LMS Sound Engineering Basics

Outline
1 2 3 4 5 6 What Are the 6 Ss? Sound Pressure Sound Materials Sound Power Sound Source Identification Sound Quality Source-Path-Receiver
Sound Engineering
Six Ss
Do I meet quality objectives? Sound Pressure
SLM, Leq, Octave, Loudness, AI,..
The Real world! Youre either meeting the requirements or youre not
What material should I use to reduce the levels? Sound Materials + Components
absorption, transmission loss in-tube, in-situ, in-room
Do I meet standards?
Sound Power & Pass-by Noise
Pressure & intensity based In-room, in-vehicle, near track
Sound Power Requirement
Sound Quality
Youve met your requirements and now want to improve the sound quality
You have not met your requirements and need to solve them fast
Source Identification
Does it sound right? Why is it annoying? Sound Quality

replay/filter, psycho-acoustic metrics, objective & subjective evaluations
Where is the sound coming from? Sound Source Localization

intensity beam forming holography focalization
What is the root cause? Source? Path? Source-Path-Receiver

Transfer path Analysis Acoustic Source Quantification Vibro-acoustic modal analysis
Source Ranking
Solution
Acoustics in a Nutshell Source-Path-Receiver
Receiver
Path
Source
Receiver
Sound Pressure Sound Quality
Path
Sound Intensity Sound Source Localization Sound Materials+Components
Source
Sound Power
Six Ss
What material should I use to reduce the levels? Sound Materials/Components

LMS Sound Pressure



Sound Pressure
What is Sound? Physics

pressure fluctuations which propagate through an elastic medium (air, liquid, gas, solid) Any vibrating action which moves the particles of the medium (vibrating plate, loudspeaker,) may act as a sound source (=structure born noise <-> airborne noise) The pressure fluctuations are propagated through the air with the speed of sound (c = 343 m/s @ 20C)
What is Sound? Speed of Sound Period and Frequency Wavelength Pressure and Decibels Frequency Content
Octave and third Octave Bands A-, B-, C- and D-weighting Interference Combining Sources
= cT =
c f
Freq 34 Hz
Wavelength 10 meter 1.0 meter 0.1 meter
Frequency (Hz) & period (s): 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz Wavelength (m):
1 f= T
340 Hz 3400 Hz
= cT =
c f
Propagation of Sound
Diffraction
Diffraction is the bending of a sound wave around the edges of obstructions (barrier, opening,) in the path of the wave Bending due to diffraction is highly selective with respect to frequency Long wavelength, low frequency sounds are less affected by barriers and openings than short wavelength, high frequency sounds Examples: Highway barriers fail in reducing low frequency truck noise If music is played in a joining room with a partially intervening partition, the bass portion will dominate behind the barrier Diffraction around human head
shadow beam
Appendix Auditory Range

L dB 130 120 110 100 90
effects of diffraction at low frequencies : (a) behind a barrier, (b) through an opening
PAIN THRESHOLD
HEARING DOMAIN
80 70 Adult male 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
MUSIC
Adult Female
Children
SPEECH
effects of diffraction at high frequencies : (a) behind a barrier, (b) through an opening
HEARING THRESHOLD 20 Hz 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10 k 20 kHz
Sample Sound Levels
Sound pressure level Instrumentation Sound Pressure Level (dB reference = 20*10-6 Pa or 2e-05)
SPL = 20. log10 (
0 dB 94 dB
RMS pressure
p p ) = 10. log10 ( 2 ) p ref p ref

Hearing threshold 1kHz Calibration Pain threshold
20*10-6 Pa 1 Pa 20 Pa
Human hearing is rather logarithmic => dB values
120 dB
Decibel Funny Math
Example 1 Decibel Funny Math
6 dB = Double Sound Pressure Level
Sound Source 1 2 Pa = 100 dB Sound Source 2 2 Pa = 100 dB Source 1 + Source 2*?
? ?
* Assume coherent sources
Sound Source 1 2 Pa = 100 dB Sound Source 2 2 Pa = 100 dB Source 1 + Source 2 4 Pa = 106 dB 100 dB + 100 dB = 106 dB!
Sound Source 1 10 Pa = 113 dB Sound Source 2 2 Pa = 100 dB Source 1 + Source 2*?
Sound Source 1 10 Pa = 113 dB Sound Source 2 2 Pa = 100 dB Source 1 + Source 2 12 Pa = 115.5 dB 113 dB + 100 dB = 115.5 dB
Sound Source 1 10 Pa = 113 dB Sound Source 2 2 Pa = 100 dB Sound Source 3 2 Pa = 100 dB Source 1 + Source 2 + Source 3* 14 Pa = 116.9 dB 113 dB + 100 dB + 100 dB = 116.9 dB
Adding Sources Together
Summation of Coherent Sinusoidal Sound Sources

1000 Hz - Overall Level: 100 dB
2.00 Pa Amplitude
Coherent vs
100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz

0.00 Hz 2000.00
60.0e-6

2.00 Pa Amplitude
+ 100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz *
Incoherent Makes a Difference!
60.0e-6 0.00 Hz 2000.00
* In Phase
Summation of Coherent Sinusoidal Sound Sources

2.00 Pa Amplitude
Summation of Incoherent Sinusoidal Sound Sources

0.00 0.00 Hz 2000.00

2.00 Pa Amplitude
+ 100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz * =
Pa Amplitude
100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz
2.00
100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz

0.00 Hz 3000.00
0.00
+ 100 dB (2 Pa) at 2000 Hz

2.00 Pa Amplitude 0.00 0.00 Hz 3000.00
0.00 0.00 Hz 2000.00
106 dB (4 Pa) Overall
Summation of Coherent Sources: 106 dB

4.01 Pa Amplitude 0.00 0.00 Hz 2000.00
* In Phase
Summation of Incoherent Sinusoidal Sound Sources

2.00 Pa Amplitude
Summation of Incoherent Random Sound Sources

Overall Level of Random Signal1: 100 dB
0.00 0.00 Hz 3000.00
+ 100 dB (2 Pa) at 2000 Hz = 103 dB (2.82 Pa) Overall
Pa Amplitude
100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz
0.20
100 dB Overall Level +

0.00 Hz 24000.00
Overall Level of Random Signal2: 100 dB
0.11
100 dB Overall Level

0.20 Pa Amplitude
2.00 Pa Amplitude
0.11 0.00 Hz 24000.00
0.00 0.00 Hz 3000.00
Summation of Incoherent Sources: 103 dB

2.00 Pa Amplitude 89.9e-6 0.00 Hz 3000.00
Summation of Incoherent Random Sound Sources

Overall Level of Random Signal1: 100 dB 0.20 Pa Amplitude
Decibel Funny Math
100 dB Overall Level +

0.00 Hz 24000.00 Overall Level of Random Signal2: 100 dB
6 dB = Double Sound Pressure Level 3 dB = Double Sound Power Level
0.11
100 dB Overall Level =
0.20 Pa Amplitude
0.11 0.00 Hz 24000.00
103 dB Overall Level
Overall Level of Random Signal1: 100 dB Overall Signal of Random Signal2: 100 dB Summation of Random Signals Overall Level: 103 dB 0.28 Pa Amplitude 0.11 0.00 Hz 24000.00
Rules of Thumb
A-Weighting
10 dB = Perceived twice as loud 3 dB = Minimum perceived change
Filter with similar attributes to ear Simple curve shape, attenuates low frequencies 1000 Hz - no gain/attenuation, used for microphone cals
Basic Acoustics
A-,B-,C- and D-weighting
BACKUP
Octave analysis Constant % bandwidth

1/3 octave
A-weighting corresponds to the 40-phone curve, i.e. the equal loudness contour which passes 40 dB at 1 kHz. Is most often used B- and C-weighting are similar to A-weighting in concept, but correspond to the 70- and 100-phone equal loudness contours D-weighting has been introduced for the purpose of measuring aircraft noise. It attributes more significance to the 1-10 kHz region
1/n OCTAVE filter Filter bandwidth (about % of the center frequency)

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 Octaves 16 31.5 Traces: 2/2 63
1/1 70%
1/3 23%
1/12 6%
Center Frequency (Hz) 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3150 6300 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 80 160 315 630 1250 2500 5000
Pressure dB/2e-005 [Pa]
8000 10000
12600 16000 20160
gain (dB)
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 Frequency [Hz]
Logarithmic frequency scale
frequency (Hz)
X2
Basic Acoustics
Octave and third Octave Bands
Octave bands
Grouping frequencies in octave bands provides a crude form of analysis suited for broadband sounds, which do not contain dominant frequencies The word octave is borrowed from music where it refers to a span of eight notes (do to do). The frequency ratio of the highest note to the lowest one in an octave is 2:1 The reference octave band: 1000 Hz as centre frequency The octave band centre frequencies have the following relation to the 1000 Hz band: f c = 1000.10 0.3 N = 1000.2 N
with N = ,-2,-1,0,1,2,
Basic Acoustics
BACKUP
Octave and third Octave Bands

Third octave bands
BACKUP
31.5
The third octave band centre frequencies have the following relation to the 1000 Hz band:
1
63
f c = 1000.100.1N = 1000.(2 3 ) N
Band limiting frequencies:
with N = ,-2,-1,0,1,2, road noise third octave spectrum measured: synthesized:`
125
250
f lower = 10 0.05.f c
f upper = 100.05. f c
500
1000
Pressure and spectral density

2000 4000
The mean square pressure of a sound, described in octave or third octave bands, is the sum of the mean square pressures of the different bands:
p = pi
_ _
i =1
8000
Band limiting frequencies of octave bands:
16000
The spectral density of an octave or third octave band, i.e. the mean square pressure per Hz, is found by dividing the mean square pressure in that band by the bandwidth
flower =10 .fc
0.15
fupper =10 .fc

0.15
octave and third octave bands
Anechoic Room
Semi-anechoic Room
Highly absorbing surfaces Source radiates as in a free field Almost no reverberation To measure: sound power of source directivity pattern of radiating source Anechoic rooms are more effective at high than at low frequencies. The lowest frequency at which an anechoic room can be used depends on the room volume and the depth of the wedges A very large room (several ms) with 1-2 m wedges is effective down to 100 Hz
anechoic room
Flat, reflecting floor
Sound-absorptive walls and ceiling
To test sources that are normally mounted on or operate in the presence of a reflecting surface (e.g. cars,)
Roller bench inside: sound power TPA ASQ pass-by noise

semi-anechoic room with roller bench
Reverberation Room
High-reflecting, non-parallel walls Diffuse field: nearly uniform sound intensity To measure: sound power of sources Sound absorptive properties of materials Sound transmission through building elements
typical reverberation room
Sound Source Sound path
Other Terms
NearField FarField
At low frequencies, the frequency response to wide-band noise shows several peaks corresponding to the room modes. At higher frequencies, the individual modes begin to overlap and are less obvious To make the room response more uniform at lower frequencies, low-frequency sound absorptive elements and rotating diffusers are often used
Basic Acoustics Standing Waves
node
anti-node
first harmonic: = 2L
second harmonic: = L
third harmonic: =
2L 3 2L 4
LMS Sound Power
fourth harmonic: formation of a standing wave
fifth harmonic: =
2L 5
nodes:
destructive interference
for
anti-nodes: constructive interference
2L n
f =
nc 2L
Six Ss
Sound Power Testing Why & When

Sound Pressure Not a predictable indicator of strength of source Sound Power is the Universal Acoustic metric Quantifies the acoustic potential of an object independent of: Environment Operator distance Acoustic field Can be used to predict sound pressure Preferred use Certification
Blue Angel, GOSH, UL, OSHA, The European Union's Council Directive 86/594/EEC, The Noise Emission Directive 2000/14/EC, Human Vibration Directive 2002/44/EC, Noise at Work Directive 2003/10/EC



Sound path
Sound Source
The Importance of the Sound Power Test
How? Two methods to determine sound-power
Pressure based
Regulations
Comply with target specification Comply with Market Specifications Declaration of certification
Intensity based
Intensity Probe ISO 9614 Complex & time consuming More engineering inside
Regulations
Microphones around object ISO 37xx-series fast & easy One number
Comparison
Compare equipment (same / different types) Compare with competitive product Purchasing parameter in the selection process
Product Engineering
Engineering
Verification of the developed product Indicator for developing quieter product Quality control in production
Product Comparison
Quantification Certification
In-situ use Troubleshooting
Products Concerned with Sound Power Test
EU Directive - Protecting the Workforce
The EU has created following directives dealing with noise and vibration in the working environment Human Vibration Directive 2002/44/EC Noise at Work Directive 2003/10/EC Noise Emission Directive 2000/14/EC Implemented in national legislation by 2010 (2014 for agriculture and forestry) Pressure on manufacturers and suppliers New quality norm can be competitive advantage Can become a branding identity Often products must be ISO certified Pressure on end-user or employer Limit daily exposure of employees to noise/vibration Switch to tools generating less noise/vibration
Hierarchy of Standards
Market Specific Standards & Regulations

Market definition Operating condition of test object Limits or label? Reporting templates
Market specific: - products - industries - regions - customer (internal)
EC/2000/14 CE marking ISO15744 ISO7779 , ECMA-74 ISO9296 , ECMA-109 ... ...
Market definition Operating condition of test object Limits or label? Reporting templates Calculation microphone setup precision environmental correction
Market specific: - products - industries - regions - customer (internal) Hand-held power tools
EC/2000/14 CE marking ISO15744 ISO7779 , ECMA-74 ISO9296 , ECMA-109 ... ...
Non-electrical (ISO 15744 (pneumatic, hydraulic)), Electrical ,Electrical safety test, splash proof test, drop test, sound power test,
How to measure Sound Power?
ISO3741 , ISO3742 , IS03743 ISO3744 ISO3745 , ISO3746
IT & Telecommunication equipment

ISO7779, ECMA-74
Instrumentation
IEC60651 & IEC60804 ANSI S1.11 & IEC1260
Microphones Sound Pressure Levels Octave bands
Computer & Business Equipment

ISO9296, ECMA-109
Market Specific Standards & Regulations
ISO 7779 - Computer & Business Machines

CD and DVD ROM Drives
EU Directive EC/2000/14 Sound-power for outdoor equipment

European directive for outdoor equipment: gardening, construction, (57 categories) Obligation for marking & limit or marking only (labeling products)
Categories Product subjected to limiting (maximum SP level) Products subjected to marking (indicate SP level on every system)
Keyboards Personal computers Workstations Card readers Printers & scanners Punchers Tape storage units Disk storage units Displays Facsimile machines
Standard defines how to determine sound-power Measure pressure at by-stander position How to handle: impulsiveness & tonal components How to average different operating conditions of a printer or copier Blue angel quality label for Computer (based on
compliance with ISO 7779)
Must comply to sell in Europe Strong impact on importing regions Sets reference on exporting regions
Electronic units (processors, electronic memories and controllers, containing electronic circuits, power supplies with cooling parts) Microform readers Self service automatic teller machines Enclosures or rack systems
Driven by harmonization & comfort
European Directive EC/2000/14 : Outdoor equipment

Noise LIMITING
Builders hoists compaction machines Compressors concrete breakers and picks construction winches Dozers & Dumpers Excavators excavator-loaders Graders hydraulic power packs landfill compactors Lawnmowers lawn trimmers/edge Trimmers lift trucks Loaders mobile & tower cranes motor hoes pave-finishers power generators welding generators
Subjected to Noise MARKING

Aerial access platforms brush cutters builders hoists building site band saw machines building site circular saw benches chain saws pressure flushers and suction vehicles compaction machines concrete or mortar mixers construction winches conveying and spraying machines conveyor belts cooling equipment on vehicles drill rigs equipment for loading and unloading silos or tanks on trucks glass recycling containers grass trimmers/grass edge trimmers hedge trimmers high pressure flushers high pressure water jet machines hydraulic hammers joint cutters leaf blowers & collectors lift trucks mobile waste containers pave-finishers piling equipment pipe layers piste caterpillars power generators power sweepers refuse collection vehicles road milling machines Scarifiers shredders/chippers snow-removing machines with rotating tools suction vehicles Trenchers truck mixers water pump units
Sound Power Measurement Test Sequence
Measurement Overview
Microphones spread over a surface enveloping the test object (typically half-spherical) Calculate sound power
Sound Power test sequence

Well defined test sequence 1st Step: ISO selection Size of the source Character of noise Grade of accuracy Application of data Acoustical information Test environment
General Definitions
Experimental setup
1 Lw = 10 log N
10
i =1
0.1L'pi
S K1 K 2 + 10 log S 0
Calibration
Average pressure over microphones K1 correction for background noise At least 6 db above background Recommend is 15 dB above background K2 correction for test environment Reverberation increases SPL S area of measurement surface (S0= 1m2) Measurement distance decreases SPL
Measurement
ISO Report

Selection of specific ISO standard Data acquisition parameters
Hardware setting (signal conditioning, bandwidth, etc) Octave calculation method & weighting Acquisition time Single or batch measurement Data management General Definitions
Experimental setup
Calibration
Microphone selection
As specified in IEC60651 , IEC60805 (accuracy, stability & frequency
response)
Measurement
Sensitivity must not change more than 0.2 dB during test period
Environmental parameters
K2 correction a measure of reverberation decay time Calculation methods: - Measure reverb time according to ISO 3741 - Comparison method (ISO 3741) - Approximation method (ISO 3744) Temperature & static pressure
ISO Report

Configuration of measurement surface
Spherical 6/12 & 10/20 Rectangular Cylinder Cylinder + sphere Full sphere ISO6798 General Definitions

Typical configuration
General Definitions
Experimental setup
Experimental setup
Bystander & operator (# & position) ISO7779

Detailed requirement for microphone positioning
Calibration
Calibration
Measurement
Measurement
ISO Report
ISO Report

Required during each series of measurements
General Definitions
Calibration of the entire measuring system

At one or more frequencies Over the measuring frequency range Experimental setup
Acoustical calibrator:
Accuracy of +/- 0.5 dB Verification once a year (at least)
Calibration
Measurement
Extra flexibilities
Auto detection of microphones Audible & visual feedback Tolerance on calibration value Comparison with previous values ISO Report

Global
Sound pressure levels during equipment operation Sound pressure level of the background noise Sound pressure level during sound source operation
- only for comparison method ISO3741 - replaces measuring the reverberation time
General Definitions
Experimental setup
Test duration
30 seconds for f 100 - 160 Hz 10 seconds for f 200 Hz Repetitive operation cycles; minimum of 3 cycles Varying operation cycles; total sequence Calibration
Measurement
Background noise Lb
Measurement when the equipment is not operating Subtract from the operational situation Lc (at each measurement points and each frequency band) Correction is required if 6 dB > Lb <15 dB of Lc ISO Report

Calculation of the Sound Power Level ( A weighted)
1 Lw = 10 log N
K1: K2: S: S0:

Actions during the measurement No specific ISO actions during the measurement Common sense & experience Expected flexibility Oscilloscope
On-line presentation of data (SPL, directivity, 1/3 & 1/1 Octaves, Octave band level, etc) Level indicator for each microphone
10
i =1
0.1 L'pi
S K1 K 2 + 10 log S0
General Definitions
General Definitions
correction for background noise correction for test environment (reflecting planes) area of the measurement surface in m2 reference surface areas 1m2
Experimental setup
Experimental setup
Calibration
Measurement control
Start / Stop / Record / Accept & Reject Automatic data storage & management Simultaneous verses batch measurement Parallel measurements (e.g. throughput)
Calibration
Additional / Optional measurements Impulsiveness

To decide whether the noise contains significant impulsive components If impulsive noise index 3 dB impulsive
Measurement
Measurement
Feedback & quality status ISO Report

Graphical representation of microphone positions Overload indicator per microphone Visual feedback on conformity to ISO standard (Compliance, F2, F3 & F4)
ISO Report
Discrete tones
To identify tones masked by the noise in the critical band Determine discrete tone prominent if 10 dB above the audibility threshold
Operating modes
Expert / standard operator Password protection

Sound Source
Description of the sound source, operating conditions, mounting conditions & location in the test room
General Definitions
Environment
Dimensions and physical properties of the test room Acoustical qualification of the test room (as described in ISO) Temperature, humidity & pressure
Experimental setup
Calibration Instrument
Test equipment (name, type, S/N, manufacturer) Acquisition specifications (bandwidth, frequency response, etc) Calibration of microphones
Measurement
Data
Microphone locations, background noise, LP (per Octave), LW (per Octave), tabular & plot of the corrected LW , impulsiveness, discrete tones, directivity index, data annotations (time & date).
ISO Report
Final statement
State full conformity with the procedure
Sound Power Simulation Why?

Sound Power is the Universal Acoustic metric Predict Lw earlier in the development cycle Quickly predict effects of changes without requiring a physical prototype Can be used to compare results later in the development cycle
LMS Intensity
Receiver
Sound Pressure Sound Quality
Path
Sound Intensity Sound Source Localization Sound Materials+Components
Source
Sound Power
Six Ss
What is Intensity?
Sound intensity is the average rate of sound energy transmitted in the specified direction through a unit area (1 m2) normal to this direction at the point considered.
Intensity = Pressure x Particle Velocity Force Distance Energy Power Watts = = 2 Area Time Area Time Area m



Sound is a vector quantity that has both magnitude and direction, because the energy will flow in some directions but not others Intensity is dependent on the sources properties and the distance from the source
Applications of Sound Intensity
Measurement Equipment
Mic Signal Conditioning Card for SCADAS III USB Remote for Test.Lab
Spacers
Sound Power Determination Noise Source Localization: Mapping and Ranking Transmission Loss of Structures Sound Absorption of Materials and Structures Specific Acoustic Impedance Measurements Measurement of Radiation Efficiency of Sources
Mic Signal Conditioning Card for SCADAS Mobile
Measurement Considerations Frequency Limitations

Lower Frequency Limit
Phase mismatch between microphones Typically < 0.3 degrees for matched probe microphones Ex: At 63 Hz the wavelength is approximately 5.5 m and the change of phase over a 12mm spacer is only 0.8 so a phase mismatch of 0.3 will cause a significant error in the intensity
Pressure Residual Intensity Index (PRII)

Upper frequency Limit Spacer distance : < 1/6th of the wavelength
Pressure Residual Intensity Index (PRII) quantifies the phase mismatch Defined as a noise floor below which measurements cannot be made Caused by a small phase difference between the 2 signals, which is interpreted as intensity along the spacer Measured in an intensity calibrator which gives the same signal to both mics (0 intensity) Phase change in degrees along the spacer distance must be over 5 times the phase mismatch for accuracy within 1dB Dynamic Capability Index (Ld) gives a limit to the Pressure Intensity Index that can be measured with accuracy, applying a bias error correction factor (K)
Grade of Accuracy
Bias Error Factor (dB) 10 10 7
Precision (Grade 1) Engineering (Grade 2) Survey (Grade 3)
PRII Measurement
ISO Quality Checks

ISO 9614 Field Indicators ensure the quality of the measurements and meshes Notice the PRII Index is small at the low and high octave bands, which is to be expected because the phase difference for intensity microphones is large in these frequency ranges
F2: Surface pressure-intensity indicator Examines the difference between the pressure and the absolute values of intensity, which tells how diffuse or reactive a field is Small value = good measurement conditions Large value = probe not aligned well or measuring in a diffuse field F3: Negative partial power indicator Examines the difference between measured intensity and pressure while taking the direction of the intensities into account, which gives amount of extraneous noise Positive direction = intensity from source under investigation Negative direction = intensity from extraneous sources F4: Non-uniformity indicator Indicates the measure of spatial variability that exists in the field, which verifies the mesh adequacy
Intensity Analysis
Overall Intensity Level of Speaker from 100 to 4100Hz
Software Presentation Techniques Operational Deflection Shapes

Sound Intensity of Speaker at 720Hz
Measurement Considerations Strengths and Weaknesses
Once you identity your issue (either via Sound Power or Sound Quality) you need to find the source Multiple techniques are available today Sound Pressure Mapping Not very accurate Time consuming Sound Intensity Mapping Very accurate and well accepted technique Calculate Sound Power from results Time Consuming Array Acoustics Techniques Accurate results Very fast testing (typically less than a minute) Compelling graphical output NAH, Beamforming, and Focalization
Strengths
Allows measurement of energy flow (intensity = vector quantity) No influence of environment: what flows in from one side flows out from another side can cope with extraneous noise (other sources in the background) no need for special test room (anechoic, semi-anechoic or reverberant room) or specific test conditions
Weaknesses
Frequency range is limited compared to measurements based on sound pressure Time consuming, requires experienced personnel Expensive equipment compared to free field microphones
Six Ss

LMS Acoustic Arrays



Is this source identification ?
Intensity Measurements
Acoustic Sound Source Localization Evolution
Positive Supported by ISO/ANSI standards Widely accepted and used in industry Supports Power Calculations Negative expensive intensity probe measurements normally in far-field (low spatial resolution) TIME CONSUMING for troubleshooting
Holography
Predominant 10 years ago Array bigger than object High frequencies require high mics
LMS has solutions for all 3 domains
Beamforming
Array smaller than object Double frequency for same mics Far field only Poor spatial resolution at low freq
Focalization
Same as Beamforming Extend to Nearfield
Holography vs focalization
Holography Array Examples
Very good resolution at any frequency with holography

Great number of microphones or positions for HF
Good resolution on for HF Fewer microphones required for HF poor resolution in LF
NAH
Focalization
Solution: Use NAH for LF Double the frequency range on the SAME data by using focalization
What is Beamforming?
Assumption: antenna measures planar waves => Farfield measurement Time signal simultaneously recorded at a number of microphones Source
What is Focalization?
Assumption: antenna is in the near-field => measures spherical waves => Time signal simultaneously recorded at a number of microphones
What is Focalization?
Assumption: antenna is in the near-field => measures spherical waves => Time signal recorded at a number of microphones
LMS Acoustic Array: Just Point and Shoot
Nearfield and Farfield

400 to 6000 Hz
s (t )
S Rj D
1 N
p j (t j ) with j = d cos
j =1
Quick, Easy Setup
Fast and Accurate
Stationary and Runup
S ( f ) Pj ( f )e
j =1
ikR j
with kRj = 2f j
Uses Test.Lab & Scadas
Delay depends on the radius not distance
Array configurations for Beamforming
SNAP ON MICS
INFRARED DISTANCE SENSOR
WIDE ANGLE LENS
Where is the sound coming from?
LMS interior SSL: SW

What are the challenges in doing the interior SSL? Readable pressure results Accurate propagation Interactive displays
Sound Source Localization
dB A(P a) 100 89 81
_641800rpm _droit 1-[4.000 - 5.700 s] [ 2340 - 2580 Hz]-d -0.47
40
Structural Noise Problem Accurate FE Model Correlation and Pre-Test Aero Acoustic Problem CFD based Input Accurate Loads CAE based Loads Test Based Loads Or a combination
Solutions: Simple box or sphere mesh generated in software used for trucks & trains Picture wrapped around mesh Library of simple meshes for different car interiors Import mesh generated with other program Special sheet to position sphere against mesh/picture LMS offers the best solution on the market with respect to: Visualization Interactivity Accuracy (from a geometry and technological viewpoint)
Source Ranking Why & When

Natural next step after Source Identification Find out how much energy each major noise source is radiating Pay attention to frequency content ala Sound Quality! Rank noise sources to: Find the worst offender and attack that first Determine which sources are irrelevant Get an idea of the acoustic landscape
LMS Sound Quality
Six Ss
What is Sound Quality?

The next step in product characterization make your product sound better When just having the quietest product is not enough The Sound Power values are the same but this product sounds better Quantifies the human perception of product sound Psychology + Acoustics = Psychoacoustics Varies based on age, demographics, socio-economic status, etc Can be used as a Brand Recognition differentiator


What is the root cause? Source? Path?

Noisy
Fridge A
Fridge C
Source-Path-Receiver
Fridge B
Sounds right Looks right
Perceived Quality
Making the Subjective Objective
Sound Quality Why & When

Measurement Use a binaural head to record true stereo Measure in a realistic environment Follow good acoustic testing practices Analysis Listen to the sound Apply filters to remove artifactsWhat If Use Psychoacoustic Metrics like Zwicker Loudness, Roughness, Tone to Noise Ratio Dont forget the classic acoustic metrics Jury Testing Controlled listening tests with real customers Statistically analyze results to find what customers prefer Use results to refine your product and specifications
BINAURAL HEAD
BINAURAL HEAD
Mic1 Mic2
Binaural = 2 Ears
Directional Sound Effects
106 fit for the future - copyright LMS International - 2009
Binaural Recording and Equalization
DIGITAL BINAURAL HEAD
Accounting for Torso and Ear
Digital, Not Analog SPDIF or AES-EBU Embedded information on 16th bit: Sound Field (DF, ID, FF) Range (94 db, 104 db, etc)
DF = Difuse Field FF = Free Field ID = Independent of Direction
ScadasMobile VS8 Digital/Analog Card
Digital Playback and Equalization

Digital Playback Equalization Unique Serial #
On VS8 Card, last two channels can switch between Analog and Digital to read Head data directly
Sound Metrics
Sound Metrics
Subjective Testing: A Story Noise problem for IT server design 10 servers chosen for jury testing - 5 good/5 bad 30 people listen - rate on scale of 1 to 10
Engineers sent from fan supplier How do their ratings compare to others? Worse Same Better
Sound Metrics
Sound Metrics
Engineers from fan supplier How do their ratings compare to others?
Getting closer to product launch date How do the ratings compare to previously? Worse Same Better
Better!
Sound Metrics
Sound Metrics
Getting closer to vehicle launch date How do the ratings compare to previous?
Sound Metrics attempt to predict the subjective response of people in an objective manner The field is still evolving, known also as psychoacoustics
Better!
Human perception psycho-acoustics

The human hearing is not linear Sensitivity is frequency dependent: most sensitive in speech range => A-weighting Sensitivity is level dependent => curves of equal loudness Human perception also depends on level & frequency spectrum: broadband noise/tonal component, sharpness, masking effects variation: fluctuation, roughness, modulations, transients context: day/night; music/machine
20 Hz
Loudness
2 tones, same magnitude, different frequencies Which is louder?
You cannot hear 20 Hz!
200 Hz
Individual preferences: sportive sound (low/high frequency)
A-Weighting
Loudness
Filter with similar attributes to ear Simple curve shape, attenuates low frequencies 1000 Hz - no gain/attenuation, used for microphone cals
6 dB -> Twice the amplitude (sound pressure) 76 dB vs. 70 dB 60 dB vs. 54 dB Not intuitive that 6 dB (or 10 dB perceived) is twice as loud
Loudness Sones & Phons
Loudness - Mark VI
Equal Loudness Curves 1 sone = 40 phon 2 sones twice as loud as 1 sone

SPL (dB)
Stevens Mark VI
4 sones twice as loud as 2 sone

Phons 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 Sones 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
frequency (Hz)
Loudness - Mark VII
Loudness
ISO532B - Zwicker Loudness - Masking Stevens Mark VII
Articulation Index
SIL and PSIL
Percentage of syllables understood Ranges from 0 to 100%
Rates how much a given sound interferes with human speech
Roughness and Fluctuation Strength
What does the sum of a 400 Hz sine wave and 405 Hertz sine wave look like? What do you hear? Measure of Modulation Fluctuation 0-20 Hz, Max at 4 Hz Roughness 20-300 Hz, Max at 70 Hz
Engine Harmonics
Lets take two sweeping sine tones over 10 secs: 10 Hz to 100 Hz 11 Hz to 110 Hz
110
600 Hz
600
500 Hz
5th order 6th order

400 Hz
What is end modulation frequency (at time 10)?

10 Hz!
Hz
300 Hz
What is initial modulation frequency (at time 0)?

Hz
4th order
200 Hz
60 Hz 50 Hz
3th order 2nd order 1st order

600 RPM
150 Hz 100 Hz
1 Hz!
0 0 seconds 10
40 Hz 30 Hz 20 Hz 15 Hz 10 Hz0
6000
Jury testing : why ?
Quantifying subjective quality on statistical basis Understand how quality perception depends on the profile of the listener Correlation of objective measurements with subjective quality perception
Development of Strong and Powerful Sound Metric
132 copyright LMS International - 2009
Jury Test Methods : Paired Comparison
Jury Test preparation
All possible pairs from a set of stimuli are exposed to the jury in random-like sequence For every pair, subjects are asked to indicate which stimulus (A or B) is superior for some given criterion Pro : Possible with multiple subjects Works fine for naive subjects Easy method for analysis Contra : Limited to about 15 stimuli Test takes a lot of time
A B C D E F G A B C D E F G Total 1 1 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 -
9 Sound samples 5 original samples Vehicle 2 with orders 2.5 & 5.5 boosted Vehicle 2 with resonance filtered out Vehicle 4 with increased loudness Vehicle 4 with orders 3, 6 and 9 boosted Conditioning Equalization for equal global loudness
1 1
0 0 0
4 5 1 6
133 copyright LMS International - 2009
Results of Initial Jury Test
Consistency of Results from Initial Test
Kendall's RCC vs Consistency

1.0000 0.9000
Juror 10 Juror 11 Juror 12 Juror 13 Juror 14 Juror 15 Juror 17 Juror 19 Juror 16 Juror 18 Juror 1 Juror 3 Juror 5 Juror 6 Juror 7
Consistency Compared to Self Concordance Compared to Group Eliminate inconsistent people from final analysis!
Juror 8
Juror 9
Juror 20
Juror 2
Juror 4
0.8000
Total
0.7000 Concordance 0.6000 0.5000 0.4000 0.3000 0.2000 0.1000 0.0000 0.00
Experience Briefed Vehicle 1 Vehicle 1 Modif 1 Vehicle 2 Vehicle 3 Vehicle 4 Vehicle 5 Vehicle 5 Modif 2
2 10 0 Ins. Ins. Yes 3 3 2 4.5 5 5 4.5 4 4 2 1 2 1 2 2 6.5 7 6 6.5 6 7
3 No 3 5 4 2 1 6 7
0 No 2 4 6.5 1 4 4 6.5
0 No 3 5 4 1 2 7 6
3 No 3.5 6.5 3.5 1 2 6.5 5
0 Yes 3 5 7 2 1 5 5
3 No 3 4 7 2 1 6 5
0 0 0 Yes Yes Yes 2.5 6.5 1 1 6.5 4.5 7 3 7 2.5 3 2.5 4 1 2.5 5.5 5 6 5.5 3 4.5
0 No 3 1 7 2 5 6 4
10 No 7 6 1 3 3 5 3
1 1 0 1 0 0 Ins. Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 6 5 3 6.5 6.5 6 7 6 1 6.5 4.5 5 3 4 6 1.5 6.5 7 2 2 4 3 1 1.5 1 1 2 1.5 4.5 3.5 5 3 7 4 3 1.5 4 7 5 5 2 3.5
3 4 5 1 2 7 6
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
Consistency
Reduced Jury Set
A linear model
Convert jury testing scores to a real valued function Bradley-Terry model to map jury test results onto this scale.
Juror 10 Juror 12 Juror 13 Juror 15 Juror 19 Juror 2 Juror 5 Juror 8 Juror 9 Juror 20 Total 3 4 5 1 2 7 6
Vehicle -1 Vehicle-1 modif 1 Vehicle 2 Vehicle 3 Vehicle 4 Vehicle 5 Vehicle 5 modif 1
3 4.5 4.5 2 1 6.5 6.5
3 5 4 1 2 7 6
2 5 4 2 2 6 7
3 5 4 2 1 6 7
2 4 6.5 1 4 4 6.5
3 5 4 1 2 7 6
3.5 6.5 3.5 1 2 6.5 5
3 5 7 2 1 5 5
3 4 7 2 1 6 5
1 4.5 7 2.5 2.5 6 4.5
Signal 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
Score 41.00 22.00 18.00 53.00 51.00 12.00 13.00
Real Values 0.96 -0.63 -1.04 1.84 1.72 -1.44 -1.41
Kendall's RCC vs Consistency

1.00 0.80 Concordance 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 Consistency
0 1 1 9 8 0 0
9 0 6 9 10 4 0
9 4 0 10 10 4 5
1 1 0 0 4 0 1
2 0 0 6 0 0 1
10 6 6 10 10 0 6
10 10 5 9 9 4 0
Correlation with Metrics
Metric for Strong and Powerful
Vehicle-1 modif 1
Vehicle 5 modif 1
Significantly present in the signal No overlap in phenomena Sufficient dynamics
% Ord 12 PSIL PSIL/Zwicker) SIL AI % half Imp_Peak %half/%even % oth even Sharpness % odd Order 8 %even/%odd Order 12 Imp_OccRate %even/(%half+%odd) SB Imp_RiseRate Order 4 Odd Roughness Imp_Duration CRP Half % Ord 8 Other Even % even Fluct_strength % Ord 4
0.0104 63.38 1.87 58.65 0.53 0.19 0.21 0.74 0.03 0.74 0.09 52.85 2.92 49.46 8.35 0.93 29.94 5958.48 63.37 57.07 0.23 0.00 70.35 60.09 0.03 49.51 0.26 0.17 0.19
0.0114 63.98 1.88 59.25 0.51 0.15 0.19 0.53 0.02 0.76 0.09 59.04 3.10 55.63 8.80 1.18 28.19 5742.97 69.62 62.94 0.19 0.00 70.38 64.65 0.03 55.06 0.28 0.20 0.21
0.0114 63.43 1.87 58.76 0.51 0.15 0.10 0.53 0.02 0.77 0.09 59.04 3.10 55.63 7.73 1.18 34.77 6180.26 69.62 62.94 0.15 0.00 72.91 64.65 0.03 55.06 0.28 0.16 0.21
0.0063 62.68 1.85 57.66 0.54 0.22 0.21 0.75 0.02 0.77 0.05 55.97 5.43 53.46 7.22 1.07 32.58 8062.36 68.51 62.60 0.16 0.00 72.29 67.83 0.02 57.36 0.29 0.14 0.24
0.0058 63.33 1.87 58.58 0.51 0.28 0.14 1.13 0.03 0.77 0.10 60.80 2.43 52.38 4.81 0.65 34.54 4241.61 68.27 66.52 0.17 0.00 73.40 69.76 0.06 60.10 0.25 0.14 0.15
0.0112 64.83 1.90 60.28 0.45 0.18 0.12 0.70 0.02 0.86 0.10 60.93 2.58 53.35 7.06 0.92 31.25 5297.64 67.17 64.41 0.18 0.00 72.89 67.68 0.04 58.20 0.26 0.13 0.19
0.0111 64.80 1.91 60.90 0.43 0.18 0.12 0.70 0.02 0.87 0.10 60.62 2.58 53.03 7.26 0.92 29.96 5555.82 66.86 64.10 0.18 0.00 72.81 67.37 0.04 57.88 0.26 0.12 0.19
-0.88 -0.84 -0.83 -0.82 0.78 0.73 0.68 0.65 0.63 -0.62 -0.53 -0.51 0.49 -0.46 -0.39 -0.38 0.32 0.23 -0.16 -0.15 0.10 -0.09 -0.09 0.07 -0.06 -0.03 -0.03 0.01 0.01
Regression
Correlation
Vehicle -1
Vehicle 2
Vehicle 3
Vehicle 4
Vehicle 5
% HALF ORDERS 5.13 PSIL/Zwicker + 9.24

* * * * *
Verification with real values (model)
Physical Modifications
Metric * 100
Real Value
Unequal runner in intake manifolds Unequal runner in exhaust manifold Change firing order of engine Presents packaging challenge Example: Transverse engine for exhaust Wraparound exhaust Modifications to transmission Requires decisions early in program
Signal Vehicle 2 Vehicle 2 modif 1 Vehicle 1 Vehicle 3 Vehicle 5 Vehicle 4 Vehicle 4 modif 1
3.57 -5.48 -1.10 11.94 13.01 -7.33 -8.38
0.96 -0.63 -1.04 1.84 1.72 -1.44 -1.41
Extra bend for equal length = smooth sound
Correlation 96%
Rear of Car
Sound Quality via Simulation
Replay the simulated sound levels of various club designs
Sample A
LMS Sound Materials/Components
Sample B
Six Ss
Instrumentation: Measurements setups for material testing.

Absorption 2-mic transfer-function method Test on small samples or mufflers Impedance tube (Kundt tube) FRF based method ISO 354 standard
Sound Transmission Loss 4-mic transfer matrix
ISO 10534-2 ASTM E1050
Mainly used for mufflers
ISO 140-3



Test om larger samples or complete objects like doors 1 or 2 rooms pressure & reverberation
Test om larger samples or complete object 1 or 2 rooms intensity
N.A.
Combine source localization & sound transmission loss testing
LMS solutions are available via specials
Reflection
Incident sound wave on a surface: (a) part of it is reflected (b) part is absorbed (c) part is transmitted
Reflected energy absorbed incident energy
Absorption
absorption coefficient
Absorption coefficient is defined as:

absorbing material
transmitted energy
100 mm 50 mm 30 mm
= 1
E reflected Eincident
< 0.1: extremely hard surfaces (e.g. steel, dense concrete,): high reflection, low absorption > 0.9: highly absorbent material (e.g. foam,): low reflection, high absorption
Typical effects in a room: Convex surface: dispersion Concave surface: focusing

dispersion Convex surface
100
1000 frequency (Hz)
1000 0
Parallel surface: standing waves: gives large variation in sound pressure from node to anti-node
focusing standing waves and echo
Absorption characteristics of a material depend on a number of parameters: thickness, porosity, frequency, flow resistence, roughness,
echo: time delay of 0.05 s is serious enough to confuse or irritate a listener in a room Standing waves and echos can be avoided by use of rough, non-parallel, acoustically soft walls
Concave surface
foam
Transmission
Transmission coefficient (-):
Acoustic material testing using impedance tube
E transmitte d E incident
Absorption 2-microphones
sound insulation against environmental noise
Sound transmission loss or sound reduction factor TL (dB):
1 TL = 10 log( )
transfer-function method ISO 10534-2 and ASTM E1050 Sound Transmission Loss
TL is a measure of the noise reduction in decibels for specific frequency ranges. In general, there is a better sound insulation at higher frequencies
Cases: thick concrete wall: high resistance to passage of sound, high sound reduction index TL thin plaster wall: low resistance to passage of sound, low sound reduction index TL
Hz
4-microphone
Transfer Matrix method
TL of sound barrier mats
Impedance tube
Sound Transmission Loss: 2-room method
Covers a wide frequency range with only 1 tube/measurements: 50 - 5700 Hz Design for optimal signal/noise quality High signal: Stable & distortion free JBL driver (max. 150 dB) Low Noise: Heavy and thick-wall brass design Tube length > 20 * diameter (required for pure plane wave) Extendible for Sound Transmission Loss
Sending room: N mics (typical 6) Source (loudspeaker) Test variance between mics in sending room (quality criteria) Overload check Receiving room Average pressure M mics Back ground noise check S/N ratio quality criteria Re-use of room reverberation characteristics
Transmission Loss with Muffler
CAE: Transmission Loss

To do this we compared results obtained by J. W. Sullivan and M. J. Crocker (predicted and measured) in their paper Analysis of concentric-tube resonators having unpartitioned cavities. As you can see the transmission loss curves closely match each other
Transmission loss obtained from Sullivan & Crocker Transmission loss obtained from Virtual.Lab
CAE: Transmission Loss
40.00
CAE Predicted Test Measured
-20.00 0.00 Hz 2500.00
/ dB

LMS Sound Engineering Basics

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LMS Sound Engineering Basics

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Outline

Sound Power Requirement

Does it sound right? Why is it annoying? Sound Quality

Where is the sound coming from? Sound Source Localization

What is the root cause? Source? Path? Source-Path-Receiver

Acoustics in a Nutshell Source-Path-Receiver

Acoustics in a Nutshell Source-Path-Receiver

What material should I use to reduce the levels? Sound Materials/Components

LMS Sound Pressure

Where is the sound coming from? Sound Source Localization

What is the root cause? Source? Path? Source-Path-Receiver

What is Sound? Physics

Wavelength 10 meter 1.0 meter 0.1 meter

Frequency (Hz) & period (s): 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz Wavelength (m):

Appendix Auditory Range

HEARING THRESHOLD 20 Hz 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10 k 20 kHz

Sample Sound Levels

p p ) = 10. log10 ( 2 ) p ref p ref

Human hearing is rather logarithmic => dB values

Decibel Funny Math

Example 1 Decibel Funny Math

6 dB = Double Sound Pressure Level

Sound Source 1 2 Pa = 100 dB Sound Source 2 2 Pa = 100 dB Source 1 + Source 2*?

* Assume coherent sources

Example 1 Decibel Funny Math

Example 2 Decibel Funny Math

Sound Source 1 10 Pa = 113 dB Sound Source 2 2 Pa = 100 dB Source 1 + Source 2*?

* Assume coherent sources

Example 2 Decibel Funny Math

Example 2 Decibel Funny Math

Adding Sources Together

Summation of Coherent Sinusoidal Sound Sources

100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz

1000 Hz - Overall Level: 100 dB

+ 100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz *

Incoherent Makes a Difference!

60.0e-6 0.00 Hz 2000.00

Summation of Coherent Sinusoidal Sound Sources

Summation of Incoherent Sinusoidal Sound Sources

0.00 0.00 Hz 2000.00

1000 Hz - Overall Level: 100 dB

+ 100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz * =

100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz

100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz

+ 100 dB (2 Pa) at 2000 Hz

2000 Hz - Overall Level: 100 dB

0.00 0.00 Hz 2000.00

106 dB (4 Pa) Overall

Summation of Coherent Sources: 106 dB

Summation of Incoherent Sinusoidal Sound Sources

Summation of Incoherent Random Sound Sources

0.00 0.00 Hz 3000.00

+ 100 dB (2 Pa) at 2000 Hz = 103 dB (2.82 Pa) Overall

100 dB (2 Pa) at 1000 Hz

100 dB Overall Level +

100 dB Overall Level

2000 Hz - Overall Level: 100 dB

0.11 0.00 Hz 24000.00

0.00 0.00 Hz 3000.00

Summation of Incoherent Sources: 103 dB

Summation of Incoherent Random Sound Sources

Decibel Funny Math

100 dB Overall Level +

6 dB = Double Sound Pressure Level 3 dB = Double Sound Power Level