AIRFOIL THEORY 1.

AIRFOIL GEOMETRY -An airfoil or section is a streamlined body which, when set at a suitable angle of attack, produces more lift than drag while also producing a manageable pitching moment. NACA- National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics and Predecessor of NASA has developed and tested many series of airfoils many of which are still being used today. See figure 3.1 Definition of airfoil geometry Mean Camber line is the line joining the midpoints between the upper and lower surfaces of an airfoil and measured perpendicular to the mean camber line. Chord Line is the straight line which joins the end points of the mean camber line. Thickness is the height of the airfoil measured normal to the chord line. The ratio of the maximum thickness to the chord length is called the thickness ratio. Camber- is the maximum distance of the mean line from the chord line. Leading Edge Radius- is the radius of a circle which is tangent to the upper and lower surfaces. The center of this circle is located on a tangent to the mean line drawn through the leading edge of this line.

where: L=Lift Force D=Drag force M=Pitching Moment =Coefficient of lift = Coefficient of drag = pitching moment coefficient 3. IMPORTANT AIRFOIL CHARACTERISTICS Lift Curve: versus

See figure 3.3a and 3.3b The linear part of the lift curve can be represented by: = a ( )= ()

where: a and are different symbols is lift curve slope in 1/rad. This quantity has a theoretical value of 2 per radian for very thin airfoils. Table 3.1 shows actual values of airfoil lift curve slope for various airfoils. is the angle of attack for zero lift and is typically negative. DRAG POLAR: VERSUS

See figure 3.4a and 3.4b A very important parameter which represents the aerodynamic efficiency of an airfoil is called lift to drag ratio . The maximum value of this parameter is obtained by drawing the tangent from the origin to the versus curve. The lift coefficient at which this maximum value of occurs is another important design parameter. PITCHING MOMENT CURVE: versus See figure 3.5a shows typical airfoil data for and versus . or

2. AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS ON AN AIRFOIL. -When an airfoil is placed in a moving stream of air, aerodynamic force acting on the airfoil will be created. See figure 3.2 Definition of section (airfoil) forces and moment Formula: L= D= M= = = = c c c

versus

The magnitude of the pitching moment coefficient depends on the location of the reference center. This moment reference is normally identified in a subscript to .

Applied Subsonic Aerodynamics /DR. LOUIE L.TIMAJO

In figure 3.5a the moment reference center is the quarter chord point, identified in the subscript as 0.25c or 0.25. See figure 3.5b shows the generic plot of and versus . versus

See Table 3.1 Numerical values for the parameter for several types of airfoil. A very important reference point on an airfoil is called aerodynamic center or a.c. the aerodynamic center is defined as that point about which the variation of the pitching moment coefficient with angle of attack is zero. To find a.c. assume that in some experimental set up the moment reference center was selected to be a distance x from the leading edge. . See figure 3.6 shows the corresponding geometry

5. COMPRESSIBILITY EFFECTS Critical Mach Numbers- Due to the variation of local velocity over the curved surface of an airfoil, the local Mach number of the flow can vary considerably from that of the free stream. By increasing the free stream Mach number at a given angle of attack, eventually a free stream Mach number is reached for which sonic speed occurs somewhere on the airfoil surface. Critical Pressure Coefficient is defined as where sonic velocity is first reached. = = [ ] -1

For coefficient lift =

= Using experimental data of versus it is possible to compute the location of the aerodynamic center . From experimental data taken at low subsonic Mach numbers it is normally found that the aerodynamic center is at the quarter chord point: 4. AIRFOIL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION The pressure distribution over an airfoil is important for load calculations and for control surfaces. The pressure distribution is normally expressed in terms of pressure coefficient which is defined as: = = at low speed, =1 ) = 0.25

or a =

See figure 3.7 example of a pressure distribution over an airfoil at low speed. The effect of angle of attack and of control surface deflection on the pressure distribution over an airfoil is shown in figure 3.8. Note: The peak pressure near the leading edge as a result of a change in angle of attack. -The peak pressure near the hinge line as a result of a control surface deflection.

The Karman-Tsien and Prandtl-Glauert equations are valid only for subsonic flow conditions below the critical Mach number . Because of the increase in lift curve slope, the lift versus angle of attack curves of airfoils at different subsonic. As shown in figure 3.10. The maximum value of the lift coefficient can, at first either increase or decrease with Mach number. However, eventually the maximum lift coefficient will decrease with increasing Mach number. The reason is shock-induced boundary layer separation. With further increase in free stream Mach number beyond the critical value, supersonic region on the upper surface will appear. Eventually, a strong enough shock wave will terminate the supersonic region and may even separate the boundary layer. As shown in figure 3.11 due to shock induced flow separation, the drag coefficient will increase sharply. As shown in figure 3.12 the drag rise of an entire airplane due to these phenomena. Observe that the zero lift drag coefficient rises rapidly in the high subsonic Mach number range. This drag rise is referred to as drag divergence. Definitions of free stream mach number where the drag begins.

Applied Subsonic Aerodynamics /DR. LOUIE L.TIMAJO

Douglas definition -the free stream Mach number at which 0.1 is defined as the drag divergence Mach number, . =

Boeing definition -the free stream Mach number for which the drag rise first reaches a value of = 0.0020 above the incompressible level is defined as the drag divergence Mach number. As shown in figure 3.12 Airfoils designed for transonic cruise applications should have as high a drag divergence Mach number as possible. As shown in figure 3.13 is example of drag rise data on some airfoils. 6. REYNOLDS NUMBER EFFECTS The effect of Reynolds number from wind tunnel and full scale flight is on drag level and on the maximum lift coefficient. Therefore it is essential to simulate the full scale fully turbulent condition on the model surface before the model data can be extrapolated to full scale flight. The standard practice is to use a so called trip strip located at 5% to 10% of the chord. Such a trip strip consists of a narrow band of distributed roughness of known grit size. Once the boundary layer characteristics have been correctly simulate, the Reynolds number correction for drag can be applied as follows. The minimum profile drag coefficient can be expressed as: = (SF) x 2 Where: is the skin friction coefficient of a flat plate with the same transition location as the airfoil. S.F. is the shape factor which represents the thickness and the associated viscosity effects. =
(

7. DESIGN OF AIRFOILS - To design an airfoil for any specific requirement involving lift, drag or pitching moment, several effects of airfoil geometry on airfoil aerodynamics. The following are most important geometric parameters. 1. Maximum thickness ratio, (t/c)max 2. Shape of the mean line. If the mean line is straight line, the airfoil is symmetrical. 3. Leading edge shape or parameter and leading edge radius 4. Trailing edge angle, See figure 3.15 provides a geometric interpretation for these parameters See table 3.2 examples of NACA airfoil designations See figure 3.16 presents an example of a supercritical airfoil. See figure 3.17. Comparison of NACA airfoils with GA (W)-1 and -2 airfoils, In selecting an airfoil for an airplane lifting surface(wing, canard, horizontal or vertical tail) the following considerations are important. 1. Drag 2. Lift to drag ratio at values of the lift coefficient which are important to the airplane 3. Thickness 4. Thickness distribution 5. Stall Characteristics 6. Drag rise behaviour 7. Pitching moment characteristics See table3.3 examples of airfoil applications 7. AIRFOIL MAXIMUM LIFT CHARACTERISTICS The maximum lift characteristics of an airfoil as well as the stall behaviour are of great importance to airplane performance 2 types of stall 1. Gradual stall followed drop off of the section lift coefficient. It is frequently occurs on airfoils with moderate of thick sections 2. Abrupt drop off of the section lift coefficient. It is often with thin airfoils. See figure 3.19 Example of gradual and abrupt airfoils stalls. The main airfoil design features which affect section stall and maximum lift coefficient are 1. Thickness Ratio 2. Leading edge radius Applied Subsonic Aerodynamics /DR. LOUIE L.TIMAJO

**for low Mach number only S.F= 1 + 2 + 60 ( It therefore follows that the full scale minimum profile drag coefficient can be obtained from: (full scale) = Where: = 2 (S.F.) { (model) -

(model) -

(full scale)}

3. Camber

4. Location of maximum thickness

8. GEOMETRIC FACTORS AFFECTING AIRFOIL MAXIMUM LIFT AT LOW SPEEDS a. Thickness Ratio In figure 3.20 shows how airfoil is affected by airfoil thickness, t/c. For NACA airfoils a thickness ratio of around 13% will generally produce possible section lift coefficient. For the LS series of airfoils the highest possible value of occurs at a thickness ratio of about 15%. b. Leading Edge Radius and Leading Edge Shape The effect of leading edge radius shape is more or less reflected in a geometric parameter called , where is the local thickness of the airfoil at 5% chord and t is the maximum thickness of the airfoil. In figure 3.21 shows the effect of on section for NACA symmetrical airfoils of different thickness ratios. A large value of indicates a large leading edge radius. Large values of leading edge radii are beneficial in producing large values of at low speeds. c. Camber and Location of Maximum Thickness Experimental data show that the maximum lift coefficient of a cambered section depends not only on the amount of camber and camber line shape, but also on the thickness and nose radius of the section on which is used. In general, the addition of camber is always beneficial to and the benefit grows with increasing camber. The increment to maximum lift due to camber is least for sections with relatively large leading edge radii. 9. EFFECT OF REYNOLDS NUMBER ON MAXIMUM LIFT For airfoils of moderate thickness ratio, there is significant increase in with increasing Reynolds Number as shown in figure 3.18a, the effect of Reynolds number for thin airfoils is relatively insignificant. In general, these Reynolds number effects are less for cambered than for symmetrical sections. At low Reynolds number, the effect of camber is more significant. The opposite is true for Reynolds numbers greater than 6 x where camber loses some of its effect.

10. EFFECT OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES ON AIRFOIL MAXIMUM LIFT The airfoil maximum lift coefficient can be significantly increased by using high lift devices. 1. Trailing Edge Flaps 5 types of Trailing Edge Flaps a. Plain flaps b. Split flaps c. Fowler flaps d. Double slotted flaps e. Slotted flaps a. Plain flaps Plain trailing edge flaps are formed by hinging the rear most part of wing section about a point within the contour as shown in figure 3.22a, a downward deflection is positive an upward deflection is negative. The main effect of flap deflection is an increase in the effective camber of the airfoil. As shown if figure 3.23 that the flap makes the angle of attack for zero lift much more negative without significantly affecting the lift curve slope but the stall angle of attack is reduced. The drag coefficient is increased and the lift to drag ratio is reduced. The pitching moment of the section becomes more negative with the flap down. b. Split flaps As shown if figure 3.22b a typical split flap. Split flaps derive their effectiveness from the large increase in camber produced. Because the upper surface is less cambered than the lower surface with flap deflected, the separation effects on the upper surface will be less marked than those associated with a plain flap. Therefore the flap performance at high angle of attack is improved. The lift curve slope with split flaps is higher than that for the plain flap. The angle of attack for zero lift is reduced, but not by quite so much as is the case with a plain flap. The increment in is larger than with a plain flap. However the drag associated with a split flap is very much higher than that associated with a plain flap because of the large wake. For airfoils with normal thickness ratios, high benefits in can be obtained by using 20% to 25% chord split flaps with deflection angles of 60 to 70 degrees. See figure 3.24 DC 3 Split flaps used. c. Slotted Flaps It provides one or more slot between the main portion of the wing section and the deflected flap. In figure 3.22c provides an example of a single slotted flap. The slot(s) duct high energy air from the lower surface

Applied Subsonic Aerodynamics /DR. LOUIE L.TIMAJO

to the upper surface and direct this is air in such a manner as to delay flow separation over the flap by providing boundary layer control. The high lift is delivered from the increase in camber which is characteristics for a slotted flap arrangement. The increment in is much higher than that associated with either a split or a plain flap while the drag is much lower, due to the boundary layer control effect. However, the pitching moment associated with slotted flaps tends to be high and negative. It does have a slight depressing effect on the trimmed maximum lift coefficient of an airplane. Common flap-chord ratios used with slotted flaps range 0.25 to 0.30. As shown figure 3.25 a typical incremental values for section maximum lift coefficients which can be attained with slotted flaps. d. Fowler flaps As shown in figure 3.23d, it employs the principle as the slotted flap, but it also moves backward while deflecting downward. The backward motion increases the effective wing area. The relative effectiveness of the flap types through and in figure 3.26 an important experimental result is that the increment value of , called Is essentially independent of Reynolds number, See table 3.4 lists typical application for various types of flaps. e. Double slotted flaps in Figure 3.22c shows an example of a double slotted flap. It is enhancement of the single slotted flaps. 2. Leading Edge Devices 3 main types of leading edge devices a and b slats c. Slots d. through leading edge flaps As shown in figure 3.27 example of leading edge devices a and b) Slats as shown figure 3.27a and b is consist of airfoils mounted ahead of the leading edge of the wing such as to assist in turning the air around the leading edge at high angles of attack and therefore delay leading edge stalling. These slats may either be fixed or retractable. The use of slats will increase the maximum lift coefficient by as much as 0.50, the effect of slats was shown in figure 3.25

c. Slots AS shown in figure 3.27c is located near leading edge, this leading edge device differs only in detail from the leading edge slat. The effectiveness of the slot devices from its boundary layer control (BLC) effect. At low angle of attack the minimum section profile drag may be greatly increased by the presence of such slots. d. Through leading edge flaps At figure 3.27d can be formed by bending down the forward portion of the wing section and to form a droop. Other types of leading edge flaps are formed by extending a surface downward and forward from the vicinity of the leading edge see figure 3.27e through g. It is effective when combined with the use of trailing edge flaps. Leading edge flaps reduce the severity of the pressure peak ordinarily associated with high angle of attack and thereby help in delaying separation. At figure 3.28 shows the results test on a NACA 64-012 airfoil with leading edge flaps and trailing edge split flaps. It is seen that the upper surface leading edge flaps appear to be more effective in increasing section . 3. Boundary Layer Control BLC can be achieved through higher maximum coefficient of lift and involve injecting high speed air (or Gas) parallel to the wall (called Blowing), or removing the low energy boundary layer suction or both. Blowing is done to re energize the boundary flow to delay separation, while suction is equivalent to eliminating the low energy shear layer. As shown in figure 3.29, that with the slot internal pressure 12 times higher the free steam dynamic pressure and a slot width of 0.667% of the chord, the value of can be enhanced from 1.5 without blowing to 2.9. It should be noted that, when blowing slot is at the flap hinge and the blowing air momentum is high, the device is frequently referred to as a blown flap. In this case, not only can be flow separation over the flap surface delayed, but also the circulation and hence the lift can be increased.

Applied Subsonic Aerodynamics /DR. LOUIE L.TIMAJO

WING THEORY 1. Definition of Wing Properties As shown in figure 4.1 shows a typical straight, tapered wing plan form. Formula: S= ( A= = m.g.c. = = m.g.c = ( dy ) + )

If the span loading of the wing is elliptical, It has been shown that the induced drag coefficient is a minimum. That this condition can be achieved by using an elliptical plan form, when normally the downwash distribution is not uniform a correction factor e is introduced: = , then the induced angle =

where: e = span wise efficiency factor or Oswalds efficiency factor. = 0.85 to 0.95 for a wing. The total drag coefficient is

or eA =

= effective aspect ratio

where: S = wing area A = Aspect ratio b= wing span m.g.c. = mean geometric chord = sweep angle = Root chord = Tip chord In figure 4.2 can be used to quickly locate the m.g.c. for a straight and tapered wing. 2. CIRCULATION, DOWNWASH, LIFT AND INDUCED DRAG The circulation about a wing is produced by the in pressure between the upper and lower surfaces of a wing. The pressure difference induces a flow from the lower surface toward the upper surface around the leading edge and around the tips. The strength of this flow is measured in terms of circulation. The circulation can be represented by means of a bound vortex distribution on the wing and its associated trailing vortices. See figure 4.3 Geometry of circulation and vortices. Figure 4.4 and 4.5 show the relation between downwash, lift and induced drag and relation between a wing and its stream tube were derived the formula of induced drag coefficient. = = = This equation valid for wings with

where: = lift independent sum of skin friction and pressure drag. eA = can be used to determine the lift curve slope of one wing from the lift curve slope of another wing.

For the same wing area and same airfoil, the formula reflected below is for the two wings: = +

= 3. EVALUATION OF THE SPAN EFFICIENCY FACTOR e For wings with A and A 30 def and not incorporating airfoils with wide, low drag buckets. The equation is = + .... e= Oswalds efficiency factor. This

uniform downwash distribution.

factor can be enhanced by features such as tip tanks, winglets and proper wing fuselage blending. This

Applied Subsonic Aerodynamics /DR. LOUIE L.TIMAJO

The drag polar in figure 4.6 show that the drag coefficient at zero lift are essentially independent of aspect ratio, marked reductions in the drag coefficient occur as the aspect ratio is increased. This is particularly high values of lift coefficient . As shown equation can be used to determine the lift curve slope of a wing 1 when the characteristics of wing2 with the same airfoil section are known, If wing 2 has infinite aspect ratio

equation is applicable at subsonic and supersonic Mach numbers. However at high Mach numbers, e has been shown to be independent on Mach number. As shown in figure 4.8 and 4.9 for wing body combinations and for a supersonic fighter. = At supersonic speeds, will increase with Mach Number because of the addition of wave drag. This sharp drag rise is also shown in figure 4.9 4. AERODYNAMIC CENTER The aerodynamic center of a wing is defined as that point about which the variation of pitching moment coefficient, is invariant with angle of attack . The center of pressure is that point at which the pitching moment coefficient is zero. It follows the location of the cp varies with angle of attack. As shown in figure 4.11 the moments about the aerodynamic center: At zero lift, the pressure distribution on the wing appears as a pure moment. As shown in figure 4.12 presents some experimental data showing typical ac locations for several wings. 5. WING STALL Wing stall is caused by flow separation. The flow separation progresses in chord wise and span wise manner depends on the following items: 1. Airfoil stall characteristics 2. Plan form geometry and twist 3. Stall control devices The stall behaviour of wings is important for the following reasons: 1. In FAR 23 airplanes, the stall speed at maximum weight may not be more than 61knots (for w<6,000lbs unless certain crash safety provisions have been incorporated into the design). Also, the bank angle must not exceed 15 degrees between the onset of the stall with the wings level and the completion of the recovery. 2. In FAR 25 airplanes, an airplane must not reach a bank angle of more than 20 degrees between the onset of the stall with the wings level and the completion of the recovery. 3. It is generally of great interest for either the performance of an airplane or for reasons of stability

and control, to achieve the highest possible value for the maximum lift coefficient on a wing. 6. EFFECT OF PLANFORM AND TWIST The following planform effects are important in affecting the stall behaviour of a wing. a. Taper Ratio b. Aspect ratio c. Sweep angle d. Twist and camber a. Taper Ratio A wing with a rectangular planform (taper ratio of 1.0) has a larger downwash angle at the tip than at the root. Therefore, the effective angle of attack at the tip is reduced compared to that at the root. Therefore, the tip will tend to stall later than the root. As shown in figure 4.13 is the effect of wing taper on the span wise load distribution. It is seen that decreasing the taper ratio will increase the loading at the tip, which in turn promotes tip stall. A problem with a rectangular wing is aerodynamically inefficient and structurally inefficient: there is a lot area outboard, which supports very little lift. Taper helps solve this problem. b. Aspect Ratio As the wing aspect ratio increases, the wing behaves more and more like an airfoil. That is its flow characteristics are more 2 dimensional. An exception is always the region at the wing tip. Therefore, it can be expected that the maximum lift coefficient will increasing aspect ratio, up to a number corresponding to section maximum lift coefficient c. Sweep Angle The maximum lift coefficient (the maximum value reached by the lift as angle of attack is increased) can actually increase with increasing sweep angle, this shown in Figure 4.14. However, the accompanying variation of pitching moment with angle of attack can lead to serious pitch control difficulties because of the tendency toward pitch up as shown in figure 4.15 a boundary between stable and unstable pitching moment behaviour as aspect ratio and sweep angle varied. As shown in figure 4.16 the effect of sweep angle on maximum lift coefficient d. Twist If the angles of attack of spanwise sections of a wing are not equal the wing is said to have twist. If the angle attack at the tip is less than that at the root the Applied Subsonic Aerodynamics /DR. LOUIE L.TIMAJO

wing is said to have wash out negative twist. With wash out the wing tip will be at a lower angle of attack than the root thus delaying tip stall. As shown figure 4.17 the twist influences the spanwise load distribution. Note that the load is concentrated further inboard with wash out (negative twist). 7. STALL CONTROL DEVICES a. Twist or Wash out In table 4.2 are the examples of wash out in several airplanes. b. Variation in Section Shape A frequently used feature which accomplishes the same as twists is to change camber in the spanwise direction. This is referred to as aerodynamics twist. c. Leading Edge Slats or Slots near the Tip A devices are and have been used part of the out board span of a wing to delay tip stall. As seen in figure 3.25 the maximum lift coefficient is increased by the use of slats or slots. d. Stall Fences and Snags Stall fences are used to prevent the boundary layer from drifting outboard toward the tips. See figure 4.18 the examples of a boundary layer fence and a leading edge snag. e. Stall Strips Stall strips are usually angular devices installed at the leading edge and extending over a limited span of the wing. Their purpose is to actually induce stall at a given angle of attack. Stall strips are often added to airplanes during flight test to correct certain unsatisfactory stall behaviours. As shown in figure is the example of figure 4.19. f. Vortex Generators (v.g.) v.g. are very small low aspect ratio wings placed vertically at some local angle of attack on the wing, fuselage or tail surface of airplanes. The span of these v.g.s is typically selected to be just outside the local edge of the boundary layer. These vortex generators will produce lift and tip vortices near the edge of the boundary layer. The vortices will mix with the high energy fluid just outside the boundary layer and raise the kinetic energy level of the flow inside the boundary layer. This increase in energy level allows the boundary layer to advance

further into an adverse pressure gradient before separating. Figure 4.20 shows an example of a vortex generator on lifting surface. Figure 4.21 shows the effect of a vortex generator on the lift of a GA(W)-1 airfoil. 8. HIGH LIFT DEVICES, SPOILERS, DIVE BRAKES, SPEED BRAKES The speed of level flight L=W . V = =

Then the stall speed, The ratio W/S is referred to as the wing loading of the airplane. Wing loadings of modern airplanes range from 10psf low performance airplanes to 160 psf for large high performance airplanes. Devices which increase airplane lift are referred to as high lift devices. 2 categories of device 1. Change the airfoil geometry 2. Control boundary layer. These devices are frequently referred to as trailing edge flaps for the first category and BLC for the second category. a. LIFT INDUCED BY PARTIAL SPAN FLAPS BELOW STALL As shown in figure 4.25 shows calculated results for a swept wing with a partial span flap deflected by 10 degrees at an angle of attack of 10 degrees. Formula for the ratio of three dimensional over two dimensional lift curve slopes =
(

where: A = Aspect ratio = Semi chord sweep angle = 2 = slope coefficient of lift M = Mach number As shown figure 4.26 and 4.27 flap chord factor and Flap span factor respectively.

Applied Subsonic Aerodynamics /DR. LOUIE L.TIMAJO

9. MAXIMUM LIFT COEFFICIENT WITH HIGH LIFT DEVICES A method for estimating the maximum lift coefficient of a wing with high lift devices is to add the maximum lift coefficient increments due to leading edge and trailing edge devices to the maximum lift coefficient of the clean wing. a. Clean Wing Maximum Lift Coefficient Procedure in estimating for a wing the maximum lift coefficient 1. Assume that the spanwise variation of sectional lift coefficient (y) is known as shown in figure 4.29 2. Use a lifting surface method to predict the spanwise lift distribution for a range of angles of attack, at each angle of attack, the integrated spanwise lift distribution will result in a value of wing lift coefficient. 3. This approach is shown in figure 4.29 for two wings. b. Maximum Lift Increment Due to high lift devices. for efficient trailing edge flaps, the sectional value of flap maximum lift coefficient increment can be used to calculate the three dimensional value of a wing. =( )(

where: = the sectional value of maximum lift coefficient increment due to trailing edge flaps = the ratio of flapped wing area to the wing reference area = is a factor which has been empirically derived to account for the effect of sweep. = ( 1 0.08 ) c. Examples of Maximum Lift Increment Due to High Lift devices Table 4.3 show the ranges of numerical values associated with clean and flapped configurations and the Airbus 320 achieves a trimmed maximum lift coefficient of 3.2. this airplane uses also drooped ailerons, leading edge slats and double slotted trailing edge flaps. The word trimmed is used to indicate that the lift coefficient quoted is being achieved with zero total pitching moment of the airplane.

Applied Subsonic Aerodynamics /DR. LOUIE L.TIMAJO