives are summarized in the
table below.

Function Derivative
y = sin x y' = cos x
y = cos x y' = -sin x
y = tan x y' = sec2 x
y = csc x y' = -csc(x)cot(x)
y = sec x y' = sec(x)tan(x)
y = cot x y' = csc2 x

Similarly, inverse trigonometric functions have their own derivatives.

Function Derivative
y = arcsin x y' = 11- x2
y = arccos x y' = -11- x2
y = arctan x y' = 1x2+ 1
y = arccsc x y' = -1|x|x2- 1
y = arcsec x y' = 1|x|x2- 1
y = arccot x y' = -1x2+ 1

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS:
Section Nine | First and Second Derivative Tests

Derivatives can also tell you about the behavior of the original function. The first
and second derivative tests are used to discern specific characteristics about the
original function that the derivative came from. The first derivative test is used to
find the extrema of f(x) while the second derivative test is used to find inflection
points. The extrema are the maximums and minimums of a function, while the
inflection point is where concavity changes.

To conduct the first derivative test:

1. Find f’(x)
2. Find points where f’(x) = 0, or where f’(x) is undefined
3. Investigate the sign changes of f using a sign chart
a. If f’(x) changes from positive to negative, this is a maximum
b. If f’(x) changes from negative to positive, this is a minimum
c. If f’(x) does not change signs, this point is not an extreme

To conduct the second derivative test:

1. Find f’’(x)
2. Find points where f’’(x) = 0, or where f’’(x) is undefined
3. Investigate the sign changes of f using a sign chart
a. If f’’ > 0, f(x) is concave up
b. If f’’ < 0, f(x) is concave down

As an example of both of these functions, take the function f(x) = x3 – 5x2 - 8x. The
first derivative of this function is 3x2 – 10x – 8, and the second derivative is 6x – 10.

First Derivative Test

F’(x) = 3x2 – 10x – 8

0 = 3x2 – 10x – 8 = (3x+2)(x-4)

X = -23, 4
So, this function’s critical points are -23 and 4. So to make a sign chart, look at the
values around the critical points to see if they are positive or negative.

According to this sign chart, x = -23 is a maximum, while x = 4 is a minimum.

This is not an acceptable way to phrase and support this conclusion, however.
Instead, you would say the following:

“f’ > 0 when x < -23 and f’ < 0 when -23 < x < 4, so x = -23 gives a maximum. f’
< 0 when -23 < x < 4, and f’ > 0 when x > 4, so x = 4 gives a minimum.”

Second Derivative Test

F’’(x) = 6x – 10

0 = 6x - 10

X = 53

So, this function’s critical point is 53 . Again, make a sign chart.

There is indeed an inflection point at x = 53. However, once again, that must be
said a bit better.

“F’’(x) > 0 when x > 53 and h’’ < 0 when x < 53 , so x = 53 gives an inflection
point.

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS:
Section Ten | Implicit and Explicit Differentiation

Explicit differentiation is what we have been doing up until now. These are normal
functions that are functions of x. However, implicit differentiation means that these
functions are written as different functions of x. For example, the standard equation
of a circle, x2 + y2 = 25, is an implicit function, since y is on the same side as x. It's
possible to write this implicit function explicitly, but to find a derivative, there is no
need to. In addition, there are some functions that cannot be written explicitly. In
these cases, you just have to treat y, or whatever other variable is representing y,
as another part of the equation you're deriving. However, since this variable has a
"value" associated with it, what you are doing needs to be specifically stated. So,
for x2 + y2 = 25;

x2+ y2=25

2x+2yy'= 0

Then you simply need to get y’ on its own.

2yy'= -2x

y'= -2x2y= -xy

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS:
Section Eleven | Related Rates

Related rate problems are an application of implicit differentiation. The defining

quality of related rates problems is that there are generally two unknowns, but
these unknowns are related in a way that you can use them in a differential
equation, or combine two known formulas defined by another variable. Let's
demonstrate this with an example:

Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon at a rate of 4 cm3/min. Determine the
rate at which the radius of the balloon is increasing when the diameter of the
balloon is 16 cm.

The first thing to notice here are the two equations that are related: volume (V(t))
and radius (r(t)). The rate at which the volume is increasing is known, 4 cm3/min.
Since rates of chance are analogous to a derivative, you know that V'(t) = 4. We
want to know the rate at which the radius is changing. So, thinking of that unknown
rate as a derivative;

r't= ?| rt= d2=8

Now we just relate these two things to each other. Using the equation for the
volume of the sphere, we can do just that.

Vt= 43πr(t)3

We will need to use implicit differentiation on the above formula to get a useable
form, but then we only need to plug in the values we already know.

V'= 4πr2r'

4= 4π(8)2r'

r'= 164π cm/min

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS: