Chapter 13: Social Development Central Questions: What are the roles of nature and nurture in social development?

? How do biology, culture and experience shape the developing person? To what extent does social development depend on cognitive development? Attachment Attachment is the strong, affectional tie we feel for special people in our lives. o Specifically the ones that are formed with our primary caregivers It involves an interaction between two people who react to each others signals Proximity to attachment figures positive emotions (joy, pleasure, comfort). Separation to attachment figures negative emotions Attachment in infancy (Behavioural drive reduction theory) In the early days, psychoanalysts and behaviourists both linked the origins of attachment behaviour to feeding (i.e. infants became attached to people who satisfy their oral needs which is a biological primary drive). o The mothers presence hence becomes a secondary/learned stimulus capable of drive reduction. The infant learns to associate the presence of the mother with the relief from tension and anxiety. However they were both wrong. Definitive evidence came from a series of classic experiments performed by Harry Harlow (1959). o Harlows work challenged the early theory of drive reduction o He reared infant rhesus monkeys and placed them with two inanimate surrogate mothers. o The infant monkeys preferred the cloth covered monkeys rather the ones that fed them. This showed that the monkeys perceived security, not food, as the crucial element in forming attachment relationships in primates and referred to this as contact comfort. Bowlbys theory of attachment (Ethological theory of attachment; evolutionary) Bowlby was influenced by Harlows work o He linked Harlows work to the psychodynamic literature on children reared in institutional settings. Bowlby was both a psychoanalyst and an ethologist (a scientist interested in comparative animal behaviour) Argued that attachment behaviour was prewired in humans He was also influenced by Konrad Lorenzs studies on imprinting in animals during the critical periods o Imprinting is the tendency of young animals of certain species to follow an animal to which they were exposed to during a sensitive period early in their lives More on Bowlbys theory: The early establishment of strong attachments has been driven by our evolutionary history There is a critical period during which attachments form Deprivation of bonding during this period can impair the establishment of future attachments

The attachment figure thus becomes a safe base from which the child can explore and to whom he can periodically return for emotional refuelling. The origins of attachment Emerges over the first several months of life, peaking during the 2 nd year. First precursors of attachment is a general preference for social stimuli (such as faces) Visual recognition of the mother occurs at about 3 months At 6-7 months, infants begin to show separation anxiety distress at separation from their attachment figures Social development: involves changes in interpersonal thought, feeling and behaviour throughout the life span. Individual differences in attachment patterns Bowlbys colleague Mary Ainsworth recognised that children vary in their responses to separation. She used the Strange Situation experimental procedure to measure infants attachment behaviour. The four different attachment patterns are: o Secure (65%): infants seek comfort from their attachment figures (plays while mum is present, upset when mum is absent, not easily comforted by strangers, calms down when mum returns) o Avoidant (20%): infants shut off their needs for attachment o Ambivalent or anxious-resistant (10-15%) : infants have difficulty being soothed (are angry and rejecting while simultaneously indicating the desire to be close) o Disorganised (5-10%): infants behave in contradictory ways that reflect their difficulty predicting or understanding the way their attachment figures will behave (e.g. approach mother while gazing away) Secure attachment is the most commonly observed attachment pattern around the world Nevertheless the frequency of different styles of attachment differs substantially across cultures Major findings of research using the Strange Situation: o During childhood, securely attached infants tend to be more sociable, more tolerant of frustration, more flexible and persistent. o During adulthood, securely attached children feel less anxious in long-term relationships. Attachment and later development: Anxious-avoidant: o Less trusting of others; more negative self-worth; less likely to seek help when needed Anxious-resistant: o Less persistent, enthusiastic, and compliant; express more anger and frustration; more likely to be exploited by peers. Disorganised: o Some evidence suggests they are at risk for showing hostile/aggressive behaviour problems at age five. Internal working models of relationships Bowlby proposed that infants develop internal working models mental representations of attachment relationships that form the basis for expectations in close relationships. o E.g. an infant raised by an attachment figure who was abusive may form a working model of herself as unlovable or unworthy. She may also see significant others as hostile or unpredictable. Her behaviour will appear disorganised, because she cannot form a working model of her relationship with her mother that makes sense and provides a sense of security.

The concept of internal working models may also help explain why attachment classification in infancy predicts not only social competence but cognitive variables in future years (e.g. ability to sustain attention) Children who are securely attached with their parents are lead to be more trusting and engaging with peers and lovers later in life. They form positive representations of peer and love relationships creating a self-reinforcing cycle, in which positive initial working models foster good relationships, which maintain those models.

Temperament, experience and their interaction in the development of attachment styles Attachment can be understood in part at a psychobiological level. Attachment-related behaviour, such as protest at separation, probably does not occur in the first six months of life because myelination of neurons has not sufficiently progressed in limbic structures that regulate emotional distress, particularly fear and anxiety. Researchers have identified 3 infant temperaments in humans: easy, difficult, and slow to warm up. These correspond in certain respects to secure, ambivalent, and avoidant attachment styles. An environmental variable that appears to have a tremendous impact on security of attachment is the mothers sensitivity to her babys signals. Both biology and experience affect individual differences in attachment. Issues in Attachment theory #1: Caregiver deprivation Romanian orphans aged from 3-12 months were institutionalised in 1946 in a study by Spitz. There was no evidence that the babies were abnormal before being institutionalised o Babies became withdrawn, anxious and more susceptible to depression. Issue #2: Childcare and security of attachment Very controversial Findings: o Most infants of employed mothers were secure o Extensive day-care (>20 hrs/week), led to increased avoidance patterns in attachment However the relationship between childcare and attachment is complex o Quality of care is crucial! Determines the stability of the relationship with caregiver Factors: consistency and frequency of caregiver; training of caregivers, not just experience; ratio of caregivers to children Adult attachment Refers to ways of experiencing attachment relationships in adulthood. Patterns of adult attachment: o Secure they speak freely and openly about their relationships with their parents o Avoidant offer idealised generalisations about their parents; unable to back them up with specific examples; tend to deny some experiences while showing physiological signs of emotional distress o Ambivalent seem preoccupied about their parents o Unresolved have difficulty speaking about attachment figures; havent been able to cope with traumatic losses in the past; narratives are often confused; send conflicting signals to children, since their own attachment needs have not been met. Socialisation Definition: the process in which children must learn the rules, beliefs, values, skills, attitudes and behaviour patterns of their society. It is a lifelong process and also can vary depending on cultural values and practices. Among the most powerful roles into which people are socialised are gender roles, which specify the range of behaviours, considered appropriate for males and females.

Sex: refers to a biological categorisation based on genetic and anatomical differences. Gender: refers to the psychological meaning of being male and female, which is influenced by learning. Sex typing: the process by which children acquire personality traits, emotional responses, skills, behaviours and preferences that are culturally considered appropriate to their sex. Peer relationships friendships: o Primarily same-sex friendships in childhood due to the socialisation of gender in childhood. That is, boys are encouraged to play with boys and engage in boy activities and same with girls. o Friendships are marked by commitment and reciprocity. Peer status: o Children who are disliked by their peers are called rejected children, o Children who are ignored by their peers are called neglected children. o Neglected children often perform better academically than more popular peers, as they immerse themselves into their school work o Children develop reputations among their peers by preschool Sibling relationships involve rivalry and conflict as well as warmth, both of which make sense from an evolutionary perspective.

Development of social cognition Social cognition: the development of our understanding of ourselves, others and relationships. Self concept: an organised view of ourselves or way of representing information about the self. A childs concepts of others and themselves, develops across time and becomes relatively more abstract and complex. Perspective-taking: the ability to understand other peoples viewpoints or perspectives; increases steadily throughout childhood and adolescence. Theory of mind: an implicit set of ideas about the existence of mental states, such as beliefs and feelings, in oneself and others. Childrens understanding of gender Kohlbergs cognitive-development theory proposes that children undergo three stages in understanding gender: o Gender identity (by age 2) children categorise themselves as male or female. o Gender stability children understand that gender remains constant over time. o Gender constancy children learn that a persons gender cannot be altered by changes in appearance or activities. Gender schemas: mental representations that associate psychological characteristics with each sex. Sex role ideology: beliefs about appropriate behaviours of the sexes. Moral development Cognitive-developmental theories: o Piagets theory First stage of moral judgment: morality of constraint children believe that morals are absolute; children conform to societal rules. Older children focus more on their inferences about others intentions. They view rules as means to ends, as strategies for keeping social interactions safe, fair and comfortable morality of cooperation. Rules can be changed if they are not appropriate to the occasion. o Kohlbergs theory

Changes in moral reasoning result from changes in cognitive structures or ways of thinking (as thinking becomes more abstract, so too does moral reasoning). Preconventional morality: children follow moral rules either to avoid punishment or to obtain reward. Conventional morality: children define what is right or wrong by the standards they have learned from other people. Postconventional morality: a morality of abstract, self-defined principles that may or may not match the dominant morals of the times (only 5% of people reach this level of morality). Views values of the time as conventions and hence as both potentially fallible and changeable. Cognitive-social theories: o Focus less on moral reasoning than on moral behaviour. o Moral behaviours are learned through processes such as conditioning and modelling. o Prosocial behaviour: behaviour that benefits other individuals or groups. o Empathic distress: feeling upset for another person.

Social development across the life span Eriksons theory of psychosocial development 8 stages o Model of adult development has 3 important features: It is culturally sensitive Integrates biology, psychological experience, and culture by grounding development simultaneously in biological maturation and changing social demands Offers a broad framework, many aspects of his developmental model have received empirical support in cross-sectional, longitudinal and sequential studies. o His model of psychosocial stages supplements Freuds psychosexual stages. o In each of the 8 stages, the individual faces a developmental task, a challenge that is normative for that period of life. o Each successive task provokes a crisis.

Basic trust vs. mistrust (0-18 months): infants come to trust others or to perceive the social world as hostile; children are still developing their earliest internal working models. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-2yrs): toddlers learn to feel secure in their independence or to experience doubt in their newfound skills and shame at their failures. Initiative vs. guilt (3-6yrs): a sense of goal-directedness and responsibility vs. a rigid, tyrannical conscience. Industry vs. inferiority (7-11yrs): children develop a sense of competence (industriousness) or of inadequacy, as they begin to develop and practise skills they will use for a lifetime in productive work. Identity vs. Identity confusion (teenage yrs): refers to a stable sense of who one is and what ones values and ideals are. Identity confusion occurs when one fails to develop a coherent and enduring sense of self and has difficulty committing to roles, values, etc. Intimacy vs. Isolation (20s-30s): establishing enduring, committed relationships or withdrawing and avoiding commitment (friendships and romantic relationships). Generativity vs. self absorption/stagnation (40s-60s; midlife): people begin to leave some kind of legacy or feel alienated from relationships and community. Stagnation a feeling that the promise of youth has gone unfulfilled. Integrity vs. despair (60s on): individuals look back on their lives with a sense of having lived them well or with despair and regret. Levinsons stages of adult life o Three eras Early adulthood (17-40) Establishing financial and emotional independence (transition) Individuals re-examine their initial choices and either change or seek to settle down Middle adulthood (40-60) A time of emotional turmoil (transition)

o Leads to formation of a new life structure Age 50 transition individuals consider modifying their life Late adulthood (60+) Must come to terms with their impending retirement and the major life changes it will bring Life structure shifts Other Lecture content

Development of self-control and aggression Self control: a childs ability to regulate or control their own behaviour. o Important in regulating both approach and avoidance behaviours (e.g., temptation) Most theories suggest a developmental shift from external to internal regulation (i.e. parents set ground rules, with time changes to the child regulating for themselves what the rules are)

Early developments Birth-1 year: involuntary self-regulation 1-3 years: Compliance to external instructions o leads to social approval o may be intrinsically rewarding 3 years: start of internal regulation of self control Measuring childrens self control Methods measure how children try to resist the impulse/temptation for objects or things which result in gratification. E.g. delay of gratification task potato chips or MARS BAR E.g. forbidden toy behaviour task (not allowed to peek at gift when experimenter leaves the room) Why are there age changes in self control? Related brain developments frontal lobe development (one of 4 lobes in brain) o The frontal lobe is the slowest developing part of the cerebral cortex Factors influencing resistance to temptation Diverting attention from goal is effective for younger children (what worked depended on the age of the child) o Relevant vs. irrelevant instructions Give the child an explanation to why they should not give in to temptation Behaviour of adult models Failures of self control: development of aggression Aggression: behaviour intended to cause harm to persons or property, that is not socially justifiable Early developments Possible from 6 months of age Preschool years: o Instrumental aggression (means to an end) o Hostile aggression (attacking on emotional impulses)

Overt aggression (physical, verbal attacks; direct. More commonly used by males) Relational aggression (indirect attack; e.g. ignoring certain people, spreading rumours, etc. More commonly used by female children; goal is to damage self esteem or status of person)

Development of aggression in mid-late childhood (5-12 years) Reduction in instrumental aggression Increase in hostile aggression 2-3 year olds more likely to kick and hit; older preschoolers tease and taunt. Differences in types of aggression used among boys and girls (boys overt, girls relational) No overall difference however Relation between childhood aggression and adult crime if high levels of aggression remain unchanged for extended periods of time. Early onset aggression (developed in childhood) is more likely to persist than aggression developed in adolescence. o Early onset aggression can however be treated/modified if identified early (before age of 9 or 10) Aggressive behaviours lead to cognitive distortions or aggressive thoughts Behavioural parent training: o Train parents to reward positive behaviours (when children do something good) o Give clear instructions/rules o Train parents to use mild forms of punishment effectively and not overdo it o Social skills training Development in mid-late adulthood What are the major social challenges that confront us as adults? Work and love according to Freud. Also health. Cognitive development (work): Do our cognitive abilities decline during adulthood? Social development (love): Forming long-term relationships Cognitive (work) Testing memory: recall (age change; older adults tend to decline) and recognition (no major age change) Changes in intelligence o Measuring performance on speeded tasks declines with age (20-30 years onwards) Types of intelligence: o Crystallised intelligence accumulated knowledge and past learning (remains stable or increases with age change) o Fluid intelligence abstract reasoning; learning of new concepts (decreases from 3040 years of age; patterns differ depending on level of education) Adulthood: Social development Sternbergs theory of love o Passion - physiological arousal, longing to be with o Intimacy close bond, sharing support o Commitment willing to define as love (special relationship), commitment to longterm At least 3 kinds of love: o Passionate/romantic love (high intimacy and passion) state of intense longing for union with another; idealisation of other person. o Compassionate/companionate love (high intimacy and commitment) affection/tenderness for those whose lives are interdependent of our own; increase in respect/admiration.

Fatuous love (high passion and commitment) 2 people fall madly in love in a short period of time (classically ends in elopement or a quick marriage) Marital satisfaction in mid-later adulthood (35-75) o Frequent pattern is U-shaped o Declines after marriage o Lowest point following the birth of children o Grows after children leave adolescence o Peaks when children leave home If it lasts: o We get comfort, confidence, social support and health benefits (better physical health, lower levels of psychiatric disorders, etc) If it does not last: o Females are more likely to end a relationship (2/3 of divorces) o Males more likely to suffer from distress (esp. long term) o True for university and old-aged people (not necessarily middle-aged people) o

Parenting Socialisation in early-mid childhood is affected by parenting styles Parenting styles o 2 main dimensions: Parental warmth (affection, support for children) Parental control (degree in which child is monitored and disciplined) o According to Diana Baumrind: Authoritative (high control/warmth) makes reasonable demands on children; listen to children; more autonomy granting (independence) Rated as happy and lively, self confident, high self esteem high level of social maturity, high academic achievement. Permissive (high warmth, low control) generally warm and accepting; however not many rules are set; autonomy granting is not very effective. Tend to be impulsive, rebellious, disobedient; boys are demanding and dependent; poor self control and academic achievement. Uninvolved (low warmth/control) little commitment to parenting; no clue on how to control kids and show affection; overwhelmed with parenting; psychological difficulties. In extreme form: neglect depressed parents with multiple stressors impacting on the family (e.g. financial, marital issues) Deficits in attachment, cognitive abilities; poor social skills, high aggression; poor self control and academic achievement. Authoritarian (low warmth, high control) high value on conformity; not much affection; punishment is frequently used as a form of control; low in autonomy granting (not much independence for children) Tend to be more anxious and unhappy; boys react with anger; girls withdraw from conflict; some social maladjustment; higher achievement than permissive and uninvolved. Authoritative parenting appears to be very successful compared to the other parenting styles. Why? o Derived from correlational data causal factor not determined since variables are not manipulated. Does not prove that parenting styles are the cause for positive outcomes/effects in child development. o Parenting style <--> Social competence o Causal factors parents themselves are good models of self control; more effective providers of rewards/reinforcement.