CH 10

Polymer Properties
Material ABS ABS (reinforced) Acetals Acetals (reinforced) Acrylics Cellulosics Epoxies Epoxies (reinforced) Fluorocarbons Nylon Nylon (reinforced) Phenolics Polycarbonates Polycarbonates (reinforced) Polyesters Polyesters (reinforced) Polyethylenes Polypropylenes Polypropylenes (reinforced) Polystyrenes Polyvinyl chloride UTS (MPa) 2855 100 5570 135 4075 1048 35140 701400 748 5583 70210 2870 5570 110 55 110160 740 2035 40100 1483 755 E (GPa) 1.42.8 7.5 1.43.5 10 1.43.5 0.41.4 3.517 2152 0.72 1.42.8 210 2.821 2.53 6 2 8.312 0.10.14 0.71.2 3.66 1.44 0.0144 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 755 7525 505 1005 101 42 300100 20060 101 20 12510 64 3005 31 100015 50010 42 601 45040 Poissons ratio ( ) 0.35 0.350.40 0.460.48 0.320.40 0.38 0.38 0.46 0.35
TABLE 10.1 Approximate range of mechanical properties for various engineering plastics at room temperature.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
H C H
H C H (a) Heat, pressure, catalyst
H C H
H C H
H C H (b)
H C H
H C H
H C H n Polyethylene
Mer
Monomer H C H H C H H C H H C H Fl C Fl H C H H C CH3 H C Cl H C C 6H 5 Fl C Fl H C H H C H H C H H C H Fl C Fl H C H H C
Polymer repeating unit
Polymer Structure
Polyethylene n
Polypropylene
CH3 n H C Cl H C C6H5 n Fl C Fl n (c) Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) Polystyrene n Polyvinyl chloride
FIGURE 10.1 Basic structure of some polymer molecules: (a) ethylene molecule; (b) polyethylene, a linear chain of many ethylene molecules; (c) molecular structure of various polymers. These molecules are examples of the basic building blocks for plastics.
Effect of Molecular Weight

Commercial polymers Tensile and impact strength
Property
Viscosity 107 104 Molecular weight, degree of polymerization

FIGURE 10.2 Effect of molecular weight and degree of polymerization on the strength and viscosity of polymers.
Polymer Chains
(a) Linear
(b) Branched
(c) Cross-linked
(d) Network
FIGURE 10.3 Schematic illustration of polymer chains. (a) Linear structure; thermoplastics such as acrylics, nylons, polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride have linear structures. (b) Branched structure, such as polyethylene. (c) Crosslinked structure; many rubbers and elastomers have this structure. Vulcanization of rubber produces this structure. (d) Network structure, which is basically highly cross-linked; examples include thermosetting plastics such as epoxies and phenolics.
Effect of Temperature
Glassy Elastic modulus (log scale)
100% crystalline
Elastic modulus (log scale)
Glassy
Increasing cross-linking
Leathery
Increasing crystallinity
Leathery
Rubbery
Rubbery
or ph ou
Viscous Tg Temperature (a) Tm
Viscous
cro ss linkin
g
Tm
Temperature (b)
FIGURE 10.4 Behavior of polymers as a function of temperature and (a) degree of crystallinity and (b) crosslinking. The combined elastic and viscous behavior of polymers is known as viscoelasticity.
Crystallinity
Amorphous region
Crystalline region
FIGURE 10.5 Amorphous and crystalline regions in a polymer. Note that the crystalline region (crystallite) has an orderly arrangement of molecules. The higher the crystallinity, the harder, stiffer, and less ductile is the polymer.
Glass-Transition Temperature
Material Nylon 6,6 Polycarbonate Polyester Polyethylene High density Low density Polymethylmethacrylate Polypropylene Polystyrene Polytetrauoroethylene (Teon) Polyvinyl chloride Rubber Tg ( C) 57 150 73 -90 -110 105 -14 100 -90 87 -73 Tm ( C) 265 265 265 137 115 176 239 327 212
Specific volume
Amorphous polymers
g: Coolin rapid slow
Partly crystalline polymers
Tg Temperature
Tm
FIGURE 10.6 Specic volume of polymers as a function of temperature. Amorphous polymers, such as acrylic and polycarbonate, have a glass-transition temperature, Tg, but do not have a specic melting point, Tm. Partly crystalline polymers, such as polyethylene and nylons, contract sharply at their melting points during cooling.
TABLE 10.2 Glass-Transition Temperatures of Selected Polymers
and
Melting
Deformation of Polymers
Strain Strain Increasing viscosity t0 t1 Time (a) t0 t1 Time (b)
Rigid and brittle (melamine, phenolic) Stress
Tough and ductile (ABS, nylon)
Strain
Strain
Soft and flexible (polyethylene, PTFE)

Recovered strain t0 t1 Time (d)
Recovered strain
0 Strain
t0
t1 Time (c)
FIGURE 10.7 Various deformation modes for polymers.: (a) elastic; (b) viscous; (c) viscoelastic (Maxwell model); and (d) viscoelastic (Voigt or Kelvin model). In all cases, an instantaneously applied load occurs at time to, resulting in the strain paths shown.
FIGURE 10.8 General terminology describing the behavior of three types of plastics. PTFE is polytetrauoroethylene (Teon, a trade name). Source: After R.L.E. Brown.
Temperature Effects
C 218 0 32 High-impact polypropylene
10 Stress (psi x 103) 8 6 4 2 0 0
225C 0
70 60 50 40 30 50 65 20 80 10 MPa 25
Impact strength
Low-density polyethylene
Polyvinyl chloride
Polymethylmethacrylate 0 32 90 Temperature (F)
10
15 20 Strain (%)
25
30
FIGURE 10.9 Effect of temperature on the stressstrain curve for cellulose acetate, a thermoplastic. Note the large drop in strength and increase in ductility with a relatively small increase in temperature. Source: After T.S. Carswell and H.K. Nason.
FIGURE 10.10 impact strength small changes signicant effect Powell.
Effect of temperature on the of various plastics. Note that in temperature can have a on impact strength. Source: P.C.
Viscosity of Melted Polymers

v t
Viscous behavior:
dv = dy =
FIGURE 10.11 Parameters used to describe viscosity; see Eq. (10.3).

104
lic ry Ac
gid Ri
! = 1000 s-1 Apparent viscosity (Ns/m2) 104

P ol y c a r b o n a t
e
Viscosity (Ns/m2)
103
A cry
103
li c ( 2
L DP E (
40
)
C)
Ri
gi
C PV
FIGURE 10.12 Viscosity of some thermoplastics as a function of (a) temperature and (b) shear rate. Source: After D.H. Morton-Jones.
102
Polypro pylene Low d ensity polye thylen e
Nylo n
1 7 0 C
PV
C
(1
90
N ylon (2 85 C)
C
)
102 Polypropylene (230C)
10 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 Temperature (C)
10
10
103 102 Shear rate, ! (s-1)
104
(a)
(b)
Polymer Behavior in Tension

mm 0 16 100 14 12 80 Stress (MPa) (psi x 103) 10 8 6
Load
25
50
75
100
125
Molecules are being oriented
60
40
4 20 2 0 0 0 1 2 3 Elongation (in.) (a) 4 5 (b)
din oa
Un
g
ing
d loa
Elongation
FIGURE 10.13 (a) Load-elongation curve for polycarbonate, a thermoplastic. Source: After R.P. Kambour and R.E. Robertson. (b) High-density polyethylene tension-test specimen, showing uniform elongation (the long, narrow region in the specimen).
FIGURE 10.14 Typical loadelongation curve for elastomers. The area within the clockwise loop, indicating loading and unloading paths, is the hysteresis loss. Hysteresis gives rubbers the capacity to dissipate energy, damp vibration, and absorb shock loading, as in automobile tires and vibration dampeners for machinery.
Applications for Plastics

Design Requirement Mechanical strength Wear resistance Frictional properties High Low Electrical resistance Chemical resistance Heat resistance Functional and decorative features Functional and transparent features Housings and hollow shapes Typical Applications Gears, cams, rollers, valves, fan blades, impellers, pistons. Gears, wear strips and liners, bearings, bushings, roller-skate wheels. Plastics Acetals, nylon, phenolics, polycarbonates, polyesters, polypropylenes, epoxies, polyimides. Acetals, nylon, phenolics, polyimides, polyurethane, ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene. Elastomers, rubbers. Fluorocarbons, polyesters, polyethylene, polyimides. Polymethylmethacrylate, ABS, uorocarbons, nylon, polycarbonate, polyester, polypropylenes, ureas, phenolics, silicones, rubbers. Acetals, ABS, epoxies, polymethylmethacrylate, uorocarbons, nylon, polycarbonate, polyester, polypropylene, ureas, silicones. Fluorocarbons, polyimides, silicones, acetals, polysulfones, phenolics, epoxies. ABS, acrylics, cellulosics, phenolics, polyethylenes, polpropylenes, polystyrenes, polyvinyl chloride. Acrylics, polycarbonates, polystyrenes, polysulfones. laboratory hardware. ABS, cellulosics, phenolics, polycarbonates, polyethylenes, polypropylene, polystyrenes.
Tires, nonskid surfaces, footware, ooring. Sliding surfaces, articial joints. All types of electrical components and equipment, appliances, electrical xtures. Containers for chemicals, laboratory equipment, components for chemical industry, food and beverage containers. Appliances, cookware, electrical components. Handles, knobs, camera and battery cases, trim moldings, pipe ttings. Lenses, goggles, safety glazing, signs, food-processing equipment Power tools, housings, sport helmets, telephone cases.
TA B L E 1 0 . 3 recommendations products.
General for plastic
Reinforced Polymers
Laminate
Particles (a)
Foam
Honeycomb
Short or long fibers, or flakes (b)
Continuous fibers (c) (d)
FIGURE 10.15 Schematic illustration of types of reinforcing plastics. (a) Matrix with particles; (b) matrix with short or long bers or akes; (c) continuous bers; and (d) and (e) laminate or sandwich composite structures using a foam or honeycomb core (see also Fig. 7.48 on making of honeycombs).
Properties of Reinforcing Fibers

40 Thornel P-100 Strength/density (m x 104) 30 Kevlar 29 20 Kevlar 129 S-glass E-glass Titanium Steel Aluminum 0 0 5 10 Stiffness/density (m x 106) 15 20 Kevlar 49 Spectra 900 High-tensile graphite Boron High-modulus graphite
Type Boron Carbon High strength 3000 275 1900 Low High modulus 2000 415 1900 Low Glass E type 3500 73 2480 Lowest S type 4600 85 2540 Lowest Kevlar 29 2800 62 1440 High 49 2800 117 1440 High 129 3200 85 1440 High Nextel 312 1630 135 2700 High 610 2770 328 3960 High Spectra 900 2270 64 970 High 1000 2670 90 970 High Note: These properties vary signicantly, depending on the material and method of preparation. Strain to failure for these bers is typically in the range of 1.5% to 5.5%. Tensile Strength (MPa) 3500 Elastic Modulus (GPa) 380 Density (kg/m3 ) 2600 Relative Cost Highest
Spectra 2000
Celion 3000
Thornel P-55
10
FIGURE 10.16 Specic tensile strength (ratio of tensile strength-to-density) and specic tensile modulus (ratio of modulus of elasticity-to-density) for various bers used in reinforced plastics. Note the wide range of specic strength and stiffness available.
TABLE 10.4 Typical properties of reinforcing bers.
Metal and Ceramic Matrix Composites

Material FIBER Glass Graphite Boron Aramids (Kevlar) Other MATRIX Thermosets Thermoplastics Metals Ceramics Characteristics High strength, low stiness, high density; E (calcium aluminoborosilicate) and S (magnesiaaluminosilicate) types are commonly used; lowest cost. Available typically as high modulus or high strength; less dense than glass; low cost. High strength and stiness; has tungsten lament at its center (coaxial); highest density; highest cost. Highest strength-to-weight ratio of all bers; high cost. Nylon, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, boron carbide, boron nitride, tantalum carbide, steel, tungsten, and molybdenum; see Chapters 3, 8, 9, and 10. Epoxy and polyester, with the former most commonly used; others are phenolics, uorocarbons, polyethersulfone, silicon, and polyimides. Polyetheretherketone; tougher than thermosets, but lower resistance to temperature. Aluminum, aluminumlithium alloy, magnesium, and titanium; bers used are graphite, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and boron. Silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, and mullite; bers used are various ceramics.
TABLE 10.4 Types and General Characteristics of Reinforced Plastics and Metal-Matrix and Ceramic-Matrix Composites
Fiber Spinning
Polymer chips Feed hopper
Spinneret
Cold air Melter/extruder Melt spinning
Bobbin
Stretching Twisting and winding
FIGURE 10.1 The melt spinning process for producing polymer bers. The bers are used in a variety of applications, including fabrics and as reinforcements for composite materials.
Composite Material Microstructure

Matrix Kevlar fibers Graphite fibers Tungsten diameter 0.012 mm Boron diameter 0.1 mm
Matrix (a) (b)
FIGURE 10.18 (a) Cross-section of a tennis racket, showing graphite and aramid (Kevlar) reinforcing bers. Source: After J. Dvorak and F. Garrett. (b) Cross-section of boron-ber-reinforced composite material.
Effect of Fibers
60 Tensile strength (psi x 103) 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 Reinforcement (%) (a) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 30 40 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 Reinforcement (%) (d) 100 0 40
Lo
n
400 Impact energy (ft-lb/in.) Carbon fibers 300 MPa 200 100 0 40
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 10 20 30 Reinforcement (%) (b)
la gg
ss
rt Sho
s fiber s s gla
ibers f s s t g la Shor
Carbon fibers
100
0 40
Flexural modulus (psi x 106)
Flexural strength (psi x 103)
400
rs ibe f on 20 arb
10 0 40
rs rbo fibe a s s C gla s g n iber f Lo s las rt g o h S
ibe nf
rs
300 200 MPa
ort d sh n a s Long fiber s s a l g
10 20 30 Reinforcement (%) (c)
FIGURE 10.19 Effect of the percentage of reinforcing bers and ber length on the mechanical properties of reinforced nylon. Note the signicant improvement with increasing percentage of ber reinforcement. Source: Courtesy of Wilson Fiberll International.
GPa
J/m
rs fi b e
s las g ng Lo
s er fib
300
200
Strength and Fracture of Composites

2.0 Tensile strength (psi x 105) Unidirectional 1.5 Orthogonal Random 500 0.5 1000 MPa 0
1.0
20 40 60 80 Glass content (% by weight)
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 10.20 (a) Fracture surface of glass-berreinforced epoxy composite. The bers are 10 m (400 in.) in diameter and have random orientation. (b) Fracture surface of a graphite-ber-reinforced epoxy composite. The bers are 9-11 m in diameter. Note that the bers are in bundles and are all aligned in the same direction. Source: Courtesy of L.J. Broutman.
FIGURE 10.21 Tensile strength of glass-reinforced polyester as a function of ber content and ber direction in the matrix. Source: After R.M. Ogorkiewicz.
Plastics Processes
Process Extrusion Injection molding Structural foam molding Blow molding Rotational molding Thermoforming Compression molding Transfer molding Casting Processing of reinforced plastics Characteristics Long, uniform, solid or hollow, simple or complex cross-sections; wide range of dimensional tolerances; high production rates; low tooling cost. Complex shapes of various sizes and with ne detail; good dimensional accuracy; high production rates; high tooling cost. Large parts with high stiness-to-weight ratio; low production rates; less expensive tooling than in injection molding. Hollow thin-walled parts of various sizes; high production rates and low cost for making beverage and food containers. Large hollow shapes of relatively simple design; low production rates; low tooling cost. Shallow or deep cavities; medium production rates; low tooling costs. Parts similar to impression-die forging; medium production rates; relatively inexpensive tooling. More complex parts than in compression molding, and higher production rates; some scrap loss; medium tooling cost. Simple or intricate shapes, made with exible molds; low production rates. Long cycle times; dimensional tolerances and tooling costs depend on the specic process.
TABLE 10.6 Characteristics of processing plastics and reinforced plastics.
Extrusion
Barrel liner Hopper Throat Barrel Thrust bearing Throat-cooling channel Gear reducer box Breaker plate Adapter Die Feed section Melt section Melt-pumping section Screw Barrel heater/cooler Thermocouples Wire filter screen Melt thermocouple
Motor
FIGURE 10.22 Schematic illustration of a typical extruder.
Pitch Barrel H W w ! Flight
Extrusion Mechanics
Drag ow:
2HD2N sin cos Qd = 2
Barrel
FIGURE 10.23 Geometry of the pumping section of an extruder screw.
Pressure ow:
W H3 p pDH 3 sin2 Qp = = 12 (l / sin ) 12l
3 Flow rate, q x 10-5 (m3/s) Extruder characteristic 2 Operating point 1 Die characteristic 0 0 5 10 Pressure (MPa) 15
Die characteristic
Qdie = K p
K for circular cross-sections:

D4 d K= 128ld
FIGURE 10.1 Extruder and die characteristics for Example 10.5.

Blown-Film Manufacture
Pinch rolls Wind-up Guide rolls
Blown tube
Mandrel
Extruder
Die
Air (a) (a) (b)
FIGURE 10.25 (a) Schematic illustration of production of thin lm and plastic bags from a tube produced by an extruder, and then blown by air. (b) A blown-lm operation. Source: Courtesy of Windmoeller & Hoelscher Corp.
Tube Extrusion
Spider die Breaker plate Extruder barrel Polymer melt A B Screen pack Melt flow direction Section BB Spider legs (3) Section AA
v B Spider legs (3) Mandrel A Air channel Air in (a) Co-extrusion blow molding Extruder 1
Plastic melt: two or more layers
Parison
Mandrel Extruder 2 (b)
FIGURE 10.26 Extrusion of plastic tubes. (a) Extrusion using a spider die (see also Fig.6.59) and pressurized air; (b) coextrusion of tube for producing a bottle.
Injection Molding
Powder, Pellets Hopper Heating zones Nozzle Mold Vent Piston (ram) Cooling zone
Cylinder (barrel) Injection chamber Torpedo (spreader) Sprue Molded part (a)
Press Ejector pins (clamp) force
Vent
Rotating and reciprocating screw (b)
FIGURE 10.27 Injection molding with (a) a plunger and (b) a reciprocating rotating screw. Telephone receivers, plumbing ttings, tool handles, and housings are examples of parts made by injection molding.
Mold Features
Gate Cavity Sprue Main runner Part Gate
Cold slug well
Branch runner
Cavity
Main Sprue Guide runner pin (a)
Branch runner
Guide pin (b)
FIGURE 10.28 Illustration of mold features for injection molding. (a) Two-plate mold, with important features identied; (b) injection molding of four parts, showing details and the volume of material involved. Source: Courtesy of Tooling Molds West, Inc.
Mold Types
Plate Gate Part Sprue bushing Sprue Ejector pins Sprue bushing Ejector pins Plate Plate Stripper plate Plate
Part Parts Runner (a) (b)
Hot plate; Runner stays molten Plate Sprue bushing
Plate
Ejector pins
Parts (c)
FIGURE 10.29 Types of molds used in injection molding. (a) Two-plate mold, (b) three-plate mold, and (c) hot-runner mold.
Insert Molding
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 10.30 Products made by insert injection molding. Metallic components are embedded in these parts during molding. Source: (a) Courtesy of Plaineld Molding, Inc., and (b) Courtesy of Rayco Mold and Mfg. LLC.
Reaction-Injection Molding
Heat exchanger Stirrer Heat exchanger Displacement cylinders Monomer 2 Pump Recirculation loop Mixing head Mold Recirculation loop
Stirrer
Monomer 1 Pump
FIGURE 10.31 Schematic illustration of the reaction-injection-molding process.
Extruder Extruded parison Knife Bottle mold
Heating passages Tail
Blow Molding
Blow pin
Mold closed and bottle blown (a)
Blown bottle
Blow pin removed Blow pin Injection-molding machine Parison Cooling passages Parison mold Parison transferred to blow mold (b) Blown bottle
2 Blown-mold station Core-pin opening (Blown air passage) Blow mold Parison Indexing direction 1 Preform mold station
Blow-mold bottom plug Blown bottle Blow-mold neck ring
Transfer head Reciprocating-screw extruder 3 Stripper station Stripper plate Bottle
FIGURE 10.32 Schematic illustrations of (a) the blowmolding process for making plastic beverage bottles and (b) a three-station injection-blow-molding machine.
Preform Preform mold neck ring (c)
Rotational Molding
Inlet Outlet vent Primary axis
Pressurizing fluid
Mold Spindle
Secondary axis
FIGURE 10.33 The rotational molding (rotomolding or rotocasting) process. Trash cans, buckets, carousel horses and plastic footballs can be made by this process.
Thermoforming
Heater Clamp Plastic sheet Mold Vacuum line (a) Straight vacuum forming (b) Drape vacuum forming (c) Force above sheet Mold Vacuum line Ram Clamp Plastic sheet Ring
(d) Plug and ring forming
FIGURE 10.35 Various thermoforming processes for thermoplastic sheet. These processes are commonly used in making advertising signs, cookie and candy trays, panels for shower stalls, and packaging.
Compression Molding
Heating elements Punch Open
Charge Mold Knockout (ejector pin) Land Overlap Flash Molded part (a) (b) (c) Closed
Part
Plug
(d)
FIGURE 10.35 Types of compression molding, a process similar to forging: (a) positive, (b) semipositive, and (c) ash. The ash in part (c) is trimmed off. (d) Die design for making a compression-molded part with undercuts. Such designs also are used in other molding and shaping operations.
Transfer Molding
Sprue Transfer plunger Transfer pot and molding powder
Punch Molded parts
Knockout (ejector) pin
1. Insert polymer in mold
2. Mold closed and cavities filled
3. Mold open and molded parts ejected
FIGURE 10.36 Sequence of operations in transfer molding of thermosetting plastics. This process is particularly suitable for making intricate parts with varying wall thicknesses.
Casting, Potting, Encapsulation & Calendering

Liquid plastic Mold 1. 2. Electrical coil Housing or case 3. Mold Coil Mold
FIGURE 10.37 Schematic illustration of (a) casting, (b) potting, and (c) encapsulation of plastics.
Rubber feed Calender rolls Finished film
FIGURE 10.38 Schematic illustration of calendering. Sheets produced by this process are subsequently used in processes such as thermoforming.
Takeoff or stripper roll
Reinforced Plastic Components
FIGURE 10.39 Reinforced-plastic components for a Honda motorcycle. The parts shown are front and rear forks, a rear swing arm, a wheel, and brake disks.
Manufacture of Prepregs
Continuous strands Surface treatment
Spools
Resin
FIGURE 10.40 (a) Manufacturing process for polymer-matrix composite. Source: After T.-W. Chou, R.L. McCullough, and R.B. Pipes. (b) Boronepoxy prepreg tape. Source: Textron Systems.
(a)
Backing paper
(b)
Chopper
Resin paste
Carrier film Compaction belt
FIGURE 10.41 Manufacturing process for producing reinforced-plastic sheets. The sheet is still viscous at this stage and can later be shaped into various products. Source: After T.-W. Chou, R. L. McCullough, and R. B. Pipes.
Continuous strands
Resin paste
Carrier film
Vacuum and Pressure Molding

Clamping bar Clamp Gasket Vacuum trap Metal or plastic mold Steam or hot water Mold release Gel Resin and coat glass Air pressure 345 kPa (50 psi)
Atmospheric pressure
Vacuum trap
Flexible bag
Flexible bag
Mold Mold Gel Resin release coat and glass Room-temperature or oven cure Hand or spray lay-up (a)
Hand or spray lay-up (b)
FIGURE 10.42 (a) Vacuum-bag forming. (b) Pressure-bag forming. Source: After T. H. Meister.
Open Mold Processing

Roving Roller Lay-up of resin and reinforcement Mold Mold (a) (b) Brush Chopped glass roving Spray Resin
Mold
Gantry crane
Boat hull Mold
FIGURE 10.43 Manual methods of processing reinforced plastics: (a) hand lay-up and (b) spray-up. These methods are also called open-mold processing. (c) A boat hull made by these processes. Source: Courtesy of Genmar Holdings, Inc.
(c)
Filament Winding
Continuous roving
Traversing resin bath
Rotating mandrel (a) (b)
FIGURE 10.44 (a) Schematic illustration of the lament-winding process. (b) Fiberglass being wound over aluminum liners for slide-raft ination vessels for the Boeing 767 aircraft. Source: Advanced Technical Products Group, Inc., Lincoln Composites.
Pultrusion
Saw Pultrusion cut to length
Preforming die Heated die Prepreg feed system Infiltration tank Cured pultrusion (a) (b)
Puller
FIGURE 10.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the pultrusion process. (b) Examples of parts made by pultrusion. Source: Courtesy of Strongwell Corporation.
Processing of RP Parts
(a)
(b)
Side view Model Support
Model
A Support A
FIGURE 10.46 The computational steps involved in producing a stereolithography le. (a) Three-dimensional description of the part. (b) The part is divided into slices. (Only 1 in 10 is shown.) (c) Support material is planned. (d) A set of tool directions is determined for manufacturing each slice. Shown is the extruder path at section A-A from (c), for a fused-deposition modeling operation.
(d)
(c)
Rapid Prototyping Processes

Supply Phase Liquid Process Stereolithography Polyjet Fused-deposition modeling Three-dimensional printing Layer of powder Layer Creation Technique Liquid-layer curing Liquid-layer curing Extrusion of melted plastic Binder-droplet deposition onto powder layer Laser-driven Phase-Change Type Photopolymerization Photopolymerization Solidication by cooling No phase change Sintering or melting Materials Photopolymers (acrylates, epoxies, colorable resins, and lled resins) Photopolymers Thermoplastics (ABS, polycarbonate, and polysulfone) Polymer, ceramic and metal powder with binder Polymers, metals with binder, metals, ceramics, and sand with binder
Powder
Selective laser sintering
TABLE 10.7 Characteristics of rapid-prototyping processes.
Process Stereolithography
Material Somos 7120a
Tensile Strength (MPa) 63
Elastic Modulus (GPa) 2.59
Elongation in 50 mm (%) 2.3-4.1
Somos 9120a
32
1.14-1.55
15-25
WaterShed 11120
47.1-53.6
2.65-2.88
3.3-3.5
Prototool 20Lb
72-79
10.1-11.2
1.2-1.3
Polyjet
FC 700
42.3
2.0
15-25
FC800
49.9-55.1
2.5-2.7
15-25
FC900
2.0-4.6
47
Fuseddeposition modeling
Polycarbonate
52
2.0
ABS
22
1.63
PC-ABS Selective laser sintering Duraform PA
34.8 44
1.83 1.6
4.3 9
Duraform GF
38.1
5.9
SOMOS 201 ST-100c
17.3 305
14 137
130 10
Notes Transparent amber; good general purpose material for rapid prototyping. Transparent amber; good chemical resistance; good fatigue properties; used for producing patterns in rubber molding. Optically clear with a slight green tinge; similar mechanical properties as ABS; used for rapid tooling. Opaque beige; higher strength polymer suitable for automotive components, housings, and injection molds. Transparent amber; good impact strength, good paint absorption and machinability. White, blue or black; good humidity resistance; suitable for general purpose applications. Gray or black; very exible material, simulates the feel of rubber or silicone. White; high-strength polymer suitable for rapid prototyping and general use. Available in multiple colors, most commonly white; a strong and durable material suitable for general use. Black; good combination of mechanical properties and heat resistance. White; produces durable heat- and chemical-resistant parts; suitable for snap-t assemblies and sandcasting or silicone tooling. White; glass-lled form of Duraform PA, has increased stiness and is suitable for higher temperature applications. Multiple colors available; mimics rubber mechanical properties Bronze-inltrated steel powder.
RP Materials
TABLE 10.8 Mechanical properties of selected materials for rapid prototyping.
Stereolithography and FDM

UV light source UV curable liquid c b a Liquid surface Formed part Vat Platform
z y x Thermoplastic or wax filament
FIGURE 10.47 Schematic illustration of the stereolithography process. Source: Courtesy of 3D Systems.
FIGURE 10.48 (a) Schematic illustration of the fused-deposition modeling process. (b) The FDM Vantage X rapid prototyping machine. Source: Courtesy of Stratasys, Inc.
Heated FDM head moves in xy plane
Plastic model created in minutes
Table moves in z-direction
Fixtureless foundation
Filament supply (a) (b)
Support Structures
Gussets (a)
Island
Ceiling within an arch (b)
Ceiling
FIGURE 10.49 (a) A part with a protruding section that requires support material. (b) Common support structures used in rapid-prototyping machines. Source: After P.F. Jacobs.
Selective Laser Sintering

Galvanometers Laser Optics Environmentalcontrol unit
Process chamber Roller mechanism
Process-control computer Motor
Powderfeed cylinder
Part-build cylinder
Motor
FIGURE 10.50 Schematic illustration of the selective-laser-sintering process. Source: After C. Deckard and P.F. McClure.
Three-Dimensional Printing
Powder Binder
1. Spread powder
2. Print layer
3. Piston movement
FIGURE 10.51 Schematic illustration of the threedimensional-printing process. Source: After E. Sachs and M. Cima.
4. Intermediate stage
5. Last layer printed
6. Finished part
FIGURE 10.52 (a) Examples of parts produced through three-dimensional printing. Full color parts also are possible, and the colors can be blended throughout the volume. Source: Courtesy ZCorp, Inc.
(a) (b)
3D Printing of Metal Parts

Binder deposition Infiltrating metal, permeates into P/M part
Microstructure detail Unfused powder Binder Metal powder
Particles are loosely sintered Binder is burned off (a) (b)
Infiltrated by lower-melting-point metal (c)
FIGURE 10.53 The three-dimensional printing process: (a) part build; (b) sintering, and (c) inltration steps to produce metal parts. Source: Courtesy of the ProMetal Division of Ex One Corporation.
Rapid Manufacturing: Investment Casting
1. Pattern creation
2. Tree assembly
3. Insert into flask
4. Fill with investment
Crucible Heat Molten metal
5. Wax meltout/burnout
6. Fill mold with metal
7. Cool
8. Finish
FIGURE 10.54 Manufacturing steps for investment casting that uses rapid-prototyped wax parts as patterns. This approach uses a ask for the investment, but a shell method can also be used. Source: 3D Systems, Inc.
Sprayed Metal Tooling Process

Metal spray Alignment tabs Pattern Coating Aluminum-filled epoxy Flask
Base plate (a) (b) (c)
Finished mold half
Molded part Pattern
Base plate (d)
Second mold half (e)
FIGURE 10.55 Production of tooling for injection molding by the sprayed-metal tooling process. (a) A pattern and base plate are prepared through a rapid-prototyping operation; (b) a zinc-aluminum alloy is sprayed onto the pattern (See Section 4.5.1); (c) the coated base plate and pattern assembly is placed in a ask and back-lled with aluminum-impregnated epoxy; (d) after curing, the base plate is removed from the nished mold; and (e) a second mold half suitable for injection molding is prepared.
Example: RP Injection Manifold
FIGURE 10.56 Rapid prototyped model of an injection-manifold design, produced through stereolithography. Source: 3D Systems.
Design of Polymer Parts

Original design Distortion Modified design
(a) Thick
Die shape
Pull-in (sink mark)
Thin Extruded product (b) (c) (d)
FIGURE 10.57 Examples of design modications to eliminate or minimize distortion of plastic parts. (a) Suggested design changes to minimize distortion. Source: After F. Strasser. (b) Die design (exaggerated) for extrusion of square sections. Without this design modication, product cross-sections would not have the desired shape because of the recovery of the material, known as die swell. (c) Design change in a rib to minimize pull-in caused by shrinkage during cooling. (d) Stiffening of the bottom of thin plastic containers by doming, similar to the process used to make the bottoms of aluminum beverage cans and similar containers.
Costs and Production Volumes

Process 10 Machining Compression molding Transfer molding Injection molding Extrusion * Rotational molding Blow molding Thermoforming Casting Forging Foam molding *Continuous process. Source: After R. L. E. Brown, Design and Manufacture of Plastic Parts. Copyright c 1980 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Equipment Capital Cost Med High High High Med Low Med Low Low High High Production Rate Med Med Med High High Low Med Low Very low Low Med Tooling Cost Low High High High Low Low Med Low Low Med Med Typical Production Volume, Number of Parts 102 103 104 105 106 107
TABLE 10.9 Comparative costs and production volumes for processing of plastics.
Case Study: Invisalign Orthodontic Aligners
(a)
(a) (b)
FIGURE 10.58 (a) An aligner for orthodontic use, manufactured using a combination of rapid tooling and thermoforming; (b) comparison of conventional orthodontic braces to the use of transparent aligners. Source: Courtesy Align Technologies, Inc.
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 10.59 Manufacturing sequence for Invisalign orthodontic aligners. (a) Creation of a polymer impression of the patient's teeth; (b) computer modeling to produce CAD representations of desired tooth proles; (c) production of incremental models of desired tooth movement. An aligner is produced by thermoforming a transparent plastic sheet against this model. Source: Courtesy Align Technologies, Inc.

CH 10

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Polymer Properties

H C H (a) Heat, pressure, catalyst

Polymer repeating unit

CH3 n H C Cl H C C6H5 n Fl C Fl n (c) Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) Polystyrene n Polyvinyl chloride

Effect of Molecular Weight

Viscosity 107 104 Molecular weight, degree of polymerization

Viscous Tg Temperature (a) Tm

g: Coolin rapid slow

Partly crystalline polymers

TABLE 10.2 Glass-Transition Temperatures of Selected Polymers

Rigid and brittle (melamine, phenolic) Stress

Tough and ductile (ABS, nylon)

Soft and flexible (polyethylene, PTFE)

10 Stress (psi x 103) 8 6 4 2 0 0

Polymethylmethacrylate 0 32 90 Temperature (F)

FIGURE 10.10 impact strength small changes signicant effect Powell.

Viscosity of Melted Polymers

FIGURE 10.11 Parameters used to describe viscosity; see Eq. (10.3).

! = 1000 s-1 Apparent viscosity (Ns/m2) 104

Polypro pylene Low d ensity polye thylen e

102 Polypropylene (230C)

103 102 Shear rate, ! (s-1)

Polymer Behavior in Tension

Molecules are being oriented

4 20 2 0 0 0 1 2 3 Elongation (in.) (a) 4 5 (b)

Applications for Plastics

General for plastic

Short or long fibers, or flakes (b)

Continuous fibers (c) (d)

Properties of Reinforcing Fibers

TABLE 10.4 Typical properties of reinforcing bers.

Metal and Ceramic Matrix Composites

Cold air Melter/extruder Melt spinning

Stretching Twisting and winding

Composite Material Microstructure

Matrix (a) (b)

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 10 20 30 Reinforcement (%) (b)

Flexural modulus (psi x 106)

Flexural strength (psi x 103)

rs rbo fibe a s s C gla s g n iber f Lo s las rt g o h S

300 200 MPa

ort d sh n a s Long fiber s s a l g

10 20 30 Reinforcement (%) (c)

Strength and Fracture of Composites

20 40 60 80 Glass content (% by weight)

TABLE 10.6 Characteristics of processing plastics and reinforced plastics.

FIGURE 10.22 Schematic illustration of a typical extruder.

Pitch Barrel H W w ! Flight

FIGURE 10.23 Geometry of the pumping section of an extruder screw.

K for circular cross-sections:

FIGURE 10.1 Extruder and die characteristics for Example 10.5.

Air (a) (a) (b)

Plastic melt: two or more layers

Mandrel Extruder 2 (b)

Press Ejector pins (clamp) force

Rotating and reciprocating screw (b)

Cold slug well

Main Sprue Guide runner pin (a)

Guide pin (b)

Part Parts Runner (a) (b)

Hot plate; Runner stays molten Plate Sprue bushing

FIGURE 10.31 Schematic illustration of the reaction-injection-molding process.