1.

INTRODUCTION
Surveying is an art and science of determining the relative position of point on above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of angular and linear measurements. It is the most important subject matter before and during all engineering works like civil engineering works such as designing and construction of highways, water supply systems, irrigation projects, buildings etc. The main objectives of surveying courses allocated for civil engineering students is to promote them the basic knowledge of different surveying techniques relevant to civil engineering works in their professional practice. After completion of all surveying courses including two weeks survey camp work organized by Survey Instruction Committee of Pulchowk campus at T.U. Kirtipur, Kathmandu for better enhancement to students to use all surveying technique covered in lecture classes. The B.E. third year students of 2062 batch of 96 students were on 1st shift of twoweek survey camp during 24 th Magh to 10th Falgun, 2064 at TU Kirtipur, Kathmandu. The survey camp is the part of course of third year civil engineering faculty of Subject code EG 625 CE. This is a detail report of the works, which were performed by group no. 12, during the camp period. It briefly explains the working procedures and technique used by this group during the camp period. In addition, it also contain observations, calculations, methods of adjustment of error, main problem faced during work and their solution, results of all calculations and their assessments with some comments is presented in a concise form.

1.1 OBJECTIVES OF SURVEY CAMP :

The main objectives of the survey camp are as follows: To become familiar with the surveying problems that are arise during the field works. To became familiar with the parts of the instruments, their functions and handling the surveying instruments for its use in surveying. To become familiar with the spirit and importance of teamwork, as surveying is not a single person work. To complete the given project in scheduled time and thus knows the value of time. To collect required data in the field in systematic ways. To compute and manipulate the observed data in the required accuracy and present it in diagrammatic and tabular form in order to understand by other engineers and related personnel easily. To tackle the mistake and incomplete data from the field while in office work. Page | 1

l.1 INDEX MAP/LOCATION MAP (See appendixes) 1.3 PROJECT AREA

Kirtipur Campus which is the central campus of Tribhuvan University was selected as the project area for Survey Camp-2064. The campus lies in the northwest corner of the Kathmandu valley. The typical features related to the site are as follows:

To know the complete method of report preparation.

1.4.

Location and accessibility:

It is accessible place having metallic motorable road from Kathmandu valley. The area is situated at a distance of about 5 Km. from IOE, Pulchowk Campus and the given are to be surveyed was about 600 square meters. The details about the area are: Country: Nepal Development Region: Central Zone: Bagmati District: Kathmandu Municipality: Kirtipur Ward No.: 3 Location: Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur Campus.

1.5. Topography and geology:

Before starting our job, we should study about the existing position of the project area related to the natural grid line so that we can relate our result into the natural grid. The longitude and latitude of Nepal area are as follows: Latitude 26o22N to 30o27 Longitude 80o4E to 88o12 E However, for our concern: the Latitude and Longitude of Kritipur is as follows: Latitude 29o5306N Longitude 84o5500E About the geology of that area: Geology plays a vital role for the construction maintenance and rehabilitation of any type of structure. Geologically Nepal is divided into five zones from south to north, which are extending towards east west direction and are separated by several geological structures called thrust. For our concern, the job site falls in Lesser Himalaya Zone. Stratigraphically the central region of Nepal is divided into two major complexes, out of which one is Kathmandu Complex and another one is Page | 2

Nuwakot complex. The Kathmandu valley and thus of course the survey camp site lies in Kathmandu complex which is separated from Nuwakot complex by Mahabharat Thrust (M.T.).

1.6. Rainfall, climate and vegetation:

The average rainfall of the Kritipur is 90 inch in summer and very little in winter. Here we cannot able to mention the actual rainfall data of that area. The altitude of Kirtipur is 1331.52 m from the sea level. Therefore, it has medium rainfall and temperate climate. Kirtipur lies in mid-hill region of Nepal hence the climate is pleasant. The variation of temperature in summer and winter at Kritipur are as follows: Season Summer Winter Temperature Variation Table Max. Temperature oC Min. Temperature oC 34 16 17 2

The soil of Kritipur area seemed to be very vegetative. We saw a no. of fertile lands, dense vegetation and deciduous forest where oak, sal, bamboo trees are abundantly found.

1.7. Others:
Kirtipur is an ancient city with its unique history and pleasant environment. It has a number of places which are important from viewpoint of history, religion and tourism. The places of religious importance include Bagh Bhairab Temple, Uma Maheswor Temple and Adhinath Temple. Kirtipur is one of Municipality City of Kathmandu district. According to population survey, It has population of 61,902 among them 19,443 are female and 42,459 are male, similarly there are about 9454 houses similarly from data collected population growth rate is about 4.7%. The city is at a height more than the surrounding places so a beautiful view of Chobhar, Dharahara, Swoyambhu and Lalitpur can be seen from here. Tribhuvan University area lies at the center of the Kirtipur Municipality. It is oldest university of Nepal and biggest one from all campuses of Nepal. The campus is also important because it carries international cricket ground in its premises. The project area was divided into different parts for individual group. The main area of traversing is not so sloppy it is almost plain. Almost all part of the project area is rounded by paddy field at its back and it is connected with the city road which runs form old Bus park to the Kritipur Bus park. Page | 3

The whole area was sub-divided into various parts where the almost area covers educational buildings. The main buildings are Faculty of Education, Faculty of Humanities, Gandhi Bhawan, Library, CEDA building, Students Club, Physical Science, Chemistry, Earth Science, Botany, Mathematics etc. and Coronation Park.

2. TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY

Topographical surveying is process of determining the configuration of the earths surface and to locate natural and cultural features on it. In other words, it is the process of determining of the positions both on plan and elevation of natural and artificial features. From the survey data, using various types of lines and conventional symbols, topographic maps that represent these natural and cultural features are produced. Topographic map is simply the graphical representation of positions of the earths surface and provides a number of data, which may prove important for various fields. Topographic surveys are three-dimensional; they provide the techniques of plane surveying and other special techniques to establish both horizontal and vertical control. Hence, the fieldwork in a topographical surveying consists of three parts. Establishment of both horizontal and vertical controls. Locating the contours. Locating the details such as rivers, streams, lakes, roads, houses, etc.

2.1. Objectives:
The main objective of the topographical survey is to prepare the topographic map i.e. the plan with contours of the given area with horizontal control and vertical control at required accuracy. By topographical survey, we can determine the positions of both on plan and elevation, of any features of a locality for the purpose of delineating them by means of conventional sign and symbols upon the topographic map.

2.2. Brief description of the area:

The area is situated in the Tribhuvan University compound. The major traverse was run through the campus area, which covered about half of the whole area of the campus. The minor traverse was run within the major traverse through the No. V plot of the given map, which covers the Library, CEDA, as well as with several supporting buildings of Kritipur Campus. The main buildings are: Central Library. CEDA. Page | 4

Beside this there are a number of supporting departmental buildings, cafeteria, bike stands etc.

2.3

Norms (Technical Specifications):

General norms for the topographical survey are as follows: Conduct reconnaissance survey of the given area. Form a close traverse (major and minor) around the perimeter of the area by making traverse station. In the selection of the traverse station, maintain the ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg less than 2:1 for major and less than 3:1 for minor. Measure the traverse legs in the forward and reverse directions by means of a tape calibrated against the standard length provided in the field, note that discrepancy between forward and backward measurements should be better than 1:2000 in case of both major as well as minor traverse. Measure traverse angle on two sets of reading by theodolite. Note that difference between the mean angles of two sets reading should be within the square root of no of station times least count of the instrument. Determine the R.L. of traverse stations by fly leveling from the given B.M. Perform two-peg test before the start of fly leveling. Note that collimation error should be less than 1:10000. Maintain equal foresight and back sight distances to eliminate collimation error. Take R.L. of T.B.M 3 is 1328.023m.The Permissible error for fly leveling is (25k )mm. Balance the traverse. The permissible angular error for the sum of interior angles of the traverse should be less than n x 1 minutes for Major Traverse and n x 1.5 minutes for Minor Traverse (n = no of traverse station). For major and minor traverse, the relative closing error should be less than 1: 2000 and 1: 1000 respectively. Plot the traverse stations by coordinate method in appropriate scale, i.e. 1:1000 for major traverse and 1:500 for minor traverses. Carry out the detail survey of the given area by tachometric method with reference to the major and minor traverse stations, which have been plotted already. Use conventional symbols for plotting.

2.4 Equipments:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Theodolite Staffs Ranging rods Measuring tapes Subtense bar EDM Plumb bob Page | 5

8. Leveling instruments 9. Compass 10. Hammer 11. Nails and pegs 12. Paints 13. Field Books

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2.5 Methodology:
The methodology of surveying is based on the principle of surveying, they are as follows: Working form whole to a part Independent check Consistency Check Accuracy Required The fundamental theories, the knowledge of which is important before starting a topographic survey are as follows:

1)

Traversing is a type of surveying in which a number of connected survey lines form the framework. It is also a method of control surveying. A series of control points or stations, each one being inter-visible with its adjacent lines joining these stations being the traverse lines. The survey consists of the measurements of Angles between successive lines or bearings of each line. The length of each line. The direction and the length of he traverse legs are measured with the help of an angle-measuring instrument such as theodolite and a tape. If the co-ordinates of the first station and the bearing of the first line are known, the co-ordinates of all successive points can be computed. The main two types of traverse are:

Traversing:

Closed Traverse: The traverse which either closes at its beginning point after forming a loop or run between two known points is known as closed traverse. The traverse which closes at the beginning point after forming a loop is known as loop traverse and the traverse which doesnt closes at the beginning point and runs between two known points is known as closed link traverse.
If a traverse starts and finishes at a point other than the starting point or known co-ordinates, them the traverse is called open traverse. The opened traverse is suitable for surveying long narrow strip of land as for roads, canal surveying. It does not have an independent check. According to the size of work, a traverse can be again divided into two types:

I.

II.

Open Traverse:

A) Major Traverse:

The major traverse is a larger traverse. It is much larger then the plot to be surveyed and it encloses the plot or a part of it.

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B) Minor Traverse:
It is the smaller size traverse, which encloses the plot to be surveyed. There are several methods of traversing, depending upon the instrument used in determining the relative directions of the traverse lines such as: 1. Chain traversing 2. Compass traversing 3. Plane table traversing 4. Theodolite traversing Closing Error: In closed traverse when plotting according to the field measurements, if the end point of the traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point due to the error in the field measurements of the length and angles, then it is called closing error. In a closed loop algebraic sum of Latitude (L) and of Departure (D) must be zero. Mathematically, Closing error (e) = ( (L) 2 + (D) 2 ) And Direction, tan = (D)/ (L) The sign of (L and D '''' will thus define the quadrant in which the closing error lies. The relative error of closure = Error of Closure / Perimeter of the traverse =e/P = 1 / (P /e)

2) Balancing the traverse:

During the computation of the traverse, we need to balance the traverse because of the different errors in the field measurement. There are different methods of adjusting a traverse such as: Bowditchs method Transit method Graphical method Axis method The basis of these methods is on the assumptions that the errors in linear measurements are proportional to L and that the errors in angular measurements are inversely proportional to L where L is the length of a traverse leg. The Bowditchs Rule is commonly used to balance a traverse where linear and angular measurements are of equal precision. The total error in latitude and in the departure is distributed in proportion to the lengths of sides. The Bowditch rule gives the correction as, Correction to latitude = departure)x(length of that leg) Or departure total error in latitude(or

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Perimeter of the traverse Adjustment of angular error and bearing: The error (e) in a closed traverse due to bearing may be determined by comparing the two bearings of the last line as observed at the first and last stations of traverse. If the closed traverse, has N number of sides then, Correction for the first line = e/N Correction for the second line = 2*(e/N) And similarly, correction for the last line = N*(e/N) = e In a closed traverse, by geometry, the sum of the interior angles should be equal to (2n-4)*90 where n is the number of traverse stations. If the angles are measured with the same degree of precision, the error in the sum of the angles may be distributed equally among each angle of the traverse. Discrepancy and linear Misclosure: In order to measure the lengths of the sides of the traverse, two ways taping (forward and backward) is done. In difficult areas where taping is not possible, other methods like the subtense bar is used. The difference in values obtained by forward and backward taping is called discrepancy. The reciprocal of mean of the two measurements divided by the discrepancy is called precision. Both the discrepancy and the precision for each traverse leg should be within the given limits. Mathematically, Discrepancy = | Forward length - Backward length | And Linear precision = 1 / (Mean length / Discrepancy)

3) Tacheometry:
Tachometry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances of points are obtained by optical means. Though it has less accuracy, it is faster and convenient than the measurements by tape or chain. It is very suitable for steep or broken ground, deep ravines, and stretches of water or swam where taping is impossible. The objective of the tachometric survey is to prepare contoured maps or plans with both horizontal and vertical controls. For the survey of high accuracy, it provides a check on the distances measured by tape. The formula for the horizontal distance is, H=100 x S x Cos2 The formula for the vertical distance is, V = 100 x S x (Sin2)/2 Where, S = staff intercept = top reading bottom reading And = Vertical Angle Page | 9

Thus knowing the V value, reduced level (R. L.) of instrument station, Height of instrument (H. I.) and central wire reading (C. W.) the R. L. of any point under observation can be calculated as: R. L. of point = R. L. of instrument station + H. I. + V- C. W.

4) Leveling:

Leveling is a branch of surveying, the objectives of which are: To find the elevation of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum. To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevations with respects to a given or assumed datum. Two types of leveling are used in general Engineering practices, namely direct leveling (spirit leveling) and indirect leveling (trigonometric leveling). Direct leveling: It is the branch of leveling in which the vertical distances with respect to a horizontal line (perpendicular to the direction of gravity) may be used to determine the relative difference in elevation between two adjacent points. A level provides horizontal line of sight, i.e. a line tangential to a level surface at the point where the instrument stands. The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance between two level lines. With a level set up at any place, the difference in elevation between any two points within proper lengths of sight is given by the difference between the staff readings taken on these points. By a succession of instrument stations and related readings, the difference in elevation between widely separated points is thus obtained. Following are some special methods of direct (spirit) leveling: Differential leveling: It is the method of direct leveling the objective of which is solely to determine the difference in elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal positions of the points with respect of each other. This type of leveling is also known as fly leveling. Profile leveling: It is the method of direct leveling the objective of which is to determine the elevations of points at measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a profile of the surface along that line. Cross sectioning: Cross-sectioning or cross leveling is the process of taking levels on each side of main line at right angles to that line, in order to determine a vertical cross-section of the surface of the ground, or of underlying strata, or of both. Reciprocal leveling: It is the method of leveling in which the difference in elevation between two points is accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations when it is not possible to set up the level between the two points. Page | 10

Indirect leveling: Indirect method or trigonometric leveling is the process of leveling in which the elevations of points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the field, just as the length of any side in any triangle can be computed from proper trigonometric relations. The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the second operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Leveling deals with measurements in a vertical plane

Temporary adjustment of level:

The temporary adjustments for level consist of the following steps: (I) Setting up the levelly: The operation of setting up includes fixing the instrument on the stand and leveling the instruments approximately. (II) Leveling up: Accurate leveling is done with the help of foot screws and with reference to the plate levels. The purpose of leveling is to make the vertical axis truly vertical by adjusting the screws. (III) Removal of parallax: Parallax is a condition when the image formed by the objective is not in the plane of the cross hairs. Parallax is eliminated by focusing the eyepiece for distinct vision of the cross hairs and by focusing the objective to bring the object in the plane of cross hairs.

Permanent adjustment of level:

To check the permanent adjustment of level, two-peg test method was performed.

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Two staffs were placed at A and B of known length (about 60 m). First, the instrument was setup at the middle point C and both staff readings were taken. Then the level machine was shifted near A and staff readings (Top, Middle, and Bottom) at both stations A, B were taken again. Then computation was done in order to check whether the error was within the permissible error or not and to check whether the adjustment was required or not.

5) Contouring:

A contour is an imaginary line, which passes through the points of equal elevation. The surface of ground is intersected by a level surface in a line. A contour line is a line on the map representing a contour. Every fifth contour lines must be dark. While drawing the contour lines, the characteristics of the contours should be considered. The characteristics are as follows: Two contours of different elevations do not cross each other except in the case of an overhanging cliff. Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one contour except in the case of a vertical cliff. Contours drawn closer depict a steep slope and if drawn apart, represent a gentle slope. Contours equally spaced represent a uniform slope. When contours are parallel, equidistant and straight, these represent an inclined plane surface. Contour at any point is perpendicular to the line of the steepest slope at the point. A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of the map itself. A set ring contours with higher values inside depict a hill whereas a set of ring contours with lower values inside depict a pond or a depression without an outlet. When contours cross a ridge or V-shaped valley, they form sharp Vshapes across them. Contours represent a ridge line, if the concavity of higher value contour lies towards the next lower value contour and on the other hand, these represent a valley if the concavity of the lower value contour, lies towards the higher value contours. The same contour must appear on both the sides of a ridge or a valley. Contours do not have sharp turnings. There are two method of locating contour: a) The Direct Method: In this method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground. Only those points are surveyed which happen to be plotted. Page | 13

b) The Indirect Method: In this method, some suitable guide points need not necessarily be on the contour. There are some of the indirect methods of location the ground points: a) By squares b) By cross- sections c) By tachometric method Interpolation is the process of spacing the contours proportionately between the slopes of the ground between the two points is uniform. The interpolation of contour cans be done on following three ways: By Estimation By Arithmetic Calculation By Graphical method Generally, we use arithmetic method of interpolation to draw the contour line, which is done as follows: Distance of contour point= scale) (Diff in R.L. of one pt. & req. pt.) (Hor. Dist. in (Different in R.L. of two known points)

2.6.1 Reconnaissance:
The planning of work is necessary to accomplish the work without any irregularity and difficulty in routine. Planning also helps to complete the works in systematic order and in short span of time with the least effort. Therefore, for better planning detailed inspection of the area to be surveyed (Kritipur area) was performed by the method known as Reconnaissance (Recce). The first step in any kind of surveying is reconnaissance or recce. Therefore, to get an overall idea of the working site, all the teachers along with the all students walked around the entire working area in order to make the necessary observations regarding the total area. Recce means the exploration or scouting of an area. In survey, it involves walking around the survey area and roughly planning the number of stations and the position of the traverse stations. Recce is primarily done to get an overall idea of the site. This helps to make the necessary observations regarding the total area, type of land, topography, vegetation, climate, geology and indivisibility conditions that help in detailed planning. The following points have to be taken into consideration for fixing traverse stations:

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The adjacent stations should be clearly intervisible The whole area should include the least number of stations possible The traverse station should maintain the ratio of maximum traverse leg to minimum traverse leg less than 2:1for major traverse and 2:1 for minor traverse The steep slopes and badly broken ground should be avoided as far as possible, which may cause inaccuracy in tapping. The stations should provide minimum level surface required for setting up the instrument. The traverse line of sight should not be near the ground level to avoid the refraction. If possible, well-conditional triangles should be formed to give good graphical intersection during plotting. Taking the above given points into consideration, the traverse stations were fixed. Waking around at least two times inspected the whole area and major ground features were noted. The possible location of major and minor control points were decided by inspecting the intervisibility of the stations. After sketching rough outlines of the area and possible station, distances of legs were estimated to make them within specific range i.e. 1:2 for major traverse and1: 3 for minor traverse. For minor traverse all, the details available were noted. After checking the requirements for a good station, the points were fixed for major and minor stations by driving wooden pegs on the ground and it was name by a marker or enamel. The measurements of each station for reference points such as permanent objects near it are taken. Hence, the recce survey was completed after fixing all the control points.

Traverses: 2.6.2 Major traverse:

Steps on major traversing: a) Linear measurement b) Angular measurements a) Linear measurement: After completing recce two-way measurement were done between the major traverse stations. Linear measurements are taken by tapes applying full range of standard corrections. The linear measurement between two succeeding major stations has been noted in two ways, forward and backward and is compared with the distance obtained by theodolite. The discrepancy obtained through forward and backward for linear measurement Page | 15

should be under the limit of technical specifications i.e. discrepancy is being 1 in 2000

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b)Angular measurements: Two sets of reading were taken on each station. The first set was taking by adjusting the initial angle at 00-00-00(d-m-s) at the backward station and taking interior angle in the forward station. The other set was taken by adjusting the initial angle at 90-00-00(d-m-s). The average angle minutes and seconds was taken between two sets of reading. If there is difference in degree between two sets of reading, the observation was repeated noting that there may be change in seconds sometimes in minutes but not in degree. i) Horizontal Angle: Interior angles of each Major station were observed proceeding form the station to station around the Major traverse in clockwise direction. At every station, interior angle, which is in clockwise direction were observed as: Observed back station Face left Observed fore station Face left Observed back station Face right Observed fore station Face right ii) Vertical Angles: The vertical angles observed on staff, which is in vertical plane and in each major station. These vertical angles are used for calculating the liner distance between the stations.

2.6.3 Minor traverse:

The traverse, starting from the major Stations, and ending to another major station is Minor traverse and the stations between the starting major station and ending major station are Minor stations were fixed in the field for taking detail of ground features. In the topographic map the minor stations have been designated by m with group no. and station no. a)Measurement of traverse length: After completion of recce survey, taping of the traverse stations was performed with the help of tapes. The distances between the adjacent control points were measured accurately as far as possible for the accuracy of the whole traverse. To attain the accuracy required i.e. 1:2000 ratio, a two way taping was done independently so that the length form each measurement was found within specified range To measure the horizontal distance accurately on the sloping ground, the short length was measured a time so that the tape could be pulled horizontally without sagging. For this stepping was done accurately to divide the length into shorter length. Finally, all the lengths were added to obtain Page | 17

the whole length. In the depression area, inaccessibility area where it is difficult to tapping, ranging we used substance bar for measuring the horizontal distance between the station. For accuracy, Electronics Distance Measuring Instrument (EDM) can check traverse leg but EDM was not visited with.

b)Measurement of traverse angle: The measurements of interior angles of minor stations were done with the help of theodolite within the specified accuracy. One sets of reading was taken for each angle for minor traverse.

2.6.4 Leveling:
R.L. transfer from B.M to T.B.M: To provide vertical control in topographic map, the elevation of relevant points must be known so that contour lines may be traced. Leveling was performed to determine the elevation (relative height from a reference datum). Before starting the fly leveling, two-peg test was performed to check the accuracy of the given (auto) level machine. The nearby bench mark (T.B.M.2) was at thin front of Boys Hostel. Fly leveling was carried out taking back sight at the T.B.M2 and them proceeding to T.B.M.1 (located at gate of Smriti Bhawan) making a closed loops in order to minimize the errors we performed fly leveling. The permanent benchmark is situated at the gate of Laboratory higher Secondary boarding School as RL 1280.00m from sea level. Transferring R.L. to Minor control Points: To transfer the R. L. to minor and link traverse stations, fly leveling was carried out making a complete loop. The precision of the work was checked and after verifying that the closing error lies within the permissible range correction to reduced levels was done as: Correction to the first leg=errorL1/L Correction to the second leg=error (L1+L2)/ L Correction to the (n-1) leg=error (L1+L2Ln-1)/ L Correction to the (n) leg=error (L1+L2Ln)/ L

2.6.5 Detailing:
Detailing means locating and plotting land features in a topographic map. Detailing can be done either by plane table surveying or tachometric surveying,. Plane tabling needs less office work than tachometric survey. Nevertheless, during our camp, we used the tachometric method. In the required station of the minor traverse, the theodolite was set and took the Page | 18

readings on the hard detail (major building) of the given area and also some points on natural ground for plotting contour. Here we plot the detail in the grid paper provided form survey instruction committee in 1:500 scale.

2.6.6 Computations and Plotting:

For the calculations as well as plotting, we applied the coordinate method (latitude and departure method). In this method, two terms latitude and departure are used for calculation. Latitude of a survey line may be defined as its coordinate lengths measured parallel to an assumed meridian direction. The latitude (L) of a line is positive when measured towards north, and termed Northing and it is negative when measured towards south, and termed Southing. The departure (D) of a line is positive when measured towards east, and termed Easting and it is negative when measured towards south, and termed Westing. Firstly, the interior angles were balanced and the bearings of each traverse legs were calculated. From the bearings and known lengths of traverse legs, the consecutive co ordinates of traverse stations were calculated and adjusted because of presence of relative misclousre. The latitude and departures of each control station can be calculated using the relation: Latitude = L Cos Departure = L Sin Where, L=distance of the traverse legs =Reduced bearing Finally the major and minor traverses were plotted together in a scale of 1:1000 & the topographic map of the plot no. 3 was prepared in a scale of 1:500.

2.7 Comments and Conclusion:

The Site for the survey camping was the campus area of T.U., located in Kiritipur, Kathmandu. The topographic map of given area was prepared as per the given norms and specification. The project of topographical survey was felt very effective but the time allocated was shorter. Thus it is better to increase the working period for topographical survey.The arrangements of the survey instruments were appreciable although there were some faulty instruments that made the fieldwork time consuming. Some instruments like theodolite, levels etc.

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did not give the accurate readings. There seems a need of improvement and maintenance of such precise survey instruments. Due to lack of time & instruments as well as due to poor working condition of EDM and GPS our group did not get the opportunity to take part in the demonstration of EDM and GPS. It is strongly suggested to increase the no. and to improve the quality of such instruments so the following survey camp participants will not be untouched to them. Since Kirtipur has a lot of variation in the nature of the land as regards altitude, type of vegetation and other details within itself, it is a very ideal place for topographical surveying. We were able to familiarize ourselves with the different practical approaches applied in surveying in the actual field condition. We experienced the difference between working in a smaller area and working in a larger area. Along with gaining a lot of confidence regarding the use of the instruments, we also felt the responsibility of planning, executing, and completing a project. As a whole, we understood the value of teamwork and mutual coordination in the execution of any project. Completion of survey work within the period and under the required precision was one of the major tasks that we had achieved during the camp.

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3.RESECTION
Objective:
To determine the independent co-ordinates of station 12M9.

Instrument Used:
Theodolite Sokkia-73203 (6")

Theory:
Resection is the procedure of determining the position of observer by means of observations made to previously known points. There are several methods of resection among which the two are: 1. Making observations to two known points. 2. Making observations to three known points. The later one is also known as the analytical resection. There are also several methods of analytical resections. Among which the (-45 0) method is used widely for analytical resection purposes. The method which we have adopted was (-450) method.

Given:

The co-ordinates of some known points in kathmandu valley are given in following table:
S. N . Name Of Station Point Of Observation Easting(m) Northing(m) Altitude( m)

1. 2. 3.

Memorial Tower, Dharahara Clock Tower, Ranipokhari Swoyambhu Stupa, Swoyambhu Bagh Bhairab Temple Kirtipur Chobhar Temple, Chobhar Chimney Tower, Harisiddhi Brick Factory

4.

5.

Top (Pinnacle) of the tower Top (Pinnacle) of the tower top (Pinnacle) of the stupa Top (Pinnacle) of the middle Gajur Top (Pinnacle) of the Gajur Top of the tower

629602.05 4 630081.22 4 627464.71 8 625953.10 4 627611.75 3 632663.35 9

306536.275 3066133.975 3066928.474

1361.840 1331.970 1434.995

3063039.529

1429.810

3061479.468

1442.310

6.

3059130.481

1404.520

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S (627464.718,3066928.474)

1840 3302

D (629602.054,306536.275)
1430 1132 2820 3212

Ch (627611.753,3061479.468)

Calculation of Lengths: SD= (XS- XD)2+(YS YD)2 Similarly we get: Calculation of Bearings: Page | 22 = 2649.161 m. DCh = 4364.087 m. SCh = 5450.980m

Mean angle SPD = 410 2140 Mean angle DPCh = 970 59 10 Calculation of Mean Angle <SDCh (<B) : CosB = a2 + c2 b2 2 ac = (4364.087)2 + (2649.16)2 (5450.989)2 2 * 4364.087 * 2649.16 <B = - 0.158 = 990 4 57

Mean angle < SDH (<B) = 990 4 57 Bearing of SD=1260 12 57 and Bearing of DS=3060 12 57

Similarly we get: Bearing of DH=1530 50 30 and Bearing of HD=3330 50 30

In quadrilateral SPChD
D

Ch

12M9 <x+<y+< B+<+<=3600 Let <X+<Y= =3600 (< B+< +<) X+Y= 3600-(410 2140+ 970 59 10+ 990 4 57)

Or, X+Y = 1210 3413 = 1210 3413 Sin (410 2140) = Page | 23

Again in PSD:

PD=SD/sin 410 2140

And in PDC: PD=DCh/sin 970 59 10 From triangle SDP and ChDP The relation for the common leg PD is given by sinx/siny = sin /SD * DCh/ sin =sin (410 2140)/ 2649.161 * 4364.087 /sin (970 59 10) = 1.0992 Let Sin x / Sin y = k = 1.0992 From the formula, <Y = Tan-1 Sin k+ Cos = Tan-1 Sin 1210 3413 1.0992+ Cos 1210 3413 = 550 57 17 <x = 121 3413 - 55 57 17 = 650 36 55
0 0

Bearing of SP = Bearing of SD + < X = 1260 12 57 + 650 36 55 = 1910 49 52 Now the coordinate of the Point P: Xp = Xs + L Sin 1910 49 52 = 627464.718 + 3834.31 * Sin 1910 49 52 = 626678.575 m Yp = Ys + L Cos 1910 49 52 = 3066928.474 + 3834.31 * Cos 1910 49 52 = 3063175.62 m Now transferring the coordinate of P to the Station of Major traverse 12M9 Bearing of P12 M9 = 2280 38 20 Now coordinate of 12 M 9: X9 = 626678.5753 + 48.009 Sin 2280 38 20 = 626642.542 Y9 = 3063175.62 + 48.009 Cos 2280 38 20 = 3063143.896

Result:
Independent co- ordinates of P are as follows:

X9 = 626642.542m. Y 9= 3063143.896m. Conclusion:

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Hence the independent co- ordinates of major station 12M9 were calculated adopting the principles of Resection and are found to be N=3063143.896 m. and E=626642.542m.

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4. Intersection
Objective: Instrument Used:
To determine the independent co-ordinates of clock tower of TU. Theodolite Sokkia-73203 (6") Theory: Intersection is the procedure of determining the position of the unknown points with the help two known points. Intersection is done by taking angular measurements from the known point to the unknown points.the distances between the known and unknown points are measured by solving the triangle by using sine law and the triangle should be well conditioned as non of the angles should be less than 30 and not more than 90.

701830 410947 683144

Bearing of 12M13-12M14=5501 Bearing of 12M14-12M13=1855359 Distance between 12M13-12M14=111.76m Therefore, Bearing of 12M13-CT=360-683144+ 5501 =2972215 Bearing of 12M14-CT=1855359+ 410947 =227346 Calculation of distance : Distance of 12M13-CT=78.129m Page | 26

Distance of 12M14-CT=110.464m Calculation of Co-ordinate of CT : From pt. 12M13 XCT = X12M13+78.129*sin(2972215) =626892.824+78.129*sin(2972215) =626823.441m YCT= Y12M13+78.129*cos(2972215) =3043089.652+78.129*cos(2972215) =3063125.572m Form pt. 12M14 XCT = X12M14+110.464*sin(227346) =626904.312+ 110.464*sin(227346) =626823.441 YCT = Y12M14+110.464*cos(227346) =3063200.82+110.464*cos(227346) =3063125.572m

Result:
So, the northing of CT=(3063125.572m+3063125.572m)/2 =3063125.572m The easting of CT=(626823.441+626823.441)/2 =626823.441m

5. BRIDGE SITE SURVEY

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5.1 Objectives:
The main objective of the bridge site survey is to give the preliminary knowledge on selection and planning of possible bridge site and axis for the future construction of the bridge. The purpose of the bridge site survey was not only to prepare plan and layout of the bridge site but also from the Engineering point of view, the purpose is to collect the preliminary data about the site such as normal water flow level, high flood level, geological features of the ground for planning and designing of the bridge from the details taken during the surveying. Moreover, bridge construction is an important aspect in the development of transportation network. Surveying is required for topographical mapping, knowledge of longitudinal sections of the river and cross sections at both the upstream and in downstream side of the river for the construction of a bridge.

5.2 Brief description of the area:

Bridge site survey was done over the Coronation Garden Stream inside the premises of T. U. Kirtipur

5.3 Hydrology, geology and soil:

The site is surrounded with steep hill, which is covered with densely planted shrubs. The width of stream is not so big but high flood level covers large area. Water scoured marks on the side, which show the highest flood level.

5.4 Norms (Technical specification):

A bridge site topographical survey was carried out and the alignment of the bridge axis was fixed by triangulation. Along with these we were also supposed to read L-section of river bed and X-section of the river downstream and upstream. A topographic map was prepared by tachometric surveying and longitudinal and cross-sectional profile of the area was drawn. The scales for plotting are as follows: Scale of topographic map =1:500 Scale of L-Section: Horizontal scale =1:1000 Vertical scale = 1:100 Scale of Cross-section Horizontal scale = 1:100 Vertical scale =1:100

5.5 Equipments:
The equipments used in the survey during the preparation of topographic map are as follows: Page | 28

1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11.

Theodolite Ranging rods Leveling instruments Abney level Marker Arrow

8. 12.

2. Staffs 4. Tapes 6. Compass Pegs 10. Tripod Plumb Bob

5.6. Methodology:
The various methods performed during the bridge site survey were triangulation, leveling, tacheometry, cross section, L-section etc. The brief descriptions of these methodologies are given below:

5.6.1 Site Selection:

There are various factors for the selection of bridge site such as geological condition, socio-economical and ecological aspect etc. Therefore, the sites was chosen such that it should be laid on the very stable rocks at the bed of river as far as possible and not affect the ecological balance of the flora and fauna of the site area. The bridge axis should be so located that it should be perpendicular to the flow direction and at the same time, the river width should be narrow from the economical point of view and the free board should be at least 5m. The starting point of bridge axis should not in any way lie or touch the curve of the road. The site selected for the bridge axis was near the curve of the river with no community but with the temples and the shed house near by. For the purpose of the shortest span, the stations were set perpendicular to the river flow direction. The riverbanks were not eroded and were suitable for bridge construction. The chance of change of direction of river on the selected axis line was nominal.

5.6.2 Topographic Survey:

For the topographic survey of the bridge site triangulation was done. First the bridge axis was set and horizontal control stations were fixed on either side for detailing. Distances between stations on the same sides of river i.e. base line were measured with tape precisely. Then the interconnecting triangles were formed and angles were measured with theodolite. The bridge axis length or span was calculated by solving the triangles using the sine rule. Thus the horizontal control was set out. For vertical control, the level was transferred from the TBM2 to preceding BAP1 of the road and was transferred to the stations on the next bank by reciprocal leveling. For the same bank direct level transfer method was used.

5.6.3 Longitudinal Section:

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The L-Section of the river is required to give an idea about the bed slope, nature of the riverbed, and the variation in the elevations of the different points along the length of the river points on the river were calculated. The process of profile leveling was adopted using a tilting level and the reduced levels were obtained at every 25 m. interval moving upstream and downstream of the bridge axis. Then the L-Section of the riverbed was plotted on a graph paper on scale for vertical and horizontal.

5.6.4 Cross-Section:
Cross-section of a river at a particular point is the profile of the lateral sides from the centerline of the river cut transverse to the L-Section at that point. The cross section can be used to calculate the volume and discharge of water at the particular section if the velocity at the cross section is known. Cross sections were taken at an interval of about 25 m extending 150 m upstream and 50 m downstream of the river. Staff readings of points along a line perpendicular to the flow of river were taken from the stations points and the elevations of the points were calculated using tacheometric methods. With all the calculations done and the required data in hand, the cross section was plotted on a scale of 1:100 on the graph paper.

5.6.5 Leveling:
Transferring R.L. from B.M. to control points: The R.L of benchmark TBM 1 was given and was transferred to the triangular stations from the B.M. by fly leveling along the road turning points by taking the back sight reading to the bench mark which should be within the given accuracy. The R.L. was transferred to the triangulation stations by fly leveling and reciprocal leveling was adopted to transfer the R.L. to the opposite bank of the river.

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Reciprocal Leveling:For transferring the RL across the bridge reciprocal leveling was performed. This method eliminates the error due to focusing, collimation, earths curvature and refraction of atmosphere etc. True difference in elevation between A and B = H = ha- (hb-e) Also the true difference in elevation = H = (ha '- e)-hb' Taking the average of the two differences, we get the difference in elevation between A and B

5.6.6 Detailing:
The detailing was done with the help of theodolite. The important details, which were not included in the cross-section data, were taken. All the detailing points were noted for the topographic view of the bridge site.

5.6.7 Computation and Plotting:

The following tacheometric formulas were used for the calculation of the horizontal distance and R.L. of different points: Horizontal distance of any point from the traverse station, H = 100 x S x Cos2 Where, S = Staff intercept = Top - Bottom stadia reading = Vertical Angle And R.L. of a point = R.L. of station + H.I. + H x Tan - Mid wire reading Page | 31

The topographic map, the longitudinal section, and the cross section were plotted on the respective scales after the completion of calculations.

5.7 Comments and Conclusion:

The bridge axis was set keeping in mind all the norms, specifications and the required drawings were prepared in respective scales. During the selection of the site all the considerations like geological, socio-economical and topographical were made and the best site was selected. The flow in river was normal and showed no danger of changing its direction of flow for the design period of the bridge. The work of clearing the bushes and hedges during the survey works was very tedious and time consuming. It is suggested that the site should be chosen for future references in order to minimize the clearing works so that the students may give more time to perform and understand the survey works. The bridge site survey work was quite new and interesting for all the members of our group so we felt the work much effective and interesting as compared to other survey works. Also it was a single package work and the students of two groups were merged for it, which developed the feeling of co operation and taught the group working methodology.

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6. ROAD ALIGNMENT & GEOMETRIC DESIGN 6.1 Brief description of the project area:
Road alignment and bridge site survey includes both the works to run a road between two terminals and to carry a survey for the bridge construction along the route. This specific job is essential for an engineer combating with the mountainous topography of Nepal. The starting point of the route was at the point in front of Basketball Court and the end point was in front of the Transmission tower 132KV near the height of Balkhu Dada. The site is surrounded with steep hill, planed terrain for cultivation as well as for which is covered with densely planted shrubs. The route selected by our group contained 14 I.P with maximum grade of 10%. There are several rise and fall along the route needing lots of cutting, and filling.

6.2 Hydrology and Geology:

The road had to go along a damp route that was much undulated. The place was moist. There were no large boulders or rocks of any kind along the proposed site.

6.3. Soil :
When the soil surface is inclined, there is a component of gravity that tends to move the soil downward. If along the potential slip surface in the soil the stress produced by gravity exceeds the shear strength of the soil along the potential failure surface, the slope will become unstable. Obviously, the shear strength of soil is largely depends upon the type of soil. Cohesive soil has more shear strength than others do. The hard and dense soil is best for slopes. We found soft clayey soil that was very damp. Other kinds of soils were not found along our proposed route. The soil in the farming area is porous, Cohesive and compressible.

6.4. Norms (Technical specifications):

Recce for alignment selection was carried out of the road corridor considering permissible gradient, obligatory points, bridge site, and geometry of tentative horizontal and vertical curves. The road setting horizontal curve, cross sectional detail in 15m interval and longitudinal profile were prepared. The topographic map (scale 1:1000) of road corridor was prepared. Geometric curves, road formation width, right of way, crossings and other details were shown in the map. Page | 33

While performing the road alignment survey, the following norms were strictly followed: The road had to be designed starting from a point in the existing road in front of Basketball Court and ending at the point in front of the Transmission tower 132KV near the height of Balkhu Dada. If the external deflection angle at the I.P. of the road is less than 3, curves need not be fitted. Simple horizontal curves had to be laid out where the road changed its direction, determining and pegging three points on the curve - the beginning of the curve (BC), the middle point (MC) of the curve and the end of the curve (EC) along the centerline of the road. The radius of the curve had to be chosen such that it was convenient and safe. The design gradient of the road had to be maintained below 7 %. Cross sections had to be taken at 15 m intervals and at the beginning, middle and end of the curve, along the centerline of the road - observations being taken for at least 10 m on either side of the centerline. Plan of the road had to be prepared on a scale of 1:1000 L-Section of the road had to be plotted on a scale of 1:1000 horizontally and 1:100 vertically. The cross section of the road had to be plotted on a scale of 1:100 (both vertical and horizontal). The amount of cutting and filling required for the road construction had to be determined from the L-Section and the cross sections. However, the volume of cutting had to be roughly equal to the volume of filling. But we are not enclosed the exact calculation of cut fill area.

6.5. Equipments:
The equipments and accessories used in the survey during the preparation of topographic map are as follows: 1. Theodolite 2. Staffs 3. Ranging rods 4. Tapes 5. Leveling instruments 6. Compass 7. Abney level 8. Pegs 9. Marker

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6.6 Methodology: 6.6.1 Horizontal alignment:

Horizontal alignment is done for fixing the road direction in horizontal plane. For this, the bearing of initial line connecting two initial stations was measured using compass. The interior angles were observed using Theodolite at each IP and then deflection angles were calculated. Deflection angle = (360 or 180) - observed angle If +ve, the survey line deflects right (clockwise) with the prolongation of preceding line and deflects left if ve (anti-clockwise). The radius was assumed according to the deflection angle. Then the tangent length, EC, BC, apex distance along with their chainage were found by using following formulae, Tangent length (T L) = R x tan (/2 ) Length of curve (L.C) = 3.142 x R x /180 Apex distance = R x 1/ (Cos(/2)-1) Chainage of BC = Chainage of IP TL Chainage of MC = Chainage of BC +LC/2 Chainage of EC = Chainage of MC + LC/2 The BC and EC points were located along the line by measuring the tangent length from the apex and the points were marked distinctly. The radius was chosen such that the tangent does not overlap. The apex was fixed at the length of apex distance from IP along the line bisecting the interior angle.

6.6.2 Vertical Alignment:

Vertical profile of the Road alignment is known by the vertical alignment. In the L-section of the Road alignment, vertical alignment was plotted with maximum gradient of 12 %. According to Nepal Road Standard, Gradient of the Road cannot be taken more than 12 %. In the vertical alignment, we set the vertical curve with proper design. Vertical curve may be either summit curve or valley curve. While setting the vertical alignment, it should keep in mind whether cutting and filling were balanced or not.

6.6.3 Leveling:
The R.L. of TBM2 was provided and the method of fly leveling was applied in transferring the level from the given T.B.M2. to Bridge axis initial point and then to all the I.Ps, beginnings, mid points and ends of the curves as well as to the points along the center line of the road where the cross sections were taken up to the beginning of bridge axis After completing the work of one way leveling on the entire length of the road, the closed loop Page | 35

was formed by flying back to TBM2 for check and adjustment. Similar type of procedure was also adopted for the road section after bridge.

6.6.4 Longitudinal section:

For the longitudinal section of the road the staff reading was taken at the interval of every 15m along the centerline of the road. Besides, these staff readings at beginning of the curve, ending of the curve and apex were also taken. The RL of each point were calculated. The profile was plotted on the graph at the horizontal scale of 1:1000 and vertical scale of 1:100; chainage of each point along the horizontal direction and RL in the vertical direction.

6.6.5 Crosssection:
Cross section was run at right angles to the longitudinal profile on either side up to 15m distances wherever possible and the change in the slope was directly measured using the staff intercept made by the horizontal tape i.e. the stepping method. Horizontal scale =1:100 Vertical scale =1:100

6.6.6 Topographic survey of Road Corridor:

Topographic survey of road corridor was done by taking the deflection angle at each point where two straight roads meet. The chainage of intersection point, tangent point and middle points were also taken by taping and applying formula. The staff readings of each of these points were also taken. The R.L was also transferred to find out the elevation and plot it in a map.

6.6.7 Structures:
The main structures provided for road constructions are retaining structures, cross drain, side-drain, bio-engineering structures etc. retaining structures are provided where the slope is critical. Gabion structure, dry masonry structures are the example. The camber of the road is made perfectly by putting 4% of stage for gravel road so as to avoid any collection of water on it. The maximum gradient of the road is about 7% and the minimum gradient of road is about 1% so as to facilitate the flow of drainage to specified direction. However the maximum of 12% was taken wherever not possible. Longitudinal drain is provided on the sides of the road. Retaining walls are provided on required places. Construction of hill roads involves many special structures. These may Page | 36

include wide range of structures, which are used to retain soil mass, to increase stability of road embankment slopes as well as natural hill slopes, to accommodate road bed in steep slope, to penetrate deep through mountain pass and so on. Integration of bioengineering measures with engineering structures is yet another sector requiring special attention. The following types of structures are used normally on the hill road: Retaining structures Drainage structures Slope protection structures Retaining structures: A retaining structure is usually a wall constructed for the purpose of supporting or retaining a vertical or nearly vertical earth bank, which in turn may support vertical loads along with the self-weight of it. It provides adequate stability to the road way and to the slope. Retaining walls are constructed on the valley side on the roadway and also on the cut hillside to prevent slide towards the roadway. Types of retaining wall are: 1. Gravity walls 2. Semi gravity walls 3. Cantilever walls 4. Counter fort walls 5. Buttressed walls 6. Crib walls 7. Reinforced soil walls

6.7 Comments and Conclusions:

Survey of the road alignment is done to make most economical, comfortable, and durable road. Extra case is taken to avoid any soil erosion and any other ecological damage. Horizontal curves are set according to Road Design Standards for comfort and other factors. While setting the road alignment, it should be kept in mind that the minimum IP points should be taken as far as possible and deflection angles should be minimum as far as possible. The task was challengeable and tough due to the route high altitude.

7.0 Concluding Remarks:

Hence, we completed the three projects assigned to us in time although we faced minor difficulties, which are not so memorable than we learn from there. All results we obtained were within the limits given to us. This camp really helped us with the practical parts of survey fieldwork as we were working in conditions we will surely have to face in the future. It Page | 37

increased our confidence in handling instruments as well as completing projects within given deadlines. This trip also offered us relief from the monotony of performing all survey practical within the college compound. It was also a chance to get to know our friends from other sections, work closely, and interact with them. This trip is a good experience in dealing with locals and other people who were interested in our work. We also learned to explain what we were doing to laymen in simple terms. We think I.O.E should organize such trips frequently and for all possible subjects, as practical knowledge is better. In these trips, we gain first hand concept of the subject matter that makes it easier for us to grasp the concept. All in this entire trip was very informative, effective and enjoyable.

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LIST OF TABLES
A)Major traversing:
i) ii) iii) iv) Taping distance measurement sheet. Angle observation sheet. Horizontal angle correction sheet. Traverse computation sheet.

B)Differential leveling:
i) ii) From TBM2 to TBM1 From TBM1 to TBM2

C) Two peg test observation and calculation sheet. D)

i) ii) iii) iv)

Minor and link (Sub minor) traversing:

Taping distance measurement sheet Horizontal angle observation sheet. Horizontal angle correction sheet. Traverse computation sheet

E) Detailing:
Tacheometry survey sheet.

F) Leveling:
i) ii) Fly leveling: minor and link traverses Adjustments of reduced levels.

G)Bridge site survey:

i) ii) iii) iv) Triangulation sheet. Horizontal angle observation and correction sheet. Traverse computation sheet. Leveling: Fly leveling Reciprocal leveling Tacheometry survey sheet

v)

H)
i) ii) iii) iv)

Road alignment and geometric design:

Horizontal curve setting sheet. Tacheometry survey sheet. Leveling works. Cross-section observation sheet.

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LIST OF DRAWINGS:
1. 2. 3. Major and minor traverse. Topographic map of project area. Bridge site:
Topographic map. Longitudinal section of river bed. Cross-section at up and down streams. Topographic map of road corridor. Longitudinal section. Cross sections.

4.

Road alignment and geometric design:

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APPENDIX
1. 2. 3. 4. Index map of T. U. Kirtipur. Plot allocation sheet. General instruction sheet provided by Survey Instruction Committee. Camp work schedule.

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Bibliography
1. SURVEYING (Vol. I & II) - Punmia, B. C.; Khanna Publishers India. 2. INTRODUCTION OF SURVEYING- Anderson, J. M. and Mikhail, E. M.; McGraw- Hill New York. 3. SURVEYING- Banister, A. and Raymond, S.; English Language Book Society. 4. A TEXT BOOK OF SURVEYING- Agor, R. 5. NEPAL ROAD STANDARDS- Published by His Majestys Government, Department of Roads Nepal. 6. Previous reports related to Survey Camp, Road and Bridge construction.

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