ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS T.Y.P.

II / I / 2(1)
METALLIC CONDUCTION The outstanding properties of metal are--- (1) High electrical &
thermal conductivity (2) In steady state condition, Ohms law is obeyed i.e. I o E. (3) At low
temperature, the resistivity is o 5th power of absolute temperature. o T
5
. (4) Above Debyes
temperature o T. (5) As pressure increases, decreases i.e. o 1/ P. (6) The specific
resistivity of metal at room temperature ~ 10
-5
O Cm. (7) Phenomena of superconductivity is
observed i.e. = 0 at low temperature. (8) Conductivity varies in the presence of magnetic field.
This pheno-menon is known as magneto resistance. (9) Above Debyes temperature ratio of
thermal to electrical conductivity is o T i.e. o
T
/ o o T - Wiedermann- Franz law.
Classical Free Electron Theory Of Metal ( Drude & Lorentz theory) The basic assumption
of this theory, proposed by Drude & Lorentz in 1900, is that metal crystal consists of +ve metal
ions whose valence electrons are free to move between the ions as if they constituted an
electron gas. It is further assumed that the electrons are free to move throughout the entire
crystal subjected only to the law of classical mechanics. Hence classical Kinetic theory of gases
can be applied to the electrons. In this theory the mutual repulsion between -ve electrons is
ignored and potential field due to +ve ions is assumed to be completely uniform. Thus electrons
can move from place to place in the crystal without any change in their energy, colliding
occassionally with the residual ions and have velocities determined at a constant temperature
as per Maxwell-Boltzman distribution law.


when an electric field is applied to a conductor, an electric current is established in the
conductor. In the absence of electric field net drift velocity is zero. Kinetic velocities of the
electrons have r.m.s. velocity C which is related to P as P = C
-2
/ 3= mnc
2
./ 3 where m
mass of electron, n no. of electrons / volume.
For molar volume of the metal P = C / 3 = (1/3)( mN
A
/ V
m
) C
2
, N
A
Avagadros number.
PV
m
= m N
A
C
2
/ 3= RT -- By the law of equipartion of energy.
m c
2
= 3
R
N
T
A
. = 3 KT K. E. =
1
2
mc
2
=
3
2
K T & C =
3KT
m

At room Temperature ( T = 20
0
C) C = 1.154 x 10
5
m/ s. which is much larger than the
drift velocity due to applied electric field. Therefore time taken by the electrons to traverse a
distance will be decided by C only. t ~

c
=
m
KT 3

when a field Ex is applied in the x- direction, electrons are accelerated in the x-direction with the
acceleration a
X
= -
eEx
m
[
d V
dt
ix
.
]
Ex
= -
eEx
m

Where V
ix
x - component of the velocity of the i th electron.
Since R.H.S. is same for all electrons
d V
dt
x
= -
eEx
m
- - - - - - - - (1)
where ( V
x
) is the average velocity of all electrons & (V
x
) =
1
1
n
V
ix
i
n
=

(
(

where n = no. of electrons / cubic meter.
Thus x component of current density J
X
= n ( V
X
) (-e) = -n e ( V
X
)
-Ve sign conventional current is in the opposite direction to ( V
x
)

dJ
dt
ne
d V
dt
x
x
=
d V
dt
x
= -
1
ne
dJ
dt
x
. - - - - - - - - (2)
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS T.Y.P.I / I / 2(2)Comparing Eqn. (1) & (2) -
--
1
ne
dJ
dt
eE
m
x x
. =
dJ
dt
x
o E
x

Thus for a constant E
x
, J
x
increases linearly with time therefore Ohms law cannot be satisfied.

Eqn. (2) the law can be satisfied (i.e.
dJ
dt
x
= 0 ) if
d
dt
V
x
= 0 i.e. it is necessary to
assume the occurrence of some kind of frictional process. This process then together with the
influence of external field should lead to an average velocity (V
x
) which should be o Ex.
The frictional process arises due to interaction of the electrons with the atomic lattice. To
consider collisions of electrons with the lattice, consider the mean free time between collisions
as t . Then the probability for an electron to collide with the lattice during a small interval of time
dt is dt / t .
Assumptions (1) t is constant and independent of energy of electrons and direction of
motion. (2) In a collision with the lattice, the electron loses all the energy it has gained from the
external field (3) Its velocity after the collision is random i.e. independent of the direction of its
motion before collision. Then the rate of change of average velocity in the x-direction due to the
electric field alone is
c
c
V
t
eEx
m
x
field
=
By 2nd assumption between two successive collisions, during the time t, the average velocity
increases from zero to (V
X
) . Hence the rate of change of collision. Alternatively it can be said
that since the probability for collision per second is 1/ t and after the collisions, the velocities are
random, the rate of change of (V
X
) due to collisions / second is
c
c t
V
t
V
x
collision
x
=
In the steady state, we must have the total rate of change of (V
X
) / Sec., zero, Since (V
X
) is
constant in steady state.
c
c
V
t
x
=0 i.e.
c
c
c
c
V
t
V
t
x
field
X
collision
+ = 0


c
c
c
c
V
t
V
t
x
field
X
collision
=
-
eEx
m
=
V
x
t
V
e
m
E
x x
=
t

J
x
= - ne(V
x
) =
ne
m
E
x
2
t
= o E
x





Suppose that under the action of an electric field E
X
the electrons have a certain average drift
velocity at the instant t = 0, the field is suddenly switched off. As a result of the collision with
the lattice, the average drift velocity will gradually approach zero. Since the rate of change of
(V
X
) by collision alone is given by
c
c t
V
t
V
x x
= ( V
X
) = ( V
X
(0) ) e
- t / t

where (V
X
(0) ) is the average drift velocity at t = 0. Because of the exponential form of above
equation, the quantity t is called the relaxation time. Here t represents the mean free time
between collisions. t is very small in metals. t ~ 2 x 10
-4
s for copper.
The resistivity is reciprocal of the conductivity. =
1
2
o
t
=
m
ne

Substituting for t =
m
KT 3
resistivity becomes =
m
ne
kT
m
mkT
ne
2 2
3 3

= This is in
consistent with Ohms law i.e. resistivity is idependent of field strength & o T
1 / 2
it is
contrary to expermental observation that o T thus the theory fails.



o =
ne
m
2
t

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS T.Y.P.I / I / 2(3)





The mobility is defined as ratio of drift velocity to applied electric field.
=
V
E
e
m ne
x
x
= =
t o
m
2
V
-1
s
-1

Drawbacks Of Classical Theory (1) Heat Capacity of the electron gas --- In a typical metal
each atom contributes one electron to the common electron gas. Therefore 1K mole of metal
will have N
A
free electrons. If these electrons behave like molecules in an ideal gas, each would
have 3/2 KT of K.E.
Total energy of metal due to electrons = U
e
=
3
2
N kT
A
= 3/2 RT.
molar specific heat of electrons (C
V
)
el
= dU
e
/ d T = 3/2 R which is much greater than
actual value. At high temperature C
V
~ 3R i.e. free electrons do not contribute significantly to the
heat capacity of a metal. Thus law of equipartition & Maxwell - Boltzman Statistics cannot be
applied to free electrons in a metal.
(2) Mean Free Path -- Resistivity = m / ne
2
t t = m / ne
2

for Cu n = 8.5 x 10
28
/ m
3
, = 1.69 x 10
-8
O - m
t =
911 10
31
. x

/ 8.5 x 10 ( 1.6 x 10 ) x 1.69 x 10
28 -19 2 -8
= 2.47 x 10
-14
s
= t c = 2.47 x 10
-14
x 1.154 x 10
5
=28.5 A
0

But experimentally observed values for is nearly 10 times the calculated . Thus classical
theory cannot explain large variations in value.
(3) Wiedmann - Franz Law --- In metals, electrons are the carriers of heat & energy. Free
electrons are excited by energetic scattering centers & they carry the extra energy to another
scattering center in a cooler part of the metal.
Consider a conducting rod of unit cross- section area. Let there is a thermal gradient along x-
axis. Consider 3 cross sectional planes A,B & C separated by a distance , the mean free path
of electron gas in metal. Thus steady state
temperatures of the layer will be
T
dT
dx
+
|
\

|
.
|

(
, T& T
dT
dx

|
\

|
.
|

(

and the steady energy will be E
dE
dx
+
|
\

|
.
|

(
,
E & E
dE
dx

|
\

|
.
|

(
resply. Thus the energy
carried by an electron from A to B is
( dE / dx ) . Since the no. of electrons
flowing in a given direction through unit area
for unit time is nc / 6 where n is the density & C is the thermal velocity of the electron.
Excess of energy transported through unit area in unit time at the layer B is =
1
6
nc
dE
dx

Similarly energy transported through unit area in unit time in the opposite direction is =
1
6
nc
dE
dx

net heat energy transported through unit area in unit time from A to B
=
1
6
nc
dE
dx
- ( -
1
6
nc
dE
dx
) =
1
3
nc
dE
dx

But this must be = thermal conductivity x temperature gradient
= o
T

dT
dx


1
3
nc
dE
dx
= o
T

dT
dx

But
| |
n
dE
dx
n
dE
dT
dT
dx
C
dT
dx
v
el
= = .

| |
1
3
c C
dT
dx
v
el
= o
T

dT
dx

o =
mkT
ne
3
2

T
dT
dx
+
|
\

|
.
|

(
T T
dT
dx
+
|
\

|
.
|

(


Heat flow


A B C
E
dE
dx
+
|
\

|
.
|

(
E E
dE
dx

|
\

|
.
|

(


ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS T.Y.P.I / I / 2(4)




Since electrical conductivity o =
ne
mkT
2
3


| |
o
o

T
v
el
C c x
mkT
ne
=
1
3
3
2

But
| |
C kn c
kT
m
v
el
= =
3
2
3
&
o
o
T
kn
kT
m
mkT
ne
k
e
T = =
1
3
3
2
3 3 3
2
2
2
2
. . . .





this is called Wiedmann - Franz Law &
L=
3
2
2
k
e
|
\

|
.
|
is called Lorentz number & is =1.12 x 10
-8
watt O / K
2

For Cu o
T
=386 W m
-1
K
-1
& o =
1
172 10
8
1 1
. x
m

O at T=20 C
0
L
T
x x
x W K
T
= = =

o
o.
.
.
386
293 581 10
2 26 10
7
8 2
O
Thus experimental & theoretical values of Lorentz numbers are different.
Thus classical assumption that all the free electrons of a metal participate in thermal conduction
is not correct. Quantum theory with Fermi-Dirac Statistics gives that only electrons near the
fermi -level takes part in thermal & electrical conduction.
Relaxation time, Collission time & Mean Free path ( V
X
) = ( V
X
(0) ) e
- t / t
---(1) where
( V
X
) t is a constant called relaxation time
since it gives a measure of the time
that system takes to relax when a
( V
X
)
O
constraint (e.g. electric field ) is
removed. At t = t
( V
X
) = ( V
X
(0) ) / e
it is the time taken for the drift
large t velocity to decay to 1 / e of its initial
value. Differentiating equation (1)
small t
c
c t
V
t
V
x
collision
x
= --- (2)
Time
Collision time Let t
c
is the collision time, therefore probability of making a collision in time dt is
equal to dt / t
c
i.e. there are 1/ t
C
collisions / sec.
Let all electrons collisions are elstic i.e. energy is conserved, therefore speed of the electron is
the same before and after collision & let after collision the velocities are completey random--
( V
X
)
after
= 0 & ( V
x
)
before =
( V
X
) change in (V
X
) on collision = - ( V
X
)
Since there are 1 / t
C
collisions / sec. rate of change of ( V
X
) = - ( V
X
) / t
C

d V
dt
V
X
elastic
x
C

(
(
=
t

By (1) & (2) t = t
C
Velocities after may not be completely random i.e. it is possible that the scattering is very weak.
Average final direction V
X
cosu



Incident electron V
X
u





Scattering equally probable in all directions, Scattering predominantly in the forward
so that the average angle is 90
O
direction at average angle u
o
T
=
| |
1
3
C c
v
el

o
o
T
e
k T
=
|
\

|
.
|
2
3
1
2
. =L/ T

If on an average the velocity direction changes by u on collision, then the change of (V
x
) is on
an average - ( V
X
) ( 1 - Cos u ) t = t
C
/ 1 - ( Cos u ) t > > t
C
Such electron have a
memory. i.e. their motion after collision is random.
Mean free path It is defined as = C .t
C
.