Thyme R Dinesh Indian Institute of Spices Research Calicut, Kerala, India

Thyme (Thymus) (pronounced "time") is a genus of about 300 and 400 species (Hortus Third, 1976) of aromatic perennial herbaceous plants and sub-shrubs in the family Lamiaceae (formerly Labiatae) and native to Europe, North Africa and Asia. Thyme is widely cultivated as a herb, grown for its strong flavour, which is due to its content of thymol.[2]. Its habitat includes dry slopes, rocks and maquis. Always found on clay or limestone soils. There is a range of common names and cultivars, and much confusion exists as to which common name is associated with which species. The main horticultural species are: Thymus vulgaris L. Common names: Garden Thyme and Common Thyme (Hortus Third, 1976; Bodkin, 1986) Cultivars: Argenteus, Aureus, Fragrantissimus, Roseus (Hortus Third, 1976). Chemotypes are distinguished by the dominant terpene: geraniol, linalool, a-terpineol, carvacrol, thymol, trans-thuyanol-4 / terpineol-4 or cineole-1,8. The predominant chemotypes are thymol and carvacrol (Morgan, 1989). Description: Shrub with 15-30 cm long stems. Woody erect plant with linear to elliptic leaves 5-16 mm long, revolute tomentose, not ciliate. Produces many flowers on a petaloid inflorescence which is dense and headlike or interrupted. The flowers have a whitish to lilac corolla about 5mm long (Hortus Third, 1976). Thymus serpyllum L. [T. angustifolius Pers.] Common Name: Lemon Thyme, Wild Thyme, Creeping Thyme Description: Mat forming plant which produces roots at nodes. The stems are woody at the base, flowering stems are erect to 10 cm and hairy on 4 sides. Leaves are linear to elliptic about 8 mm long and sessile. The inflorescence is headlike with purple flower corolla about 5mm long (Hortis Third, 1976). Much of the material offered as Thymus serpyllum represents other species such as T. nummularius, T. pannonicus, T. praecox, T. pseudolanuginosus, or T. pulegioides (Phillips, 1989).

The common English or French thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is a small shrub like perennial growing 1 to 1 1/2 feet in height, a native of south-central Europe and widely cultivated in France, Germany, and Spain for the essential oil that is used in medicine. The plant is

commonly grown in gardens for the dried herb, which is used as a seasoning for foods. Several closely related species and varieties vary considerably in odor, flavor, and growth habits. Some are decumbent, or trailing; others are upright shrubby-type plants. The trailing types are used in rock gardens and along walks for ornamental effects. Composition and uses Thyme is a hardy perennial shrub, 20-40 cm high, the dried leaves are curled, brownish green colour, 6.7 mm long, marketed in whole or ground form. The flavour is aromatic, warm and pungent. Flowers are light violet, two lipid, 5mm long, with hairy glandular calyx. The major types of thyme available in the international market are French thyme, Spanish thyme and American thyme. Volatile oil constituents As with many herb oils, the characteristics of thyme oil vary between countries. This is most likely a result of both different environmental conditions, and different cultivars. Usually an oil yield of 2 to 2.5% is obtained, however, some sterile individuals and hybrids have been reported to produce 6% volatile oil (Rey, 1992). The oil is a colourless to yellowish red liquid with a pleasant odour characteristic of the herb. The ordinary Thyme oil (Thymus vulgaris) contains 42% to 60% phenols mainly thymol or carvacrol (crystallisable). Adulteration of Thyme oil can be assessed by crystallisation of the phenols as synthetic carvacrol will not crystallise (Prakash, 1990). The principal constituents of thyme oils are thymol and carvacrol (up to 60%), cymene, terpinene, camphene, borneol and linalool, depending on the source. It can also contain geraniol, citral and thuyanol. There are many chemotypes occurring throughout the world and in different regions. The most notable are the thymol and carvacrol types, the thuyanol types and the linalool or citral types. (Lawless, 1992). Linalool, p-cymene, terpinen-4-ol and thymol were found to constitute 53.5%-66.2% of essential oils in two clonal types of Thymus vulgaris (Bhaskara Reddy et al., 1998). Capillary GC/MS analysis based on polar and non-polar columns has been applied to evaluation of the volatile oils hydrodistilled from thyme plants. Oils from thyme plants of young (2 years) and old (5 years) cultivations were evaluated from four and two collections, respectively, effected throughout May/December growth period. Generally, the oil was found to be rich in the active monoterpene phenols (thymol and carvacrol) and their corresponding monoterpene hydrocarbon (HC) precursors (p-cymene and terpinene), which collectively showed synchronized patterns of variation during the different collection periods and in different seasons. The oil from old plant collected in May/June period (0.15% v/w) was characterized by significantly lower levels of monoterpene HCs (mainly -terpinene) and the highest levels of the oxygenated monoterpenes (linalool and borneol), monoterpene phenols (mainly thymol) and their derivatives (mainly carvacrol methyl ether), sesquiterpenes (mainly -caryophyllene) and their oxygenated derivatives (e.g. caryophyllene oxide) in comparison with all other samples. A characteristic presence of camphor and thymodihydroquinone was also

observed in the old plant oils. On the other hand, the young plant, collected in June/July just before the end of the vegetative cycle, provided the best oil yield (1.2%) with also the highest content of the monoterpene phenols (thymol 51.2% and carvacrol 4%). The latter growth period can represent the best harvest time of young thyme plants in order to obtain an essential oil with better quality and quantity (Hudaib et al., 2002). About 25 different flavonoids have been detected in common thyme (Miura and Nakatani, 1989; Wang et al., 1998; Vila, 2002). They are present mostly in the form of their aglycones. The flavones apigenin and luteolin are the most important flavonoids present in both forms as aglycones and as o-glycosides. They are accompanied by a great variety of methylated flavones whereas flavonols and flavanones are of inferior importance. Vicenin-2, the 6, 8-di-C-glucoside of apigenin, turned out to be a chemosystematic marker of the genus Thymus, occurring only in certain taxonomic groups, e.g. in the sections Pseudothymbra and Thymus. In Spanish thyme (T. zygis) nine different methylated flavones were reported; all nine also present in T. vulgaris. The same methylated flavones were found in T. pulegioides with apigenin and luteolin and 6OH-luteolin in addition. According to the literature, in wild thyme the glycosides seem to be of greater importance than the aglycones, and scutellarein and diosmetin seem to be exceptional.

The major aroma compounds in the extracts of thyme leaves have been identified as 2isopropyl-5-methylphenol (thymol; 8.55 mg/g), 4-isopropyl-2-methylphenol (carvacrol; 0.681 mg/g), linalool (0.471 mg/g), -terpineol (0.291 mg/g), and 1,8-cineole (0.245 mg/g) (Lee et al., 2005). Simultaneous distillation-extraction and supercritical fluid extraction of thyme leaf extracts indicated that the key compounds contributing to the aroma of thyme leaves are thymol and carvacrol, with oregano, thyme, and spicy notes (Diaz-Maroto et al., 2005). However, Thymus vulgaris shrubs are characterized by a great chemical intraspecific variability among plants. This fact makes it difficult to detect real changes occurring in their essential oil composition during the vegetative cycle. Hence, Goodner et al. (2006) used clones of T. vulgaris to monitor seasonal variations in their aromatic composition of the essential oil. Shrubs were harvested at five different phenological stages during the plant vegetative cycle. Capillary GC/MS with olfactometry analysis was used to determine the volatile profile of the essential oil samples. GColfactometry analysis was conducted on each phenological stage. A total of 52 (T. vulgaris) aromas were detected and the most aroma impact for T. vulgaris were eucalyptol, borneol, terpinyl acetate, and -damascenone. -ionone, myrtenol, and -damascenone. In another study by Jordn et al. (2006) on seasonal variations in composition of essential oil of thyme, 98 components were identified. The major components quantified were 1,8cineole, followed by terpenyl acetate, borneol, linalool, -pinene, -terpineol, and camphor. With respect to the concentrations of some of the most abundant components, the mid-vegetative stage seems to be the most appropriate harvesting time for this species. Cineol, borneol, monoterpenic hydrocarbons, and camphor exhibited their

maximum relative concentrations at this phenological stage. In contrast, terpenyl acetate, -terpineol, and linalool, probably components that are associated with the fresh aroma in the oil, were mostly concentrated from full bloom to advanced fruit formation. This suggests that it is possible to optimise the yield and the quality of the essential oils of thyme by harvesting the plant material at the right development stage. Christensen and Grevsen (2006) reported that yields of essential oils varied from 3 to 15 kg/ha in thyme. They also observed significant differences in the concentrations of the major essential oil components during the different development stages. In particular re-harvesting of thyme in September just before flower opening affected the percent composition of thymol and its biosynthetic precursors p-cymene and -terpinene compared to harvesting at the flowering stage in June. Aside from the essential oil, the tannins of thyme contribute to its commercial use. The tannins are mainly represented by rosmarinic acid, a depside of caffeic acid and dehydrocaffeic acid. The quantitative data of the content of rosmarinic acid in the literature vary between 0.15 and 2.6% owing to the different analytical methods applied for the quantification (ultraviolet, UV, gas chromatography, GC, high performance liquid chromatography, HPLC, gravimetrical). Dapkevicius et al. (2002) isolated the 3 -o(8-Z-caffeoyl)-rosmarinic acid from the leaves. Also free phenolic acids have been reported in thyme, e.g. caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, syringic acid and ferulic acid.

Uses Common thyme has a very long history of folk use for a wide range of ailments. It is very rich in essential oils and these are the active ingredients responsible for most of the medicinal properties. In particular, thyme is valued for its antiseptic and antioxidant properties, it is an excellent tonic and is used in treating respiratory diseases and a variety of other ailments. The flowering tops are anthelmintic, strongly antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, deodorant, diaphoretic, disinfectant, expectorant, sedative and tonic (Kitajima et al., 2004). The plant is used internally in the treatment of dry coughs, whooping cough, bronchitis, bronchial catarrh, asthma, laryngitis, indigestion, gastritis and diarrhoea and enuresis in children (Wienktter et al., 2007; Marzian, 2007). It should not be prescribed for pregnant women (Bown, 1995). Externally, it is used in the treatment of tonsillitis, gum diseases, rheumatism, arthritis and fungal infections (Bown, 1995). The plant can be used fresh at any time of the year, or it can be harvested as it comes into flower and either be distilled for the oil or dried for later use. Thyme has an antioxidant effect (Braga et al., 2006; Mata et al., 2007; Wei and Shibamoto, 2007), thus regular use of this herb improves the health and longevity of individual body cells and therefore prolongs the life of the body (Chevallier, 1996). The aroma constituents of thyme viz., eugenol, thymol, carvacrol, and 4-allylphenol have shown stronger antioxidant activities by inhibiting the oxidation of hexanal by almost 100% for a period

of 30 days at a concentration of 5 g/ml. Their antioxidant activities were comparable to those of the known antioxidants, -tocopherol and butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT). (Lee et al., 2005) Many species of Thymus have been widely used in folk medicine as astringent, expectorant and cicatrising agents (Dob et al., 2006). The whole herb is used in the treatment of digestive disorders, sore throats, fevers etc and as an antithrombotic agent (Yamamoto et al., 2005). The essential oil is strongly antiseptic, antimicrobial (Inouye et al., 2003; Duan et al., 2006; Solomakos et al., 2008) and inhibit certain viruses (Koch et al., 2008). The essential oil is one of the most important oils used in aromatherapy (Inouye et al., 2003; Arnal-Schnebelen et al., 2004; Inouye et al., 2006). It is used especially in cases of exhaustion, depression, upper respiratory tract infections (Low et al., 1994), skin and scalp complaints etc (Bown, 1995). The essential oil from the leaves is frequently used in perfumery, soaps, toothpastes, mouthwashes, medicinally etc (Prakash, 1990; Lawless, 1992; Low et al., 1994). It has antifungal properties (Bhaskara Reddy et al., 1998; Segvi Klari et al., 2007; Omidbeygi et al., 2007; Yang and Clausen, 2007) and is also used to preserve meat, as a vermifuge to cure hookworm in horses and dogs (Prakash, 1990), and in the cosmetic industry (Hornok, 1992). The essential oil of thyme modifies rumen microbial activity and appears to be a natural alternative to modify rumen microbial fermentation (Castillejos et al., 2007). Ancient Egyptians used thyme in embalming. The ancient Greeks used it in their baths and burnt it as incense in their temples, believing that thyme was a source of courage. It was thought that the spread of thyme throughout Europe was thanks to the Romans, as they used it to purify their rooms. In the European Middle Ages, the herb was placed beneath pillows to aid sleep and ward off nightmares. (Huxley 1992). Thyme is used most widely in cooking. Thyme is a basic ingredient in French and Italian cuisines, and in those derived from them. It is also widely used in Lebanese and Caribbean cuisines. Thyme is often used to flavour meats, soups and stews. It has a particular affinity to and is often used as a primary flavour with lamb, tomatoes and eggs. Thyme, while flavourful, does not overpower and blends well with other herbs and spices. In French cuisine, along with bay and parsley it is a common component of the bouquet garni, and of herbes de Provence. In some Middle Eastern countries, the condiment za'atar contains thyme as a vital ingredient. The essential oil of common thyme is made up of 20-55% thymol, an antiseptic, which is the main active ingredient in Listerine mouthwash. Before the advent of modern antibiotics, it was used to medicate bandages. It has also been shown to be effective against the fungus that commonly infects toenails.

A tea made by infusing the herb in water can be used for cough and bronchitis. Medicinally thyme is used for respiratory infections in the form of a tincture, tisane, salve, syrup or by steam inhalation. Because it is antiseptic, thyme boiled in water and cooled is very effective against inflammation of the throat when gargled 3 times a day. The inflammation will normally disappear in 2 - 5 days. Other infections and wounds can be dripped with thyme that has been boiled in water and cooled. Leaves and flowering tops - raw in salads, used as a garnish or added as a flavouring to cooked foods, going especially well with mushrooms and courgettes (Hedrick, 1972; Lust, 1983; Facciola, 1990; Bown, 1995). It is an essential ingredient of the herb mix 'bouquet garni' (Bown, 1995). It retains its flavour well in long slow cooking (Huxley, 1992). The leaves can be used either fresh or dried (Faccioloa, 1990). If the leaves are to be dried, the plants should be harvested in early and late summer just before the flowers open and the leaves should be dried quickly (Huxley, 1992). 4.0 History and origin Common Thyme is a native of the Mediterranean region (Prakash, 1990; Hornok, 1992). Its geographic range stretches from northern Spain through southern France to northern Italy (Prakash, 1990). Apart from Europe it is grown in Australia, North Asia, North Africa, Canada and USA. In India, it is cultivated in the Western temperate Himalayas and Nilgiris. It has also been introduced into many countries, and is now naturalised throughout the world Thyme is produced commercially in a number of countries for both essential oil and dried leaf. The main producing countries are: Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Italy and other continental European countries, North Africa, England, Canada and the U.S.A. (Prakash, 1990). Spain, Jamaica and Morocco are the main suppliers of dried leaf to the U.S. Market, while Spain and France supply the oil market (Simon, 1990). 5.0 Botany The genus Thymus belongs to the Labiate family (Lamiaceae), subfamily Nepetoideae, tribe Mentheae. The distribution of the genus can be described as Eurasian with the Mediterranean region, especially the Iberian Peninsula and northwest Africa, being the centre of the genus. The number of species differs according to the criteria applied for defining a species from 54 (Hegnauer, 1966) to 417 (Ronniger, 1924). Today, about 250 taxa (214 species and 36 subspecies) are accepted, subdivided into eight sections (Morales, 2002). Thymus vulgaris L. and T. zygis L. belong to the Western Mediterranean section Thymus; T. serpyllum L. and T. pulegioides L. to the section Serpyllum, which is the most extensive section considering the numbers of species and the distribution areas. A number of species have different chemotypes. Common thyme (T. vulgaris L.) is a perennial subshrub, 20-30 cm in height with slender, wiry and spreading branches. The small leaves are evergreen, opposite, nearly sessile, oblong-lanceolate to linear, 4-20 mm long, grey-green, minutely

downy and gland-dotted. Their margins are recurved. The flowers are light-violet, twolipped, 4-10 mm long with a hairy glandular calyx, borne with leaf-like bracts in loose whorls in axillary clusters on the branchlets or in terminal oval or rounded heads. Spanish thyme (T. zygis L.) is smaller with narrower leaves, which are clustered at the nodes. The flowers are whitish and in clusters, spaced at intervals in an elongated inflorescence. Wild thyme (T. serpyllum L.) and large thyme (T. pulegioides L.) differ considerably in appearance, being more herbaceous, only woody at the base, partly procumbent, leaves flat, linear to elliptical, subsessile, ciliate at the base. The inflorescence is usually capitate. The corolla is purple, the calyx campanulate with upper teeth as long as wide, usually ciliate. Their distinct phenotypic variety makes botanical classification difficult, and some authors handle T. serpyllum L. as a collective species with the addition `s.l.' (sensu latiore) and include therein T. pulegioides.

6.0 Classification and varieties Important species Thymus vulgaris (Common Thyme or Garden Thyme) is a commonly used culinary herb. It also has medicinal uses. Common thyme is a Mediterranean perennial which is best suited to well-drained soils and enjoys full sun. Thymus herba-barona (Caraway Thyme) is used both as a culinary herb and a groundcover, and has a strong caraway scent due to the chemical carvone. Thymus citriodorus (Citrus Thyme; hybrid T. pulegioides T. vulgaris) is also a popular culinary herb, with cultivars selected with flavours of various Citrus fruit (lemon thyme, etc.) Thymus pseudolanuginosus (Woolly Thyme) is not a culinary herb, but is grown as a ground cover. Thymus serpyllum (Wild Thyme) is an important nectar source plant for honeybees. All thyme species are nectar sources, but wild thyme covers large areas of droughty, rocky soils in southern Europe (Greece is especially famous for wild thyme honey) and North Africa, as well as in similar landscapes in the Berkshire Mountains and Catskill Mountains of the northeastern US. Various cultivars There are a number of different cultivars of thyme with established or growing popularity, including:

Lemon thyme -- actually smells lemony Variegated lemon thyme -- with bi-color leaves

Orange thyme -- an unusually low-growing, ground cover thyme that smells like orange Creeping thyme -- the lowest-growing of the widely used thymes, good for walkways Silver thyme -- white/cream variegated English thyme -- the most common Summer thyme -- unusually strong flavor

The Horticultural Research Station of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Udhagamandalam, India has released a new variety of thyme called Udhagamandalam (TV) 1. This improved variety can yield about 10 tonnes of green leaf per hectare in one year and contains 0.7 per cent oil and has good foliage growth. The plants can be easily propagated by stem cuttings of 5 to 10 cm length. About 50,000 cuttings are required for planting in one hectare. The variety is a perennial crop and can be maintained for about four years. The leaves can be harvested in about 180 days after planting. Harvesting is done three times in a year at an interval of three to four months (http://www.hindu.com/seta/2007/04/19/stories/2007041900491800.htm).

7.0 Genetics and breeding Due to the confusion about correct identification of thyme, it is difficult to find germplasm and be sure that it is true to label. The central Ohio unit of the Herb Society of America at the Inniswood Metro Gardens in Westerville, Ohio, have a collection of plants that have been both taxonomically and chemotypically identified (Phillips, 1989). However, it is not known if they can provide germplasm. Rey (1992) studied a number of Thymes, assessing their suitability for areas of Switzerland. This study examined a large range of Thyme plants including hybrids and sterile individuals. It is not known if they can provide germplasm, but they would be a worthwhile contact (Federal Agronomical Research Station, Changin (R.A.C.) Centre des Fougeres, Conthey, Switzerland). Some cultivar evaluation has been done at Purdue University, U.S.A.

8.0 Soil and climate Thyme prefers a mild climate, a mallow upland soil and grows best in the hills. Thyme likes a hot sunny location with good-draining soil. It is planted in the spring and thereafter grows as a perennial. It can be propagated by seed, cuttings, or by dividing rooted sections of the plant. It tolerates drought well. Thyme retains its flavour on drying better than many other herbs The plant prefers light (sandy) and medium (loamy) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. The plant prefers neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry or moist soil. The plant can tolerates strong winds but not maritime exposure.

10.0 Cultivation 10.1 Land preparation Thyme should be sown into a well formed seed bed. A good fallow, ripping, discing, and tilling with a rotary hoe fitted with bed formers will produce a fine seed bed. Beds can be spaced 50-70 cm apart and three rows of Thyme (15-20 cm between rows) sown on each bed. Beds wider than 50 cm with more than 3 rows of plants can tend to show reduced middle row growth, as a result of light competition. Thyme seedlings establish slowly, during this time weed control is critical. If weeds are not well controlled during the fallow and cultivation periods, high labour and / or chemical controls will be necessary. 10.2 Seeds/planting material Thyme seed is a small seed which makes direct sowing in fields difficult. Seed can be directly sown by use of fluid seeding gels or by broadcasting, however the cost of seed and the high rates required to establish an even stand make these methods uneconomic. The seeding areas need to be well prepared with a fine seed bed and protected from wind and dessication for several months, as inital growth is slow and weed competition strong. Consequently, the majority of Thyme plots are established by seedlings prepared in a glasshouse, or by selected clones struck as cuttings in individual cells. 10.2.1 Seedling production The fine seeds of Thyme and the low gemination rate (72%) (Kretschmer, 1989) makes seeding in individual cells difficult, however, a double seeding using either a vacuum seeder suitable for small seeds or a fluid seeder will be suitable for large scale plantings. For small scale operations the seed can be directly placed in the cells by the use of a wet paper clip point or by mixing with fine sand and spreading a measured quantity over each tray. Some small nurseries have also had success using a salt shaker with an adjustable orifice which allows only one or two seeds to pass. For the planting of large areas of Thyme the cost of buying prepared seedlings from an established nursery would be more economical than trying to produce seedlings in an under equipped home nursery. It should be possible to generate the desired 160,000 to 240,000 seedlings per ha from 50 to 80g of seed. 10.2.3 Storage of seeds The viability of Thyme seed stored at temperature of between 10 and 30C is greatly reduced after one year. The optimum storage temperatures are 5 and -20C maintaining seed viability for 5 and 6 years respectively (Kretschmer, 1989). 10.2.4 Cutting production Thyme is relatively easy to strike from cuttings and plots of high quality clonal plants are a common way of establishment (Gaskell, 1988). Thyme plants will strike throughout the year from semi-soft tip cuttings. A hormone mixture of 500ppm IBA 500ppm NAA in

association with bottom heat and mist can produce a 90% strike rate. Cuttings can have a tendancy to etiolate if not hardened quickly, however, regular pruning following root formation will reduce this. A fine potting mix is the most suitable, a mix of 1 vermiculite: 1peat :1 perlite adjusted to between pH 6 and 6.5 by additions of agricultural lime. As a rule of thumb when using New Zealand peat add 60g of lime per L of mix. Slow release nutrients can be added to the mix at a rate of 3g per L of 4 month Osmocote. Natural rooting hormones for organic farming and synthetic auxins with different application procedures have been used to increase rooting. Products registered for organic farming gave similar or superior results as compared to products of synthetic origin (Nicola et al., 2004). Hormones were found to enhance out-of-season rooting, whereas the organic products enhanced rooting in most of the cutting prepared 2 weeks from stock plants (Nicola et al., 2003). 10.3 Planting

Seed are sown in the spring and can also be sown in autumn in a greenhouse. Surface sow or barely cover the seed. Germination can be erratic. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and grow them on in the greenhouse for at least their first winter. Plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early summer, after the last expected frosts. The seed can keep for three years in normal storage. Division occurs in spring or autumn (Huxley, 1992). Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. We have found that it is best to pot up smaller divisions and grow them on in light shade in a greenhouse or cold frame until they are growing away well. Plant them out in the summer or the following spring. Cuttings of young shoots, 5 - 8cm with a heel, May/June in a frame. Cuttings of half-ripe wood, 5 - 8cm with a heel, July/August in a frame (Huxley, 1992) Thyme is best propagated from seeds sown early indoors or under glass in an outdoor bed. When 2 to 3 inches high, the young plants are set at intervals of 12 to 18 inches in rows 3 feet apart. A few plants set in a permanent flower bed will be ornamental and also furnish herb enough for flavoring purposes. New plants should be started every 3 or 4 years, as the old plants become too woody to produce tender leaves for culinary use. New plants may be started by sowing seeds or by layering the old plants as described earlier. Thyme will do best in a well-drained sunny location. When the plants are in bloom, 5 to 6 inches of the flowering tops should be cut with clippers or a sharp knife. Sometimes two or more crops can be harvested the same season. The flowering tops should be spread on a fine screen or newspaper in a wellventilated room to dry. After thorough drying, the leaves and flowering tops should be stripped from the stems and stored in a closed container. The spacing for Thyme plants varies from country to country - spacings within rows of 30cm with 60cm between rows have been tried in the U.S.A., however, these were later concluded to be too sparse (Gaskell, 1988). Densities of 36 plants per m2 have been successfully used in Australia with the plots quickly reducing weed competition. This

work (Mulch section) used six rows 15cm apart (15 cm between plants) across a 1m bed, and resulted in a slight edge effect with the centre rows producing less material. The use of 50 cm ridges with 3 rows on the ridge would avoid this problem. Thyme was cultivated in rows of 50 cm apart with inter-row spacing of 15, 30 or 45 cm (Badi et al. 2004). The maximum yield of dry and fresh herbage, yield and content of oil and thymol yield were obtained in 15-cm spacing and beginning of blooming stage. Maximum thymol content was observed in the beginning of blooming and 45-cm spacing. However, 15-cm spacing and harvesting in the beginning of blooming was the best treatment in terms of yield of dry matter, oil and thymol per unit area. The Horticultural Research Station of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU), Udhagamandalam recommend furrow technique of planting wherein the cuttings are then planted on raised mounds in the field at a spacing of 45 X 45cm.

10.4 Fertilizers Thyme does not need high levels of soil fertility to grow well. Targeted applications based on soil and foliage tests are recommended. A soil pH of between 5.5 and 6.5 is considered optimum. However, the addition of fertilizers is dependent on the soil type and existing soil fertility. U.S.A. growers broadcast triple superphosphate prior to sowing at a rate of 1360 kg/ha, and following each harvest, side dress with a nitrogen fertilizer. Increased nitrogen levels will improve the top growth and crop colour. In Australia most herb crops are treated as leafy vegetables and fertilizer rates suggested vary between 1200 and 1500 kg/ha of an NPK fertilizer analysis 5: 7: 4. Following each harvest a light side dressing of up to 75kg/ ha ammonium nitrate can be applied. Agricultural lime should be applied to the soil before sowing if the pH is less than 5.5. Thyme was evaluated for potential yield in a multiple harvest system during the fallwinter-spring (Nov.-June) 1995-1996 and (Dec.-June) 1996-1997. The herb was grown with a full-bed polyethylene mulch-micro-(trickle)-irrigation system using two nitrogen and potassium rates (0.68 N & 0.74 K kg ha-1 day-1 and 1.8 N & 1.4 8 K kg ha-1 day-1 in the 1995-1996 growing season and 1.1 N & 0.9 K kg ha-1 day-1 and 2.2 N& 1.8 K kg ha -1 day-1 in the 1996-1997 growing season) as fertilizer treatments. Phosphorus was applied pre-plant at 21.3 kg/ha with both nitrogen and potassium rates. Early yield of thyme in 1995-1996 was similar at both nitrogen and potassium rates, but in 1996-1997 was higher with the higher nitrogen and potassium treatment. Total yields of thyme in both growth seasons were best with the higher fertilizer treatment rate (Csizinszky, 2003). 10.5 Irrigation

Thyme should be treated as a leafy vegetable when considering water requirements. During seedling establishment beds should be always moist but not wet, and during growth the plants like to be in a well drained soil with adequate subsoil moisture. Thyme plants will survive periods of drought due to their Mediterranean origin, and it is not

often recommended to irrigate, however, the plants will produce at their maximum if water is not limiting. Thyme does not grow in areas with heavy rainfall, however carefully timed application of irrigation water will significantly increase production over and above what would be expected without it. Use of drip irrigation is probably the best method of irrigating as it keeps the bush dry while making sure the roots have adequate moisture. Thyme can survive in semi shaded areas, but to achieve high production levels full sun is required. 10.6 Intercultivation Weed control in Thyme crops, as with all herbs is especially difficult. Some pre and post emergent herbicides have been tested (Mass, 1978), but none of these have been registered for use on Thyme in Australia. The best method to reduce weeds is to grow a dense stand of pasture prior to planting the crop, then follow up by fallowing the land prior to planting. The use of a chemical fallow and smothering pasture crops would help reduce the weed seed reserves prior to planting. If the Thyme plants are sown on a close spacing they will close their canopy quickly and out compete most weeds (see section on mulching) One consideration when planting thyme is its ability to become a weed. There are no accounts of thyme escaping and becoming a problem in Australia, but several thousand hectares of the Otago Valley in New Zealand have been covered with thyme. The plant can cause photosensitisation in some grazing animals. 10.6.1 Mechanical weed control Mechanical weed control in the form of cultivation is an age old method of controlling weeds that works by the uprooting and burying of young weed seedlings. This is most efficient when the weed is small and hence dries out quickly. More established weeds will not dry as fast and may re-shoot following cultivation. Thyme sown on ridges can be cultivated between the ridges, leaving the ridge top and inter-row area to be hand chipped. Once the canopy closes the problems of inter-row weeds will be greatly reduced. The best time to use mechanical weed control is during a fallow period when cultivation can be alternated with herbicide application. This will allow control of the weed population without applying excessive stress to the soil through cultivation, which could damage the soil structure and result in the development of plough pans. 10.6.2 Use of Mulch Mulching is a useful weed control method, however, as thyme plants can produce a dense cover, the crop will out compete many weeds. Mulches are also useful for stopping soil splash, and if the crop is being grown for fresh markets, could be worthwhile. Unfortunately, the spreading nature of thyme is impeded by the use of inorganic mulch, and for this reason if mulch is to be applied, a long lasting organic form would be more suitable.

Experiments to test two different polypropylene black mulches for weed control of thyme indicated that mulching technique favored plant growth. Thyme diameter was positively influenced by mulching (Fontana et al. 2006). 10.7 Cropping system 10.8 Harvest 10.8.1 Harvesting for volatile oil The timing of harvest is determined by the composition and quantity of the oil in the plant. The oil yield and oil components vary during the year, but when the oil yield and the desired oil components are at their maximum, harvesting should commence. The actual process of harvesting can utilise a standard forage harvester which will cut the material, and deposit it into a trailing distillation bin. This reduces the need for double handling of the material prior to distilling. It is not necessary to de-stem or chop the material as this may cause oil loss and increase the cost of processing. 10.8.2 Harvesting for dried leaf When harvesting for dried product more care is required than when harvesting for oil, and mechanical methods employing a cutter bar set in front of a conveyer belt are often used. The cut material falls on the belt and is lifted up to collection bins thus reducing bruising of the foliage. Another method is to mow the Thyme, allow it to partially dry then windrow and pick up with conventional hay making machinery (Galambosi, 1991). Following harvesting the plant material may be washed to reduce soil and dust impurities as again these will reduce the quality of the final product. If plants are grown on mulched beds the need to wash the product is reduced. 10.8.3 Harvesting for the fresh market Hand harvesting is the best method to collect plant material for the fresh market, as only top quality leaves should be collected. The plants should be cut with a sharp knife or clippers, and bunched. The bunches can be fastened with a rubber band and placed in cool boxes to start removing field heat. A hand held hedge trimmer powered by a small petrol engine can be used and will reduce harvesting time. Some form of sorting and classing is required after this form of cutting. 11. Pests and diseases 11.1 Diseases There are no reports of diseases affecting Thyme plants. However, in the U.S.A. a preventative fungicide spray with a mancozeb based fungicide is used during wet

establishment periods (Gaskell, 1988). The average climatic conditions of the New England Tablelands are not conducive to diseases, however during abnormally wet summers or wet weeks following irrigation, monitoring for disease outbreaks would be necessary, but it is unlikely that any disease would occur. To date no fungicides have been registered for use on Thyme in Australia so preventative methods of using ridged beds and not irrigating if there is a chance of rain would be the best production methods. 11. 2 Insect pests Thymus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera insect species including Chionodes distinctella and the Coleophora case-bearers C. lixella, C. niveicostella, C. serpylletorum and C. struella (the latter three feed exclusively on Thymus). 12. Post harvest technology and value addition

Thyme is sold both fresh and dried. The fresh form is more flavourful but also less convenient; storage life is rarely more than a week. While summer-seasonal, fresh thyme is often available year-round. Fresh thyme is commonly sold in bunches of sprigs. A sprig is a single stem snipped from the plant. It is composed of a woody stem with paired leaf or flower clusters ("leaves") spaced to 1" apart. A recipe may measure thyme by the bunch (or fraction thereof), or by the sprig, or by the tablespoon or teaspoon. If the recipe does not specify fresh or dried, assume that it means fresh. Depending on how it is used in a dish, the whole sprig may be used (e.g. in a bouquet garni), or the leaves removed and the stems discarded. Usually when a recipe specifies 'bunch' or 'sprig' it means the whole form; when it specifies spoons it means the leaves. It is perfectly acceptable to substitute dried for whole thyme. Leaves may be removed from stems either by scraping with the back of a knife, or by pulling through the fingers or tines of a fork. Leaves are often chopped. Thyme retains its flavour on drying better than many other herbs. Dried, and especially powdered thyme occupies less space than fresh, so less of it is required when substituted in a recipe. As a rule of thumb, use one third as much dried as fresh thyme - a little less if it is ground. Substitution is often more complicated than that because recipes can specify sprigs and sprigs can vary in yield of leaves. Assuming a 4" sprig (they are often somewhat longer), estimate that 6 sprigs will yield one tablespoon of leaves. The dried equivalent is 1:3, so substitute 1 teaspoon of dried or tsp of ground thyme for 6 small sprigs. [4]. As with bay, thyme is slow to release its flavour so it is usually added early in the cooking process.

12.1 Distillation for oil

Distillation is the main form of essential oil extraction used for Thyme, and the two methods commonly used are steam and hydro. Solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME), a combination of microwave heating and dry distillation, performed at atmospheric pressure without added any solvent or water is a green technology and appears as a good alternative for the extraction of essential oils from thyme. Isolation and concentration of volatile compounds are performed by a single stage. SFME has been compared with a conventional technique, hydro-distillation (HD), for the extraction of essential oil from thyme. The essential oils extracted by SFME for 30 min were quantitatively (yield) and qualitatively (aromatic profile) similar to those obtained by conventional hydro-distillation for 4.5 h. The SFME method yields an essential oil with higher amounts of more valuable oxygenated compounds, and allows substantial savings of costs, in terms of time, energy and plant material. SFME (Lucchesi et al., 2004). 12.2 Drying and packaging for dry product Dried Thyme should have a bright green colour, hence it should be dried quickly in order to inactivate the enzyme chlorophyllase which breaks down chlorophyll turning the leaf yellow. Heat can destroy this enzyme quickly, However, temperatures in excess of 60C will remove the volatile oils (Deans et al., 1992) reducing flavour. A significant reduction in the amount of extracted volatiles was found in the case of drying at 60 C, mainly as a result of the loss of non-oxygenated monoterpenes (Venskutonis, 1997). The character of the changes of the headspace volatiles is more complex for thyme, the content of aroma compounds being the highest when the herb was dried at 60 C.

Cut thyme material includes a lot of woody stem material. The energy used to dry the stem is wasted, however, the stem material stops the leaves from "packing" in the dryer, and enables air to move easily through the product thus reducing overall drying times. The commercial specifications for "Dried Thyme" being imported into the U.S.A. are: 1. The product must consist of the dried leaves and flowering tops of Thymus vulgaris L. 2. The dried brownish-green curled leaves, when crushed should yield a fragrant, aromatic odour and have a warm, pungent taste. 3. It shall contain not more than 11% total ash, 5.0% acid insoluble ash, and 9.0% moisture. 4. There should be no less than 0.9ml of volatile oil (vol wt) per 100g. 5. Not less than 95% should pass through a U.S. standard No. 30 sieve (600 m mesh) (Prakash, 1990). 6. Dried Thyme should be stored below 25C. The standard U.S. processing specifications for dried culinary Thyme is to pass the whole plant through a Shear mill using either a fine round perforated screen or a herringbone

screen. The material may then be passed through a hammer mill with a 1/16" screen. Some people use only the hammer mill but a number of passes through different sized screens are required before it can be passed through the final 1/16" screen (Miller, 1985). The powdering of herbs through screen sizes of 1/16" and less can cause the loss of volatile oils. To avoid this, the material is super cooled in liquid N or CO2 prior to grinding and packaging.

Thyme (Thymus vulgaris Linn) herbs can be dried at about 50C reached an equilibrium moisture content after 12 h and 9.5 h using the wire basket solar dryer and oven drying method respectively. The initial moisture content (wet wt. basis), (final moisture content, dry wt. basis (dwb)) determined by the DeanStark toluene method, oven and microwave were 75.15% (10.0%), 75.12% (11.85%) and 72.31% (12.50%) respectively. Paired t-test ( = 0.05, 10 degrees of freedom) showed no significant difference between the Dean Stark toluene and the oven methods, but a significant difference between these two methods and the microwave method. The % essential oils extracted after drying by the oven and the wire basket solar methods were 0.5 and 0.6% (per 100 g dwb) respectively. The % oleoresin and ash content were 27% for both drying methods and 1.60, 2.03 and 2.25% for the fresh, oven dried and the wire basket solar dried herb respectively (Balladin and Headley, 1999). 12.3 Cooling and packaging for the fresh market The aim of packaging herbs for the fresh market is to present the material at point of sale in the same condition as when it was harvested. To maintain this quality the best post harvest handling procedures must be determined for each individual herb. These include temperature, humidity, atmospheric composition, package size and handling techniques. Herbs are often associated with vegetable and hence the methods used to handle vegetables are used for herbs, with mixed success. The factors which reduce herb quality commence from the moment the herb is cut. Once cut the herb plant continues to respire, and attempts to maintain metabolic activity. This uses the supplies of water and carbohydrates held in the stem of the plant, after which the plant begins to break down its own cells in an attempt to maintain respiration. Once this happens off tastes and odours develop, while the destruction of the plant cells enables bacteria and microorganisms to penetrate the plant and hasten decay (Corey, 1989). Different preservation methods have been developed over the years to slow plant decay but each commodity must be examined individually and a specific method designed (Corey, 1989). The main features of any herb post harvest protocol is to maintain turgor, texture, colour, and oil content. To do this metabolic activity must be slowed, and physical injury to the plant such as bruising and tissue damage avoided.

12.4 Temperature The reduction of temperature is an efficient method with which to reduce the metabolic activity of a plant, as the rate of biochemical reactions such as respiration in excised plant parts is reduced by approximately 50% for every 10C decrease in temperature (Corey,

1989). The temperature must not be reduced too far as freezing of the plant material will cause ice to form within the cells of the plant, and irreversible damage. Some plants such as basil and watercress cannot withstand low temperatures, their leaves will darken, discolour, and eventually collapse. Thyme is not overly sensitive to chilling and can tolerate temperatures between 0C and 5C for a period of two weeks when sealed in perforated polyethylene bags (Joyce and Reid, 1986). The post-harvest handling of fresh food requires two stages of temperature monitoring. The first stage is often called the precooling and is done to remove field heat from the crop as rapidly as possible so that metabolic activity (respiration) can be reduced. Forced air cooling is the simplest method, and most suitable for the small producer as it utilises a small cool room with a high speed fan (Joyce and Reid, 1986). Vacuum cooling is the most efficient means of precooling, however, it does require expensive equipment and would only be suited to large producers (Joyce and Reid, 1986). Hydro cooling and liquid icing are methods used on fruit, but there not suited to the succulent foliage of most herbs (Joyce and Reid, 1986). It is believed that precooling should be performed as soon after harvest as possible however, Aharoni et al. (1989) showed successful precooling of herbs could occur once the bunches had been packed in cartons lined with polyethylene bags. Vacuum cooling was used and it was found that most herbs were well suited to this method because of a high surface to volume ratio. Cooling in cartons had no effect on the cooling rate, and helped reduce the formation of condensation on the plastic liners. Harvesting herbs during the early morning reduces the degree of precooling required 12.5 Storage temperatures During storage it is important that the temperature remains constant and does not fluctuate. Excess cooling during storage will cause ice to form and damage the plant cell integrity. 12.6 Humidity during Storage When plants are harvested their internal humidity is 100%, but water loss can immediately occur causing the plants to wilt. The maintenance of a high storage humidity will reduce this water loss by slowing the water movement from the high humidity in the plant to the lower humidity air. Humidity of between 90 and 95% is the most suitable as this will reduce the loss of plant water, without the formation of condensation on the plant or containers, which encourages the growth and spread of spoilage organisms. To maintain high humidity during storage, film wraps or plastic lined cartons can be used to provide a barrier to water loss (Corey, 1990). Ensuring high humidity in the cool storage room will also help. 12.7 Atmospheric control When plants are cut or damaged they produce a gaseous hormone called ethylene.

Elevated levels of ethylene trigger a series of biochemical reactions within the plant that lead to the breakdown of cell walls, loss of pigments such as chlorophyll, softening of tissue, and leaf abscission. This sequence is generally referred to as plant senescence (Corey, 1990). Modifying the atmosphere around the plant can inhibit ethylene activity. This can be accomplished by reducing the oxygen content of fresh air from about 21% to between 2 and 4% and increasing the CO2 concentration from 0.035% to between 5 and 10%. If the oxygen level is reduced too far, the plants will become anaerobic and spoilage due to fermentation will occur. Modified atmospheres can be created within the cold storage room, or within the carton by using different polymeric films around the plant material, and specific plastics can be made for each crop type (Aharoni et al., 1989). During storage the CO2 level should be above 7% and the O2 level should not drop below 5% (Aharoni et al., 1989). 12.8 Fresh pot herb production Another development in herb production is fresh pot herbs. These are herbs produced in pots and sold cheaply at supermarkets for use in kitchens. The herbs will provide a small volume of fresh material to households while being an attractive ornamental plant. An economic plan of this form of production based in Southern Queensland showed Thyme plants could be ready for sale every 6 weeks in summer and 8 weeks in winter. The return on capital invested was estimated at 58.65% when a range of herbs were produced in this way (Avard et al., 1982) 13. Economics and marketing References Aharoni, N., Reuveni, A. and Dvir, O. (1989) Modified Atomospheres in film packages delay senescence and decay of fresh herbs. Acta Horticulturae 258:255-259. Arnal-Schnebelen B, Hadji-Minaglou F, Peroteau J-F, Ribeyre F, de Billerbeck V. G. (2004) Essential oils in infectious gynaecological disease: a statistical study of 658 cases International Journal of Aromatherapy, 14: 192-197. Avard, L., Story, G., Wentworth-Jackson, I. (1982) Six Herbs Development of a commercial Programme. Australian Horticulture August:93-105. Badi, H. N., Darab Yazdani, Ali, S. M., Fatemah Nazari (2004) Effects of spacing and harvesting time on herbage yield and quality/quantity of oil in thyme, Thymus vulgaris L., Industrial Crops and Products, 19: 231-236. Balladin D. A., Headley, O (1999) Evaluation of solar dried thyme (Thymus vulgaris Linn) herbs Renewable Energy, 17, 523-531.

Bhaskara Reddy M.V., Angers P, Gosselin A, Arul J (1998) Characterization and use of essential oil from Thymus vulgaris against Botrytis cinerea and Rhizopus stolonifer in strawberry fruits. Phytochemistry, 47: 1515-1520. Bodkin, F. (1986) Encyclopedia Botanica.1st. ed. Cornstalk publishing. Bown. D. (1995) Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses. Dorling Kindersley, London. 1995 ISBN 0-7513-020-31. Braga PC, Dal Sasso M, Culici M, Galastri L, Marceca MT, Guffanti EE (2006)Antioxidant potential of thymol determined by chemiluminescence inhibition in human neutrophils and cell-free systems. Pharmacology, 76:61-68. Castillejos L, Calsamiglia S, Martn-Tereso J, Ter Wijlen H (2007) In vitro evaluation of effects of ten essential oils at three doses on ruminal fermentation of high concentrate feedlot-type diets. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 2007(In press). Chevallier. A. (1996) The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants Dorling Kindersley. London 1996 ISBN 9-780751-303148. Christensen L.P. and Grevsen K (2006) Effect of development stage at harvest on the composition and yield of essential oils from thyme and oregano. Developments in Food Science, 43: 261-264. Corey, K.A. (1989) Postharvest preservation of fresh herbs: Fundamentals and prospects. The Herb, Spice, and Medicinal Plant Digest 7(3):1-5. Csizinszky, A. A. (2003) Multiple harvest yield response of microirrigated herbs to nitrogen and potassium, J. Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants, 10: 5-17. Dapkevicius, A., Van beek, T., Lelyveld, G. P., Van Veldhuizen, A., De Groot, A., Linssen, J.P. H and Venskutonis, R (2002) Isolation and structure elucidation of radical scavengers from Thymus vulgaris leaves, J. Nat. Prod. 65: 892-896. Deans, S.G. and Svoboda, K.P. (1992) Effects of drying regime on volatile oil and microflora of aromatic plants. Acta Horticulturae 306:450-452. Daz-Maroto, M.C., Daz-Maroto Hidalgo, I.J., Snchez-Palomo, E., Prez-Coello, M.S. (2005) Volatile components and key odorants of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) oil extracts obtained by simultaneous distillation-extraction and supercritical fluid extraction. J Agric Food Chem. 53:5385-9. Dob T, Dahmane D, Benabdelkader T and Chelghoum C (2006) Studies on the essential oil composition and antimicrobial activity of Thymus algeriensis Boiss. et Reut. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16: 95-100.

Duan F, Marin S, Katarna D and Dobroslava B (2006) Essential oilstheir antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli and effect on intestinal cell viability Toxicology in Vitro, 20: 1435-1445. Facciola. S. (1990) Cornucopia - A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, ISBN 0-9628087-0-9. Fontana, E., Hoeberechts, J., Nicola, S (2006) Effect of mulching on medicinal and aromatic plants in organic farm guest houses, ISHS Acta Horticulturae 723; I International Symposium on the Labiatae: Advances in Production, Biotechnology and Utilisation, Sanremo. Italy Galambosi, B. and Szebeni-Galamosi (1992) The use of Black plastic mulch and ridges in the production of herbicide free herbs. Acta Horticulturae 306: 353-356. Gaskell, M. (1988) Production of Fresh Culinary Herbs in Central America for Commercial Export. The Herb, Spice, and Medicinal Plant Digest 6(2): 1-10. Goodner K. L, Mahattanatawee K, Plotto A, Sotomayor J.A. Jordn M. J. (2006) Aromatic profiles of Thymus hyemalis and Spanish T. vulgaris essential oils by GC MS/GCO. Industrial Crops and Products, 24:264-268.] Hedrick. U. P. (1972) Sturtevant's Edible Plants of the World. Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-20459-6. Hegnauer, R (1966) Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen, Vol. 4, Birkhuser Verlag, Basel, Stuttgart, pp.300 Hornok, L. (1992) The Cultivation and Processing of Medicinal Plants. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Hortus Third (1976) A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in United States and Canada. Wiley, New York, ISBN: 978-0-02-505470-7, 1290 pp. Hudaib, M., Speroni E, Di Pietra A.M., Cavrini V (2002) GC/MS evaluation of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) oil composition and variations during the vegetative cycle. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, 29: 691-700. Huxley. A. (1992) The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. MacMillan Press ISBN 0333-47494-5. Inouye S, Abe S, Yamaguchi H, Asakura M (2003) Comparative study of antimicrobial and cytotoxic effects of selected essential oils by gaseous and solution contacts. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 13: 33-41.

Inouye, S, Uchida K, Abe S (2006) Volatile composition and vapour activity against Trichophyton mentagrophytes of 36 aromatic herbs cultivated in Chichibu district in Japan. International Journal of Aromatherapy, 16: 159-168. Jordn M. J., Martnez R. M., Goodner K. L., Baldwin E. A., Sotomayor J. A. (2006) Seasonal variation of Thymus hyemalis Lange and Spanish Thymus vulgaris L. essential oils composition. Industrial Crops and Products, 24: 253-263. Joyce, D. and Reid,M.(1986) Postharvest handling of fresh culinary herbs. The Herb, Spice and Medicinal Plant Digest 4(2):1-7. Kretchmer, M. (1989) Influence of different storage conditions on germination of spices seeds. Acta Horticulturae 253: 99-103. Kitajima J, Ishikawa T, Urabe A, Satoh M (2004) Monoterpenoids and their glycosides from the leaf of thyme. Phytochemistry, 65: 3279-3287. Koch C, Reichling J, Schneele J, Schnitzler P (2008) Inhibitory effect of essential oils against herpes simplex virus type 2. Phytomedicine, 15: 71-78. Lawless, J. (1992) The encyclopaedia of Essential Oils. Element books Pty Ltd Longmead, Shaftesbury, Dorset. Lee S-J, Umano K, Shibamoto T, Lee K-G (2005) Identification of volatile components in basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and thyme leaves (Thymus vulgaris L.) and their antioxidant properties, Food Chemistry, 91: 131-137. Low, T., Rodd, T. and Beresford, R. (1994) Magic and Medicine of Plants. Reader's Digest Publications Australia.

Lucchesi M. E., Chemat F., Smadja J (2004) Solvent-free microwave extraction of essential oil from aromatic herbs: comparison with conventional hydro-distillation. Journal of Chromatography A, 1043: 323-327. Lust. J. (1983) The Herb Book. Bantam books, ISBN 0-553-23827-2. Marzian, O. (2007) Treatment of acute bronchitis in children and adolescents. Noninterventional postmarketing surveillance study confirms the benefit and safety of syrup made of extracts from thyme and ivy leaves. MMW Fortschr Med.149:69-74. Maas, G. (1978) Weed Control in medicinal plants. Acta Horticulturae 73: 323-329. Mata A.T, Proena C, Ferreira A.R., Serralheiro, M.L.M., Nogueira J. M. F., Arajo M. E. M (2007) Antioxidant and antiacetylcholinesterase activities of five plants used as Portuguese food spices. Food Chemistry, 103: 778-786.

Miller, A. (1985) The potential of herbs as a cash crop, Acres U.S.A. Kansas City, Missouri. Miura, K and Nakatani, N (1989) Antioxidative activity of flavonoids from thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), Agric. Biol. Chem., 53, 3043-3045. Morgan, R.K. (1989) Chemotypic characteristics of Thymus vulgaris L. in central Otago, New Zealand. Journal of Biogeography 16:483-491. Nicola, S., Fontana, E., Hoeberechts, J. (2003) Effects of rooting products on medicinal and aromatic plant cuttings, Acta Horticulturae, 614: 273-278. Nicola, S., Fontana, E., Hoeberechts, J. (2004) Cultural techniques to optimize the thyme (Thymus vulgaris) propagation, ISHS Acta Horticulturae 631: XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Issues and Advances in Transplant Production and Stand Establishment Research, Toronto, Canada. Omidbeygi M, Barzegar M, Hamidi Z, Naghdibadi H (2007) Antifungal activity of thyme, summer savory and clove essential oils against Aspergillus flavus in liquid medium and tomato paste. Food Control, 18: 1518-1523. Phillips, H.F. (1989) What Thyme is it? : A guide to the Thyme taxa cultivated in the United States. In: Herbs '89: Proceedings of the International Herb Growers and Marketers Association Conference, p 44-50. Prakash, V. (1990) Leafy spices. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida, USA. Rey, C. (1992) Selection of Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) for extreme areas. Acta Horticulturae 306:66-70. Ronninger, K (1924) Beitrge zur Kenntnis der Gattung Thymus, I Die Britischen Arten und Formen, Feddes Repert., 20: 321-332. Segvi Klari, M, Kosalec, I, Masteli, J , Pieckov, E , Pepeljnak, S (2007) Antifungal activity of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) essential oil and thymol against moulds from damp dwellings. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 44: 36-42. Simon, J.E. (1990) Essential oils and culinary herbs. Advances in New Crops. Proceedings of the first national symposium on New crops:472-483. Solomakos N, Govaris A, Koidis P, Botsoglou N (2008) The antimicrobial effect of thyme essential oil, nisin, and their combination against Listeria monocytogenes in minced beef during refrigerated storage, Food Microbiology, 25: 120-127.

Vila, R. (2002) Flavonoids and further polyphenols in the genus Thymus, in Stahl-Biskup E. and Saez F., Thyme The Genus Thymus, Taylor & Francis, London, 144-176. Venskutonis P. R. (1997) Effect of drying on the volatile constituents of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) and sage (Salvia officinalis L.). Food Chemistry, 59: 219-227 Wei A, Shibamoto T (2007) Antioxidant activities of essential oil mixtures toward skin lipid squalene oxidized by UV irradiation Cutan Ocul Toxicol. 26:227-33. Wienktter, N, Begrow, F., Kinzinger, U., Schierstedt, D., Verspohl, E. J (2007) The effect of thyme extract on beta2-receptors and mucociliary clearance, Planta medica, 73: 629-635. Yamamoto J, Yamada K, Naemura A, Yamashita T, Arai R (2005) Testing various herbs for antithrombotic effect. Nutrition, 21: 580-587. Yang, V.W. and Clausen C. A. (2007) Antifungal effect of essential oils on southern yellow pine. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 59: 302-306. Wang, M., Li, J., Ho, G. S., Peng, X. and Ho, C-T (1998) Isolation and identification of antioxidative flavonoid glycosides from thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.). J. Food Lipids, 5: 313-321.