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Communication
Communication may be defined as the transfer of information from sender to receiver, with the information being understood by the receiver. The communication function is the means to unify an organized activity, through transfer of information from one individual to another, or from one system to another.

Introduction Communication aside from an act is also a process. The process of communication includes transmission of information, ideas, emotions, skills, knowledge by using symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs or illustrations, and even gestures and appearances. The act of communication is referred to as transmission. It is the process of transmission that is generally termed as communication.The English word communication is derived from the Latin noun communis and the Latin verb communicare that means to make common. Communication is a much-hyped word in the contemporary world. It encompasses a multitude of experiences, actions and events, as well as a whole variety of happenings and meanings, and technologies too. Meetings, conferences, or even a procession thus can be a communication event. Newspapers, radio, video, and television are all communication tools. The media and journalists, newsreaders; advertisers, public relation persons, and even camera crew are communication professionals.

The Communication Process

To communicate effectively, we need to be familiar with the factors involved in the communication process. If we are aware of them, these factors will help us plan, analyze situations, solve problems, and in general do better in our work no matter what our job might be. This leads to a discussion of the communication process. (below) ___________________________________________________________________________
COMMUNICATION MODEL A model of the communication process is based on the following elements: Sender The communication process begins with the sender who has a thought or an idea. The sender encodes the message in a way which is understandable by both the sender and the receiver. Transmission The message is transmitted over a channel which links the sender and the receiver. Receiver The role of the receiver in the communication process is to receive, decode, and understand the message. The process of decoding involves conversion of message from symbols to thoughts. Feed-back Feedback is given by the receiver and is used to ensure the effectiveness of the communication process. Noise Noise in the communication process is defined as anything which hinders accurate communication.

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PRIMARY FUNCTION OF COMMUNICATION Essentially, the primary function of communication is to inform, educate, entertain and persuade people. The following are the basic functions of communication:
Education and Instruction- This function of education starts early in life, at home and in school and continues throughout life. Communication provides knowledge, expertise, and skills for smooth functioning by people in the society. It creates awareness and gives opportunity to people to actively participate in public life. Information- quality of our life will be poor without information. The more informed we are the more powerful we become. Communication provides information about our surroundings. Information regarding wars, danger, crisis, famine, etc. are important for the safety and well being of our life. Entertainment- To break the routine life and divert our attention from the stressful life we lead today, entertainment is an essential part of everybodys life. Communication provide endless entertainment to people through films, television, radio, drama, music, literature, comedy, games, etc. Discussion- debates and discussions clarify different viewpoints on issues of interest to the people. Through communication, we find out reasons for varying viewpoints and impart new ideas to others. Persuasion- it helps in reaching for a decision on public policy so that it is helpful to govern the people. Though it is possible, that one can resort to persuasion for a bad motive. Thus, the receiver must be careful about the source of persuasion. Cultural promotion- communication provides an opportunity for the promotion and preservation of culture and traditions. It makes the people fulfill their creative urges. Integration-it is through communication that a large number of people across countries come to know about each others traditions and appreciate each others ways of life. It develops integration and tolerance towards each other.

Types of communication One important aspect of communication is that it does not take place in isolation. Communication occurs when at least two elements of a system are present. We often think of communication as an interaction between two people. However, we participate in several communication contexts or levels of communication. The major forms of communication are: Intrapersonal communication Interpersonal communication Group communication Mass communication Non-verbal communication

Forms of Communication 1. Verbal Generally, use of words whether it be Written or Oral. 2. Non-Verbal Gestures, Facial Expressions, Sign Language, etc.

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BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIES

A business (also known as enterprise or firm) is an organization engaged in the trade of goods, services, or both to consumers. Businesses are predominant in capitalist economies, where most of them are privately owned and administered to earn profit to increase the wealth of their owners. Businesses may also be not-for-profit or stateowned. A business owned by multiple individuals may be referred to as a company, although that term also has a more precise meaning. The etymology of "business" relates to the state of being busy either as an individual or society as a whole, doing commercially viable and profitable work. The term "business" has at least three usages, depending on the scope the singular usage to mean a particular organization; the generalized usage to refer to a particular market sector, "the music business" and compound forms such as agribusiness; and the broadest meaning, which encompasses all activity by the community of suppliers of goods and services. However, the exact definition of business, like much else in the philosophy of business, is a matter of debate and complexity of meanings. Basic forms of ownership in Business Although forms of business ownership vary by jurisdiction, there are several common forms which are as follows: Sole proprietorship: A sole proprietorship is a business owned by one person for-profit. The owner may operate the business alone or may employ others. The owner of the business has unlimited liability for the debts incurred by the business. Partnership: A partnership is a business owned by two or more people. In most forms of partnerships, each partner has unlimited liability for the debts incurred by the business. The three typical classifications of for-profit partnerships are general partnerships, limited partnerships, and limited liability partnerships. Corporation: A corporation is a limited liability business that has a separate legal personality from its members. Corporations can be either government-owned or privately owned, and corporations can organize either for-profit or not-for-profit. A privately owned, forprofit corporation is owned by shareholders who elect a board of directors to direct the corporation and hire its managerial staff. A privately owned, for-profit corporation can be either privately held or publicly held. Cooperative: Often referred to as a "co-op", a cooperative is a limited liability business that can organize for-profit or not-for-profit. A cooperative differs from a for-profit corporation in that it has members, as opposed to shareholders, who share decision-making authority. Cooperatives are typically classified as either consumer cooperatives or worker cooperatives. Cooperatives are fundamental to the ideology of economic democracy.

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Agriculture and mining businesses are concerned with the production of raw material, such as plants or minerals. Financial businesses include banks and other companies that generate profit through investment and management of capital. Information businesses generate profits primarily from the resale of intellectual property and include movie studios, publishers and packaged software companies. Manufacturers produce products, from raw materials or component parts, which they then sell at a profit. Companies that make physical goods, such as cars or pipes, are considered manufacturers. Real estate businesses generate profit from the selling, renting, and development of properties comprising land, residential homes, and other kinds of buildings. Retailers and distributors act as middle-men in getting goods produced by manufacturers to the intended consumer, generating a profit as a result of providing sales or distribution services. Most consumer-oriented stores and catalog companies are distributors or retailers. Service businesses offer intangible goods or services and typically generate a profit by charging for labor or other services provided to government, other businesses, or consumers. Organizations ranging from house decorators to consulting firms, restaurants, and even entertainers are types of service businesses. Transportation businesses deliver goods and individuals from location to location, generating a profit on the transportation costs. Utilities produce public services such as electricity or sewage treatment, usually under a government charter. There are many other divisions and subdivisions of businesses. The authoritative list of business types for North America is generally considered to be the North American Industry Classification System, or NAICS. The equivalent European Union list is the Statistical Classification of Economic Activities in the European Community (NACE). Conclusion: The rise of industries and businesses in the 18th century Industrialization also motivated the use of a common language in the global trade and management which is The English Language. Hence, most importantly in this global world, the English Language became a standard medium in business dealings, and business management. Such Standard is evident in the present application and structure of correspondence,

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IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS

The importance of communication has been recognized by many authors of management over the years. Chester I. Barnard, the founder of social systems theory, maintains, in his book "The Functions of the Executive", that communications is the means by which people are linked together in an organization to achieve a common purpose. Indeed group activity is impossible without communication because coordination and change would not be effected. Sociologists and psychologists have also realized the importance of communication in interpersonal relationships, and have focused their study on communication networks. PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS The purpose of communication in an enterprise is to effect change. In an organization, there can be two types of communication, i.e. internal and external. Internal communication means communication within the organization, whereas external communication is the communication with the outside environment. The following diagram depicts the purpose and function of communication in an organization.

Planning

Organizing

Leading

Controlling

Communication

External Environment * * * * * * Customers Suppliers Stockholders Governments Communities Others

As can be seen from the above diagram, the purposes of Internal communication in an organization are as follows: establish and disseminate goals of the organization. To develop plans for achievement of these goals. To organize human and other resources effectively and efficiently. To select, develop, and appraise members of the organization. To control all activities.

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External communication helps the managers to become aware of: - the needs of customers. - the availability of suppliers. - the claims of stockholders. - the regulations of governments. - the concerns of the communities.

IT MEANS, COMMUNICATION WILL BE USED IN THE WIDE SCOPE OF MANAGEMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
(Additional reading to understand Business more, and to further relate it with the purpose of communication in Business)

The efficient and effective operation of a business, and study of this subject, is called management. The major branches of management are financial management, marketing management, human resource management, strategic management, production management, operations management, service management and information technology management. Owners engage in business administration either directly or indirectly through the employment of managers. Owner managers, or hired managers administer to three component resources that constitute the business' value or worth: financial resources, capital or tangible resources, and human resources. These resources are administered to in at least five functional areas: legal contracting, manufacturing or service production, marketing, accounting, financing, and human resourcing.[citation needed] Business process management (BPM) is a holistic management approach focused on aligning all aspects of an organization with the wants and needs of clients. It promotes business effectiveness and efficiency while striving for innovation, flexibility, and integration with technology. BPM attempts to improve processes continuously. It can therefore be described as a "process optimization process." It is argued that BPM enables organizations to be more efficient, more effective and more capable of change than a functionally focused, traditional hierarchical management approach. Organization and government regulation Most legal jurisdictions specify the forms of ownership that a business can take, creating a body of commercial law for each type. The major factors affecting how a business is organized are usually: The size and scope of the business firm and its structure, management, and ownership, broadly analyzed in the theory of the firm. Generally a smaller business is more flexible, while larger businesses, or those with wider ownership or more formal structures, will usually tend to be 6|Page

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organized as corporations or (less often) partnerships. In addition, a business that wishes to raise money on a stock market or to be owned by a wide range of people will often be required to adopt a specific legal form to do so. The sector and country. Private profit-making businesses are different from government-owned bodies. In some countries, certain businesses are legally obliged to be organized in certain ways. Limited Liability Companies (LLC), limited liability partnerships, and other specific types of business organization protect their owners or shareholders from business failure by doing business under a separate legal entity with certain legal protections. In contrast, unincorporated businesses or persons working on their own are usually not so protected. Tax advantages. Different structures are treated differently in tax law, and may have advantages for this reason. Disclosure and compliance requirements. Different business structures may be required to make less or more information public (or report it to relevant authorities), and may be bound to comply with different rules and regulations. Many businesses are operated through a separate entity such as a corporation or a partnership (either formed with or without limited liability). Where two or more individuals own a business together but have failed to organize a more specialized form of vehicle, they will be treated as a general partnership. The terms of a partnership are partly governed by a partnership agreement if one is created, and partly by the law of the jurisdiction where the partnership is located. A single person who owns and runs a business is commonly known as a sole proprietor, whether that person owns it directly or through a formally organized entity. A few relevant factors to consider in deciding how to operate a business include: General partners in a partnership (other than a limited liability partnership), plus anyone who personally owns and operates a business without creating a separate legal entity, are personally liable for the debts and obligations of the business. Generally, corporations are required to pay tax just like "real" people. In some tax systems, this can give rise to so-called double taxation, because first the corporation pays tax on the profit, and then when the corporation distributes its profits to its owners, individuals have to include dividends in their income when they complete their personal tax returns, at which point a second layer of income tax is imposed. Commercial law Most commercial transactions are governed by a very detailed and well-established body of rules that have evolved over a very long period of time, it being the case that governing trade and commerce was a strong driving force in the creation of law and courts in Western civilization.

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As for other laws that regulate or impact businesses, in many countries it is all but impossible to chronicle them all in a single reference source. There are laws governing treatment of labor and generally relations with employees, safety and protection issues (Health and Safety), antidiscrimination laws (age, gender, disabilities, race, and in some jurisdictions, sexual orientation), minimum wage laws, union laws, workers compensation laws, and annual vacation or working hours time. Capital When businesses need to raise money (called 'capital'), more laws come into play. A highly complex set of laws and regulations govern the offer and sale of investment securities (the means of raising money) in most Western countries. These regulations can require disclosure of a lot of specific financial and other information about the business and give buyers certain remedies. Because "securities" is a very broad term, most investment transactions will be potentially subject to these laws, unless a special exemption is available. Intellectual property Businesses often have important "intellectual property" that needs protection from competitors for the company to stay profitable. This could require patents, copyrights, trademarks or preservation of trade secrets. Most businesses have names, logos and similar branding techniques that could benefit from trademarking. Patents and copyrights in the United States are largely governed by federal law, while trade secrets and trademarking are mostly a matter of state law. Because of the nature of intellectual property, a business needs protection in every jurisdiction in which they are concerned about competitors. Labor Laws In businesses, most especially those that have something to do with products and services, knowing laws on labor and employment is vital to ones business because a minor violation could lead you to big trouble. Most employers, especially those who do not have legal counsel, violate these laws usually not because they intend to, but because of sheer ignorance. Unfortunately, ignorance of the law does not excuse them from complying with it. Companies have closed shop after their employees slapped them with labor suits which ended up with these companies paying huge amounts of money representing unpaid wages or benefits and damages. The key to avoiding violations of labor and employment laws is by being a good employer that is, giving your employees at least the minimum benefits and standard working conditions provided by law, allowing them to reasonably exercise their rights as workers, especially the right to self-organize and always exercising good faith and fairness in dealing with them. As employer, you must not only think of the profit you can earn from your business, but also the human factor in every employment relationship.

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JOINING BUSINESSES
The legacy of the 18th century industrial revolution is the occurrence of societies which tend to promote industries and businesses. The rise of the inventions on both physical and ideological inventions, paved the way for activities that are geared towards profit, which are used for everyday sustenance of workers. It is not surprising that most governments have promoted this goal through their form of governance coupled with its capitalistic tendencies. As a fresh graduate, you will be confronted with a decision between starting a business and joining one. The lack of capital for most will make the latter the logical choice. The young professionals quest however, will be faced with numerous challenge, even in the process of joining business organization. The young professional or worker will start his/her battles with the simple making of an application letter and resume.

APPLICATION LETTER
Basically, this is a letter directed to the would-be-employer, or Human Resource Officer, expressing your interest on the position that you are applying for. It does not intend to put details that are present in your resume, however, it can summarize your qualification to introduce yourself. The employer will only browse it to see if the elements of writing a letter are present. (Example below using Block style)
JD 200 Central Pico Central Pico Road 2601 La Trinidad, Benguet 15 March 2010 The Human Resource Officer Human Resource Office Prime Hotel, Session Road 2600, Baguio City Philippines Sir/Maam; Please consider me a very interested applicant for a Teaching position (High School/ Part-time College Instructor) in your respected institution. I am Mr. Gatan Cawilan, 23 years old and an AB English graduate of Saint Louis University, Baguio City. I have recently passed the Licensure Examinations for Secondary Teachers (major in English), while working as a contractual assistant to the communications office of the University of the Cordilleras. Aside from earning various trainings that will enhance my professional growth, it is also with assurance to inform you that I possess a positive attitude towards these opportunities. Upon your notice and requirement, I shall produce and enclose pertinent documents relative to my application such as copies of certificates for your easy reference. Should I be notified, I am always available for an interview in your most convenient time. I look forward to a favorable consideration to my application for employment. Thank you very much and may God bless you. Truly yours, Gatan Cawilan Applicant

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RESUME
How to write a compelling Resume Over a majority of the resumes sent out ONLY get 20 seconds from potential employers. What can you do to make yours stand out? Someone once said that if you want to get what you want you must help people get what they want. When you start looking for a new job the only thing that you care about is to work for a better company, for a bigger salary and at a higher level of hierarchy. In other words all we care about is our own needs and personal success. Dont get me wrong, there is absolutely nothing wrong with this. As the CEO of our life we are responsible for advancing our careers and getting the success that we deserve. However there is one obstacle between you and the dream position that youre aiming at and that obstacle is the recruiter who receives, selects and interviews candidates. Lets change the perspective a little bit and rather than perceiving the recruiter as our enemy lets help him be successful and maybe in return hell give us a hand to become successful as well. So ask yourself, as a candidate, how could you possibly help the recruiter be successful? The answer is quite simple if we try to put ourselves in their place. Recruiters are individuals whose job is to find qualified candidates. They want to find them as easy and as rapidly as possible. They also want to prove to their bosses that they get the job done efficiently and bring positive results. Their success is measured by the rapidity with which they manage to bring in valuable new hires that will contribute to the companys growth. Therefore if you want to give them a helping hand you have to show them that you can be such a valuable candidate. And the first step is to write a compelling resume. Recruiters are very busy people so help them read your resume as quickly as possible. Your resume shouldnt be more than two pages. Format it so that relevant information is easy to find. Recruiters are looking for a certain candidate profile. You dont need to be a human resources specialist to realize that if you are applying for a sales position the recruiter will look for your sales results and if its a PR position theyll be looking at the events youve organized. Try to presume what kind of candidate profile they may be looking for. Clues to such a profile are included in the hiring ad so show them the profile theyre looking for by outlining your previous experience. Most of the time, recruiters are not looking for your previous job descriptions, they are looking for real people, people who brought results so quit putting your previous job descriptions in your resume. Instead try giving details about the projects you were involved, the results you got, the initiatives you took. Recruiters want candidates with a personality and you can pass on some of your personality to your resume. Include a professional objective on your resume showing that you are passionate about your field, expressing your desire to develop yourself professionally and to contribute to the companys growth. Recruiters are not interested in personal stuff. Contrary to popular belief personal info do not bring any additional value to your resume. At least not until you convince the recruiter that you fit the candidate profile that theyre looking for.Recruiters are looking for experienced candidates so 75% of your resume must give details about your experience. Your resume must convey credibility and expertise. Recruiters want to feel that you have the skills and experience to cope up with the challenges of your new job. 10 | P a g e

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THE INTERVIEW
Job search techniques change, the labor market changes and job descriptions change but what more or less stays the same is the job interview. It's your chance to sell yourself. The first 30 seconds of a job interview are the most important - so if you want to be a cut above the rest you need to be on the ball. Prior to Interview -Research Company Background -Nature of the Business What it actually does -Products and services offered -General information, e.g. Number of employees, plans for future development, names of competitors etc. Prepare for the Journey -Research company address and get directions/ map if necessary -Understand timetables for trains/ buses, and know locations of stops/ stations in relation to company Check transportation availability -Aim to arrive approximately 10 minutes early -If possible, do a dummy run in the days before the interview. Try to ensure variables, such as time of day are similar to your interview time Prepare for the Interview -Find out who will be interviewing you name and position -Ensure full understanding of Job Spec/ role applied for -Think about the questions they could ask you How will you respond? -What questions will you ask? Presentation and Dress Code -Wear smart, business dress (unless otherwise directed) Shoes should be clean -Keep make-up and jewellery simple and understated -Do not overdo aftershave or perfume -Ensure you are prepared with a CV and any other information as requested During the Interview Offer a handshake to interviewer(s) upon arrival and greet them with a smile Maintain appropriate eye contact and consider body language Take time to think before responding to questions Use examples to illustrate answers Stay confident and enthusiastic Agree what the next steps will be, such as who will contact you to let you know if you have been successful and by when

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Remember the interview is not over until you have left the premises, leave a positive lasting impression shake hands with interviewer(s) on your exit. Leave putting on coat, et cetera until you are outside interview room

10 Top Tips 1. First impressions count Greet your interviewer with a smile and firm handshake. Give eye contact. Try to make small talk during the walk from the reception area to the interview room. According to a HR Manager, "You have to sell yourself before you can sell anything else and the first 30 seconds are when the interviewer subconsciously makes decisions about whether they like you or not and whether you will fit into the team." 2. Be prepared Re-read your CV and the job advertisement just before the interview. Do your research thoroughly: Look at the company web site or obtain literature. You may be asked about the salary you are after so make sure you research that as well. 3. Don't waffle Answer questions properly - even if you need a few moments' silence to collect your thoughts. It's better to say you need a minute to think about your answer rather than speak instantly and regret it afterwards. 4. Why should they hire you? Most job adverts will list qualities they're looking for - a team worker, a good communicator - so it's up to you to think of examples of how you can demonstrate these skills. Be ready to talk about your knowledge, experience, abilities and skills. Have at least three strong points about yourself that you can relate to the company and job on offer. 5. Be positive Your interviewer will be thinking about what it would be like to work with you, so the last thing they'll want to hear is you talking about your boss or current colleagues behind their back. Interviewers like to see someone who enjoys a challenge and is enthusiastic. 6. Remember your body language It is not what you say, but how you say it. During the interview, do not fold your arms and lean back or look to the floor! Sit upright and try to maintain good eye contact. Use your hands and lean forward when making a point. Many people cannot think and control their body language at the same time, which is why you need to prepare. 7. Expect the unexpected Your interviewer may try to catch you off guard: A survey by Office Angels has revealed 12 | P a g e

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that 90 per cent of employers ask 'killer' questions in interviews. It is impossible to plan for every difficult question, such as "How would your colleagues describe you?" but try to appear relaxed and in control. Ask the interviewer to repeat the question if necessary but do not evade it. Hopefully you will not befall the fate of those job candidates at B&Q who were asked to dance to "Blame it on the Boogie"! 8. Develop rapport Show energy, a sense of humour and smile. Jean Smith, a social anthropologist says: "It's infectious, being positive and enthusiastic." Ask your interviewer questions about themselves and any issues the business is facing. 9. Clarify anything you are unsure of If you are not certain what are meant by a particular question, ask for clarification. At the end, ask the interviewer if there is anything else he or she needs to know about. Do not be afraid to ask when you are likely to hear if you have been successful or not. 10. Remember your manners It is better to choose than to be chosen. Tell the interviewer why you are interested in the company and job opportunity. Ask them for a business card and follow it up by sending a "thank-you" e-mail or letter, saying how much you enjoyed meeting them and how interested you are. Take the opportunity to detail the key advantages you bring.

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GUIDELINES TO CREATE EFFECTIVE MESSAGES

The following guidelines, also called the seven (7) Cs of communication, should be followed by the sender to create effective messages. Completeness The information presented in the message should be complete. If the message is a reply to a customers query, for example, all questions asked should be answered. Additional information should also be given whenever desirable. As a guideline to check the completeness, the five Ws -- what, who, when, where, why -- may be checked, in addition to any other essentials such as how. Conciseness The message should not be loaded with wordy expressions. Repetition of statements and inclusion of irrelevant information should be avoided. For example, the expression in accordance with your request could be written as as you requested. Consideration The reader or recipients of the message should be given consideration. Generally, focus should be on you-attitude rather than on I or we-attitude. For example, the statement We welcome you could be better written as You are welcome. However, when the reader has made a mistake, the you-attitude should be reversed to we-attitude. For example, the statement you failed to enclose Cheque in the envelope could be rewritten as The envelope we received did not have a Cheque in it. Concreteness Use specific statements with the help of facts and figures, instead of making vague and general statements. For example, the better way to write the statement this laser printer prints letters fast is this laser printer prints letter at the speed of 25 page per minute. The words such as low, high, few, many, short, tall, slow, fast, early, soon, are only relative, and may have different meanings to different people. As in the above example, the word fast may mean a speed of 15 page per minute to one person, and 30 page per minute to another. Clarity The message should be clear to understand, and should contain short and familiar expressions. Short sentences of upto ten words should be used. Meanings of the statements should be clear. For example, the statement Being an excellent lawyer, I am sure you can.... is confusing because it does not clarify who is the lawyer. It could be rewritten as Being an excellent lawyer, you can surely.... or as As you are an excellent lawyer, I am sure you can..... Courtesy The message should be sincere, tactful, appreciative, and should not contain any hurting expressions. The attitude should be friendly and helping. For example, the statement Your letter is not at all clear; I cant understand it should be written as If I understand your letter correctly,..... Correctness The correctness of message means not only that there should not be any grammatical, punctuation, and spelling errors, but also that the facts and figures presented should be accurate, and the level of language used should be right such as formal or informal. 14 | P a g e

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WRITTEN COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS

Written messages also take many forms. At one extreme are the scribbled notes and at the other are formal reports. Regardless of the form, written messages have one big advantage they let us to plan and control the message. The other advantages of written communication are that it can provide records, references, and legal defenses when needed. Written messages can be transmitted to a large audience through the mail or through mass media like newspapers etc. Written communication is also useful in maintaining uniformity in policies and procedures. However, disadvantages of written communication are that the feedback is not immediate, effective messages are difficult to produce if the sender is not sufficiently skilled, and the written communication may create heaps of paper which may become difficult to manage.

APPLICABILITY IN AN ORGANIZATION
Applicability of Written Communication in an organization can be downward, upward or crosswise. Each communication flow has its own significance, and is described below. DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION Downward communication flows from persons at higher levels to those at lower levels in the organizational hierarchy. Downward communication is useful in leading the employees. Examples of downward communication are inter-office notes, memoranda, policy statements issued, etc. UPWARD COMMUNICATION Upward communication flows from persons at lower levels to persons at higher levels in the organizational hierarchy. This kind of flow of communication is very important in controlling the management process. The management needs to know specifically about production performance, marketing information, financial data, and lower-level employees grievances, if any. This information are provided in the form of inter-office notes, different types of statements and reports. CROSSWISE COMMUNICATION Crosswise flow of communication can be of two types, i.e. horizontal flow, and diagonal flow. Horizontal communication is between people at same or similar organizational levels, while diagonal communication is between people at different organizational levels but having no direct reporting relationship.

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PERCEPTION OF EFFECTIVE BUSINESS WRITING

For business messages to be effective, they must be well planned, well organized and well constructed. But how can we achieve all that if we cannot even think of what to say or how to say it? We need to plan, organize, compose drafts, edit, revise and also proofread and corrected before it is mailed.. In this section, I will discuss in following lines some guidelines for effective business writing. PLANNING THE EFFECTIVE BUSINESS WRITING It is important for the writer to spend some time in careful planning before initiating the communication process. Planning makes the communication more effective and saves time and cost to the persons involved. The following steps are involved in planning the effective communication process: Purpose of communication First of all the writer should make the purpose of written communication clear in his mind. Generally, all messages have two purposes, a specific purpose such as collection, announcement, or refusal etc., and a general purpose of building goodwill. Analysis of readers A better analysis of the readers helps the creator of message to tailor his message according to the recipients views, interests, mental and educational level, psychological and cultural background. A well-tailored message is likely to be better perceived by the audience. Choose most helpful Ideas The next step in planning the communication is to choose the ideas for message. The ideas to be included depend upon the type of message. For example, a welcome message to a new customer could include such ideas as making the customer aware of the services offered by the firm, assuring him of willingness and enthusiasm to help him and solve his problems, in addition to welcoming and thanking the new customer. Collection of facts In this step, the designer of the message collects all available facts and figures in support of ideas chosen to be included in the message. For example, some figures may be included in support of the companys past performance, or in support of the companys products or services. Outlining and Organizing the message Before finally writing the message, it is often useful to outline it on the paper, then reorganize it in the proper sequence. If a message contains well-chosen ideas and facts to support them, but the ideas are not presented in the proper sequence, it will create a confused and careless impression of the sender.

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BASIC ORGANIZATION PLAN OF EFFECTIVE BUSINESS WRITING

There are two basic approaches which may be applied either to short messages or to long ones.

Direct (Deductive) Approach

This approach is based on the following two plans: 1. 2. Direct-request plan is used for: inquiries about product or service claims and claims for adjustment for credit facility invitations, orders, reservations Good news Plan is used for: decision about adjustment of claims extending credit announcements unsolicited favorable message

The composition is based on the following parts: Opening - Begin with the request or main idea. Body - provide necessary detail. Close - cordially and state the specific action desired.

Indirect (Inductive) Approach

This approach is based on the following two plans: 1. Bad-news plan is used for: refusal of request for credit, etc. Announcing bad news about increase in prices

The composition is based on the following parts: Buffer - a neutral, non-controversial statement closely related to bad news. Explanation - reasons supporting the negative decision. Decision - a clear, diplomatic statement of the negative decision. Close - a helpful, friendly and positive close. 2. Persuasive-request plan is used for: 17 | P a g e For favors For sales promotion For selling new product

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ALTERNATIVE PRINCIPLE Class Reports

BUSINESSMANS POINT OF VIEW: 1. Sales Letter 2. Sales Response Letter 3. Letter of Transmittal 4. Letter of Adjustment 5. Credit Letter 6. Collection Letter CUSTOMERS POINT OF VIEW 1. 2. 3. 4. Letter of Inquiry Purchase Order Letter Letter of Complaint Letter of Remittance

EMPLOYEES PERSPECTIVE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Letter of Application Resume Acceptance Letter Letter of Refusal Resignation Letter

EMPLOYERS PERSPECTIVE 1. Letter of Hiring 2. Letter of Termination 3. Letter of Memorandum

This Involves Individual Reports from the class.

OTHERS:
1. Certifications 2. Endorsements

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COMMON FORMS OF COMMUNICATION IN BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS

LETTERS
The medium used for written messages to persons outside the organization is the business letters. Business letters are substitute of personal visits and paper representatives of the writer. Letters are written for many purposes such as appointment letters, promotion letters, termination letters, etc. Letters are also used for downward communication. Letters are written to the customers as well as to other external agencies like suppliers, taxation authorities, governmental regulatory bodies etc. Parts of a Business Letter
PART S OF A BUSINESS L ET T ER

ABM Data Systems (Private) Ltd.

Col. (R) Akram Paunwar Khan
Manag er

LE T T E R HE ADING

Our Ref: ABM/CM/98 Your Ref: Mr. Aftab Khan 267 St. 31 F-6/1 Islamabad Dear Mr. Aftab

Referen ces October 5, 1998 Dat e

Receipients name, position and address

Salut at ion Subject TERMINATION OF CONTRACT OF EMPLOYMENT Heading I regret having to tell you that your employment as a rec with the ABM Data Systems (Private) Limited formally ceas 3.00pm on Saturday October 3, 1998. I am sending you any outstanding salary due to you. Body of D e s p i t e h a v i n g b e e n g i v e n n u m e r o u s v e r b a l let war nings and tw er w a r n i n g s , y o u h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o a r r i v e l a t e tf or your duti have a poor record of attendance at work. You may be pleased to know salary in lieu of notice. that we are allowing you two w

Yours Col. Encl.: Salary Statement

sincerely

Compl ement ary close Signat ure, Job st atus

(R) Akram Manager

it y, P a u n w a Ident r K h an

Enclosures
Islamabad : 14-Y, Joha r Roa d Ma r k a z F- 8, I sla m a ba Pd. h: 252343-5 Fa x: 859952 He ad of fic e :197/5, Gr ound Floor, P a k istan Re d Cr esc ent Building, Dr . Da udpota Road, Ka ra c hi. P h: 5660256- 60, Fa x 5681361 B r anc h off ic e : Ghani Cha m be rs, Link Mc Le od Road, Lahore . P h: 7560867, 7592771

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Letter Styles

ABM Data Sy stems (Private) Ltd .

Col. (R) A kr am Paun w ar Kh an Man ag er

Fully blocked and open punctuation

Is lama ba d : 14 -Y , Jo h ar Road M ark az F -8 , I slamabadP . h: 2 5 23 43 -5 Fax: 85 99 52 Hea d o ff ice :1 97 /5 , G ro un d F lo or, Pakis tan Red Cr escen t Bu ild in g, Dr . D au dp ota Ro ad , K arach i. P h: 56 60 25 6- 60 , F ax 5 68 13 61 Bran ch o ffice : G h an i Ch amb ers , Link McLeo d Road, Lah o re. Ph : 7 56 08 67 , 7 59 27 71

ABM Data Sy stems (Private) Ltd .

Col. (R) A kr am Paun w ar Kh an Man ag er

Semi-blocked and closed punctuation

Is lama ba d : 14 -Y , Jo h ar Road M ark az F -8 , I slamabad . P h: 25 23 4 3-5 F ax : 85 9 95 2 Hea d o ff ice :1 97 /5 , G ro un d F lo or, Pakis tan Red Cr escen t Bu ild in g, Dr . D au dp ota Road ,K ar ach i. P h: 56 60 2 56 -6 0, Fax 5 68 13 61 Bran ch o ffice : G h an i Ch amb ers , Link McLeo d Road, Lah o re. Ph : 7 56 08 67 , 7 59 27 71

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ABM Data Systems (Private) Ltd.

Co l. (R) Akram Paun war Kh an
Manager

Indented letter style :

Indented letter styles are similar to semiblocked letters except that paragraphs are indented, which means that there is extra space before the first word of every paragraph.

Islamabad : 14-Y, Joha r Road Ma rkaz F-8, Isla maba d. Ph: 252343-5 Fax: 859952 Head offi ce :197/5, Ground Floor, Pakista n Re d Cresce nt Bui lding, Dr. Da udpota Roa d, Ka ra chi. Ph: 5660256-60, Fax 5681361 Branc h offic e : Gha ni Cha mbe rs, Link Mc Leod Roa d, Lahore. Ph: 7560867, 7592771

References not necessary Foot Note Optional

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Memorandums Memorandums are in contrast to the letters which are used for routine in day-to-day exchange of information within the organization and also for downward communication. This medium is basically intended to communicate to employees, the rules, regulations, and policies of the company. It can also inform workers about certain events for observation.

SPECIMEN OF A MEMORANDUM

ABM Data Systems (Private) Ltd.

To: ________________ ________________ From: ______________ _______________ Reference Date

Subject: __________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ______________

Message

Signature

Memorandums are the most common DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

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KCPInter-office Notes

Business Report Writing

Inter-office notes are used to convey short instructional messages, and advice from managers to subordinates. Inter-office notes are also used to accompany informational brochures of new products.

NOTICE OF MEETING

Reports Different types of reports are prepared on suggestions or recommendations on personnel, activity execution time and plans for overcoming the difficulties. A business report is an impartial, objective, planned presentation of facts to one or more persons for a specific, significant business purpose. The facts pertain to events, conditions, qualities, progress, results, products, problems, or suggested solutions. The reports help the receivers understand a complex business situation, carry out operational or technical assignments, plan procedures, solve problems, and make policy decisions regarding strategic planning. A business report usually presents more detail than is covered by a typical business letter or memorandum. To be impartial and objective, a report must present accurate, reliable information logically, without emotional appeals. ( More on Page 25) According to this pattern, the report for financial deterioration in an organization would be as follows:

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Page 1 ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL POSITION OF CITY TEXTILE AND SPINNING MILLS LTD.

Prepared for Mr. David Henderson Chief Executive City Textile and Spinning Mills Ltd.
P a ge 2 July 5, 1996

Prepared by Ameera Sheikh Staff Assistant ABC Consultants

Mr . David H ender son Chie f Exe c utive City Te xtile a nd Spinning M ills Ltd. She ikhupura Roa d, La hor e . De a r M r. He nde rson: He re is the re port y ou re que ste d Ma y 10, 1996, on the f inanc ia l position of City Te xtile a nd Spinning M ills, a nd on possible f urthe r ste ps to be take n. The ge ne ra l and de pa r tm e nt m ana ge r s will be a ble to see the position of the c om pany on a f ir m wide ba sis. Cour se s of ac tion ha ve a lso be e n propose d which would dir ec t the c om pa ny to m ea sur e s to be ta ke n to im pr ove f ina nc ial situa tion. The assistanc e of the m a nage rial sta ff ha s be e n invalua ble in pre par ing this r eport. The ir c oope ra tion is gr e atly a ppr e cia te d. Should y ou have a ny que stions conc er ning this r eport, I will be ha ppy to disc uss the m with y ou. Sinc er e ly , ( Am e er a She ikh) Sta ff Assistant

July 5, 1996

P age 3 CON TEN TS

Letter o f Transmittal. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ii I. In tro d uction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .1 A . A utho rizatio n and p ur po se . . ............. . . . . . . . . . .1 B. Th e Pro b lem at Centr al . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 C. So u rces o f D ata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .2 D . S co pe an d Limitatio ns. . . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . .2 E. Plan of Pr esentatio n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .3 S ituatio n Bef or e F inancial Deter ior atio n.. . . . . . . .. . . .4 A . A ss ets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 B. Liab ilities and Capital . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .5 C. Receivables and Payables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .7 D . In co me. . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 E. Exp en ditur es. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 0 Curr en t S itu atio n. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 A . A ss ets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 B. Liab ilities and Capital. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .13 C. Receivables and Payable. . . . ....... . . . . . . . . .... . . . .15 D . In co me. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 6 E. Ex p end itu res. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 P rop o sals fo r I mp ro vements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . A . Lon g- ter m Credits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 B. Sh o rt-term I nv estments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 C. Imp rov emen t in Receiv ables ............. . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 D . Con clu sio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23 Con clu sio ns an d Recommen dation s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 4 . . . .... . . .20

II .

II I.

IV .

V.

A pp en dix A . Balance S heets. . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 6 B. P ro fit an d Los s S tatemen ts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 7 S ou rces Con su lted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 8

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The difference between short and long reports depends in the subject matter, the purpose, the format and writing style, and the readers' needs (expectations of the audiences for formal reports). In a formal report, the audience expects a methodical presentation of the subject that includes summaries of important points as well as appendices on tangential and secondary points. Note that the readers for a formal report are often two or more distinct audiences. These distinct audiences for example could include professionals specializing in the report's subject matter, professionals not specializing in the report's subject matter, and managers overseeing the report's subject matter.

THE INFORMAL AND FORMAL REPORT

Informal Report Informal reports are typically internal reports, and can go to other members of the department and department heads. They are also used for reports that will circulate throughout the company. They use personal pronouns and contractions. Though the report may be several sections long, it is typically much shorter than a formal report. No contents page is included. Informal reports can even be formatted like a memo. Informal Structure Your introduction and conclusion are included in the body of the report, and there is no abstract. Include very short headings, if necessary. In the introduction, briefly state the problem, what you have done and your final conclusion. You have a target audience, so speak directly to them in your discussion. State the facts and do not embellish the details, but make sure the report is understandable. Remind the reader what your conclusions were. Your report will be rightjustified with a 10- to 12-point font. Include your recommendations and the progress you have made toward solving the problem. Be positive about the expectations and recommendations. Informal business reports are typically communicated via email, memos, letters, or orally while a formal business report is customarily submitted in print and may be the final document submitted in a series of reports--the completion report--or it may be the only document submitted in a project. Informal Reports include; 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Activity reports Minutes of meetings Policy or procedural directives Progress or status reports (can be formal also) Survey reports Trip reports Formal Report If you are writing a report for upper management or for another organization, you will need a formal report. Formal reports are also used for research papers in higher education. Formal reports are longer and well researched. Formal reports are impersonal, rarely using personal pronouns and contractions. Summaries are located on separate pages and usually have more 25 | P a g e

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than one heading. Formal reports may also be preceded by a proposal. Include a contents page if your report is more than five pages long. A cover letter or memo may be required. Formal Structure Include a cover page that is resembles a book cover. The abstract briefly summarizes the problem, the process of research and final conclusions in one page or less. Your title page will cover the title of the report, the person who compiled the report, the publisher and submittal date. Summarize your initial thesis or the purpose of the study, and include all the details that are necessary for your audience to completely understand the question. Include a table of contents and a list of tables and figures. The body of your report will include an introduction, overview of the research and final conclusions and recommendations. End your report with acknowledgements, a list of references where you located your research and any appendices. Formal reports include; 1. Analytical reports convey information accompanied by the writer's analysis or interpretation of it. Progress reports, for example, are usually analytical, reporting not only what has taken place but the writer's analysis of it. 2. Informational reports convey information (results, facts, data) alone, with no commentary. Both formal and informal reports may be solely informational; minutes of meetings, for example, convey only the events and conversations of a meeting--nothing more. 3. Recommendations convey information; the writer's analysis; and the writer's ideas about appropriate actions that might be taken. Policy directives, in which one or more people announce policy by which the members of a group or organization will abide, are an example of this type of business report.

___________________________________________________________________________

What is a report? A report is a systematic, well organized document which defines and analyses a subject or problem, and which may include:

(a) the record of a sequence of events (b) interpretation of the significance of these events or facts (c) evaluation of the facts or results of research presented (d) discussion of the outcomes of a decision or course of action (e) conclusions (f) recommendations Reports must always be: (a) accurate (b) concise (c) clear
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Business Report Writing

Importance of Report Writing

Report writing is central to: Decision making Progress reporting Root cause analysis Problem solving Report writing can be done by an individual or by a team

Various courses require students, researchers, and even workers to write reports (as opposed to essays), notably business and scientific or technical subjects. There are, however, different interpretations of what a report should look like, so it is important that one checks with course tutors and course documentation as to the report format and content expected. In addition, there is at times some blurring between what essays, reports and assignments are. Essentials of a Good Report
Meet the needs of the readers and answer the questions in their minds. At the right level for the readers- some readers have an in-depth knowledge of the subject; others may be decision-makers without specialized technical knowledge. Have a clear, logical structure- with clear signposting to show where the ideas are leading. Not to make assumptions about the readers understanding. All writers need to apply the so what test and need to explain why something is a good idea. Give a good first impression. Presentation is very important.

TIPS ON HOW TO DO IT:

1. Initial preparation: Always analyze the brief carefully, making sure that you fully understand the topic, question or case, that you know what the purpose of the report is, and who it is being written for. The clearer these things are in your mind, the easier the report will be to write and the more effective it will be. During the research period, planning and eventually writing, students and researchers should continually ask themselves

(a) what the main purpose of the report is, (b) The objective for writing it: is it to inform; to argue; to persuade; to evaluate?

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(c) Consider the reader and what you understand the reader want to see in the report and what will they do with it? 2. Planning and research: Principally, the prerequisite is to first decide the basic framework or structure. Let the main topic or question as a central focus, jot down initial thoughts and start to group these together. You may find the Mind Mapping technique useful:. Start to divide key ideas from subsidiary information, and continually ask yourself if everything is relevant; if it isnt, then delete it. Secondly, plan the research process. Identify what you need to find out, maybe in the form of questions that need to be answered, and then approach your reading from this starting point. If you have specific information to look for, it will make your reading easier and less time consuming. Information quality is paramount. Try not to gather too much information. Again, keeping your topic or question in mind, reject anything which is not 100% relevant. When youre making notes, always try to summarize the main points as concisely as possible. Remember to make a comprehensive record of any sources consulted in order to be able to correctly reference these. Make a record of the research methods you used. Steps 1 and 2 can also be divided into Four, which are:

3. Report structure Follow accepted elements of reports.Below is a typical report sub-heading that business report will comprise of. A brief explanation of each potion is described in turn. Title page : Acknowledgements : Contents page : Terms of reference : Procedure : Materials and methods : Summary : Introduction : Main body : Results : Conclusion : Recommendations : Appendices : References : Bibliography : Glossary Unlike essays, reports are written in sections with headings and sub-headings, which are usually numbered. Below are the possible components of a report, in the order in which they would appear. Check within your department which of these you should include.
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Title page: This should normally include the title, your name and the name of the tutor to whom it is being submitted, date of submission, your course/department, and if applicable, the name of the person and/or organization who has commissioned the report. Avoid fancy fonts and effects and dont include any clipart Summary This is a very brief outline of the report to give the potential reader a general idea of what its about. A statement of: (a) overall aims and specific objectives (unless included in terms of reference) (b) method/procedure used (unless included in separate section) (c) Key findings (d) Main conclusions and recommendations Introduction This should show that you have fully understood the task/brief and that you are going to cover everything required. Indicate the basic structure of the report. You should include just a little background/context and indicate the reasons for writing the report. You may include your terms of reference and procedure/research methods if not covered elsewhere. Your introduction will often give an indication of the conclusion to the report Main body/findings This is the substance of the report. The structure will vary according to the nature of the material being presented, with headings and sub-headings used to clearly indicate the different sections (unlike an essay). A "situation>problem>solution>evaluation" approach may be appropriate. It is not sufficient to simply describe a situation. Charts, diagrams and tables can be used to reinforce arguments, although sometimes it may be better to include these as an appendix (particularly if they are long or complicated). Do not include opinions, conclusions or recommendations in this section. Results This section records your observations (in the past tense) and would normally include statistics, tables or graphs. Conclusion The conclusion should draw out the implications of the findings, with deductions based on the facts described in your main body. Dont include any new material here. Recommendations These should follow on logically from your conclusion and be specific, measurable and achievable. They should propose how the situation/problem could be improved by suggesting action to be taken. Recommendations can be numbered if you wish. Appendices An appendix (plural=appendices) is detailed documentation of points you outline in your findings, for example, technical data, questionnaires, letters sent, tables, sketches, charts, leaflets etc. It is supplementary information which you consider to be too long or complicated or not quite relevant enough to include in your main body, but which still should be of interest to your reader. Each appendix should be referred to in your text. You should not include something as an appendix if it is not discussed in the main body. References This is a list giving the full details of all the sources to which you have made reference within your text. By far the most common method in use at Birmingham City University is the Harvard method.

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Bibliography This is either a separate list of sources which you have used during your research, but have not actually made reference to in your writing, or this list together with your list of references. 4. Check in your department what you are expected to use. And finally overall, does the report fulfil its purpose? Does it do what youre being asked to do and what you say youre going to do in your introduction? Are you pleased with it? If you cant confidently answer yes to these questions, then you may need to do some major editing and rewriting.

TECHNICAL WRITING USED IN BUSINESS

"The goal of technical writing is to enable readers to use a technology or understand a process or concept. Because the subject matter is more important than the writer's voice, technical writing style uses an objective, not a subjective, tone. The writing style is direct and utilitarian, emphasizing exactness and clarity rather than elegance or allusiveness. A technical writer uses figurative language only when a figure of speech would facilitate understanding." (Gerald J. Alred, et al., Handbook of Technical Writing. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2006) Here are the main characteristics of technical writing. Purpose: Getting something done within an organization (completing a project, persuading a customer, pleasing your boss, etc.) Your knowledge of topic: Usually greater than that of the reader. Audience: Often several people, with differing technical backgrounds. Criteria for Evaluation: Clear and simple organization of ideas, in a format that meets the needs of busy readers. Statistical and graphic support: Frequently used to explain existing conditions and to present alternative courses of action Definition of Technical Writing Communication is part of the life of every creature on this planet. How that communication is carried out however, is varied, and different types of communication are suitable based upon the type of information that needs to be conveyed. One specific area of communication involves transmitting, understanding and knowledge of a technical subject to others that need to know the basics and details of the subject in question. In written form, this communication type of communication is called technical writing. Technical writing refers to straightforward explanations and/or instructions dealing with a particular technical subject. The subject being written about may be abstract or tangible. Regardless, the writing must be easy to understand and follow. As with any writing project, the audiences understanding level must be considered in the development of the document. When writing about technical information, it is important to be concise and exact about your subject 30 | P a g e

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matter. The task assigned may be in the form of a help document for a piece of software or a machine or it may concern a process or way of performing a task. User manuals, assembly instructions, analysis reports or summaries of lengthy reports are all types of technical writing. Technical writing rarely, if ever, is done in a manner that personalizes it. There are never references to the first person. The structure of the text is always done in a detached or third party reference point. The text is geared to teach information; therefore, the tone is that of a teacher instructing a student in the subject. This at times may appear as simply a list of steps to take to achieve the desired goal or may be a short or lengthy explanation of a concept or abstract idea. Most technical writers are not experts in the field about which they write about. They must gather the information from others that are experts. They may also obtain information about their topic from technical documents, reports, references and manuals. Upon synthesizing all the information gained, the writer must gauge their audience and the background that the reader has in the field being written about. Higher levels of education or experience will allow the document to be written referring to concepts, abbreviations, acronyms and terms commonly used in those that work in that field. For audiences that are determined to be novices or not familiar in the field, the writer must do much more explanation and education about the basics. He must assume that the audience has no knowledge in the topic about which he is writing. Depending on the type of document, these considerations may be more or less important. An example is a step-by-step guide for performing a specific task with a piece of software. As long as a person can follow written instructions, the document doesnt require much technical description to accomplish the job, but for the more knowledgeable the descriptions can include shortcut keys that can aid in the speed of the task. For audiences that are experts in their own rights in fields that are closely related to the topic, the degree of technical terms, acronyms and abbreviations is much broader. Many of the terms and techniques can be stated instead of explaining them. More than 95% of the readers will understand what is described and discussed. Due to this familiarity of your audience, it makes the job of the writer much simpler. WHICH SKILL SETS ARE IMPORTANT FOR A TECHNICAL WRITER? Like any profession, becoming a technical writer requires a mastery of a certain set of skills. This skill set used to involve primarily writing and illustration skills, as large manuals for print publication were the standard in the profession. The worlds of communications and technology have evolved dramatically in the latter part of the 20th century and the early part of this century. How has that evolution affected the skill set required for a technical writer? Writing skills For a technical writer, writing skills can never be overlooked. The technical writer still needs to write in a clear and concise manner and to be able to convey information appropriately for a variety of audiences. Technical skills The technical skill set of a technical writer depends greatly on the subject matter, product or service that requires documentation. Hardware and software documentation differ in the skills that the technical writer needs to bring to the table. Additionally, pharmaceuticals and other manufacturing industries have specific requirements that translate 31 | P a g e

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into knowledge the technical writer must have. A technical writer asked to document a developers guide may need to have a pretty good handle on specific programming languages, while a technical writer tasked with documenting a weapons defense system might need a high degree of engineering comprehension as well as a solid knowledge of government documentation standards. Tools skills Needless to say, a technical writer needs to know his or her way around computer systems, since they are used to produce documentation in a variety of formats. Specific tool knowledge, such as Adobe FrameMaker, MS Word, MadCap Flare, RoboHelp, and even PageMaker and Quark really depends on the tools the organization has come to rely on in order to produce its technical documentation. However, technical writers are accustomed to learning its really what they do, and most are capable of learning a new tool quickly and efficiently. Interviewing and listening skills Technical writers need to know how to ask questions. They also need to know who is the best person to approach and they need to have a feel for the varying personalities and preferences of the people the subject matter experts, or SMEs in order to know how best to approach them. Once the technical writer has found the appropriate SME to approach, strong listening skills will be required to capture the information necessary and to know which follow-up questions need to be answered. Design skills An appreciation for the visual can be an important part of the skill set of a technical writer. Even the earliest technical documents didnt consist of just the written word. To a growing extent the technical writer needs an appreciation for graphics and formatting as well as illustration skills. Depending on the needs of the organization, these skills may only need to be rudimentary or they may need to be very advanced. Usability and testing skills A technical writer may also be asked to take an active role in usability and testing. Even if not asked to take a role, the technical writer knows that validation of the documentation is important the confirmation that the product works the way it is documented to work. In some organizations, the technical writer is an important part of the User Experience team. These skills are just a small part of what a technical writer brings to the table. The skill sets of a technical writer vary widely, depending on the technical writers experience and educational background.

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