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c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
y
u
x
u
x
p
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
u
) 3 . 2 ....(
1
2
2
2
2
(
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
v
y
p
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
u
) 5 . 2 ....( 0 =
c
c
+
c
c
y
v
x
u
2 2
2 2
.....(2.4)
T T T T T
u v
t x y x y
o
( c c c c c
+ + = +
(
c c c c c
17
The solutions of the above equations can be found out numerically when then the
initial conditions and boundary conditions are specified
2.3.2. Solution procedure for a general transport equation
The general form of the transport equation is,
The time derivative is approximated by means of a forward time Taylor series expansion
as follows,
Substituting
t c
c|
and
2
2
t c
c |
using equation (2.6)
2 2
2 2
.....(2.6) u v S
t x y x y
|
( c c c c c
+ + = + +
(
c c c c c
2
2 2
1
2 t
t
t
t
n n
c
c A
+
c
c
A + =
+
| |
| |
2
2 1
2 t
t
t t
n n
c
c A
+
c
c
=
A
+
| | | |
) 7 . 2 ....(
2
2
2
2
2 1
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c A
+
(
c
c
+
c
c
+
(
c
c
+
c
c
=
A
+
y
v
x
u
t
t
S
y x y
v
x
u
t
n n
| |
| |
| | | |
18
The last term is solved as follows
Substituting for
t c
c|
from Eqn 2.6
Substituting Eqn. 2.7.a into 2.6 the following equation results
Spatial discretization
The weighted residual form of eqn 3.5 is
( , ) x y
W
} (LHS of eqn 3.11) d =0
Note that the weighting functions W(x,y) are chosen to be functions of x and y only.
Now approximated field using the shape functions
1
( , ) ( , )
M
j j
j
x y N x y | |
=
=
2
t
u v
x t y t
( A c c c c | | | |
+ =
| | (
c c c c
\ . \ .
) 7 . 2 ....(
2
a
y
v
x
u v
y y
v
x
u u
x
t
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c A
| | | |
S
y x y
v
x
u v
y y
v
x
u u
x
t
y
v
x
u
t
TERM
TERM
TERM TERM
n n
+
(
c
c
+
c
c
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
c
c A
c
c
+
c
c
+
A
+
4
2
2
2
2
3
2 1
1
2
| |
| | | |
| | | |
19
Where M is the number of nodes in the domain , Nj is the shape function of
jth
node and
j
| is intensive property at j
th
node.
+1
2
+
2
= 0
For convenience integration is done by term by term.At the end it will be assembled
together.
Term 1
+1
+1
+1
+1
Where
- mass matrix
Term 2
20
Where
- advection matrix
Term 3
ij i
U F =
where
21
Term 4
2
+
2
=
Thus, the formulation becomes fully in explicit form.
1
[ ] [ ] 0...........(2.8)
2
n n
n n n
t
M A U K f
t
| |
| | |
+
A
(
+ + + =
(
A
2.3.3 Time Marching Method
Explicit and implicit time stepping are commonly used for the resulting system of
ordinary differential equations. Implicit schemes are unconditionally stable but involve
inversion of large banded unsymmetrical matrices. As the number of variables increases,
matrix inversion becomes computationally costlier. The explicit schemes are
conditionally stable but do not involve matrix inversion. Explicit methods are of interest
in modern CFD application mainly for time dependent flows.
2.3.4. Stability criterion
For explicit solution, the value of cannot be any arbitrary value, indeed, it must
be less than or equal to some maximum value. This max value is usually estimated by.
22
< [
] Or
1
*min ,
| | | |
cfl
x y
N t
u v
( A A
= A
(
This is the famous courant Fredrich-Lewy (1967) or CFL criterion, which means
that, t must be less than the time required for a wave to propagate between to adjacent
grid points .N
CFL
is known as the CFL number.
23
CHAPTER 3
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW SOLVER
3.1.Governing Equations
The governing equations for incompressible flow are
X-momentum equation
2 2
2 2
1
...........(3.1)
u u u P u u
u v
t x y x x y
u
( c c c c c c
+ + = + +
(
c c c c c c
Y-momentum equation
2 2
2 2
1
...........(3.2)
v v v P v v
u v
t x y y x y
u
( c c c c c c
+ + = + +
(
c c c c c c
The continuity equation is
0.............(3.3)
u v
x y
c c
+ =
c c
3.2.Velocity correction method
The solution to the incompressible Navier-stokes equations is difficult due to the absence
of an explicit pressure term in the continuity equation. The 2-D NS equation are as
follows.
2 2
2 2
1
...........(3.4)
u u u P u u
u v
t x y x x y
u
( ( c c c c c c
= + + +
( (
c c c c c c
2 2
2 2
1
...........(3.5)
v v v P v v
u v
t x y y x y
u
( ( c c c c c c
= + + +
( (
c c c c c c
0...........(3.6)
u v
x y
c c
+ =
c c
In the velocity correction method velocity and pressure at a time t
n+1
are obtained in three
steps, steps starting from the values at a time t
n
as follow
24
1) Obtain an intermediate fictitious velocity field after dropping the pressure gradient
term from the momentum equations.
( )
*
...........(3.6)
n
n u u
RHSu
t
=
A
( )
*
...........(3.7)
n
n v v
RHSv
t
=
A
Where,
RHSu=RHS of x-momentum equation 3.4 excluding pressure term
RHSv=RHS of y-momentum equation 3.5 excluding pressure term
3) The final velocities are obtained from the previous steps. Without dropping the
pressure field, find the velocity field.
( )
1
1
...........(3.8)
n n
n u u P
RHSu
t x
+
c
=
A c
( )
1
1
...........(3.9)
n n
n v v P
RHSv
t y
+
c
=
A c
Subtracting 3.7 from 3.9 and 3.8 from 3.10
We get the final velocity field.
1 *
1
..........(3.10)
n
u u P
t x
+
c
=
A c
1 *
1
............(3.11)
n
v v P
t y
+
c
=
A c
25
2) Compute the pressure
The pressure Poisson equation is obtained by forcing the continuity requirement on
the final velocity field
Differentiating equation 3.10 with respect to x
Differentiating equation 3.11 with respect to y
And adding we get
1 *
2 2
2 2
n
u v u v t P P
x y x y x y
+
( ( ( c c c c A c c
+ + = +
( ( (
c c c c c c
Continuity equation
*
2 2
2 2
...........(3.12)
u v t P P
x y x y
( ( c c A c c
+ = +
( (
c c c c
Equation 3.12 is termed the pressure poisson equation. This equation is
solved using the iterative conjugate gradient method with tolerance
10E-20
26
CHAPTER 4
VALIDATION OF THE INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW SOLVER
4.1. Flow over a backward facing step
The study of backward facing step flows constitutes an important branch of fundamental
fluid mechanics. The backward step apparatus consists of a single backward- facing step
mounted in a two-dimensional channel. The geometry is exceedingly simple yet it
provides a large amount of fluid mechanical data. This problem is used to validate the
incompressible flow solver. With water as the media, results provided by the code when
applied to the problem of 2-D backward facing step flow are compared with experimental
data. The length of the recirculation zone is used to make the comparison. The results not
only yield the expected primary recirculation zones but also show an additional region of
separation downstream of the step. For obtaining numerical predictions, the two-
dimensional steady differential equations for conservations of mass ad momentum were
solved. Results are reported and are compared with experiments conducted for those
Reynolds numbers for which the flow maintained its two-dimensionality. Under these
circumstances, good agreement is found between experimental and numerical results.
Figure 4.1 Backward-facing step geometry
The open water-driven flow channel that was used for this study is figure. It incorporates
a two-dimensional step that has provided an expansion ratio of 1:1.19423. The expansion
ratio is defined as H/h=1+S/h. The expansion ratio and the Reynolds number are the two
27
parameters that affect the reattachment length. In the current study, the expansion ratio is
kept constant and the reattachment length is plotted for varying Reynolds numbers (10E-
3<RE<10E3).
Computational Domain
Figure 4.2. Discretization domain of the backward-facing step geometry
Nodes: 68194 Elements: 131790
Boundary conditions:
Inlet: At the inlet of the channel, velocity of flow was specified. The length of the inlet
channel is such that the fully developed flow is obtained at the step. A distance of five
times the channel height, h is sufficient to ensure this.
Walls: The no-slip condition of zero velocity was specified at both the top and bottom
walls of the channel.
28
Outlet: Atmospheric pressure of one bar is specified at the outlet. The outlet channel is
also sufficiently long so that the flow redevelops at the exit. In the range of Reynolds
numbers investigated, the flow is affected very little by the length of the outflow channel,
assuming that the length of the flow channel was correctly estimated using before
depending on the outlet channel.
The Reynolds number was calculated using the formula where
Re
VD
u
=
V is two thirds of the maximum measured inlet velocity, which corresponds in the
laminar case to the average inlet velocity, D is the hydraulic diameter of the inlet(small
channel) and is equivalent to twice its height(2h) and
u
is the kinematic viscosity.
The flow over the backward step is two-dimensional and non-oscillatory in the region,
Re<400.
Figure 4.3 shows the primary recirculation zone for various Reynolds numbers. A secondary one is
observed on the upper wall
29
In the above figures, the streamlines for the Reyolds numbers 200,400,600 and 800 are
presented on the contour plot. In the first two cases, the flow follows the upper corner
without revealing a flow separation. Furthermore, a corner vortex is observed at the
concave corner behind the step. In the range of very small Reynolds numbers,(Re=10E-3)
the size of this vertical structure is nearly a constant varying between x1/S=0.350 and
x1/S=.365. Under these conditions, the effect of inertia forces can be assumed negligible
to the viscous forces often denoted as molecular transport. Hence the flow resembles a
Stoke flow.
In addition to a primary circulation region, there exists a secondary recirculation region
near the upper wall for Re>400. The adverse pressure gradient due to the sudden
expansion at the step induces this separated flow. In the previous figures, the secondary
recirculation zones were clearly visible for Re=600,800. The size of the secondary
recirculation zones increases with increasing Reynolds number, while at the same time,
the flow structure is moving in a stream wise direction. Far downstream, the flow
recovers to a parabolic profile. However, at high Reynolds numbers(800), the flow
recovery takes more than 20 step heights.
The next figure shows the reattachment length plotted against increasing Reynolds
number. The reattachment length is measured as the distance from the step to the point
where the velocity gradient becomes positive. This value is normalized by the step
height.
30
As mentioned above, the size of the first eddy is nearly a constant for all Reynolds
numbers below the Re=1. This is depicted in the above figure showing the length x1 of
the first corner eddy behind the step (recirculation region) normalized by the height S as a
function of RE. However, for Re>1, the corner vortex strongly increases in size. As a
direct consequence, the corner vortex reaches upto the corner of the step at Re=10 and
covers the complete face of the step. Hence, a change in the entire flow structure is
observed and the notation of a corner vortex has been replaced by the notation
recirculation region, which for Re>10, better reflects the flow structure. With increasing
Reynolds number, the size of the recirculation region increases.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Reynolds number
R
e
a
t
t
a
c
h
m
e
n
t
l
e
n
g
t
h
computed results
G.Biswas
Figure 4.4: Variation of reattachment length vs Reynolds number
31
Figure 4.5: Variation of Reattachment length vs Reynolds Number
The agreement of the present numerical predictions and the experimental results of G.
Biswas is excellent for Re<400. However, for Re>400, a discrepancy is visible between
computations and experiments which increases with Reynolds number. This is because
beyond, Re-400, the flow cannot be accurately modelled by two-dimensional simulations.
The sidewall influences the structure of the laminar flow beyond the step. The measured
reattachment length for the mid-plane does not match with the predictions of the two-
dimesnional predictions. The discrepancy between experimental result and the numerical
results are a consequence of the three-dimensionality affecting the flow structure at the
mid-plane of the channel.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Reynolds number
R
e
a
t
t
a
c
h
m
e
n
t
l
e
n
g
t
h
Computed_results
experimental_results
32
CHAPTER 5
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW SOLVER
5.1. Governing Equations
The governing equations for compressible flow in conservative form are
0
u u
t x y
( c c c
+ + =
(
c c c
2
0
xx xy
u
u P T uv T
t x y
c c c
( ( + + + =
c c c
. (5.1)
2
0
xy yy
v
uv T v P T
t x y
c c c
( ( + + + =
c c c
.. (5.2)
Substitute
2
xx
u
T
x
c
=
c
xy
u v
T
y x
( c c
= +
(
c c
2
yy
v
T
y
c
=
c
Expanding the Above equations, we get
2 2
2 2
u u u u v u u u v P
u v u v
t x y x y x y x x y x
( ( | | c c c c c c c c c c c
+ + + + = + + +
| ( (
c c c c c c c c c c c
\ .
33
2 2
2 2
v v v u v v v u v P
u v v
t x y x y x y y x y y
( ( | | c c c c c c c c c c c
+ + + + = + + +
| ( (
c c c c c c c c c c c
\ .
The various terms of the above equations are approximated as per the scheme given in
the previous chapter
Here (u) and (v) replace in the general transport equation
5.2. Methodology
2 2
2 2
u u u u v u u u v P
u v u v
t x y x y x y x x y x
( ( | | c c c c c c c c c c c
+ + + + = + + +
| ( (
c c c c c c c c c c c
\ .
...........(5.3)
2 2
2 2
v v v u v v v u v P
u v v
t x y x y x y y x y y
( ( | | c c c c c c c c c c c
+ + + + = + + +
| ( (
c c c c c c c c c c c
\ .
...........(5.4)
The velocity correction method is used to calculate final values of u and v
............(5.5)
u P
RHSu
t x
c c
=
c c
...........(5.6)
v P
RHSv
t y
c c
=
c c
1)Obtain an intermediate fictitious velocity field after dropping the pressure gradient term
from the momentum equations.
( )
*
...........(5.7)
n
n u u
RHSu
t
=
A
( )
*
............(5.8)
n
n v v
RHSv
t
=
A
Where,
34
RHSu=RHS of x-momentum equation 3.10 excluding pressure term
RHSv=RHS of y-momentum equation 3.11 excluding pressure term
3) The final velocities are obtained from the previous steps. Without dropping the
pressure field, find the velocity field.
( )
1
...........(5.9)
n n
n u u P
RHSu
t x
+
c
=
A c
( )
1
...........(5.10)
n n
n v v P
RHSv
t y
+
c
=
A c
Subtracting 5.7 from 5.9 and 5.8 from 5.10
We get the final velocity field.
1 *
............(5.11)
n
u u P
t x
+
c
=
A c
1 *
............(5.12)
n
v v P
t y
+
c
=
A c
2)Compute the pressure
The pressure Poisson equation is obtained by forcing the continuity requirement on
the final velocity field
Differentiating equation 5.11 with respect to x
Differentiating equation 5.12 with respect to y
And adding we get
35
1 *
2 2
2 2
n
u v u v P P
t
x y x y x y
+
| | ( ( c c c c c c
+ + = A +
| ( (
c c c c c c
\ .
Substitute from Continuity equation,
*
2 2
2 2
...........(5.13)
u v P P
t
t x y x y
| | ( c c c c c
+ = A +
| (
c c c c c
\ .
Assuming that density varies only with pressure,
Using the universal gas equation, =
2
1 P P
t P t c t
c c c c
= =
c c c c
This equation is solved using the iterative conjugate gradient method
with tolerance 10E-20
*
2 2
2 2
1
...........(5.14)
2
P u u P P
t
c t x y x y
( ( c c c c c
+ = A +
( (
c c c c c
Equation 5.14 is termed the pressure poisson equation. This equation is
solved using the iterative conjugate gradient method with tolerance
10E-20
Where
2
c RT =
To calculate density, assuming adiabatic conditions,
2
2
0
2
u v
T T
cp
+
=
2
2
0 2
( ) ( )
2
u v
T T
cp
+
=
36
P
RT
=
Substituting,
2
2
2
0 2
( ) ( )
( )
2
u v
T T RT
cpP
+
=
The above quadratic equation is solved to find out temperature values
P
RT
=
Finally the velocity u and v are found out.
u
u
v
v
=
=
The algorithm for the above procedure is given below
while(time<totime)
{
Calculate (u)*, (v)*
Use conjugate gradient method to solve for P
Calculate P and use it to correct values of u, v
Find temperature assuming adiabatic conditions
Find using =P/RT
Find u, v using (u)/( ) & (v)/( )
}
37
CHAPTER 6
UNIFIED FORMULATION
A unified procedure to handle both incompressible and compressible fluids is proposed.
The flow is assumed to be isothermal at low Mach numbers. Then, the equations of state
are used to calculate density directly from Pressure. Different correlations will be used
for compressible and incompressible fluids to calculate density. The user only needs to
specify whether the fluid is compressible or incompressible through the input files. The
advantage of such a formulation is that both incompressible flows can also be simulated
by making this modification to the compressible flow formulation. The initial values of
velocities, density and pressure are calculated from the input Mach number and adiabatic
relations.
6.1. Methodology
2 2
2 2
u u u u v u u u v P
u v u v
t x y x y x y x x y x
( ( | | c c c c c c c c c c c
+ + + + = + + +
| ( (
c c c c c c c c c c c
\ .
.................(6.1)
2 2
2 2
v v v u v v v u v P
u v v
t x y x y x y y x y y
( ( | | c c c c c c c c c c c
+ + + + = + + +
| ( (
c c c c c c c c c c c
\ .
.................(6.2)
The modified version of the earlier described velocity correction method is used to
calculate final values of u and v
1
1
.............(6.3)
n
n n
u u P
RHSu
t x
+
+
c
=
A c
1 1
..............(6.4)
n n n
v v P
RHSv
t y
+ +
c
=
A c
1)Obtain an intermediate fictitious velocity field after reducing the pressure gradient
term to the previous time step level in the momentum equations.
38
*
.............(6.5)
n
n
u u P
RHSu
t x
c
=
A c
*
..............(6.6)
n
n
v v P
RHSv
t y
c
=
A c
Where,
RHSu=RHS of x-momentum equation 6.1 with pressure term in n
th
time level
RHSv=RHS of y-momentum equation 6.2 pressure term in n
th
time level
3) The final velocities are obtained from the previous steps. Without dropping the
pressure field, find the velocity field.
1
1
...........(6.8)
n
n n
v v P
RHSv
t y
+
+
c
=
A c
Subtracting 6.5 from 6.7 and 6..6 from 6.8
We get the final velocity field.
1 * 1
( )
............(6.9)
n n n
u u P P
t x
+ +
c
=
A c
1 * 1
( )
............(6.10)
n n n
v v P P
t y
+ +
c
=
A c
Where
1 n n
P P P
+
= A
1
1
...........(6.7)
n
n n
u u P
RHSu
t x
+
+
c
=
A c
39
2)Compute the pressure
The pressure Poisson equation is obtained by forcing the continuity requirement on
the final velocity field
Differentiating equation 6.9 with respect to x
Differentiating equation 6.10 with respect to y
And adding we get
1 *
2 2
2 2
n
u v u v P P
t
x y x y x y
+
| | ( ( c c c c c A c A
+ + = A +
| ( (
c c c c c c
\ .
Substitute from Continuity equation,
*
2 2
2 2
...........(6.11)
u v P P
t
t x y x y
| | ( c c c c A c A
+ = A +
| (
c c c c c
\ .
1 n n
P P P
+
= +A
Assuming that density varies only with pressure,
Using the universal gas equation, =
2
1 P P
t P t c t
c c c c
= =
c c c c
This equation is solved using the iterative conjugate gradient method
with tolerance 10E-20
*
2 2
2 2
1
...........(6.12)
2
P u u P P
t
c t x y x y
( ( c c c c A c A
+ = A +
( (
c c c c c
*
2 2
2 2
1
...........(6.13)
2
P u u P P
t
c t x y x y
( ( A c c c A c A
+ = A +
( (
A c c c c
40
Equation 6.12 is termed the pressure poisson equation. This equation is
solved using the iterative conjugate gradient method with tolerance
10E-20
Where
for air,
2
P
c
=
for water,
2
7.0*( 3.0 8) P E
c
+
=
To calculate density,
Using Stiffened Equation of State
1.0
inf
inf
...........(6.14)
n
P
P
|
|
| | +
=
|
+
\ .
Eqn (6.13) is an empirical correlation that gives the relationship between density and
pressure for any substance by substituting the corresponding values for and n.
For water, = 3.0E8 and n=7
1.0
7.0
inf
inf
3.0 8
3.0 8
P E
P E
| |
+
=
|
+
\ .
For air , =0 and n=
41
1
inf
atm
p
P
| |
=
|
\ .
Finally the velocity u and v are found out.
u= (u)/()
v = (v)/()
This formulation solves the compressible Navier Stokes equations for any liquid or gas,
whether the fluid is compressible or incompressible. The next chapter discusses various
validations for the unified formulation.
42
CHAPTER 7
VALIDATION OF UNIFIED FORMULATION
7.1. Flow over NACA-0015 Hydrofoil
The NACA-0015 hydrofoil geometry was used to validate the unified formulation for
solving both compressible and incompressible flow. Liquid water was used as a fluid.
At the Mach number, considered in the test case, flow is incompressible. That is, the
density changes with time can be considered a negligible.
The results obtained by the code are compared with experimental results. The pressure
coefficient (Cp) is plotted against the displacement vector non-dimensionalised by the
chord length of the aerofoil.
Computational Domain
Figure 7.1:Computational domain
A mesh of triangular elements of size 0.1 was used.
Nodes 32142 Elements 62178 Chord length 130mm
43
Boundary Conditions
The pressure inlet was given as P=59,000Pa. Velocity at inlet is3.11m/s and temperature,
T=298 K. These conditions correspond to an inlet Mach number of 0.0021.
The entire aerofoil is considered as a wall and no slip condition is specified. Further the
top and bottom surfaces are also walls. The boundary conditions are similar to that
present while testing flow over an aerofoil in a wind tunnel.
Inlet : u=u
inf
, v=0
Walls: u=0, v=0
Outlet: P=P
atm
.
Results
Velocity plot
The contours of the x-directional velocity(u) is shown in figure. Streamlines are plotted
across the contour plot, to indicate the flow direction. From the figure, it is observed that
there is no separation involved and the streamlines smoothly follows the contours. There
is a stagnation point on the nose of the aerofoil, where the u-velocity hits a minimum.
44
Figure 7.2:u-velocity contour map
Pressure Plot
Figure 7.3:Pressure contour map
45
The Pressure field is displayed in the above contour. It is observed that the region where
the velocity field intensity was at a minimum is the region where the pressure field
intensity is a maximum. This is the stagnation point, at the nose of the aerofoil.
Pressure Coefficient
The pressure coefficient, Cp is defined by
Cp = P-Pinf/(0.5v
2
)
Pinf is the inlet pressure, 59000Pa.
The pressure coefficient is calculated by the code and these values are compared with the
experimental values, Rapposelli et al,(2003)
The plot has been inverted to depict the upper surface on top. The pressure coefficient is
higher at the lower surface, due to the pressure being higher at the lower surface. This is
what creates lift in an aerofoil shaped wing.
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
x/c
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
Computed
results
Experimental
results
Figure 7.4:Cp vs x
46
The experimental values give a match with the computed values, validating the code. An
oscillation is observed on the top vertex of the plot. This corresponds to the location of
the stagnation point.
7.2. Flow over a Circular Cylinder
Flow over a circular cylinder has been of interest for many decades, as it offers a
full range of phenomena from the laminar, periodic shedding of vortices, transition to
turbulent, and fully turbulent flow regimes-making it a challenging problem for
computational simulation. Computational studies of flow over a circular cylinder began
as early as the 1930s (e.g., Thom, 1933), and this continues to be a popular subject.
In this section, a circular cylinder is first presented followed by vortex shedding cases
with higher Reynolds numbers up to 1000. This represents a simple case for external
flows, for the purpose of testing the previously described unified pressure projection
formulation without any transition and turbulence modeling.
For external flows in which the computational domain extends a large distance from the
body, the pressure waves originating from the body surface propagate into the far field.
As the Reynolds number increases above 40, a non-symmetric wake develops and
periodic vortex shedding sets in.
The Reynolds number range of periodic vortex shedding is divided into two distinct sub
ranges. At Re=40 to 50, called the stable range, regular vortex streets are formed and no
turbulent motion is developed. The range re=150 to 300 is a transition range to a regime
called the irregular range, in which turbulent velocity fluctuations accompany the
periodic formation of vortices. The turbulence is initiated by laminar-turbulence
transition in the free layers which spring from the separation points on the cylinder. This
transition first occurs in the range Re=150 to 300.From spectrum and statistical
47
measurements, it is known that in the stable range, the vortices decay by viscous
diffusion. In the irregular range the diffusion is turbulent and the wake becomes fully
turbulent in 40 to 50 diameters downstream.
The shedding frequency is usually expressed in terms of the dimensionless Strouhal
number, S = n1d/U where n1 is the shedding frequency from one side of the cylinder, d is
the circular diameter, and U is the free stream velocity. The Strouhal number S may
depend on Reynolds number, geometry, free-stream turbulence level, cylinder roughness,
and so forth. The principal geometrical parameter is the cylinder shape (for other than the
circular cylinders, d is an appropriate dimension). Usually the geometrical parameters are
fixed, and then S is presented as a function of Reynolds number Re. Instead of Strouhal
number, it is sometimes convenient to use the dimensionless parameter F=n1d2/v where
v is the kinematic viscosity.
Within the lower end of the shedding range, there are three characteristic Reynolds
number ranges, within the lower end of the shedding range. These will be called as
follows
Stable range 40<Re<150
Transition range 150<Re<300
Irregular range 300<Re<10,000+
As noted above the actual limits of these ranges are somewhat in doubt and may depend
on configuration, free-stream turbulence and so forth. Also the higher limit of the
irregularity range is higher than 10,000.
The calculations using the code were performed using a 2-D triangular element grid with
more elements clustered near the body. The circular cylinder was placed at the centre of a
rectangular domain.
48
Computational Domain
.
Figure 7.5:Mesh and computational domain
Nodes 6972 Elements 13598 Cylinder dia 40mm
Boundary conditions
The left vertical edge of the rectangular domain was considered as the inlet. At the inlet
various uniform velocity profiles were described. The vertical velocity (v) in the y-
direction was always kept zero.
The outlet boundary condition was prescribed at the right vertical edge of the domain.
The pressure here was kept constant at atmospheric pressure (1bar).
The edge of the circular cylinder and the top and bottom sides of the domain were kept as
walls. Throughout the circular edge of the cylinder, no slip condition was prescribed.
49
However, at the top and bottom walls, a uniform free stream velocity was enforced in the
x-direction. This is to prevent the influence of the boundary layer from affecting the flow
conditions at the cylinder walls. The y-directional velocity was kept zero at all the wall.
Inlet: u=uinf, v=0
Walls (circular cylinder): u=0, v=0
Walls (domain boundaries): u=uinf, v=0
Outlet: P=Patm.
Results
Figure shows the separation length of separation non-dimensionalized by the cylinder
diameter, D for the Reynolds number, Re=40.
50
Figure 7.6: Length of vortex vs time
The shedding frequency was calculated using the formula (n1d/u), where n1
is the frequency of vortex shedding. In experimental setups , the fluctuating
velocity or pressure signals were captured using measurement apparatus The
output would be amplified and then fed into an oscilloscope. Typically a
sinusoidal wave is observed for each eddy frequency.
In the present numerical study, pressure variation with time was monitored
at a point behind the cylinder. These values were plotted to get a sinusoidal
wave. The frequency response was obtained after taking Fast Fourier
Ls
51
transform of the pressure-time plot. Using the dominant frequency, the
Strouhal number has been calculated for each Reynolds number.
Figure 7.7: Strouhal Number vs Reynolds number
52
Re=216
Re=400
Re=1000
53
The above figures are contour plots of the vorticity function across the
domain. It can be seen that the vortex shedding is minimum in the first plot,
Re=100. As the Reynolds number increases, vortex shedding increases and
becomes irregular.
7.3. Flow over a Backward facing step
Using the same geometry used in the previous chapter, the unified
formulation code was run for with air as fluid.
The flow phenomenon observed for air as fluid are somewhat different
observed for water. Length of the primary separated-flow region is predicted
to increase nonlinearly with Reynolds number up to Re 420. The ensuing
decrease with Reynolds number is caused by the additional region of
separated flow that occurs on the wall opposite to the step and a t Reynolds
numbers larger than Re > 420. The longitudinal dimensions of this
additional region of separated flow are predicted to increase with Reynolds
number up to Re 980,above which two more regions of recirculating flow
are predicted. Both are located on the channel wall with the step; one inside
the primary region of separated flow and the other downstream of its
reattachment line.
The two-dimensional flow predictions using the code also yielded multiple
regions of separated flow according to experimental observations. In order to
compute the flow inside these regions accurately, the grid distribution would
require further refinements, i.e. more grid points would be needed inside the
computational domain, especially in the region where the additional
54
separated-flow regions occur. Converged and grid-independent solutions
could be obtained that are in good agreement with experimental findings up
to a Reynolds number Re 400. For Reynolds numbers in excess of this value
the numerical results also show multiple regions of separated (recirculating)
flow at the wall opposite to the two-dimensional step and on the channel side
where the step is located. Unfortunately, with the occurrence of more than
one separated flow region, the flow in the experiments becomes three-
dimensional in the region downstream of the step, and this prevents direct
comparison between the experimental and theoretical results.
The following are the numerical results compared along with experimental
findings.
Figure 7.8:Reattachment length vs Reynolds number
55
CHAPTER 8
ORIFICE METER
An orifice meter is a device used for measuring the volumetric flow rate. It uses the same
principle as a Venturi nozzle, namely Bernoulli's principle which states that there is a
relationship between the pressure of the fluid and the velocity of the fluid. When the
velocity increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa.
An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in the middle. It is usually placed in a pipe in
which fluid flows. When the fluid reaches the orifice plate, the fluid is forced to converge
to go through the small hole; the point of maximum convergence actually occurs shortly
downstream of the physical orifice, at the so-called vena contracta point. As it does so,
the velocity and the pressure changes. Beyond the vena contracta, the fluid expands and
the velocity and pressure change once again. By measuring the difference in fluid
pressure between the normal pipe section and at the vena contracta, the volumetric and
mass flow rates can be obtained from Bernoulli's equation.
The code developed was applied to the problem of flow through an orifice
meter. To measure the flow rate using an orifice meter, the pressure needs to
be measured between two points upstream and downstream of the plate.
However, it is observed that due to vortex formation immediately after the
plate, the pressure cannot be tapped until the flow attains steady state.
An alternative design proposes to use multiple holes in the plate. It is
proposed that this arrangement would reduce the vortex formation and hence
enable pressure measurement closer to the plate. This would lead to
56
considerable savings in the cost of the material as the length of the pipe can
be shortened.
The unified formulation code is applied to this problem to observe
qualitatively if the vortex size is reduced when multiple holes are used.
Figure 8.1:U-velocity contour map for single hole plat
Two symmetric vortices are observed within the pipe immediately after the plate.
The vortices grow in size as time progresses until steady state is attained. The pressure is
tapped through sensors kept at the wall.
57
Figure 8.2:U-velocity contour map for triple hole slit
Figure shows the multiple vortices that develop immediately after each hole. Comparing
the above two figures it is seen that the vortex size is considerably smaller in the triple
hole plate case.
58
Chapter 8
Conclusions
In this work, a unified formulation to solve incompressible and compressible
flow regardless of the fluid has been suggested. This formulation based on
the fractional step algorithm is a new approach. Many validation test cases
have been done in this thesis work. The results of the test cases suggest that
the unified formulation with the fractional step algorithm is Mach number-
independent regardless of the medium. More comprehensive validation is
necessary to make a definitive conclusion of this approach. However, in
general, a unified approach can be very useful for many engineering
applications where flow speed is in a wide range or where both
incompressible and compressible flow coexist, such as in a multi-material or
multi-phase flow.
In future, the formulation can be extended to simulate even multi-phase,
flow mixing and cavitation.
59
NOMENCLATURE
Density ,Kg/m
3
Cp Specific heat , J/KgK
K Conductivity, W/mK
T Temperature, K
t Time, sec
Thermal Diffusivity,m
2
/s
N
i
, N
j
Shape functions
h Heat transfer coefficient, W/m
2
K
Q Heat generated per unit volume, J/m
3
t Time step
L Characteristic length of the element, m
T Ambient temperature, K
60
APPENDIX A
Conjugate Gradient method
In Implicit formulation, equation 3.9will takes the form AX=B, Which is a system of
linear equations. The discrete system of equations from the finite element method must
be solved by a numerical solver. The Conjugate Gradient method is chosen as a method
for solving systems of linear equations. The method requires a symmetric positive
definite (SPD) system of equations that is a system of the form:
Algorithm for CG method is given below.
AX=B
x
0
=Initial guess vector.
Theoretically the Conjugate Gradient method will converge and reach the exact
solution in at most N steps for N degrees of freedom. Each step k projects the exact
solution into the k-dimensional solution space spanned by the A conjugate basis vectors.
In practice, each step will not be solved exactly due to round-off error in the
61
computations. The method will however in general converge to an acceptable error-
tolerance in far less than N iterations. This rapid convergence is one of the greatest
strengths of the method.
Appendix B
EVALUATION OF MATRICES
1. Mass matrix, M
The mass matrix is defined as
M =
V
NiNjdA
(
(
}
= | |
1
2 1 2 3
3
L
L L L L dA
L
( (
( (
( (
( (
}
=
2
1 1 2 1 3
2 1 2 2 2 3
3 1 3 2 3 3
L L L L L
L L L L L L dA
L L L L L L
( (
( (
( (
( (
}
=
2!0!0! 1!0!0! 1!0!0!
(2 2 0 0)! (2 2 0 0)! (2 2 0 0)!
1!0!0! 2!0!0! 1!0!0!
2
(2 2 0 0)! (2 2 0 0)! (2 2 0 0)!
1!0!0! 1!0!0! 2!0!0!
(2 2 0 0)! (2 2 0 0)! (2 2 0 0)!
A
(
(
+ + + + + + + + +
(
(
(
+ + + + + + + + +
(
(
(
+ + + + + + + + +
=
2 1 1
1 2 1
12
1 1 2
A
(
(
(
(
Lumping the mass matrix:
62
LM =
4 0 0
0 4 0
12
0 0 4
A
(
(
(
(
=
1 0 0
0 1 0
3
0 0 1
A
(
(
(
(
2. Advection Matrix, A
A =
V
j j
Ni u v dA
x y
( cN cN
+
(
c c
}
A =
1 2 3
1 1 1
1 2 3
2 2 2
1 2 3
3 3 3
A
N N N
N N N
x x x
N N N
u N N N
x x x
N N N
N N N
x x x
c c c (
(
c c c
(
c c c
(
(
c c c
(
c c c
(
( c c c
}
1 2 3
1 1 1
1 2 3
2 2 2
1 2 3
3 3 3
A
N N N
N N N
y y y
N N N
v N N N
y y y
N N N
N N N
y y y
( c c c
(
c c c
(
( c c c
+
(
c c c
(
( c c c
(
c c c
}
=
1 2 3
1 2 3
3
1 2 3
b b b
A
u b b b
b b b
(
(
(
(
1 2 3
1 2 3
3
1 2 3
c c c
A
v c c c
c c c
(
(
+
(
(
3. Upwind matrix, U
The upwind matrix is obtained as:
U =
2 2
i j i j i j i j
A
N N N N N N N N
u uv vu v dA
x x x y y x y y
( | | c c c c c c c c
+ + +
( |
c c c c c c c c
\ .
}
63
=
1 1 1 2 1 3
2 1 2 2 2 3
2
3 1 3 2 3 3
A
N N N N N N
x x x x x x
N N N N N N
u dA
x x x x x x
N N N N N N
x x x x x x
c c c c c c (
(
c c c c c c
(
c c c c c c
(
(
c c c c c c
(
c c c c c c
(
( c c c c c c
}
+
1 1 1 2 1 3
2 1 2 2 2 3
3 1 3 2 3 3
A
N N N N N N
x y x y x y
N N N N N N
uv dA
x y x y x y
N N N N N N
x y x y x y
( c c c c c c
(
c c c c c c
(
( c c c c c c
(
c c c c c c
(
( c c c c c c
(
c c c c c c
}
+
1 1 1 2 1 3
2 1 2 2 2 3
2
3 1 3 2 3 3
A
N N N N N N
y y y y y y
N N N N N N
v dA
y y y y y y
N N N N N N
y y y y y y
( c c c c c c
(
c c c c c c
(
( c c c c c c
(
c c c c c c
(
( c c c c c c
(
c c c c c c
}
=
2 2
1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 2 1 3
2 1 2 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 3
3 1 3 2 3 3 3 1 2 2 2 3 3 1 3 2 3 3
b b b b b b b c b c b c c c c c c c
A u b b b b b b uv b c b c b c v c c c c c c
b b b b b b b c b c b c c c c c c c
| | ( ( (
|
( ( (
+ +
|
( ( (
|
( ( (
\ .
4. Stiffness Matrix
The stiffness matrix is given as :
K =
i j i j
A
N N N N
dA
x x x y
( | | c c c c
+
( |
c c c c
\ .
}
=
1 1 1 2 1 3
2 1 2 2 2 3
3 1 3 2 3 3
A
N N N N N N
x x x x x x
N N N N N N
dA
x x x x x x
N N N N N N
x x x x x x
c c c c c c (
(
c c c c c c
(
c c c c c c
(
(
c c c c c c
(
c c c c c c
(
( c c c c c c
}
64
1 1 1 2 1 3
2 1 2 2 2 3
3 1 3 2 3 3
A
N N N N N N
y y y y y y
N N N N N N
dA
y y y y y y
N N N N N N
y y y y y y
( c c c c c c
(
c c c c c c
(
( c c c c c c
+
(
c c c c c c
(
( c c c c c c
(
c c c c c c
}
=
1 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 2 1 3
2 2 2 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 3
3 1 3 2 3 3 3 1 3 2 3 3
1
b b b b b b c c c c c c
b b b b b b c c c c c c
b b b b b b c c c c c c
| | ( (
|
( (
A +
|
( (
|
( (
\ .
65
APPENDIX C
THE TWO-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CODUCTION EQUATION
AND ITS NUMERICAL MODELLING
In this chapter the governing equations for unsteady two dimensional heat
conduction and its boundary conditions are explained first .The finite element
formulation and solution technique is explained next.
C.1. The governing equations and boundary conditions.
The two dimensional unsteady heat conduction governing equation is given by
p
T
T
Ky
Kx
y T x
C Q
x x y
o
o
o
o
o
o
o o
( (
(
( (
(
c
(
= + +
( c
(
Valid over surface S bounded by a line L with
-
T T T
Kx nx Ky ny Kz nz
x y z
o o o
o o o
(
+ +
(
=q
Over a portion L
b
of the boundary line L, a heat flux q is applied. Over the rest of the
boundary line L
a,
T=Ts
Figure C.1:Two-dimensional surface
66
Over the portion L
a
of the boundary line where T is specified, the gradient terms
and q are zero. The quantities nx, ny are the direction cosines of the unit vectors normal
to the respective surfaces. Applying Galerkin weak formulation of the method of
weighted residuals to the governing equation the above equation becomes
S S
T Nj T Ni T
Ni Cp dxdy Kx Ky dxdy
t x x y y
| | c c c c c
+ +
|
c c c c c
\ .
} }
0
S L
T T
NiQdxdy Ni Kx nx Ky dL
x y
( c c
+ =
(
c c
} }
This equation can be further modified to the generalized Galerkin statement
j j
i i
p i j x y j
S S
N N
N N
C N N dxdy K K dxdy T
x x y y
o o
o o o o
( (
+ +
( (
} }
Q 0
i i
S L
N dxdy N qds + =
} }
Figure C.2:Triangular Element
with Boundary Condition
enforced on 1 side
In the matrix form as
CT + KT+ F = 0
Where C is the capacitance matrix, K is the conductivity matrix and F is the load vector
.
.
67
Where C= | |
1
2 1 2 3
3
p
N
C N N N N dxdy
N
( (
( (
( (
( (
}
j j
i i
x y
S
N N
N N
K K K dxdy
x x y y
c c ( c c
= +
(
c c c c
}
i i
S L
F N Qdxdy N qdL = +
} }
In this general equation any type of 2-D element can be chosen. We have used
three noded linear triangular elements throughout the work.
The elemental matrices for a typical triangular element can be written as follows.
The shape functions for the linear triangle is given as
N= [N
1
N
2
N
3
]
The capacitance matrix for constant Cp is given as
C
p
C NiNjdxdy
(
= =
}
| |
1
2 1 2 3
3
N
Cp N N N N dxdy
N
( (
( (
( (
( (
}
which can be simplified to
C=
2 1 1
1 2 1
12
1 1 2
p
A C
(
(
(
(
The conductivity matrix is given as
K=
j j
i i
x y
N N
N N
K K
x x y y
c c ( c c
+
(
c c c c
}
dxdy
68
=area*
1 1 1 2 1 3
2 1 2 2 2 3
3 1 3 3 3
2
x
b b b b b b
K b b b b b b
b b b b b b
(
(
(
(
+area*
1 1 1 2 1 3
2 1 2 2 2 3
3 1 3 2 3 3
y
c c c c c c
K c c c c c c
c c c c c c
(
(
(
(
Where
2 3
1
2
y y
b
A
=
3 2
1
2
x x
c
A
=
1 2 2 1 3 1 1 3 2 3 3 2
2 ( ) ( ) ( ) A x y x y x y x y x y x y = + +
The load vector is evaluated as
F=F
Q
+ Fq
F
Q
=
S
NiQdxdy =
}
=
1
1 3
QA (
(
( )
q
l
F Niq dl =
}
=
1
1 2
ql (
(
=
2 1 0
1 2 0
6
0 0 0
hl
(
(
(
(
[T-T]
Where l is the length of the edge where the boundary condition is applied.
To integrate this equation in time, both implicit and explicit schemes can be used.
C.2. Explicit Time integration
In the current chapter explicit time integration is explained ,which is
the most simplest formulation and also easily understandable. A s a continuation from the
previous chapter the unsteady heat conduction equation can be written in matrix form as
0...........( .1) CT KT F C + + =
69
Where ,
C, Capacitance or mass matrix
K, Stiffness or conductance matrix
F, Load matrix
| | | | | |
1
0...........( .2)
n n
n
n
T T
C K T F C
t
+
(
+ + =
(
A
Above form can be written in explicit scheme as,
To avoid inversion of the capacitance matrix lumping of that matrix is employed.
Here all the elements in a row are added together and written in the diagonal as explained
below. The original matrix is called the consistent mass matrix and the resulting diagonal
matrix is called the lumped mass matrix.
[C]=
2 1 1
1 2 1
12
1 1 2
p
A C
(
(
(
(
=
4 0 0
0 4 0
12
0 0 4
p
A C
(
(
(
(
=
1 0 0
0 1 0
3
0 0 1
p
A C
(
(
(
(
Using the lumped matrix equation, (3.2) can be written as
| | | | | | | |
( )
1
...........( .3)
n
n n n
C T C T t K T F C
+
= A +
From the equation 3.4 it is clear that all the terms in the RHS are known values.
Explicit schemes are restricted by the stability criterion given by
2
0.5...........( .4)
t
C
L
oA
s
A
Where L is the characteristic length of the element. The t for the numerical
integration is derived from the above equation.
C.2 Implicit time integration
C.2.1Pure implicit scheme
The equation 2.1 can be written in implicit formulation as
70
| | | | | |
1
1
0...........( .5)
n n
n
n
T T
C K T F C
t
+
+
(
+ + =
(
A
This scheme is highly stable and gives non-oscillatory solutions for very large
time step. But it is first order accurate.
C.2.2.Crank-Nicholson Scheme
| | | | | |
1 1
1
0...........( .6)
2
n n n n
n T T T T
C K F C
t
+ +
+ ( ( +
+ + =
( (
A
This scheme is second order accurate, but gives oscillatory solution for large time steps.
C.2.3.Three point scheme.
| | | | | |
1 1 1 1
1
0..........( .7)
2 3
n n n n n
n T T T T T
C K F C
t
+ +
+ ( ( + +
+ + =
( (
A
This scheme is useful for non-iterative solutions of non-linear equations. But this
scheme is not self starting, since it requires starting solutions at t = n-1 and t = n.
From the pure implicit scheme equation 3.6 can be written as
| | | |
| |
1
0.............( .8)
n n
C C
K T T F C
t t
+
( (
+ = =
( (
A A
Knowing the initial condition profile at t=0.0,which will be generally ambient
condition, this system can be solved repeatedly solve for different time steps. Since this is
a symmetric linear system of equations, we have used iterative Conjugate Gradient
solver. The details of this solver are explained in appendix.
For nonlinear equation, matrices C and K depends on temperature(T).In implicit
scheme they have to be evaluated at (n+1)
th
level. This requires an iterative solution till
convergence. After each iteration the temperature is evaluated as follows.
(1 ) ............( .9)
new new old
T T T C e e = +
71
is called as relaxation factor. When <1 is called under relaxation and >1 is
called over relaxation. Their value varies depending on the non-linearity of the problem.
A C++ code has been written based on the above finite element
formulation (explicit as well as implicit) and the flow chart of the same is shown in fig .
Figure C.3:Flow chart of algorithm
C.3. Semi-infinite media
This is a validation problem for the unsteady two-dimensional heat equation solver.
A semi-infinite solid is an idealized body that has a single plane surface and extends to
infinity in all directions, as shown in Fig. 4.16. This idealized body is used to indicate
that the temperature change in the part of the body in which we are interested (the region
close to the surface) is due to the thermal conditions on a single surface. The earth, for
72
example, can be considered to be a semi-infinite medium in determining the variation of
temperature near its surface. Also, a thick wall can be modeled as a semi-infinite medium
if all we are interested in is the variation of temperature in the region near one of the
surfaces, and the other surface is too far to have any impact on the region of interest
during the time of observation.
Consider a semi-infinite solid that is at a uniform temperature Ti. At time t=0 , the
surface of the solid at x=0 is exposed to convection by fluid at a constant temperature ,
with a heat transfer coefficient h . This problem can be formulated as a partial differential
equation, which can be solved analytically for the transient temperature distribution
T(x,t) .
The exact solution of the transient one dimensional heat conduction problem in a semi-
infinite medium that is initially at a uniform temperature of Ti and is suddenly subjected
to convection at time t=0 has been obtained, and is expressed as
Where the quantity erfc() is the complementary error function, defined as
Using the two-dimensional heat equation solver described in this chapter, the problem of
semi-infinite media with convective heat flux and convection boundary conditions on one
surface have been solved. All other surfaces are insulated.
The various constants used in the formulation are explained above along with their values
C3.1.Convective boundary Condition
Properties used are
Density, =1000 kg/m
3
73
Specific heat, C
p
=2000 J/kgK
Conductivity=20 W/ m
2
K
Boundary conditions
At X=0.0mm
h=1500 W/m
2
K
T=2200 K
All other faces are insulated.
I nitial condition
T(x,y,0) =T0= 300.0 K
Figure C.3.Temperature contour inside the rod after 1 sec
74
Figure C.4. Graph showing solver result with the analytical solution for convective boundary condition.
From the graph it is observed that the code results match with the analytical results. Hence the code is
validated for convection boundary condition
C3.2.Heat flux boundary condition
Properties used are
Density, =1000 kg/m
3
Specific heat, C
p
=2000 J/kgK
Conductivity=20 W/ m
2
K
Boundary conditions
At X=0.0
q=10000 W/m
2
All other faces are insulated
I nitial condition
T(x,y,z,0) =T
0
= 300.0 K
Temperature vs X
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 20 40 60
X(mm)
T
(
K
)
analytical
results(1sec)
computed
results(1sec)
computed
results(5sec)
analytical
results(5sec)
75
Figure C.5. Graph showing comparison of solver result with analytical solution for heat flux boundary
condition
299.5
300
300.5
301
301.5
302
302.5
303
303.5
304
304.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
x
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
(
K
)
Computed
results(1sec)
Analytical
results(1sec)
Computed
results(5sec)
Analytical
results(5sec)
76
REFERENCES
[1] Darell W pepper, Juan C Henrich; Finite element methodHemishere publishing
company
[2] Frank P Incropera , David P. Dewitt 'Fundamentals of heat and mass transfer',
WILEY INDIA Edition.
[3] Blazek, Computational Fluid Dynamics
[4]Dochan Cetin, Kwak&Kiris, Computation of Viscous Incompressible Flows, Springer
publications
[5] B.F. Armaly, F.C. Durst, J.C. Pereira and B. Schonung, Experimental and theoretical
investigation of backward facings step flow
[6]G. Biswas, M. Breur, F. Durst, Backward facing step flows for various expansion
ratios at low and moderate Reynolds numbers.
[7]AIAA-85-1689, On the Accuracy of the Pseudo compressibility method in Solving
incompressible Navier-Stokes Equations, S.E. Rogers, D.Kwak and U. Kaul
[8]An upwind differencing scheme for the time-accurate incompressible Navier-Stokes
Equations, Stuart E. Rogers, DochanKwak
[9] Three Dimensional instability in flow over a backard facing step, Dwight Barkley, M.
Gabriela, M . Gomes and Ronald D. Henderson
[10] John D. Anderson, Computational Fluid Dynamics, the Basic applications