TheIntroduction

1.Nature(theartwherebyGodhathmadeandgovernsthe[1]
world)isbytheartofman,asinmanyotherthings,sointhisalso
imitated,thatitcanmakeanartificialanimal.Forseeinglifeisbut
amotionoflimbs,*thebeginningwhereofisinsomeprincipalpart
withinwhymaywenotsay,thatallautomata(enginesthatmove
themselvesbyspringsandwheelsasdothawatch)haveanartificial
life?Forwhatistheheart,butaspringandthenerves,butsomany
stringsandthejoints,butsomanywheels,givingmotiontothewhole
body,suchaswasintendedbytheartificer?Artgoesyetfurther,
imitatingthatrationalandmostexcellentworkofnature,man.For
byaftiscreatedthatgreatLEVIATHAN*calledaCOMMONWEALTH,or
STATE,(inLatinCIVITAS)whichisbutanartificialmanthoughof
greaterstatureandstrengththanthenatural,forwhoseprotection
anddefenceitwasintendedandinwhich,thesovereigntyisan
artificialsoul,asgivinglifeandmotiontothewholebodythe
magistrates,andotherofficersofjudicatureandexecution,artificial
jointsrewardandpunishment(bywhichfastenedtotheseatofthe
sovereignty,everyjointandmemberismovedtoperformhisduty)
arethenerves,thatdothesameinthebodynaturalthewealthand
richesofalltheparticularmembers,arethestrengthsaluspopuli(the
people'ssafety)itsbusinesscounsellors,bywhomallthingsneedfulfor
ittoknow,aresuggesteduntoit,arethememoryequityandlaws,an
artificialreasonandwillconcord,healthsedition,sicknessandcivil
war,death.Lastly,thepactsandcovenants,bywhichthepartsofthis
bodypoliticwereatfirstmade,settogether,andunited,resemble
thatfiat,ortheletusmakeman,pronouncedbyGodinthecreation.
2.Todescribethenatureofthisartificialman,Iwillconsider[2]
First,thematterthereof,andtheartificerbothwhichisMan.
Secondly,how,andbywhatcovenantsitismadewhatarethe
rightsandjustpowerorauthorityofasovereignandwhatitisthat
preservethanddissolvethit.
Thirdly,whatisaChristianCommonwealth.
Lastly,whatistheKingdomofDarkness.
3.Concerningthefirst,thereisasayingmuchusurpedoflate,
thatwisdomisacquired,notbyreadingofbooks,*butofmen.Con
sequentlywhereunto,thosepersons,thatforthemostpartcangive

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nootherproofofbeingwise,takegreatdelighttoshowwhatthey
thinktheyhavereadinmen,byuncharitablecensuresofonean
otherbehindtheirbacks.Butthereisanothersayingnotoflate
understood,bywhichtheymightlearntrulytoreadoneanother,if
theywouldtakethepainsandthatis,nosceteipsum,readthyself:
whichwasnotmeant,asitisnowused,tocountenance,eitherthe
barbarousstateofmeninpower,towardstheirinferiorsorto
encouragemenoflowdegree,toasaucybehaviourtowardstheir
bettersbuttoteachus,thatforthesimilitudeofthethoughts,and
passionsofoneman,tothethoughts,andpassionsofanother,
whosoeverlookethintohimself,andconsiderethwhathedoth,
whenhedoesthink,opine,reason,hope,fear,&c,anduponwhat
groundsheshalltherebyreadandknow,whatarethethoughts,and
passionsofallothermen,uponthelikeoccasions.Isaythesimili
tudeofpassions,whicharethesameinallmen,desire,fear,hope,&c
notthesimilitudeoftheobjectsofthepassions,whicharethethings
desired,feared,hoped,&c:forthesetheconstitutionindividual,and
particulareducationdosovary,andtheyaresoeasytobekeptfrom
ourknowledge,thatthecharactersofman'sheart,blottedandcon
foundedastheyare,withdissembling,lying,counterfeiting,and
erroneousdoctrines,arelegibleonlytohimthatsearchethhearts.
Andthoughbymen'sactionswedodiscovertheirdesignsome
timesyettodoitwithoutcomparingthemwithourown,and
distinguishingallcircumstances,bywhichthecasemaycometobe
altered,istodecipherwithoutakey,andbeforthemostpart
deceived,bytoomuchtrust,orbytoomuchdiffidenceashethat
reads,ishimselfagoodorevilman.
4.Butletonemanreadanotherbyhisactionsneversoperfectly,
itserveshimonlywithhisacquaintance,whicharebutfew.Hethat
istogovernawholenation,mustreadinhimself,notthis,orthat
particularmanbutmankind:whichthoughitbehardtodo,harder
thantolearnanylanguage,orscienceyet,whenIshallhaveset
downmyownreadingorderly,andperspicuously,thepainsleft
another,willbeonlytoconsider,ifhealsofindnotthesamein
himself.Forthiskindofdoctrineadmittethnootherdemonstration.

Part1
OfMan
ChapterI
OfSense*
1.Concerningthethoughtsofman,Iwillconsiderthemfirst[3]
singly,andafterwardsintrain,ordependenceupononeanother.
Singly,theyareeveryonearepresentationorappearance,ofsome
quality,orotheraccidentofabodywithoutuswhichiscommonly
calledanobject.Whichobjectworkethontheeyes,ears,andother
partsofaman'sbodyandbydiversityofworking,produceth
diversityofappearances.
2.Theoriginalofthemall,isthatwhichwecallSENSE,forthere
isnoconceptioninaman'smind,whichhathnotatfirst,totally,or
byparts,beenbegottenupontheorgansofsense.Therestare
derivedfromthatoriginal.
3.Toknowthenaturalcauseofsense,isnotverynecessaryto
thebusinessnowinhandandIhaveelsewherewritten*ofthesame
atlarge.Nevertheless,tofilleachpartofmypresentmethod,Iwill
brieflydeliverthesameinthisplace.
4.Thecauseofsense,istheexternalbody,orobject,which
presseththeorganpropertoeachsense,eitherimmediately,
asinthetasteandtouchormediately,asinseeing,hearing,and
smelling:whichpressure,bythemediationofthenerves,andother
strings,andmembranesofthebody,continuedinwardstothe
brainandheart,causeththerearesistance,orcounterpressure,or
endeavour*Oftheheart,todeliveritself:whichendeavourbecause
outward,seemethtobesomematterwithout.Andthisseeming,or
fancy,*isthatwhichmencallsenseandconsisteth,astotheeye,in
alight,orcolourfiguredtotheear,inasoundtothenostril,inan
odourtothetongueandpalate,inasavourandtotherestofthe
body,inheat,cold,hardness,softness,andsuchotherqualities,aswe
discernbyfeeling.Allwhichqualifiescalledsensible,areintheobject
thatcauseththem,butsomanyseveralmotionsofthematter,by
whichitpressethourorgansdiversely.Neitherinusthatare

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[4]

pressed,aretheyanythingelse,butdiversmotions(formotion
producethnothingbutmotion.)Buttheirappearancetousis
fancy,thesamewaking,thatdreaming.Andaspressing,rubbing,or
strikingtheeye,makesusfancyalightandpressingtheear,
producethadinsodothebodiesalsowesee,orhear,producethe
samebytheirstrong,thoughunobservedaction.Forifthose
colours,andsounds,wereinthebodies,orobjectsthatcausethem,
theycouldnotbeseveredfromthem,asbyglasses,andinechoes
byreflection,weseetheyarewhereweknowthethingwesee,isin
oneplacetheappearance,inanother.Andthoughatsomecertain
distance,therealandveryobjectseeminvestedwiththefancyit
begetsinusyetstilltheobjectisonething,theimageorfancyis
another.Sothatsenseinallcases,isnothingelsebutoriginalfancy,
caused(asIhavesaid)bythepressure,thatis,bythemotion,of
externalthingsuponoureyes,ears,andotherorgansthereunto
ordained.
5.Butthephilosophyschools,throughalltheuniversitiesof
Christendom,groundeduponcertaintextsofAristotle,teach
anotherdoctrineandsay,forthecauseofvision,thatthethingseen,
sendethforthoneverysideavisiblespecies(inEnglish)avisibleshow,
apparition,oraspect,orabeingseenthereceivingwhereofintothe
eye,isseeing.Andforthecauseofhearing,thatthethingheard,
sendethforthanaudiblespecies,thatis,anaudibleaspect,oraudible
beingseenwhichenteringattheear,makethhearing.Nayforthe
causeofunderstandingalso,theysaythethingunderstoodsendeth
forthanintelligiblespecies,thatis,anintelligiblebeingseenwhich
comingintotheunderstanding,makesusunderstand.Isaynotthis,
asdisprovingtheuseofuniversities:butbecauseIamtospeak
hereafteroftheirofficeinacommonwealth,Imustletyouseeonall
occasionsbytheway,whatthingswouldbeamendedinthem
amongstwhichthefrequencyofinsignificantspeechisone.

ChapterII
OfImagination
1.Thatwhenathingliesstill,unlesssomewhatelsestirit,itwill
liestillforever,isatruththatnomandoubtsof.Butthatwhena
thingisinmotion,itwilleternallybeinmotion,unlesssomewhat

elsestayit,thoughthereasonbethesame,(namely,thatnothingcan
changeitself,)isnotsoeasilyassentedto.*Formenmeasure,not
onlyothermen,butallotherthings,bythemselves:andbecause
theyfindthemselvessubjectaftermotiontopain,andlassitude,
thinkeverythingelsegrowswearyofmotion,andseeksreposeofits
ownaccordlittleconsidering,whetheritbenotsomeothermotion,
whereinthatdesireofresttheyfindinthemselves,consisteth.From
henceitis,thattheschoolssay,heavybodiesfalldownwards,outof
anappetitetorest,andtoconservetheirnatureinthatplacewhich
ismostproperforthemascribingappetite,andknowledgeofwhat
isgoodfortheirconservation,(whichismorethanmanhas)to
thingsinanimate,absurdly.
2.Whenabodyisonceinmotion,itmoveth(unlesssomething
elsehinderit)eternallyandwhatsoeverhindrethit,cannotinan
instant,butintime,andbydegreesquiteextinguishitandaswesee
inthewater,thoughthewindcease,thewavesgivenotoverrolling
foralongtimeaftersoalsoithappenethinthatmotion,whichis
madeintheinternalpartsofaman,then,whenhesees,dreams,&c.
Foraftertheobjectisremoved,ortheeyeshut,westillretainan
imageofthethingseen,thoughmoreobscurethanwhenweseeit.
Andthisisit,theLatinscallimagination,fromtheimagemadein
seeingandapplythesame,thoughimproperly,toalltheother
senses.ButtheGreekscallitfancywhichsignifiesappearance,and
isaspropertoonesense,astoanother.IMAGINATIONthereforeis
nothingbutdecayingsenseandisfoundinmen,andmanyother
livingcreatures,aswellsleeping,aswaking.
3.Thedecayofsenseinmenwaking,isnotthedecayof
themotionmadeinsensebutanobscuringofit,insuchmanner,
asthelightofthesunobscureththelightofthestarswhichstarsdo
nolessexercisetheirvirtuebywhichtheyarevisible,intheday,
thaninthenight.Butbecauseamongstmanystrokes,which
oureyes,ears,andotherorgansreceivefromexternalbodies,the
predominantonlyissensiblethereforethelightofthesunbeing
predominant,wearenotaffectedwiththeactionofthestars.And
anyobjectbeingremovedfromoureyes,thoughtheimpressionit
madeinusremainyetotherobjectsmorepresentsucceeding,and
workingonus,theimaginationofthepastisobscured,andmade
weakasthevoiceofamanisinthenoiseoftheday.Fromwhence
itfolloweth,thatthelongerthetimeis,afterthesight,orsenseof
anyobject,theweakeristheimagination.Forthecontinualchange

[5]

Page12

ofman'sbody,destroysintimethepartswhichinsensewere
moved:sothatdistanceoftime,andofplace,hathoneandthesame
effectinus.Forasatagreatdistanceofplace,thatwhichwelookat,
appearsdim,andwithoutdistinctionofthesmallerpartsandas
voicesgrowweak,andinarticulate:soalsoaftergreatdistanceof
time,ourimaginationofthepastisweakandwelose(forexample)
ofcitieswehaveseen,manyparticularstreetsandofactions,
manyparticularcircumstances.Thisdecayingsense,whenwewould
expressthethingitself,(Imeanfancyitself)wecallimagination,as
Isaidbefore:butwhenwewouldexpressthedecay,andsignify
thatthesenseisfading,old,andpast,itiscalledmemory.Sothat
imaginationandmemory,arebutonething,whichfordivers
considerationshathdiversnames.
Memory.4.Muchmemory,ormemoryofmanythings,iscalledexperi
ence.Again,imaginationbeingonlyofthosethingswhichhavebeen
formerlyperceivedbysense,eitherallatonce,orbypartsatseveral
timestheformer,(whichistheimaginingthewholeobject,asit
waspresentedtothesense)issimpleimaginationaswhenone
imaginethaman,orhorse,whichhehathseenbefore.Theotheris
compoundedaswhenfromthesightofamanatonetime,andofa
horseatanother,weconceiveinourmindaCentaur.Sowhenaman
compoundedtheimageofhisownperson,withtheimageofthe
actionsofanothermanaswhenamanimagineshimselfaHercules
oranAlexander,(whichhappenethoftentothemthataremuch
takenwithreadingofromances)itisacompoundimagination,and
[6]properlybutafictionofthemind.Therebealsootherimaginations
thatriseinmen,(thoughwaking)fromthegreatimpressionmadein
sense:asfromgazinguponthesun,theimpressionleavesanimage
ofthesunbeforeoureyesalongtimeafterandfrombeinglongand
vehementlyattentupongeometricalfigures,amanshallinthedark
(thoughawake)havetheimagesoflines,andanglesbeforehiseyes:
whichkindoffancyhathnoparticularnameasbeingathingthat
dothnotcommonlyfallintomen'sdiscourse.
Dreams5.Theimaginationsofthemthatsleep,arethosewecalldreams.
Andthesealso(asallotherimaginations)havebeenbefore,
eithertotally,orbyparcelsinthesense.Andbecauseinsense,the
brain,andnerves,whicharethenecessaryorgansofsense,areso
benumbedinsleep,asnoteasilytobemovedbytheactionof
externalobjects,therecanhappeninsleep,noimaginationand
thereforenodream,butwhatproceedsfromtheagitationof

theinwardpartsofman'sbodywhichinwardparts,forthe
connexiontheyhavewiththebrain,andotherorgans,when
theybedistempered,dokeepthesameinmotionwherebythe
imaginationsthereformerlymade,appearasifamanwerewaking
savingthattheorgansofsensebeingnowbenumbed,soasthereis
nonewobject,whichcanmasterandobscurethemwithamore
vigorousimpression,adreammustneedsbemoreclear,inthis
silenceofsense,thanareourwakingthoughts.Andhenceitcometh
topass,thatitisahardmatter,andbymanythoughtimpossibleto
distinguishexactlybetweensenseanddreaming.Formypart,when
Iconsider,thatindreams,Idonotoften,norconstantlythinkofthe
samepersons,places,objects,andactionsthatIdowakingnor
remembersolongatrainofcoherentthoughts,dreaming,asatother
timesandbecausewakingIoftenobservetheabsurdityofdreams,
butneverdreamoftheabsurditiesofmywakingthoughtsIamwell
satisfied,thatbeingawake,IknowIdreamnotthoughwhenI
dream,Ithinkmyselfawake.*
6.Andseeingdreamsarecausedbythedistemperofsomeof
theinwardpartsofthebodydiversdistempersmustneedscause
differentdreams.Andhenceitis,thatlyingcoldbreedethdreamsof
fear,andraiseththethoughtandimageofsomefearfulobject(the
motionfromthebraintotheinnerparts,andfromtheinnerpartsto
thebrainbeingreciprocal:)andthatasangercausethheatin
somepartsofthebody,whenweareawakesowhenwesleep,
theoverheatingofthesamepartscausethanger,andraisethupin
thebraintheimaginationofanenemy.Inthesamemanneras
naturalkindness,whenweareawakecausethdesireanddesire
makesheatincertainotherpartsofthebodysoalso,toomuchheat
inthoseparts,whilewesleep,raisethinthebrainanimaginationof
somekindnessshown.Insum,ourdreamsarethereverseofour
wakingimaginationsthemotionwhenweareawake,beginningat
oneendandwhenwedream,atanother.
7.Themostdifficultdiscerningofaman'sdream,fromhisApparitions
wakingthoughts,isthen,whenbysomeaccidentweobservenotorvisions.
thatwehaveslept:whichiseasytohappentoamanfulloffearful[7]
thoughtsandwhoseconscienceismuchtroubledandthat
sleepeth,withoutthecircumstances,ofgoingtobed,orputtingoff
hisclothes,asonethatnoddethinachair.Forhethattakethpains,
andindustriouslylayshimselftosleep,incaseanyuncouthand
exorbitantfancycomeuntohim,cannoteasilythinkitotherthana

Page14

dream.WereadofMarcusBrutus,(onethathadhislifegivenhim
byJuliusCaesar,andwasalsohisfavourite,andnotwithstanding
murderedhim,)howatPhilippi,thenightbeforehegavebattleto
AugustusCaesar,hesawafearfulapparition,whichiscommonly
relatedbyhistorians*asavision:butconsideringthecircumstances,
onemayeasilyjudgetohavebeenbutashortdream.Forsittingin
histent,pensiveandtroubledwiththehorrorofhisrashact,itwas
nothardforhim,slumberinginthecold,todreamofthatwhich
mostaffrightedhimwhichfear,asbydegreesitmadehimwakeso
alsoitmustneedsmaketheapparitionbydegreestovanish:and
havingnoassurancethatheslept,hecouldhavenocausetothinkit
adream,oranythingbutavision.Andthisisnoveryrareaccident:
foreventheythatbeperfectlyawake,iftheybetimorous,and
superstitious,possessedwithfearfultales,andaloneinthedark,are
subjecttothelikefanciesandbelievetheyseespiritsanddead
men'sghostswalkinginchurchyardswhereasitiseithertheirfancy
only,orelsetheknaveryofsuchpersons,asmakeuseofsuch
superstitiousfear,topassdisguisedinthenight,toplacesthey
wouldnotbeknowntohaunt.
8.Fromthisignoranceofhowtodistinguishdreams,andother
strongfancies,fromvisionandsense,didarisethegreatestpartof
thereligionoftheGentiles*intimepast,thatworshippedsatyrs,
fawns,nymphs,andthelikeandnowadaystheopinionthatrude
[common]peoplehaveoffairies,ghosts,andgoblins,andofthe
powerofwitches.Forasforwitches,Ithinknotthattheirwitchcraft
isanyrealpowerbutyetthattheyarejustlypunished,forthefalse
belieftheyhave,thattheycandosuchmischief,joinedwiththeir
purposetodoitiftheycan:theirtradebeingnearertoanewreligion,
thantoacraftorscience.Andforfairies,andwalkingghosts,the
opinionofthemhasIthinkbeenonpurpose,eithertaught,ornot
confuted,tokeepincredittheuseofexorcism,ofcrosses,ofholy
water,andothersuchinventionsofghostly*men.Nevertheless,
thereisnodoubt,butGodcanmakeunnaturalapparitions:butthat
hedoesitsooften,asmenneedtofearsuchthings,morethanthey
fearthestay,orchange,ofthecourseofnature,whichhealsocan
stay,andchange,isnopointofChristianfaith.Butevilmenunder
pretextthatGodcandoanything,aresoboldastosayanything
whenitservestheirturn,thoughtheythinkituntrueitisthepartof
awiseman,tobelievethemnofurther,thanrightreasonmakesthat

whichtheysay,appearcredible.Ifthissuperstitiousfearofspirits
weretakenaway,andwithit,prognosticsfromdreams,falseproph
ecies,andmanyotherthingsdependingthereon,bywhich,crafty
ambitiouspersonsabusethesimplepeople,menwouldbemuch[8]
morefittedthantheyareforcivilobedience.
9.Andthisoughttobetheworkoftheschools:butthey
rathernourishsuchdoctrine.For(notknowingwhatimagination,
orthesensesare),whattheyreceive,theyteach:somesaying,that
imaginationsriseofthemselves,andhavenocause:othersthatthey
risemostcommonlyfromthewillandthatgoodthoughtsareblown
(inspired)intoaman,byGodandevilthoughtsbytheDevil:or
thatgoodthoughtsarepoured(infused)intoaman,byGod,and
evilonesbytheDevil.Somesaythesensesreceivethespeciesof
things,anddeliverthemtothecommonsenseandthecommon
sensedeliversthemovertothefancy,andthefancytothememory,
andthememorytothejudgment,likehandingofthingsfromoneto
another,withmanywordsmakingnothingunderstood.
10.Theimaginationthatisraisedinman(oranyothercreatureUnderstanding.
enduedwiththefacultyofimagining)bywords,orothervoluntary
signs,isthatwegenerallycallunderstandingandiscommontoman
andbeast.Foradogbycustomwillunderstandthecall,ortherating
ofhismasterandsowillmanyotherbeasts.Thatunderstanding
whichispeculiartoman,istheunderstandingnotonlyhiswillbut
hisconceptionsandthoughts,bythesequelandcontextureofthe
namesofthingsintoaffirmations,negations,andotherformsof
speech:andofthiskindofunderstandingIshallspeakhereafter.
ChapterIII
OftheConsequenceorTrainofImaginations*
1.BYConsequence,orTRAINofthoughts,Iunderstandthatsucces
sionofonethoughttoanother,whichiscalled(todistinguishitfrom
discourseinwords)mentaldiscourse.
2.Whenamanthinkethonanythingwhatsoever,hisnext
thoughtafter,isnotaltogethersocasualasitseemstobe.Notevery
thoughttoeverythoughtsucceedsindifferently.*Butaswehaveno

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[9]

imagination,whereofwehavenotformerlyhadsense,inwhole,
orinpartssowehavenotransitionfromoneimaginationto
another,whereofweneverhadthelikebeforeinoursenses.The
reasonwhereofisthis.Allfanciesaremotionswithinus,relicsof
thosemadeinthesense:andthosemotionsthatimmediately
succeededoneanotherinthesense,continuealsotogetherafter
sense:insomuchastheformercomingagaintotakeplace,andbe
predominant,thelatterfolloweth,bycoherenceofthematter
moved,insuchmanner,aswateruponaplanetableisdrawnwhich
wayanyonepartofitisguidedbythefinger.Butbecausein
sense,tooneandthesamethingperceived,sometimesonething,
sometimesanothersucceedeth,itcomestopassintime,thatinthe
imaginingofanything,thereisnocertaintywhatweshallimagine
nextonlythisiscertain,itshallbesomethingthatsucceededthe
samebefore,atonetimeoranother.

Trainof3.Thistrainofthoughts,ormentaldiscourse,isoftwosorts.
thoughts
Thefirstisunguided,withoutdesign,andinconstantwhereinthereis
unguided.nopassionatethought,togovernanddirectthosethatfollow,to
itself,astheendandscopeofsomedesire,orotherpassion:in
whichcasethethoughtsaresaidtowander,andseemimpertinent
[unrelated]onetoanother,asinadream.Sucharecommonly
thethoughtsofmen,thatarenotonlywithoutcompany,butalso
withoutcareofanythingthougheventhentheirthoughtsareas
busyasatothertimes,butwithoutharmonyasthesoundwhicha
luteoutoftunewouldyieldtoanymanorintune,toonethatcould
notplay.Andyetinthiswildrangingofthemind,amanmay
ofttimesperceivethewayofit,andthedependenceofonethought
uponanother.Forinadiscourseofourpresentcivilwar,whatcould
seemmoreimpertinent,thantoask(asonedid)whatwasthevalue
ofaRomanpenny?Yetthecoherencetomewasmanifestenough.
Forthethoughtofthewar,introducedthethoughtofthedelivering
upthekingtohisenemiesthethoughtofthat,broughtinthe
thoughtofthedeliveringupofChristandthatagainthethoughtof
the30pence,whichwasthepriceofthattreason:andthenceeasily
followedthatmaliciousquestionandallthisinamomentoftime
forthoughtisquick.
Trainof4.Thesecondismoreconstantasbeingregulatedbysomede
thoughts
sire,anddesign.Fortheimpressionmadebysuchthingsaswe
regulated.desire,orfear,isstrong,andpermanent,or,(ifitceaseforatime,)
ofquickreturn:sostrongitissometimes,astohinderandbreakour

sleep.Fromdesire,ariseththethoughtofsomemeanswehaveseen
producethelikeofthatwhichweaimatandfromthethought
ofthat,thethoughtofmeanstothatmeanandsocontinually,
tillwecometosomebeginningwithinourownpower.Andbecause
theend,bythegreatnessoftheimpression,comesoftentomind,
incaseourthoughtsbegintowander,theyarequicklyagain
reducedintotheway:whichobservedbyoneofthesevenwise
men,*madehimgivementhisprecept,whichisnowwornout,
Respicefinemthatistosay,inallyouractions,lookoftenuponwhat
youwouldhave,asthethingthatdirectsallyourthoughtsinthe
waytoattainit.
5.Thetrainofregulatedthoughtsisoftwokindsone,whenof
aneffectimagined,weseekthecauses,ormeansthatproduceitand
thisiscommontomanandbeast.Theotheris,whenimaginingany
thingwhatsoever,weseekallthepossibleeffects,thatcanbyitbe
producedthatistosay,weimaginewhatwecandowithit,whenwe
haveit.OfwhichIhavenotatanytimeseenanysign,butin
manonlyforthisisacuriosityhardlyincidenttothenatureofany
livingcreaturethathasnootherpassionbutsensual,suchasare
hunger,thirst,lust,andanger.Insum,thediscourseofthemind,
whenitisgovernedbydesign,isnothingbutseeking,orthefaculty
ofinvention,whichtheLatinscalledsagacitas,andsolertiaa[10]
huntingoutofthecauses,ofsomeeffect,presentorpastorofthe
effects,ofsomepresentorpastcause.Sometimesamanseekswhat
hehathlostandfromthatplace,andtime,whereinhemissesit,his
mindrunsback,fromplacetoplace,andtimetotime,tofindwhere,
andwhenhehaditthatistosay,tofindsomecertain,andlimited
timeandplace,inwhichtobeginamethodofseeking.Again,from
thence,histhoughtsrunoverthesameplacesandtimes,tofind
whataction,orotheroccasionmightmakehimloseit.Thiswecall
remembrance,orcallingtomind:theLatinscallitreminiscentia,asitRemembrance.
wereareconningofourformeractions.
6.Sometimesamanknowsaplacedeterminate,withinthe
compasswhereofheistoseekandthenhisthoughtsrunoverallthe
partsthereof,inthesamemanner,asonewouldsweeparoom,to
findajewelorasaspanielrangesthefield,*tillhefindascentor
asamanshouldrunoverthealphabet,tostartarhyme.
7.SometimesamandesirestoknowtheeventofanactionandPrudence.
thenhethinkethofsomelikeactionpast,andtheeventsthereofone
afteranothersupposinglikeeventswillfollowlikeactions.Ashe

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thatforeseeswhatwillbecomeofacriminal,reconswhathehas
seenfollowonthelikecrimebeforehavingthisorderofthoughts,
thecrime,theofficer,theprison,thejudge,andthegallows.Which
kindofthoughts,iscalledforesight,andprudence,orprovidenceand
sometimeswisdomthoughsuchconjecture,throughthedifficultyof
observingallcircumstances,beveryfallacious.Butthisiscertainby
howmuchonemanhasmoreexperienceofthingspast,thanan
otherbysomuchalsoheismoreprudent,andhisexpectationsthe
seldomerfailhim.Thepresentonlyhasabeinginnaturethingspast
haveabeinginthememoryonly,butthingstocomehavenobeing
atallthefuturebeingbutafictionofthemind,applyingthesequels
ofactionspast,totheactionsthatarepresentwhichwithmost
certaintyisdonebyhimthathasmostexperiencebutnot
withcertaintyenough.Andthoughitbecalledprudence,when
theeventanswerethourexpectationyetinitsownnature,itis
butpresumption.Fortheforesightofthingstocome,whichis
providence,belongsonlytohimbywhosewilltheyaretocome.
Fromhimonly,andsupernaturally,proceedsprophecy.Thebest
prophetnaturallyisthebestguesserandthebestguesser,hethatis
mostversedandstudiedinthemattersheguessesat:forhehath
mostsignstoguessby.
Signs.8.Asignistheevidentantecedent,oftheconsequentand
contrarily,theconsequentoftheantecedent,whenthelike
consequenceshavebeenobserved,before:andtheoftenertheyhave
beenobserved,thelessuncertainisthesign.Andthereforehethat
hasmostexperienceinanykindofbusiness,hasmostsigns,
wherebytoguessatthefuturetimeandconsequentlyisthemost
prudent:andsomuchmoreprudentthanhethatisnewinthat
kindofbusiness,asnottobeequalledbyanyadvantageofnatural
andextemporarywit:thoughperhapsmanyyoungmenthinkthe
contrary.
9.Neverthelessitisnotprudencethatdistinguishethmanfrom
[11]beast.Therebebeasts,thatatayearoldobservemore,andpursue
thatwhichisfortheirgood,moreprudently,thanachildcandoat
ten.
Conjectureof10.Asprudenceisapresumptionofthefuture,contractedfrom
thetimepast.theexperienceoftimepast:sothereisapresumptionofthingspast
takenfromotherthings(notfuturebut)pastalso.Forhethathath
seenbywhatcoursesanddegrees,aflourishingstatehathfirstcome
intocivilwar,andthentoruinuponthesightoftheruinsofany

otherstate,willguess,thelikewar,andthelikecourseshavebeen
therealso.Butthisconjecture,hasthesameuncertaintyalmost
withtheconjectureofthefuturebothbeinggroundedonlyupon
experience.
11.Thereisnootheractofman'smind,thatIcanremember,
naturallyplantedinhim,so,astoneednootherthing,tothe
exerciseofit,buttobebornaman,andlivewiththeuseofhisfive
senses.Thoseotherfaculties,ofwhichIshallspeakbyandby,and
whichseempropertomanonly,areacquired,andincreasedby
studyandindustryandofmostmenlearnedbyinstruction,and
disciplineandproceedallfromtheinventionofwords,andspeech.
Forbesidessense,andthoughts,andthetrainofthoughts,themind
ofmanhasnoothermotionthoughbythehelpofspeech,and
method,thesamefacultiesmaybeimprovedtosuchaheight,asto
distinguishmenfromallotherlivingcreatures.
12.Whatsoeverweimagineisfinite.*Thereforethereisnoidea,
orconceptionofanythingwecallinfinite.Nomancanhaveinhis
mindanimageofinfinitemagnitudenorconceiveinfiniteswiftness,
infinitetime,orinfiniteforce,orinfinitepower.Whenwesayany
thingisinfinite,wesignifyonly,thatwearenotabletoconceivethe
ends,andboundsofthethingsnamedhavingnoconceptionofthe
thing,butofourowninability.AndthereforethenameofGodis
used,nottomakeusconceivehim(forheisincomprehensible
andhisgreatness,andpowerareunconceivable)butthatwemay
honourhim.Alsobecausewhatsoever(asIsaidbefore,)we
conceive,hasbeenperceivedfirstbysense,eitherallatonce,orby
partsamancanhavenothought,representinganything,not
subjecttosense.Nomanthereforecanconceiveanything,buthe
mustconceiveitinsomeplaceandenduedwithsomedeterminate
magnitudeandwhichmaybedividedintopartsnorthatany
thingisallinthisplace,andallinanotherplaceatthesametimenor
thattwo,ormorethingscanbeinone,andthesameplaceatonce:*
fornoneofthesethingseverhave,orcanbeincidenttosensebut
areabsurdspeeches,takenuponcredit(withoutanysignification
atall,)fromdeceivedphilosophers,anddeceived,ordeceiving
Schoolmen.

Page20

[12]ChapterIV
OfSpeech
Originalof1.Theinventionofprinting,thoughingenious,comparedwiththe
speech.inventionofletters,isnogreatmatter.Butwhowasthefirstthat
foundtheuseofletters,isnotknown.Hethatfirstbroughtthem
intoGreece,mensaywasCadmus,thesonofAgenor,kingof
Phoenicia.Aprofitableinventionforcontinuingthememoryoftime
past,andtheconjunctionofmankind,dispersedintosomany,and
distantregionsoftheearthandwithaldifficult,asproceeding
fromawatchfulobservationofthediversmotionsofthetongue,
palate,lips,andotherorgansofspeechwherebytomakeasmany
differencesofcharacters,torememberthem.Butthemostnoble
andprofitableinventionofallother,wasthatofSPEECH,consisting
ofnamesorappellations,andtheirconnexionwherebymenregister
theirthoughtsrecallthemwhentheyarepastandalsodeclare
themonetoanotherformutualutilityandconversationwithout
which,therehadbeenamongstmen,neithercommonwealth,
norsociety,norcontract,norpeace,nomorethanamongstlions,
bears,andwolves.ThefirstauthorofspeechwasGodhimself,that
instructedAdamhowtonamesuchcreaturesashepresentedtohis
sightfortheScripturegoethnofurtherinthismatter.Butthiswas
sufficienttodirecthimtoaddmorenames,astheexperienceand
useofthecreaturesshouldgivehimoccasionandtojointhemin
suchmannerbydegrees,astomakehimselfunderstoodandsoby
successionoftime,somuchlanguagemightbegotten,ashehad
founduseforthoughnotsocopious,asanoratororphilosopherhas
needof.ForIdonotfindanythingintheScripture,outofwhich,
directlyorbyconsequencecanbegathered,thatAdamwastaught
thenamesofallfigures,numbers,measures,colours,sounds,
fancies,relationsmuchlessthenamesofwordsandspeech,as
general,special,affirmative,negative,interrogative,optative,infinitive,
allwhichareusefulandleastofall,ofentity,intentionality,quiddity,
andotherinsignificantwordsoftheSchool.
2.Butallthislanguagegotten,andaugmentedbyAdamand
hisposterity,wasagainlostattheTowerofBabel,whenbythe
handofGod,everymanwasstrickenforhisrebellion,withan
oblivionofhisformerlanguage.Andbeingherebyforcedto

dispersethemselvesintoseveralpartsoftheworld,itmust
needsbe,thatthediversityoftonguesthatnowis,proceededby
degreesfromthem,insuchmanner,asneed(themotherofall
inventions)taughtthemandintractoftimegreweverywheremore
copious.
3.Thegeneraluseofspeech,istotransferourmentaldiscourse,Theuseof
intoverbalorthetrainofourthoughts,intoatrainofwordsandspeech.
thatfortwocommoditieswhereofoneis,theregisteringofthe[13]
consequencesofourthoughtswhichbeingapttoslipoutofour
memory,andputustoanewlabour,mayagainberecalled,bysuch
wordsastheyweremarkedby.Sothatthefirstuseofnames,isto
serveformarks,ornotesofremembrance.Anotheris,whenmany
usethesamewords,tosignify(bytheirconnexionandorder,)oneto
another,whattheyconceive,orthinkofeachmatterandalsowhat
theydesire,fear,orhaveanyotherpassionfor.Andforthisusethey
arecalledsigns.Specialusesofspeecharethesefirst,toregister,
whatbycogitation,wefindtobethecauseofanything,presentor
pastandwhatwefindthingspresentorpastmayproduce,oreffect:
whichinsum,isacquiringofarts.Secondly,toshowtoothers
thatknowledgewhichwehaveattainedwhichis,tocounsel,and
teachoneanother.Thirdly,tomakeknowntoothersourwills,
andpurposes,thatwemayhavethemutualhelpofoneanother.
Fourthly,topleaseanddelightourselves,andothers,byplaying
withourwords,forpleasureorornament,innocently.
4.Totheseuses,therearealsofourcorrespondentabuses.First,Abusesof
whenmenregistertheirthoughtswrong,bytheinconstancyofspeech.
thesignificationoftheirwordsbywhichtheyregisterfortheir
conceptions,thatwhichtheyneverconceivedandsodeceive
themselves.Secondly,whentheyusewordsmetaphoricallythatis,
inothersensethanthattheyareordainedforandtherebydeceive
others.Thirdly,whenbywordstheydeclarethattobetheirwill,
whichisnot.Fourthly,whentheyusethemtogrieveoneanother:
forseeingnaturehatharmedlivingcreatures,somewithteeth,some
withhorns,andsomewithhands,togrieveanenemy,itisbutan
abuseofspeech,togrievehimwiththetongue,unlessitbeone
whomweareobligedtogovernandthenitisnottogrieve,butto
correctandamend.
5.Themannerhowspeechservethtotheremembranceofthe
consequenceofcausesandeffects,consistethintheimposingof
names,andtheconnexionofthem.

Page22

Namesproper6.Ofnames,someareproper,andsingulartooneonlything
&common.asPeter,John,thisman,thistree:andsomearecommontomany
thingsasman,horse,treeeveryofwhichthoughbutonename,is
neverthelessthenameofdiversparticularthingsinrespectofall
Universal.whichtogether,itiscalledanuniversaltherebeingnothinginthe
worlduniversalbutnames*forthethingsnamedareeveryoneof
themindividualandsingular.
7. Oneuniversalnameisimposedonmanythings,fortheir
similitudeinsomequality,orotheraccident:andwhereasaproper
namebringethtomindonethingonlyuniversalsrecallanyoneof
thosemany.

[14]

8.Andofnamesuniversal,someareofmore,andsomeof
lessextentthelargercomprehendingthelesslarge:andsomeagain
ofequalextent,comprehendingeachotherreciprocally.Asfor
example,thenamebodyisoflargersignificationthantheword
man,andcomprehendethitandthenamesmanandrational,areof
equalextent,comprehendingmutuallyoneanother.Butherewe
musttakenotice,thatbyanameisnotalwaysunderstood,asin
grammar,oneonlywordbutsometimesbycircumlocutionmany
wordstogether.Forallthesewords,hethatinhisactionsobserveththe
lawsofhiscountry,makebutonename,equivalenttothisoneword,
just.
9.Bythisimpositionofnames,someoflarger,someofstricter
signification,weturnthereckoningoftheconsequencesofthings
imaginedinthemind,intoareckoningoftheconsequencesof
appellations.Forexample,amanthathathnouseofspeechatall,
(such,asisbornandremainsperfectlydeafanddumb,)ifheset
beforehiseyesatriangle,andbyittworightangles,(suchasare
thecornersofasquarefigure,)hemaybymeditationcompareand
find,thatthethreeanglesofthattriangle,areequaltothosetwo
fightanglesthatstandbyit.Butifanothertrianglebeshownhim
differentinshapefromtheformer,hecannotknowwithoutanew
labour,whetherthethreeanglesofthatalsobeequaltothesame.
Buthethathaththeuseofwords,whenheobserves,thatsuch
equalitywasconsequent,nottothelengthofthesides,nortoany
otherparticularthinginhistrianglebutonlytothis,thatthesides
werestraight,andtheanglesthreeandthatthatwasall,forwhich
henameditatrianglewillboldlyconcludeuniversally,thatsuch
equalityofanglesisinalltriangleswhatsoeverandregisterhis
inventioninthesegeneralterms,everytrianglehathitsthreeangles

equaltotworightangles.Andthustheconsequencefoundinone
particular,comestoberegisteredandremembered,asanuniversal
ruleanddischargesourmentalreckoning,oftimeandplaceand
deliversusfromalllabourofthemind,savingthefirstandmakes
thatwhichwasfoundtruehere,andnow,tobetrueinalltimesand
places.
10.Buttheuseofwordsinregisteringourthoughts,isin
nothingsoevidentasinnumbering.Anaturalfoolthatcouldnever
learnbyhearttheorderofnumeralwords,asone,two,andthree,
mayobserveeverystrokeoftheclock,andnodtoit,orsayone,one,
onebutcanneverknowwhathouritstrikes.Anditseems,therewas
atimewhenthosenamesofnumberwerenotinuseandmenwere
faintoapplytheirfingersofoneorbothhands,tothosethingsthey
desiredtokeepaccountofandthatthenceitproceeded,thatnow
ournumeralwordsarebutten,inanynation,andinsomebutfive,
andthentheybeginagain.Andhethatcantellten,ifherecitethem
outoforder,willlosehimself,andnotknowwhenhehasdone:
muchlesswillhebeabletoadd,andsubtract,andperformall
otheroperationsofarithmetic.Sothatwithoutwords,thereisno
possibilityofreckoningofnumbersmuchlessofmagnitudes,of
swiftness,offorce,andotherthings,thereckoningswhereofare
necessarytothebeing,orwellbeingofmankind.
11.Whentwonamesarejoinedtogetherintoaconsequence,or
affirmationasthus,amanisalivingcreatureorthus,ifhebea
man,heisalivingcreature,ifthelatternamelivingcreature,signify
allthattheformernamemansignifieth,thentheaffirmation,or
consequence,istrueotherwisefalse.Fortrueandfalseareattributes[15]
ofspeech,notofthings.Andwherespeechisnot,thereisneither
truthnorfalsehood.Errortheremaybe,aswhenweexpectthat
whichshallnotbeorsuspectwhathasnotbeen:butinneithercase
canamanbechargedwithuntruth.
12.SeeingthenthattruthconsistethintherightorderingofNecessityof
namesinouraffirmations,amanthatseekethprecisetruth,haddefinitions.
needtorememberwhateverynameheusesstandsforandtoplace
itaccordinglyorelsehewillfindhimselfentangledinwords,asa
birdinlimetwigs*themorehestruggles,themorebelimed.And
thereforeingeometry,(whichistheonlysciencethatithathpleased
Godhithertotobestowonmankind,)menbeginatsettlingthe
significationsoftheirwordswhichsettlingofsignifications,they
calldefinitions*andplacetheminthebeginningoftheirreckoning.

Page24

13.Bythisitappearshownecessaryitisforanymanthataspires
totrueknowledge,toexaminethedefinitionsofformerauthors
andeithertocorrectthem,wheretheyarenegligentlysetdown
ortomakethemhimself.Fortheerrorsofdefinitionsmultiply
themselves,accordingasthereckoningproceedsandleadmen
intoabsurdities,whichatlasttheysee,butcannotavoid,without
reckoninganewfromthebeginninginwhichliesthefoundationof
theirerrors.Fromwhenceithappens,thattheywhichtrustto
books,doastheythatcastupmanylittlesumsintoagreater,
withoutconsideringwhetherthoselittlesumswererightlycastup
ornotandatlastfindingtheerrorvisible,andnotmistrustingtheir
firstgrounds,knownotwhichwaytoclearthemselves,butspend
timeinflutteringovertheirbooksasbirdsthatenteringbythe
chimney,andfindingthemselvesenclosedinachamber,flutterat
thefalselightofaglasswindow,forwantofwittoconsiderwhich
waytheycamein.Sothatintherightdefinitionofnames,liesthe
firstuseofspeechwhichistheacquisitionofscience:*andin
wrong,ornodefinitions,liesthefirstabusefromwhichproceedall
falseandsenselesstenetswhichmakethosementhattaketheir
instructionfromtheauthorityofbooks,andnotfromtheirown
meditation,tobeasmuchbelowtheconditionofignorantmen,as
menenduedwithtruescienceareaboveit.Forbetweentruesci
ence,anderroneousdoctrines,ignoranceisinthemiddle.Natural
senseandimagination,arenotsubjecttoabsurdity.Natureitself
cannoterr:andasmenaboundincopiousnessoflanguagesothey
becomemorewise,ormoremadthanordinary.Norisitpossible
withoutlettersforanymantobecomeeitherexcellentlywise,or
(unlesshismemorybehurtbydisease,orillconstitutionoforgans)
excellentlyfoolish.Forwordsarewisemen'scounters,theydobut
reckonbythem:buttheyarethemoneyoffools,thatvaluethemby
theauthorityofanAristotle,aCicero,oraThomas,oranyother
doctorwhatsoever,ifbutaman.*
Subjectto14.Subjecttonames,iswhatsoevercanenterinto,orbecon
names.sideredinanaccountandbeaddedonetoanothertomakeasum
orsubtractedonefromanotherandleavearemainder.TheLatins
[16]calledaccountsofmoneyrationes,andaccounting,ratiocinatio:and
thatwhichweinbillsorbooksofaccountcallitems,theycalled
nominathatis,names:andthenceitseemstoproceed,thatthey
extendedthewordratio,tothefacultyofreckoninginallother
things.TheGreekshavebutoneword
,forbothspeechand

reasonnotthattheythoughttherewasnospeechwithoutreason
butnoreasoningwithoutspeech:andtheactofreasoningthey
calledsyllogismwhichsignifiethsummingupoftheconsequencesof
onesayingtoanother.Andbecausethesamethingsmayenterinto
accountfordiversaccidentstheirnamesare(toshowthatdiversity)
diverselywrested,anddiversified.Thisdiversityofnamesmaybe
reducedtofourgeneralheads.
15.First,athingmayenterintoaccountformatter,orbodyas
living,sensible,rational,hot,cold,moved,quietwithallwhichnames
thewordmatter,orbody,isunderstoodallsuch,beingnamesof
matter.
16.Secondly,itmayenterintoaccount,orbeconsidered,for
someaccidentorquality,whichweconceivetobeinitasforbeing
moved,forbeingsolong,forbeinghot,&candthen,ofthenameof
thethingitself,byalittlechangeorwresting,wemakeanamefor
thataccident,whichweconsiderandforlivingputintotheaccount
lifeformoved,motionforhot,heatforlong,length,andthelike:and
allsuchnames,arethenamesoftheaccidentsandproperties,by
whichonematter,andbodyisdistinguishedfromanother.These
arecallednamesabstractbecausesevered(notfrommatter,but)
fromtheaccountofmatter.
17.Thirdly,webringintoaccount,thepropertiesofourown
bodies,wherebywemakesuchdistinction:aswhenanythingisseen
byus,wereckonnotthethingitselfbutthesight,thecolour,theidea
ofitinthefancy:andwhenanythingisheard,wereckonitnotbut
thehearing,orsoundonly,whichisourfancyorconceptionofitby
theear:andsucharenamesoffancies.
18.Fourthly,webringintoaccount,consider,andgivenames
to,namesthemselves,andtospeeches:forgeneral,universal,special,
equivocal,arenamesofnames.Andaffirmation,interrogation,
commandment,narration,syllogism,sermon,oration,andmanyother
such,arenamesofspeeches.AndthisisallthevarietyofnamesUseofnames
positivewhichareputtomarksomewhatwhichisinnature,ormaypositive.
befeignedbythemindofman,asbodiesthatare,ormaybe
conceivedtobeorofbodies,thepropertiesthatare,ormaybe
feignedtobeorwordsandspeech.
19.Therebealsoothernames,callednegativewhicharenotestoNegative
signifythatawordisnotthenameofthethinginquestionasthesenameswith
wordsnothing,noman,infinite,indocible[unteachable],threewanttheiruses.
four,andthelikewhichareneverthelessofuseinreckoning,orin

Page26

correctingofreckoningandcalltomindourpastcogitations,
thoughtheybenotnamesofanythingbecausetheymakeusrefuse
toadmitofnamesnotrightlyused.
Words
20.Allothernamesarebutinsignificantsoundsandthoseoftwo
insignificant.sorts.One,whentheyarenew,andyettheirmeaningnotexplained
[17]
bydefinitionwhereoftherehavebeenabundancecoinedby
Schoolmen,andpuzzledphilosophers.
21.Another,whenmenmakeanameoftwonames,whose
significationsarecontradictoryandinconsistentasthisname,an
incorporealbody,or(whichisallone)anincorporealsubstance,anda
greatnumbermore.Forwhensoeveranyaffirmationisfalse,thetwo
namesofwhichitiscomposed,puttogetherandmadeone,signify
nothingatall.Forexample,ifitbeafalseaffirmationtosaya
quadrangleisround,thewordroundquadranglesignifiesnothing
butisameresound.Solikewise,ifitbefalse,tosaythatvirtue
canbepoured,orblownupanddown,thewordsinpoured
virtue,inblownvirtue,areasabsurdandinsignificant,asaround
quadrangle.Andthereforeyoushallhardlymeetwithasenselessand
insignificantword,thatisnotmadeupofsomeLatinorGreek
names.AFrenchmanseldomhearsourSaviourcalledbythename
ofparole,butbythenameofverbeoftenyetverbeandparolediffer
nomore,butthatoneisLatin,theotherFrench.
Understanding.22.Whenamanuponthehearingofanyspeech,haththose
thoughtswhichthewordsofthatspeech,andtheirconnexion,
wereordainedandconstitutedtosignifythenheissaidto
understanditunderstandingbeingnothingelsebutconception*
causedbyspeech.Andthereforeifspeechbepeculiartoman(asfor
aughtIknowitis,)thenisunderstandingpeculiartohimalso.And
thereforeofabsurdandfalseaffirmations,incasetheybeuniversal,
therecanbenounderstandingthoughmanythinktheyunderstand,
then,whentheydobutrepeatthewordssoftly,orconthemintheir
mind.
23.Whatkindsofspeechessignifytheappetites,aversions,and
passionsofman'smindandoftheiruseandabuse,Ishallspeak
whenIhavespokenofthepassions.
Inconstant24.Thenamesofsuchthingsasaffectus,thatis,whichplease,
names.anddispleaseus,becauseallmenbenotalikeaffectedwiththe
samething,northesamemanatalltimes,areinthecommon
discoursesofmen,ofinconstantsignification.Forseeingallnames
areimposedtosignifyourconceptionsandallouraffectionsarebut

conceptionswhenweconceivethesamethingsdifferently,wecan
hardlyavoiddifferentnamingofthem.Forthoughthenatureof
thatweconceive,bethesameyetthediversityofourreception
ofit,inrespectofdifferentconstitutionsofbody,andprejudicesof
opinion,giveseverythingatinctureofourdifferentpassions.And
thereforeinreasoning,amanmusttakeheedofwordswhich
besidesthesignificationofwhatweimagineoftheirnature,havea
significationalsoofthenature,disposition,andinterestofthe
speakersuchasarethenamesofvirtues,andvicesforoneman
callethwisdom,whatanothercalledilarandonecruelty,what
anotherjusticeoneprodigality,whatanothermagnanimityandone
gravity,whatanotherstupidity,&c.*Andthereforesuchnamescan
neverbetruegroundsofanyratiocination.Nomorecanmetaphors,
andtropes[figures]ofspeech:butthesearelessdangerous,because
theyprofesstheirinconstancywhichtheotherdonot.
ChapterV
OfReasonandScience
1.Whenamanreasoneth,hedoesnothingelsebutconceiveasumReasonwhat
total,fromadditionofparcelsorconceivearemainder,fromsubitis.
tractionofonesumfromanother:which(ifitbedonebywords,)is[18]
conceivingoftheconsequencefromthenamesofalltheparts,
tothenameofthewholeorfromthenamesofthewholeandone
part,tothenameoftheotherpart.Andthoughinsomethings,(as
innumbers,)besidesaddingandsubtracting,mennameother
operations,asmultiplyinganddividingyettheyarethesamefor
multiplication,isbutaddingtogetherofthingsequalanddivision,
butsubtractingofonething,asoftenaswecan.Theseoperations
arenotincidenttonumbersonly,buttoallmannerofthings
thatcanbeaddedtogether,andtakenoneoutofanother.For
asarithmeticiansteachtoaddandsubtractinnumberssothe
geometriciansteachthesameinlines,figures(solidandsuperficial,)
angles,proportions,times,degreesofswiftness,force,power,andthe
likethelogiciansteachthesameinconsequencesofwordsadding
togethertwonames,tomakeanaffirmationandtwoaffirmations,to
makeasyllogismandmanysyllogismstomakeademonstration

Page28

andfromthesum,orconclusionofasyllogism,theysubtractone
proposition,tofindtheother.Writersofpolitics,addtogether
pactions[contracts]tofindmen'sdutiesandlawyers,laws,andfacts,
tofindwhatisrightandwrongintheactionsofprivatemen.Insum,
inwhatmattersoeverthereisplaceforadditionandsubtraction,
therealsoisplaceforreasonandwherethesehavenoplace,there
reasonhasnothingatalltodo.
Reason2.Outofallwhichwemaydefine,(thatistosaydetermine,)
defined.whatthatis,whichismeantbythiswordreason,whenwereckonit
amongstthefacultiesofthemind.ForREASON,inthissense,is
nothingbutreckoning(thatis,addingandsubtracting)ofthe
consequencesofgeneralnamesagreedupon,forthemarkingand
signifyingofourthoughtsIsaymarkingthem,whenwereckonby
ourselvesandsignifying,whenwedemonstrate,orapproveour
reckoningstoothermen.
Rightreason3.Andasinarithmetic,unpractisedmenmust,andprofessors
where.themselvesmayoftenerr,andcastupfalsesoalsoinanyother
subjectofreasoning,theablest,mostattentive,andmostpractised
men,maydeceivethemselves,andinferfalseconclusionsnotbut
thatreasonitselfisalwaysrightreason,aswellasarithmeticisa
certainandinfallibleart:butnooneman'sreason,northereason
ofanyonenumberofmen,makesthecertaintynomorethan
anaccountisthereforewellcastup,becauseagreatmanymen
haveunanimouslyapprovedit.Andtherefore,aswhenthereisa
[19]controversyinanaccount,thepartiesmustbytheirownaccord,set
upforrightreason,thereasonofsomearbitrator,orjudge,towhose
sentencetheywillbothstand,ortheircontroversymusteithercome
toblows,orbeundecided,forwantofarightreasonconstitutedby
naturesoisitalsoinalldebatesofwhatkindsoever:andwhenmen
thatthinkthemselveswiserthanallothers,clamouranddemand
rightreasonforjudgeyetseeknomore,butthatthingsshould
bedetermined,bynoothermen'sreasonbuttheirown,itisas
intolerableinthesocietyofmen,asitisinplayaftertrumpis
turned,tousefortrumponeveryoccasion,thatsuitewhereofthey
havemostintheirhand.Fortheydonothingelse,thatwill
haveeveryoftheirpassions,asitcomestobearswayinthem,tobe
takenforrightreason,andthatintheirowncontroversies:
bewraying[revealing]theirwantofrightreason,bytheclaimthey
laytoit.

4.Theuseandendofreason,isnotthefindingofthesum,Theuseof
andtruthofone,orafewconsequences,remotefromthefirstreason.
definitions,andsettledsignificationsofnamesbuttobeginatthese
andproceedfromoneconsequencetoanother.Fortherecanbeno
certaintyofthelastconclusion,withoutacertaintyofallthose
affirmationsandnegations,onwhichitwasgrounded,andinferred.
Aswhenamasterofafamily,intakinganaccount,castethupthe
sumsofallthebillsofexpense,intoonesumandnotregardinghow
eachbillissummedup,bythosethatgivetheminaccountnorwhat
itishepaysforheadvantageshimselfnomore,thanifheallowed
theaccountingross,trustingtoeveryoftheaccountants'skilland
honesty:soalsoinreasoningofallotherthings,hethattakesup
conclusionsonthetrustofauthors,anddothnotfetchthemfrom
thefirstitemsineveryreckoning,(whicharethesignificationsof
namessettledbydefinitions),loseshislabouranddoesnotknow
anythingbutonlybelieveth.
5.Whenamanreckonswithouttheuseofwords,whichmaybeOferrorand
doneinparticularthings(aswhenuponthesightofanyonething,absurdity.
weconjucturewhatwaslikelytohavepreceded,orislikelytofollow
uponit)ifthatwhichhethoughtlikelytofollow,followsnotor
thatwhichhethoughtlikelytohaveprecededit,hathnotpreceded
it,thisiscalledERRORtowhicheventhemostprudentmenare
subject.Butwhenwereasoninwordsofgeneralsignification,and
falluponageneralinferencewhichisfalse,thoughitbecommonly
callederror,itisindeedanABSURDITY,orsenselessspeech.Forerror
isbutadeception,inpresumingthatsomewhatispast,ortocome
ofwhich,thoughitwerenotpast,ornottocomeyettherewasno
impossibilitydiscoverable.Butwhenwemakeageneralassertion,
unlessitbeatrueone,thepossibilityofitisinconceivable.And
wordswherebyweconceivenothingbutthesound,arethosewecall
absurd,insignificant,andnonsense.Andthereforeifamanshouldtalk
tomeofaroundquadrangleoraccidentsofbreadincheeseor,
immaterialsubstancesorofafreesubjectafreewilloranyfree,but
freefrombeinghinderedbyopposition,*Ishouldnotsayhewerein
anerror,butthathiswordswerewithoutmeaningthatistosay,
absurd.
6.Ihavesaidbefore,(inthesecondchapter,)thatamandid[20]
excelallotheranimalsinthisfaculty,thatwhenheconceived
anythingwhatsoever,hewasapttoinquiretheconsequencesofit,

Page30

andwhateffectshecoulddowithit.AndnowIaddthisother
degreeofthesameexcellence,thathecanbywordsreducethe
consequenceshefindstogeneralrules,calledtheorems,oraphorisms
thatis,hecanreason,orreckon,notonlyinnumber,butinall
otherthings,whereofonemaybeaddedunto,orsubtractedfrom
another.
7.Butthisprivilege,isallayedbyanotherandthatis,bythe
privilegeofabsurditytowhichnolivingcreatureissubject,but
manonly.Andofmen,thoseareofallmostsubjecttoit,thatprofess
philosophy.ForitismosttruethatCicerosaithofthemsomewhere
thattherecanbenothingsoabsurd,butmaybefoundinthebooks
ofphilosophers.*Andthereasonismanifest.Forthereisnotone
ofthemthatbeginshisratiocinationfromthedefinitions,or
explicationsofthenamestheyaretousewhichisamethodthat
hathbeenusedonlyingeometrywhoseconclusionshavethereby
beenmadeindisputable.
Causesof8.ThefirstcauseofabsurdconclusionsIascribetothewantof
absurdity.methodinthattheybeginnottheirratiocinationfromdefinitions
1.thatis,fromsettledsignificationsoftheirwords:asiftheycouldcast
account,withoutknowingthevalueofthenumeralwords,one,two,
andthree.
9.Andwhereasallbodiesenterintoaccountupondivers
considerations,(whichIhavementionedintheprecedentchapter)
theseconsiderationsbeingdiverselynamed,diversabsurdities
proceedfromtheconfusion,andunfitconnexionoftheirnamesinto
assertions.Andtherefore
2.10.Thesecondcauseofabsurdassertions,Iascribetothegiving
ofnamesofbodies,toaccidentsorofaccidentstobodiesastheydo,
thatsay,faithisinfused,orinspiredwhennothingcanbepoured,or
breathedintoanything,butbodyandthat,extensionisbodythat
phantasmsarespirits,&c.
3.11.ThethirdIascribetothegivingofthenamesoftheaccidents
ofbodieswithoutus,totheaccidentsofourownbodiesastheydothat
saythecolourisinthebodythesoundisintheair,&c.
4.12.Thefourth,tothegivingofthenamesofbodies,tonames,or
speechesastheydothatsay,thattherebethingsuniversalthataliving
creatureisgenus,orageneralthing,&c.
5.13.Thefifth,tothegivingofthenamesofaccidents,tonamesand
speechesastheydothatsay,thenatureofathingisitsdefinitiona
man'scommandishiswillandthelike.

14.Thesixth,totheuseofmetaphors,tropes,andother6.
rhetoricalfigures,insteadofwordsproper.Forthoughitbelawful
tosay(forexample)incommonspeech,thewaygoeth,orleadeth
hither,orthithertheproverbsaysthisorthat(whereaswayscannotgo,
norproverbsspeak)yetinreckoning,andseekingoftruth,
suchspeechesarenottobeadmitted.
15.Theseventh,tonamesthatsignifynothing*butare7.
takenup,andlearnedbyrotefromtheschools,ashypostatical,[21]
transubstantiate,consubstantiate,eternalnow,andthelikecantingof
Schoolmen.
16.Tohimthatcanavoidthesethings,itisnoteasytofallinto
anyabsurdity,unlessitbebythelengthofanaccountwhereinhe
mayperhapsforgetwhatwentbefore.Forallmenbynaturereason
alike,andwell,whentheyhavegoodprinciples.Forwhoisso
stupid,asbothtomistakeingeometry,andalsotopersistinit,when
anotherdetectshiserrortohim?
17.Bythisitappearsthatreasonisnotassense,andmemory,Science.
bornwithusnorgottenbyexperienceonly,asprudenceisbut
attainedbyindustryfirstinaptimposingofnamesandsecondlyby
gettingagoodandorderlymethodinproceedingfromtheelements,
whicharenames,toassertionsmadebyconnexionofoneofthem
toanotherandsotosyllogisms,whicharetheconnexionsof
oneassertiontoanother,tillwecometoaknowledgeofallthe
consequencesofnamesappertainingtothesubjectinhandandthat
isit,mencallSCIENCE.Andwhereassenseandmemoryarebut
knowledgeoffact,whichisathingpast,andirrevocableScienceis
theknowledgeofconsequences,anddependenceofonefactupon
another:bywhich,outofthatwecanpresentlydo,weknowhowto
dosomethingelsewhenwewill,orthelike,anothertime:because
whenweseehowanythingcomesabout,uponwhatcauses,andby
whatmannerwhenthelikecausescomeintoourpower,weseehow
tomakeitproducethelikeeffects.
18.Childrenthereforearenotenduedwithreasonatall,tillthey
haveattainedtheuseofspeechbutarecalledreasonablecreatures,
forthepossibilityapparentofhavingtheuseofreasonintime
tocome.Andthemostpartofmen,thoughtheyhavetheuse
ofreasoningalittleway,asinnumberingtosomedegreeyetit
servesthemtolittleuseincommonlifeinwhichtheygovern
themselves,somebetter,someworse,accordingtotheirdifferences
ofexperience,quicknessofmemory,andinclinationstoseveral

Page32

endsbutspeciallyaccordingtogoodorevilfortune,andtheerrors
ofoneanother.Forasforscience,orcertainrulesoftheiractions,
theyaresofarfromit,thattheyknownotwhatitis.Geometrythey
havethoughtconjuring:butforothersciences,theywhohavenot
beentaughtthebeginnings,andsomeprogressinthem,thatthey
mayseehowtheybeacquiredandgenerated,areinthispointlike
children,thathavingnothoughtofgeneration,aremadebelieveby
thewomen,thattheirbrothersandsistersarenotborn,butfoundin
thegarden.
19.Butyettheythathavenoscience,areinbetter,and
noblercondition,withtheirnaturalprudencethanmen,thatby
misreasoning,orbytrustingthemthatreasonwrong,fallupon
falseandabsurdgeneralrules.Forignoranceofcauses,andofrules,
doesnotsetmensofaroutoftheirway,asrelyingonfalserules,and
takingforcausesofwhattheyaspireto,thosethatarenotso,but
rathercausesofthecontrary.
20.Toconclude,thelightofhumanmindsisperspicuouswords,
[22]butbyexactdefinitionsfirstsnuffed,andpurgedfromambiguity
reasonisthepaceincreaseofscience,thewayandthebenefitof
mankind,theend.Andonthecontrary,metaphors,andsenseless
andambiguouswords,arelikeignesfatui*andreasoningupon
them,iswanderingamongstinnumerableabsurditiesandtheirend,
contention,andsedition,orcontempt[indifference].
Prudence&21.As,muchexperience,isprudenceso,ismuchscience,
sapience,withsapience.Forthoughweusuallyhaveonenameofwisdomforthem
theirbothyettheLatinsdidalwaysdistinguishbetweenprudentiaand
difference.sapientiaascribingtheformertoexperience,thelattertoscience.
Buttomaketheirdifferenceappearmoreclearly,letussupposeone
manenduedwithanexcellentnaturaluse,anddexterityinhandling
hisarmsandanothertohaveaddedtothatdexterity,anacquired
science,ofwherehecanoffend,orbeoffendedbyhisadversary,in
everypossibleposture,orguard:theabilityoftheformer,would
betotheabilityofthelatter,asprudencetosapiencebothuseful
butthelatterinfallible.Buttheythattrustingonlytotheauthority
ofbooks,followtheblindblindly,arelikehimthat,trustingtothe
falserulesofamasteroffence,venturespresumptuouslyuponan
adversary,thateitherkillsordisgraceshim.
Signsof22.Thesignsofscience,aresome,certainandinfalliblesome,
science.uncertain.Certain,whenhethatpretendeththescienceofany
thing,canteachthesamethatistosay,demonstratethetruth

thereofperspicuouslytoanotheruncertain,whenonlysome
particulareventsanswertohispretence,anduponmanyoccasions
provesoashesaystheymust.Signsofprudencearealluncertain
becausetoobservebyexperience,andrememberallcircumstances
thatmayalterthesuccess,isimpossible.Butinanybusiness,
whereofamanhasnotinfalliblesciencetoproceedbytoforsakehis
ownnaturaljudgment,andbeguidedbygeneralsentencesreadin
authors,andsubjecttomanyexceptions,isasignoffolly,and
generallyscornedbythenameofpedantry.Andevenofthosemen
themselves,thatincouncilsofthecommonwealth,lovetoshow
theirreadingofpoliticsandhistory,veryfewdoitintheirdomestic
affairs,wheretheirparticularinterestisconcernedhaving
prudenceenoughfortheirprivateaffairs:butinpublictheystudy
morethereputationoftheirownwit,thanthesuccessofanother's
business.
ChapterVI[23]
OftheInteriorBeginningsofVoluntaryMotionsCommonlyCalledthePassions.andtheSpeechesByWhichTheyAreExpressed
1.*Therebeinanimals,twosortsofmotionspeculiartothem:Motionvital
onecalledvitalbeguningeneration,andcontinuedwithoutandanimal.
interruptionthroughtheirwholelifesuchasarethecourseofthe
blood,thepulse,thebreathing,theconcoction[digestion],nutrition,
excretion,&ctowhichmotionsthereneedsnohelpofimagination:
theotherisanimalmotion,otherwisecalledvoluntarymotionasto
go,tospeak,tomoveanyofourlimbs,insuchmannerasisfirst
fanciedinourminds.Thatsense,ismotionintheorgansand
interiorpartsofman'sbody,causedbytheactionofthethingswe
see,hear,&candthatfancyisbuttherelicsofthesamemotion,
remainingaftersense,hasbeenalreadysaidinthefirstand
secondchapters.Andbecausegoing,speaking,andthelikevoluntary
motions,dependalwaysuponaprecedentthoughtofwhither,which
way,andwhatitisevident,thattheimaginationisthefirstinternal
beginningofallvoluntarymotion.Andalthoughunstudiedmen,do
notconceiveanymotionatalltobethere,wherethethingmovedis

Page34

invisibleorthespaceitismovedin,is(fortheshortnessofit)
insensibleyetthatdothnothinder,butthatsuchmotionsare.For
letaspacebeneversolittle,thatwhichismovedoveragreater
space,whereofthatlittleoneispart,mustfirstbemovedoverthat.
Thesesmallbeginningsofmotion,withinthebodyofman,before
theyappearinwalking,speaking,striking,andothervisibleactions,
Endeavour.arecommonlycalledENDEAVOUR.*
2.Thisendeavour,whenitistowardsomethingwhichcausesit,
Appetite.iscalledAPPETITE,orDESIRE,thelatter,beingthegeneralnameand
Desire.theotheroftentimesrestrainedtosignifythedesireoffood,namely
Hunger.hungerandthirst.Andwhentheendeavourisfromwardsomething,
Thirst.itisgenerallycalledAVERSION.Thesewordsappetite,andaversionwe
Aversion.havefromtheLatinsandtheybothofthemsignifythemotions,
oneofapproaching,theotherofretiring.SoalsodotheGreek
wordsforthesame,whichare
.Fornatureitself
doesoftenpressuponmenthosetruths,whichafterwards,when
theylookforsomewhatbeyondnature,theystumbleat.Forthe
Schoolsfindinmereappetitetogo,ormove,noactualmotionat
all:butbecausesomemotiontheymustacknowledge,theycallit
metaphoricalmotionwhichisbutanabsurdspeech:forthough
wordsmaybecalledmetaphoricalbodies,andmotionscannot.
Love.Hate.3.Thatwhichmendesire,theyarealsosaidtoLOVE:andtoHATE
thosethings,forwhichtheyhaveaversion.Sothatdesire,andlove,
[24]arethesamethingsavethatbydesire,wealwayssignifytheabsence
oftheobjectbylove,mostcommonlythepresenceofthesame.So
alsobyaversion,wesignifytheabsenceandbyhate,thepresenceof
theobject.
4.Ofappetitesandaversions,somearebornwithmenas
appetiteoffood,appetiteofexcretion,andexoneration,*(which
mayalsoandmoreproperlybecalledaversions,fromsomewhat
theyfeelintheirbodies)andsomeotherappetites,notmany.
Therest,whichareappetitesofparticularthings,proceedfrom
experience,andtrialoftheireffectsuponthemselves,orothermen.
Forofthingsweknownotatall,orbelievenottobe,wecanhaveno
furtherdesire,thantotasteandtry.Butaversionwehaveforthings,
notonlywhichweknowhavehurtusbutalsothatwedonotknow
whethertheywillhurtus,ornot.
Contempt.5.Thosethingswhichweneitherdesire,norhate,wearesaidto
contemn:CONTEMPTbeingnothingelsebutanimmobility,orcontu
macy[obstinacy]oftheheart,inresistingtheactionofcertain

thingsandproceedingfromthattheheartisalreadymoved
otherwise,byothermorepotentobjectsorfromwantofexperience
ofthem.
6.*Andbecausetheconstitutionofaman'sbodyisincontinual
mutationitisimpossiblethatallthesamethingsshouldalways
causeinhimthesameappetites,andaversions:muchlesscanall
menconsent,inthedesireofalmostanyoneandthesameobject.
7.Butwhatsoeveristheobjectofanyman'sappetiteordesire
thatisit,whichheforhispartcallethgood:andtheobjectofhisGood.
hate,andaversion,evilandofhiscontempt,vileandinconsiderable.Evil.
Forthesewordsofgood,evil,andcontemptible,areeverusedwith
relationtothepersonthatuseththem:therebeingnothingsimply
andabsolutelysonoranycommonruleofgoodandevil,tobe
takenfromthenatureoftheobjectsthemselvesbutfromthe
personoftheman(wherethereisnocommonwealth)or,(ina
commonwealth,)fromthepersonthatrepresentethitorfroman
arbitratororjudge,whommendisagreeingshallbyconsentsetup,
andmakehissentencetherulethereof.
8.TheLatintonguehastwowords,whosesignifications
approachtothoseofgoodandevilbutarenotpreciselythesame
andthosearepulchrumandturpe.Whereoftheformersignifiesthat,Pulchrum.
whichbysomeapparentsignspromisethgoodandthelatter,that,Turpe.
whichpromisethevil.Butinourtonguewehavenotsogeneral
namestoexpressthemby.Butforpulchrum,wesayinsomethings,
fairinothers,beautiful,orhandsome,orgallant,orhonourable,or
comely,oramiableandforturpe,foul,deformed,ugly,base,nauseous,
andthelike,asthesubjectshallrequireallwhichwords,intheir
properplaces,signifynothingelse,butthemienorcountenance,
thatpromisethgoodandevil.Sothatofgoodtherebethreekinds
goodinthepromise,thatispulchrumgoodineffect,astheend
desired,whichiscalledjucundum,delightfulandgoodasthemeans,Delightful.
whichiscalledutile,profitableandasmanyofevil:forevil,inProfitable.
promise,isthattheycallturpeevilineffect,andend,ismolestum,Unpleasant.
unpleasant,troublesomeandevilinthemeans,inutile,unprofitable,Unprofitable.
hurtful.
9.As,insense,thatwhichisreallywithinus,is(asIhavesaid[25]
before*)onlymotion,causedbytheactionofexternalobjects,but
inappearancetothesight,lightandcolourtotheear,sound
tothenostril,odour,&c:so,whentheactionofthesameobjectis
continuedfromtheeyes,ears,andotherorganstotheheartthereal

Page36

effectthereisnothingbutmotion,orendeavourwhichconsisteth
inappetite,oraversion,to,orfromtheobjectmoving.Butthe
Delight.appearance,orsenseofthatmotion,isthatweeithercalldelight,or
Displeasure.troubleofmind.
10.Thismotion,whichiscalledappetite,andfortheappearance
Pleasure.ofitdelight,andpleasure,seemethtobe,acorroborationofvital
motion,andahelpthereuntoandthereforesuchthingsascaused
delight,werenotimproperlycalledjucunda,(juvando,)from
Offence.helpingorfortifyingandthecontrary,molesta,offensive,from
hindering,andtroublingthemotionvital.
11.Pleasuretherefore,(ordelight,)istheappearance,orsenseof
goodandmolestationordispleasure,theappearence,orsenseofevil.
Andconsequentlyallappetite,desire,andlove,isaccompaniedwith
somedelightmoreorlessandallhatred,andaversion,withmoreor
lessdispleasureandoffence.
12.Ofpleasures,ordelights,somearisefromthesenseofan
Pleasuresofobjectpresentandthosemaybecalledpleasuresofsense(theword
sense.sensual,asitisusedbythoseonlythatcondemnthem,havingno
placetilltherebelaws.)Ofthiskindareallonerationsand
exonerations*ofthebodyasalsoallthatispleasant,inthesight,
hearing,smell,taste,ortouchothersarisefromtheexpectation,that
proceedsfromforesightoftheend,orconsequenceofthings
Pleasuresofwhetherthosethingsinthesensepleaseordisplease:andtheseare
themind.pleasuresofthemindofhimthatdraweththoseconsequences
Joy.andaregenerallycalledJOY.Inthelikemanner,displeasures,are
Pain.someinthesense,andcalledPAINothers,intheexpectationof
Griefconsequences,andarecalledGRIEF.
13.Thesesimplepassionscalledappetite,desire,love,aversion,
hate,joy,andgrief,havetheirnamesfordiversconsiderations
diversified.Asfirst,whentheyonesucceedanother,theyare
diverselycalledfromtheopinionmenhaveofthelikelihoodof
attainingwhattheydesire.Secondly,fromtheobjectlovedorhated.
Thirdly,fromtheconsiderationofmanyofthemtogether.
Fourthly,fromthealterationorsuccessionitself.
Hope.14.*Forappetitewithanopinionofattaining,iscalledHOPE.
Despair.15.Thesame,withoutsuchopinion,DESPAIR.
Fear.16.Aversion,withopinionofHURTfromtheobject,FEAR.
17.Thesame,withhopeofavoidingthathurtbyresistance,
Courage.COURAGE.
Anger.18.Suddencourage,ANGER.

19.Constanthope,CONFIDENCEofourselves.Confidence.
20.Constantdespair,DIFFIDENCEofourselves.Diffidence.
21.Angerforgreathurtdonetoanother,whenweconceivethe[26]
sametobedonebyinjury,INDIGNATION.Indignation.
22.Desireofgoodtoanother,BENEVOLENCE,GOODWILL,Benevolence.
CHARITY.Iftomangenerally,GOODNATURE.Goodnature.
23.Desireofriches,COVETOUSS:anameusedalwaysinCovetousness.
significationofblamebecausemencontendingforthem,are
displeasedwithoneanother'sattainingthemthoughthedesirein
itself,betobeblamed,orallowed,accordingtothemeansbywhich
theserichesaresought.
24.Desireofoffice,orprecedence,AMBITION:anameusedalsoinAmbition.
theworsesense,forthereasonbeforementioned.
25.DesireofthingsthatconducebutalittletoourendsandfearPusillanimity.
ofthingsthatarebutoflittlehindrance,PUSILLANLMITY.
26.Contemptoflittlehelps,andhindrances,MAGNANIMITY.Magnanimity.
27.Magnanimity,indangerofdeath,orwounds,VALOUR,FORTIValour.
TUDE.
28.Magnanimity,intheuseofriches,LIBERALITY.Liberality.
29.Pusillanimity,inthesameWRETCHEDNESS,MISERABLENESSorMiserableness.
PARSIMONYasitisliked,ordisliked.
30.Loveofpersonsforsociety,KINDNESS.Kindness.
31.Loveofpersonsforpleasingthesenseonly,NATURALLUST.Naturallust.
32.Loveofthesame,acquiredfromrumination,thatis,Luxury.
imaginationofpleasurepast,LUXURY.
33.Loveofonesingularly,withdesiretobesingularlybeloved,Thepassion
THEPASSIONOFLOVE.Thesame,withfearthattheloveisnotoflove.
mutual,JEALOUSY.Jealousy.
34.Desire,bydoinghurttoanother,tomakehimcondemnsomeRevengefulness.
factofhisown,REVENGEFULNESS.
35.Desire,toknowwhy,andhow,CURIOSITYsuchasisinnoCuriosity.
livingcreaturebutman:sothatmanisdistinguished,notonlybyhis
reasonbutalsobythissingularpassionfromotheranimalsin
whomtheappetiteoffood,andotherpleasuresofsense,by

Page38

Truereligion.Andwhenthepowerimagined,istrulysuchasweimagine,TRUE
RELIGION.
Panicterror.37.Fear,withouttheapprehensionofwhy,orwhat,PANIC
TERROR,calledsofromthefables,thatmakePantheauthorof
themwhereas,intruth,thereisalwaysinhimthatsofeareth,
first,someapprehensionofthecause,thoughtherestrunaway
byexampleeveryonesupposinghisfellowtoknowwhy.And
thereforethispassionhappenstononebutinathrong,ormultitude
ofpeople.
Admiration.38.Joy,fromapprehensionofnovelty,ADMIRATIONproperto
man,becauseitexcitestheappetiteofknowingthecause.
39.Joy,arisingfromimaginationofaman'sownpowerand
Glory.ability,isthatexultationofthemindwhichiscalledGLORYING:
[27]whichifgroundedupontheexperienceofhisownformeractions,is
thesamewithconfidence:butifgroundedontheflatteryofothersor
onlysupposedbyhimself,fordelightintheconsequencesofit,is
Vainglory.calledVAINGLORY:whichnameisproperlygivenbecauseawell
groundedconfidencebegettethattemptwhereasthesupposingof
powerdoesnot,andisthereforerightlycalledvain.
Dejection.40.Grief,fromopinionofwantofpower,iscalledDEJECTIONof
mind.
41.Thevainglorywhichconsistethinthefeigningorsupposing
ofabilitiesinourselves,whichweknowarenot,ismostincidentto
youngmen,andnourishedbythehistories,orfictionsofgallant
personsandiscorrectedoftentimesbyage,andemployment.
Suddenglory.42.Suddenglory,isthepassionwhichmakeththosegrimaces
Laughter.calledLAUGHTERandiscausedeitherbysomesuddenactoftheir
own,thatpleaseththemorbytheapprehensionofsomedeformed
thinginanother,bycomparisonwhereoftheysuddenlyapplaud
themselves.Anditisincidentmosttothem,thatareconsciousof
thefewestabilitiesinthemselveswhoareforcedtokeepthemselves
intheirownfavour,byobservingtheimperfectionsofothermen.
Andthereforemuchlaughteratthedefectsofothers,isasignof
pusillanimity.Forofgreatminds,oneoftheproperworksis,tohelp
andfreeothersfromscornandcomparethemselvesonlywiththe
mostable.
Sudden43.Onthecontrary,suddendejection,isthepassionthatcauseth
dejection.WEEPINGandiscausedbysuchaccidents,assuddenlytakeaway
Weeping.somevehementhope,orsomepropoftheirpower:andtheyare
mostsubjecttoit,thatrelyprincipallyonhelpsexternal,suchasare

women,andchildren.Thereforesomeweepforthelossoffriends
othersfortheirunkindnessothersforthesuddenstopmadeto
theirthoughtsofrevenge,byreconciliation.Butinallcases,both
laughter,andweeping,aresuddenmotionscustomtakingthem
bothaway.Fornomanlaughsatoldjestsorweepsforanold
calamity.
44.Grief,forthediscoveryofsomedefectofability,isSHAME,Shame.
orthepassionthatdiscoverethitselfinBLUSHINGandconsistethinBlushing.
theapprehensionofsomethingdishonourableandinyoungmen,
isasignoftheloveofgoodreputation,andcommendable:inold
menitisasignofthesamebutbecauseitcomestoolate,not
commendable.
45.ThecontemptofgoodreputationiscalledIMPUDENCE.Impudence.
46.Grief,forthecalamityofanother,isPITYandarisethfromPity.
theimaginationthatthelikecalamitymaybefallhimselfand
thereforeiscalledalsoCOMPASSION,andinthephraseofthispresent
timeaFELLOWFEELING:andthereforeforcalamityarrivingfrom
greatwickedness,thebestmenhavetheleastpityandforthesame
calamity,thosehatepity,thatthinkthemselvesleastobnoxiousto
thesame.
47.Contempt,orlittlesenseofthecalamityofothers,isthatCruelty.
whichmencallCRUELTYproceedingfromsecurityoftheirown[28]
fortune.For,thatanymanshouldtakepleasureinothermen'sgreat
harms,withoutotherendofhisown,Idonotconceiveitpossible.
48.Grief,forthesuccessofacompetitorinwealth,honour,or
othergood,ifitbejoinedwithendeavourtoenforce[exert]ourown
abilitiestoequalorexceedhim,iscalledEMULATION:butjoinedwithEmulation.
endeavourtosupplant,orhinderacompetitor,ENVY.Envy.
49.Wheninthemindofman,appetities,andaversions,hopes,
andfears,concerningoneandthesamething,arisealternatelyand
diversgoodandevilconsequencesofthedoing,oromittingthe
thingpropounded,comesuccessivelyintoourthoughtssothat
sometimeswehaveanappetitetoitsometimesanaversionfromit
sometimeshopetobeabletodoitsometimesdespair,orfearto
attemptitthewholesumofdesires,aversions,hopesandfears,
continuedtillthethingbeeitherdone,orthoughtimpossible,isthat
wecallDELIBERATION.Deliberation.
50.Thereforeofthingspast,thereisnodeliberationbecause
manifestlyimpossibletobechanged:norofthingsknown
tobeimpossible,orthoughtsobecausemenknow,orthinksuch

Page40

deliberationvain.Butofthingsimpossible,whichwethink
possible,wemaydeliberatenotknowingitisinvain.Anditis
calleddeliberationbecauseitisaputtinganendtothelibertywe
hadofdoing,oromitting,accordingtoourownappetite,or
aversion.
51.Thisalternatesuccessionofappetites,aversions,hopesand
fears,isnolessinotherlivingcreaturesthaninman:andtherefore
beastsalsodeliberate.
52.Everydeliberationisthensaidtoend,whenthatwhereofthey
deliberate,iseitherdone,orthoughtimpossiblebecausetillthen
weretainthelibertyofdoing,oromitting,accordingtoourappetite,
oraversion.
53.Indeliberation,thelastappetite,oraversion,immediately
adheringtotheaction,ortotheomissionthereof,isthatwecallthe
Thewill.WILLtheact,(notthefaculty,)ofwilling.Andbeaststhathave
deliberation,mustnecessarilyalsohavewill.Thedefinitionofthe
will,givencommonlybytheSchools,*thatitisarationalappetite,is
notgood.Forifitwere,thencouldtherebenovoluntaryactagainst
reason.Foravoluntaryactisthat,whichproceedethfromthewill,
andnoother.Butifinsteadofarationalappetite,weshallsayan
appetiteresultingfromaprecedentdeliberation,thenthedefinition
isthesamethatIhavegivenhere.Willthereforeisthelastappetite
indeliberating.Andthoughwesayincommondiscourse,amanhad
awilloncetodoathing,thatneverthelessheforboretodoyetthat
isproperlybutaninclination,whichmakesnoactionvoluntary
becausetheactiondependsnotofit,butofthelastinclination,or
appetite.Foriftheintervenientappetites,makeanyactionvolun
tarythenbythesamereasonallintervenientaversions,should
makethesameactioninvoluntaryandsooneandthesameaction,
shouldbebothvoluntaryandinvoluntary.
[29]54.Bythisitismanifest,thatnotonlyactionsthathavetheir
beginningfromcovetousness,ambition,lust,orotherappetitesto
thethingpropoundedbutalsothosethathavetheirbeginningfrom
aversion,orfearofthoseconsequencesthatfollowtheomission,are
voluntaryactions.
Formsof55.Theformsofspeechbywhichthepassionsareexpressed,
speech,inarepartlythesame,andpartlydifferentfromthose,bywhichwe
passion.expressourthoughts.Andfirst,generallyallpassionsmaybe
expressedindicativelyasIlove,Ifear,Ijoy,Ideliberate,Iwill,
Icommand:butsomeofthemhaveparticularexpressionsby

themselves,whichneverthelessarenotaffirmations,unlessitbe
whentheyservetomakeotherinferences,besidesthatofthepassion
theyproceedfrom.Deliberationisexpressedsubjunctivelywhichis
aspeechpropertosignifysuppositions,withtheirconsequences
as,ifthisbedone,thenthiswillfollowanddiffersnotfromthe
languageofreasoning,savethatreasoningisingeneralwordsbut
deliberationforthemostpartisofparticulars.Thelanguageof
desire,andaversion,isimperativeasdothis,forbearthatwhich
whenthepartyisobligedtodo,orforbear,iscommandotherwise
prayerorelsecounsel.Thelanguageofvainglory,ofindignation,
pityandrevengefulness,optative:butofthedesiretoknow,thereis
apeculiarexpression,calledinterrogativeas,whatisit,whenshallit,
howisitdone,andwhyso?OtherlanguageofthepassionsIfindnone:
forcursing,swearing,reviling,andthelike,donotsignifyasspeech
butastheactionsofatongueaccustomed.
56.Theseformsofspeech,Isay,areexpressions,orvoluntary
significationsofourpassions:butcertainsignstheybenotbecause
theymaybeusedarbitrarily,whethertheythatusethem,havesuch
passionsornot.Thebestsignsofpassionspresent,areeitherinthe
countenance,motionsofthebody,actions,andends,oraims,which
weotherwiseknowthemantohave.
57.Andbecauseindeliberation,theappetites,andaversionsare
raisedbyforesightofthegoodandevilconsequences,andsequelsof
theactionwhereofwedeliberatethegoodorevileffectthereof
dependethontheforesightofalongchainofconsequences,of
whichveryseldomanymanisabletoseetotheend.Butforsofar
asamanseeth,ifthegoodinthoseconsequences,begreaterthan
theevil,thewholechainisthatwhichwriterscallapparent,orGoodand
seeminggood.Andcontrarily,whentheevilexceedeththegood,theevilapparent
wholeisapparent,orseemingevil:sothathewhohathbyexperience,
orreason,thegreatestandsurestprospectofconsequences,deliber
atesbesthimselfandisablewhenhewill,togivethebestcounsel
untoothers.
58.Continualsuccessinobtainingthosethingswhichamanfrom
timetotimedesireth,thatistosay,continualprospering,isthat
mencallFELICITYImeanthefelicityofthislife.ForthereisnosuchFelicity.
thingasperpetualtranquillityofmind,whileweliveherebecause
lifeitselfisbutmotion,andcanneverbewithoutdesire,norwithout
fear,nomorethanwithoutsense.WhatkindoffelicityGodhath[30]
ordainedtothemthatdevoutlyhonourHim,amanshallnosooner

Page42

know,thanenjoybeingjoys,thatnowareasincomprehensible,as
thewordofSchoolmenbeatificalvisionisunintelligible.
59.Theformofspeechwherebymensignifytheiropinionofthe
Praise.goodnessofanything,isPRAISE.Thatwherebytheysignifythe
Magnification.powerandgreatnessofanything,isMAGNIFYING.Andthatwhereby
theysignifytheopiniontheyhaveofaman'sfelicity,isbythe

,*forwhichwehavenonameinour
tongue.Andthusmuchissufficientforthepresentpurpose,tohave
beensaidofthePASSIONS.
ChapterVII
OftheEnds,OrResolutionsofDiscourse
1.Ofalldiscourse,governedbydesireofknowledge,thereisatlast
anend,eitherbyattaining,orbygivingover.Andinthechainof
discourse,wheresoeveritbeinterrupted,thereisanendforthat
time.
2.Ifthediscoursebemerelymental,itconsistethofthoughts
thatthethingwillbe,andwillnotbeorthatithasbeen,andhasnot
been,alternately.Sothatwheresoeveryoubreakoffthechainofa
man'sdiscourse,youleavehiminapresumptionofitwillbe,or,it
willnotbeor,ithasbeen,or,hasnotbeen.Allwhichisopinion.And
thatwhichisalternateappetite,indeliberatingconcerninggoodand
evilthesameisalternateopinion,intheenquiryofthetruthofpast,
andfuture.Andasthelastappetiteindeliberation,iscalledthewill
sothelastopinioninsearchofthetruthofpast,andfuture,iscalled
JudgmentortheJUDGMENT,orresoluteandfinalsentenceofhimthatdiscourseth.
sentencefinal.Andasthewholechainofappetitesalternate,inthequestionof
good,orbad,iscalleddeliberationsothewholechainofopinions
Doubt.alternate,inthequestionoftrue,orfalse,iscalledDOUBT.
3.Nodiscoursewhatsoever,canendinabsoluteknowledge
offact,past,ortocome.For,asfortheknowledgeoffact,itis
originally,senseandeverafter,memory.Andfortheknowledgeof
consequence,whichIhavesaidbeforeiscalledscience,itisnot
absolute,butconditional.Nomancanknowbydiscourse,thatthis,
orthat,is,hasbeen,orwillbewhichistoknowabsolutely:butonly,
thatifthisbe,thatisifthishasbeen,thathasbeenifthisshallbe,

thatshallbe:whichistoknowconditionallyandthatnotthe
consequenceofonethingtoanotherbutofonenameofathing,to
anothernameofthesamething.
4.Andtherefore,whenthediscourseisputintospeech,and
beginswiththedefinitionsofwords,andproceedsbyconnexion
ofthesameintogeneralaffirmations,andoftheseagaininto
syllogismstheendorlastsumiscalledtheconclusionandthe
thoughtofthemindbyitsignified,isthatconditionalknowledge,or[31]
knowledgeoftheconsequenceofwords,whichiscommonlycalled
SCIENCE.Butifthefirstgroundofsuchdiscourse,benotdefinitionsScience.
orifthedefinitionsbenotrightlyjoinedtogetherintosyllogisms,
thentheendorconclusion,isagainOPINION,namelyofthetruthofOpinion.
somewhatsaid,thoughsometimesinabsurdandsenselesswords,
withoutpossibilityofbeingunderstood.Whentwo,ormoremen,
knowofoneandthesamefact,theyaresaidtobeCONSCIOUSofitConscious.
onetoanotherwhichisasmuchastoknowittogether.Andbecause
sucharefittestwitnessesofthefactsofoneanother,orofathirdit
was,andeverwillbereputedaveryevilact,foranymantospeak
againsthisconscience*ortocorruptorforceanothersotodo:
insomuchthatthepleaofconscience,hasbeenalwayshearkened
untoverydiligentlyinalltimes.Afterwards,menmadeuseofthe
samewordmetaphorically,fortheknowledgeoftheirownsecret
facts,andsecretthoughtsandthereforeitisrhetoricallysaid,
thattheconscienceisathousandwitnesses.Andlastofall,men,
vehementlyinlovewiththeirownnewopinions,(thoughneverso
absurd,)andobstinatelybenttomaintainthem,gavethosetheir
opinionsalsothatreverencednameofconscience,asiftheywould
haveitseemunlawful,tochangeorspeakagainstthemandso
pretendtoknowtheyaretrue,whentheyknowatmost,butthat
theythinkso.
5.Whenaman'sdiscoursebeginnethnotatdefinitions,it
beginnetheitheratsomeothercontemplationofhisown,andthen
itisstillcalledopinionoritbeginnethatsomesayingofanother,
ofwhoseabilitytoknowthetruth,andofwhosehonestyinnot
deceiving,hedoubtethnotandthenthediscourseisnotsomuch
concerningthething,asthepersonandtheresolutioniscalled
BELIEF,andFAITH:faith,inthemanbelief,bothoftheman,andofBelief.Faith.
thetruthofwhathesays.Sothatinbeliefaretwoopinionsoneof
thesayingofthemantheotherofhisvirtue.Tohavefaithin,or
trustto,orbelieveaman,signifythesamethingnamely,anopinion

Page44

oftheveracityoftheman:buttobelievewhatissaid,signifiethonly
anopinionofthetruthofthesaying.Butwearetoobservethatthis
phrase,IbelieveinasalsotheLatin,credoinandtheGreek,

,areneverusedbutinthewritingsofdivines.Instead
ofthem,inotherwritingsareput,IbelievehimItrusthimIhave
faithinhimIrelyonhim:andinLatin,credoilli:fidoilli:andin
Greek,
:andthatthissingularityoftheecclesiastic
useofthewordhathraisedmanydisputesabouttherightobjectof
theChristianfaith.
6.Butbybelievingin,asitisinthecreed,ismeant,nottrustin
thepersonbutconfessionandacknowledgmentofthedoctrine.For
notonlyChristians,butallmannerofmendosobelieveinGod,as
toholdallfortruththeyhearhimsay,whethertheyunderstandit,
ornotwhichisallthefaithandtrustcanpossiblybehadinany
personwhatsoever:buttheydonotallbelievethedoctrineofthe
[32]creed.
7.Fromwhencewemayinfer,thatwhenwebelieveanysaying
whatsoeveritbe,tobetrue,fromargumentstaken,notfromthe
thingitself,orfromtheprinciplesofnaturalreason,butfromthe
authority,andgoodopinionwehave,ofhimthathathsaiditthen
isthespeaker,orpersonwebelievein,ortrustin,andwhoseword
wetake,theobjectofourfaithandthehonourdoneinbelieving,is
donetohimonly.Andconsequently,whenwebelievethatthe
ScripturesarethewordofGod,havingnoimmediaterevelation
fromGodhimself,ourbelief,faith,andtrustisinthechurchwhose
wordwetake,andacquiescetherein.Andtheythatbelievethat
whichaprophetrelatesuntotheminthenameofGod,takethe
wordoftheprophet,dohonourtohim,andinhimtrust,and
believe,touchingthetruthofwhatherelateth,whetherhebeatrue,
orafalseprophet.Andsoitisalsowithallotherhistory.ForifI
shouldnotbelieveallthatiswrittenbyhistorians,oftheglorious
actsofAlexander,orCaesar,IdonotthinktheghostofAlexander,or
Caesar,hadanyjustcausetobeoffendedoranybodyelse,butthe
historian.IfLivysaytheGodsmadeonceacowspeak,andwe
believeitnotwedistrustnotGodtherein,butLivy.*Sothatitis
evident,thatwhatsoeverwebelieve,uponnootherreason,than
whatisdrawnfromauthorityofmenonly,andtheirwritings
whethertheybesentfromGodornot,isfaithinmenonly.*

ChapterVIII
OftheVirtuesCommonlyCalledIntellectualandTheirContraryDefects
1.Virtuegenerally,inallsortsofsubjects,issomewhatthatisIntellectual
valuedforeminenceandconsistethincomparison.Forifallthingsvirtue
wereequalinallmen,nothingwouldbeprized.Andbyvirtuesdefined.
INTELLECTUAL,arealwaysunderstoodsuchabilitiesofthemind,as
menpraise,value,anddesireshouldbeinthemselvesandgocom
monlyunderthenameofagoodwitthoughthesamewordwit,be
usedalso,todistinguishonecertainabilityfromtherest.
2.Thesevirtuesareoftwosortsnatural,andacquired.BynatuWit,natural,
ral,Imeannot,thatwhichamanhathfromhisbirth:forthatisoracquired.
nothingelsebutsensewhereinmendiffersolittleonefroman
other,andfrombrutebeasts,asitisnottobereckonedamongst
virtues.ButImean,thatwit,whichisgottenbyuseonly,and
experiencewithoutmethod,culture,orinstruction.ThisNATURALNaturalwit.
WIT,consistethprincipallyintwothingscelerityofimagining(that
is,swiftsuccessionofonethoughttoanother)andsteadydirectionto
someapprovedend.Onthecontraryaslowimagination,maketh
thatdefect,orfaultofthemind,whichiscommonlycalledDULL
NESS,stupidity,andsometimesbyothernamesthatsignifyslowness
ofmotion,ordifficultytobemoved.
3.Andthisdifferenceofquickness,iscausedbythedifferenceof[33]
men'spassionsthatloveanddislike,someonething,someanother:
andthereforesomemen'sthoughtsrunoneway,someanotherand
areheldto,andobservedifferentlythethingsthatpassthrough
theirimagination.Andwhereasinthissuccessionofmen's
thoughts,thereisnothingtoobserveinthethingstheythinkon,but
eitherinwhattheybelikeoneanother,orinwhattheybeunlike,or
whattheyservefor,orhowtheyservetosuchapurposethosethat
observetheirsimilitudes,incasetheybesuchasarebutrarely
observedbyothers,aresaidtohaveagoodwitbywhich,inthisGoodwit,
occasion,ismeantagoodfancy.Buttheythatobservetheirdifferorfancy.
ences,anddissimilitudeswhichiscalleddistinguishing,anddiscern
ing,andjudgingbetweenthingandthingincase,suchdiscerningbe
noteasy,aresaidtohaveagoodjudgment:andparticularlyinmatterGood
ofconversationandbusinesswherein,times,places,andpersonsjudgment.

Page46

Discretion.aretobediscerned,thisvirtueiscalledDISCRETION.Theformer,that
is,fancy,withoutthehelpofjudgment,isnotcommendedasa
virtue:butthelatterwhichisjudgment,anddiscretion,is
commendedforitself,withoutthehelpoffancy.Besidesthedis
cretionoftimes,places,andpersons,necessarytoagoodfancy,
thereisrequiredalsoanoftenapplicationofhisthoughtstotheir
endthatistosay,tosomeusetobemadeofthem.Thisdonehe
thathaththisvirtue,willbeeasilyfittedwithsimilitudes,thatwill
please,notonlybyillustrationofhisdiscourse,andadorningitwith
newandaptmetaphorsbutalso,bytherarityoftheirinvention.
Butwithoutsteadiness,anddirectiontosomeend,agreatfancyis
onekindofmadnesssuchastheyhave,thatenteringintoany
discourse,aresnatchedfromtheirpurpose,byeverythingthat
comesintheirthought,intosomany,andsolongdigressions,and
parentheses,thattheyutterlylosethemselves:whichkindoffolly,I
knownoparticularnamefor:butthecauseofitis,sometimeswant
ofexperiencewherebythatseemethtoamannewandrare,which
dothnotsotoothers:sometimespusillanimitybywhichthatseems
greattohim,whichothermenthinkatrifle:andwhatsoeverisnew,
orgreat,andthereforethoughtfittobetold,withdrawsamanby
degreesfromtheintendedwayofhisdiscourse.
4.Inagoodpoem,whetheritbeepic,ordramaticasalsoin
sonnets,epigrams,andotherpieces,bothjudgmentandfancyare
required:butthefancymustbemoreeminentbecausetheyplease
fortheextravagancybutoughtnottodispleasebyindiscretion.
5.Inagoodhistory,thejudgmentmustbeeminentbecausethe
goodnessconsisteth,inthemethod,inthetruth,andinthechoice
oftheactionsthataremostprofitabletobeknown.Fancyhasno
place,butonlyinadorningthestyle.
6.Inorationsofpraise,andininvectives,thefancyispredomi
nantbecausethedesignisnottruth,buttohonourordishonour
whichisdonebynoble,orbyvilecomparisons.Thejudgment
doesbutsuggestwhatcircumstancesmakeanactionlaudable,or
culpable.
[34]7.Inhortatives[exhortations],andpleadings,astruth,ordis
guiseservethbesttothedesigninhandsoisthejudgment,orthe
fancymostrequired.
8.Indemonstration,incounsel,andallrigoroussearchoftruth,
judgmentdoesall,exceptsometimestheunderstandinghaveneed
tobeopenedbysomeaptsimilitudeandthenthereissomuchuse

offancy.Butformetaphors,theyareinthiscaseutterlyexcluded.
Forseeingtheyopenlyprofessdeceittoadmitthemintocounsel,or
reasoning,weremanifestfolly.
9.Andinanydiscoursewhatsoever,ifthedefectofdiscretionbe
apparent,howextravagantsoeverthefancybe,thewholediscourse
willbetakenforasignofwantofwitandsowillitneverwhenthe
discretionismanifest,thoughthefancybeneversoordinary.
10.Thesecretthoughtsofamanrunoverallthings,holy,pro
fane,clean,obscene,grave,andlight,withoutshame,orblame
whichverbaldiscoursecannotdo,fartherthanthejudgmentshall
approveofthetime,place,andpersons.Ananatomist,oraphys
icianmayspeak,orwritehisjudgmentofuncleanthingsbecauseit
isnottoplease,butprofit:butforanothermantowritehisextrava
gant,andpleasantfanciesofthesame,isasifaman,frombeing
tumbledintothedirt,shouldcomeandpresenthimselfbeforegood
company.And'tisthewantofdiscretionthatmakesthedifference.
Again,inprofessedremissnessofmind,andfamiliarcompany,a
manmayplaywiththesounds,andequivocalsignificationsof
wordsandthatmanytimeswithencountersofextraordinaryfancy:
butinasermon,orinpublic,orbeforepersonsunknown,orwhom
weoughttoreverence,thereisnojinglingofwordsthatwillnotbe
accountedfolly:andthedifferenceisonlyinthewantofdiscretion.
Sothatwherewitiswanting,itisnotfancythatiswanting,but
discretion.Judgmentthereforewithoutfancyiswit,butfancywith
outjudgment,not.
11.Whenthethoughtsofaman,thathasadesigninhand,
runningoveramultitudeofthings,observeshowtheyconduceto
thatdesignorwhatdesigntheymayconduceuntoifhisobser
vationsbesuchasarenoteasy,orusual,thiswitofhisiscalled
PRUDENCEanddependethonmuchexperience,andmemoryofthePrudence.
likethings,andtheirconsequencesheretofore.Inwhichthereisnot
somuchdifferenceofmen,asthereisintheirfanciesandjudg
mentsbecausetheexperienceofmenequalinage,isnotmuch
unequal,astothequantitybutliesindifferentoccasionseveryone
havinghisprivatedesigns.Togovernwellafamily,andakingdom,
arenotdifferentdegreesofprudencebutdifferentsortsofbusiness
nomorethantodrawapictureinlittle,orasgreat,orgreaterthan
thelife,aredifferentdegreesofart.Aplainhusbandmanismore
prudentinaffairsofhisownhouse,thanaprivycouncillorinthe
affairsofanotherman.

Page48

12.Toprudence,ifyouaddtheuseofunjust,ordishonest
means,suchasusuallyarepromptedtomenbyfear,orwantyou
Craft.havethatcrookedwisdom,whichiscalledCRAFTwhichisasignof
[35]pusillanimity.Formagnanimityiscontemptofunjust,ordishonest
helps.AndthatwhichtheLatinscallversutia,(translatedintoEng
lish,shifting,)andisaputtingoffofapresentdangerorincommod
ity,byengagingintoagreater,aswhenamanrobsonetopay
another,isbutashortersightedcraft,calledversutia,fromversura,
whichsignifiestakingmoneyatusury,forthepresentpaymentof
interest.
Acquiredwit.13.Asforacquiredwit,(Imeanacquiredbymethodandinstruc
tion,)thereisnonebutreasonwhichisgroundedontherightuse
ofspeechandproduceththesciences.Butofreasonandscience,I
havealreadyspokeninthefifthandsixthchapters.
14.Thecausesofthisdifferenceofwits,areinthepassions:and
thedifferenceofpassions,proceedethpartlyfromthedifferent
constitutionofthebody,andpartlyfromdifferenteducation.Forif
thedifferenceproceededfromthetemperofthebrain,andthe
organsofsense,eitherexteriororinterior,therewouldbenoless
differenceofmenintheirsight,hearing,orothersenses,thanin
theirfancies,anddiscretions.Itproceedsthereforefromthepas
sionswhicharedifferent,notonlyfromthedifferenceofmen's
complexionsbutalsofromtheirdifferenceofcustoms,and
education.
15.Thepassionsthatmostofallcausethedifferenceofwit,are
principally,themoreorlessdesireofpower,ofriches,ofknow
ledge,andofhonour.Allwhichmaybereducedtothefirst,thatis,
desireofpower.Forriches,knowledgeandhonourarebutseveral
sortsofpower.
16.Andtherefore,amanwhohasnogreatpassionforanyof
thesethingsbutisasmentermitindifferentthoughhemaybeso
faragoodman,astobefreefromgivingoffenceyethecannot
possiblyhaveeitheragreatfancy,ormuchjudgment.Forthe
thoughts,aretothedesires,asscouts,andspies,torangeabroad,
andfindthewaytothethingsdesired:allsteadinessofthemind's
motion,andallquicknessofthesame,proceedingfromthence.
Forastohavenodesire,istobedead:sotohaveweakpassions,
isdullnessandtohavepassionsindifferentlyforeverything,
Giddiness.GIDDINESS,anddistractionandtohavestrongerandmorevehement

passionsforanything,thanisordinarilyseeninothers,isthatwhich
mencallMADNESS.Madness.
17.Whereoftherebealmostasmanykinds,asofthepassions
themselves.Sometimestheextraordinaryandextravagantpassion,
proceedethfromtheevilconstitutionoftheorgansofthebody,or
harmdonethemandsometimesthehurt,andindispositionofthe
organs,iscausedbythevehemence,orlongcontinuanceofthe
passion.Butinbothcasesthemadnessisofoneandthesame
nature.
18.Thepassion,whoseviolence,orcontinuance,makethmad
ness,iseithergreatvainglorywhichiscommonlycalledpride,and
selfconceitorgreatdejectionofmind.
19.Pride,subjectethamantoanger,theexcesswhereof,istheRage.
madnesscalledRAGE,andFURY.Andthusitcomestopassthat
excessivedesireofrevenge,whenitbecomeshabitual,hurteththe[36]
organs,andbecomesrage:thatexcessivelove,withjealousy,be
comesalsorage:excessiveopinionofaman'sownself,fordivine
inspiration,forwisdom,learning,form,andthelike,becomes
distraction,andgiddiness:thesame,joinedwithenvy,rage:
vehementopinionofthetruthofanything,contradictedbyothers,
rage.
20.Dejection,subjectsamantocauselessfearswhichisaMelancholy.
madnesscommonlycalledMELANCHOLY,apparentalsoindivers
mannersasinhauntingofsolitudes,andgravesinsuperstitious
behaviourandinfearingsomeone,someanotherparticularthing.
Insum,allpassionsthatproducestrangeandunusualbehaviour,are
calledbythegeneralnameofmadness.ButoftheseveralkindsMadness.
ofmadness,hethatwouldtakethepains,mightenrolalegion.And
iftheexcessesbemadness,thereisnodoubtbutthepassions
themselves,whentheytendtoevil,aredegreesofthesame.
21.(Forexample,)thoughtheeffectoffolly,inthemthatare
possessedofanopinionofbeinginspired,benotvisiblealwaysin
oneman,byanyveryextravagantaction,thatproceedethfromsuch
passionyet,whenmanyofthemconspiretogether,therageofthe
wholemultitudeisvisibleenough.Forwhatargumentofmadness
cantherebegreater,thantoclamour,strike,andthrowstonesatour
bestfriends?Yetthisissomewhatlessthansuchamultitudewilldo.
Fortheywillclamour,fightagainst,anddestroythose,bywhomall
theirlifetimebefore,theyhavebeenprotected,andsecuredfrom

Page50

injury.Andifthisbemadnessinthemultitude,itisthesamein
everyparticularman.Forasinthemidstofthesea,thoughaman
perceivenosoundofthatpartofthewaternexthimyetheiswell
assured,thatpartcontributesasmuch,totheroaringofthesea,as
anyotherpart,ofthesamequantity:soalso,thoughweperceiveno
greatunquietness,inone,ortwomenyetwemaybewellassured,
thattheirsingularpassions,arepartsoftheseditiousroaringof
atroublednation.Andiftherewerenothingelsethatbewrayed
[revealed]theirmadnessyetthatveryarrogatingsuchinspirationto
themselves,isargumentenough.IfsomemaninBedlamshould
entertainyouwithsoberdiscourseandyoudesireintakingleave,to
knowwhathewere,thatyoumightanothertimerequitehiscivility
andheshouldtellyou,hewereGodtheFatherIthinkyouneed
expectnoextravagantactionforargumentofhismadness.
22.Thisopinionofinspiration,calledcommonly,privatespirit,
beginsveryoften,fromsomeluckyfindingofanerrorgenerallyheld
byothersandnotknowing,ornotremembering,bywhatconduct
ofreason,theycametososingularatruth,(astheythinkit,though
itbemanytimesanuntruththeylighton,)theypresentlyadmire
themselvesasbeinginthespecialgraceofGodAlmighty,whohath
revealedthesametothemsupernaturally,byhisSpirit.
23.Again,thatmadnessisnothingelse,buttoomuchappearing
passion,maybegatheredoutoftheeffectsofwine,whicharethe
samewiththoseoftheevildispositionoftheorgans.Forthevariety
[37]ofbehaviourinmenthathavedrunktoomuch,isthesamewiththat
ofmadmen:someofthemraging,othersloving,otherslaughing,all
extravagantly,butaccordingtotheirseveraldomineeringpassions:
fortheeffectofthewine,doesbutremovedissimulation,andtake
fromthemthesightofthedeformityoftheirpassions.For,(I
believe)themostsobermen,whentheywalkalonewithoutcare
andemploymentofthemind,wouldbeunwillingthevanityand
extravaganceoftheirthoughtsatthattimeshouldbepubliclyseen:
whichisaconfession,thatpassionsunguided,areforthemostpart
meremadness.
24.Theopinionsoftheworld,bothinancientandlaterages,
concerningthecauseofmadness,havebeentwo.Some,deriving
themfromthepassionssome,fromdemons,orspirits,eithergood
orbad,whichtheythoughtmightenterintoaman,possesshim,and
movehisorgansinsuchstrange,anduncouthmanner,asmadmen
usetodo.Theformersorttherefore,calledsuchmen,madmen:but

thelatter,calledthemsometimesdemoniacs,(thatis,possessedwith
spirits)sometimesenergumeni,(thatis,agitated,ormovedwith
spirits)andnowinItalytheyarecalled,notonlypazzi,madmen
butalsospiritati,menpossessed.
25.TherewasonceagreatconfluxofpeopleinAbdera,acityof
theGreeks,attheactingofthetragedyofAndromeda,uponan
extremehotday:whereupon,agreatmanyofthespectatorsfalling
intofevers,hadthisaccidentfromtheheat,andfromthetragedy
together,thattheydidnothingbutpronounceiambics,withthe
namesofPerseusandAndromedawhichtogetherwiththefever,
wascuredbythecomingonofwinter:andthismadnesswasthought
toproceedfromthepassionimprintedbythetragedy.*Likewise
therereignedafitofmadnessinanotherGreciancity,which
seizedonlytheyoungmaidensandcausedmanyofthemtohang
themselves.ThiswasbymostthenthoughtanactoftheDevil.But
onethatsuspected,thatcontemptoflifeinthem,mightproceed
fromsomepassionofthemind,andsupposingthattheydidnot
contemnalsotheirhonour,gavecounseltothemagistrates,tostrip
suchassohangedthemselves,andletthemhangoutnaked.This,
thestory*says,curedthatmadness.Butontheotherside,the
sameGrecians,didoftenascribemadness,totheoperationof
Eumenides,orFuriesandsometimesofCeres,Phoebus,andother
gods:somuchdidmenattributetophantasms,astothinkthem
ariallivingbodiesandgenerallytocallthemspirits.Andasthe
Romansinthis,heldthesameopinionwiththeGreeks:soalsodid
theJewsfortheycalledmadmenprophets,or(accordingasthey
thoughtthespiritsgoodorbad)demoniacsandsomeofthemcalled
bothprophets,anddemoniacs,madmenandsomecalledthesame
manbothdemoniac,andmadman.ButfortheGentiles,'tisno
wonderbecausediseases,andhealthvicesandvirtuesandmany
naturalaccidents,werewiththemtermed,andworshippedas
demons.Sothatamanwastounderstandbydemon,*aswell
(sometimes)anague,asadevil.ButfortheJewstohavesuch[38]
opinion,issomewhatstrange.ForneitherMoses,norAbraham
pretendedtoprophecybypossessionofaspiritbutfromthevoice
ofGodorbyavisionordream:noristhereanythinginhisLaw,
moral,orceremonial,bywhichtheyweretaught,therewasanysuch
enthusiasmoranypossession.WhenGodissaid,(Numb.11.25)to
takefromthespiritthatwasinMoses,andgivetotheseventy
elders,theSpiritofGod(takingitforthesubstanceofGod)isnot

Page52

divided.TheScripturesbytheSpiritofGodinman,meanaman's
spirit,inclinedtogodliness.Andwhereitissaid,*(Exod.28.3)
WhomIhavefilledwiththespiritofwisdomtomakegarmentsfor
Aaron,isnotmeantaspiritputintothem,thatcanmakegarments
butthewisdomoftheirownspiritsinthatkindofwork.Inthelike
sense,thespiritofman,whenitproducethuncleanactions,is
ordinarilycalledanuncleanspiritandsootherspirits,thoughnot
always,yetasoftenasthevirtueorvicesostyled,isextraordinary,
andeminent.NeitherdidtheotherprophetsoftheoldTestament
pretendenthusiasmor,thatGodspakeinthembuttothem,
byvoice,vision,ordreamandtheburthenoftheLord,wasnot
possession,butcommand.HowthencouldtheJewsfallintothis
opinionofpossession?Icanimaginenoreason,butthatwhichis
commontoallmennamely,thewantofcuriositytosearchnatural
causesandtheirplacingfelicity,intheacquisitionofthegross
pleasuresofthesenses,andthethingsthatmostimmediately
conducethereto.Fortheythatseeanystrange,andunusualability,
ordefect,inaman'smindunlesstheyseewithal,fromwhatcause
itmayprobablyproceed,canhardlythinkitnaturalandifnot
natural,theymustneedsthinkitsupernaturalandthenwhatcanit
be,butthateitherGod,ortheDevilisinhim?Andhenceitcame
topass,whenourSaviour(Mark3.21)wascompassedaboutwith
themultitude,thoseofthehousedoubtedhewasmad,andwentout
toholdhim:buttheScribessaidhehadBeelzebub,andthatwasit,
bywhichhecastoutdevilsasifthegreatermadmanhadawedthe
lesser.Andthat(John10.20)somesaid,Hehathadevil,andismad
whereasothersholdinghimforaprophet,said,Thesearenotthe
wordsofonethathathadevil.SointheoldTestamenthethatcame
toanointJehu,(2Kings9.11)wasaprophetbutsomeofthe
companyaskedJehu,whatcarnethatmadmanfor?Sothatinsum,
itismanifest,thatwhosoeverbehavedhimselfinextraordinary
manner,wasthoughtbytheJewstobepossessedeitherwithagood,
orevilspiritexceptbytheSadducees,whoerredsofarontheother
hand,asnottobelievetherewereatallanyspirits,(whichisvery
neartodirectatheism*)andtherebyperhapsthemoreprovoked
others,totermsuchmendemoniacs,ratherthanmadmen.
26.ButwhythendoesourSaviourproceedinthecuringof
them,asiftheywerepossessedandnotasiftheyweremad?To
whichIcangivenootherkindofanswer,butthatwhichisgivento
thosethaturgetheScriptureinlikemanneragainsttheopinionof

themotionoftheearth.TheScripturewaswrittentoshewunto
menthekingdomofGod,andtopreparetheirmindstobecomehis
obedientsubjectsleavingtheworld,andthephilosophythereof,to[39]
thedisputationofmen,fortheexercisingoftheirnaturalreason.*
Whethertheearth's,orsun'smotionmaketheday,andnightor
whethertheexorbitantactionsofmen,proceedfrompassion,or
fromthedevil,(soweworshiphimnot)itisallone,astoour
obedience,andsubjectiontoGodAlmightywhichisthethingfor
whichtheScripturewaswritten.AsforthatourSaviourspeakethto
thedisease,astoapersonitistheusualphraseofallthatcureby
wordsonly,asChristdid,(andenchanterspretendtodo,whether
theyspeaktoadevilornot.)ForisnotChristalsosaid(Matt.8.26)
tohaverebukedthewinds?Isnothesaidalso(Luke4.39)torebuke
afever?Yetthisdoesnotarguethatafeverisadevil.Andwhereas
manyofthedevilsaresaidtoconfessChristitisnotnecessaryto
interpretthoseplacesotherwise,thanthatthosemadmenconfessed
him.AndwhereasourSaviour(Matt.12.43)speakethofanunclean
spirit,thathavinggoneoutofaman,wandereththroughdryplaces,
seekingrest,andfindingnoneandreturningintothesameman,
withsevenotherspiritsworsethanhimselfitismanifestlya
parable,alludingtoaman,thatafteralittleendeavourtoquithis
lusts,isvanquishedbythestrengthofthemandbecomesseven
timesworsethanhewas.SothatIseenothingatallintheScripture,
thatrequirethabelief,thatdemoniacswereanyotherthingbut
madmen.
27.ThereisyetanotherfaultinthediscoursesofsomemenInsignificant
whichmayalsobenumberedamongstthesortsofmadnessnamely,speech.
thatabuseofwords,whereofIhavespokenbeforeinthefifth
chapter,bythenameofabsurdity.Andthatis,whenmenspeak
suchwords,asputtogether,haveinthemnosignificationatallbut
arefallenuponbysome,throughmisunderstandingofthewords
theyhavereceived,andrepeatbyrotebyothers,fromintention
todeceivebyobscurity.Andthisisincidenttononebutthose,
thatconverseinquestionsofmattersincomprehensible,asthe
Schoolmenorinquestionsofabstrusephilosophy.Thecommon
sortofmenseldomspeakinsignificantly,andaretherefore,bythose
otheregregiouspersonscountedidiots.Buttobeassuredtheir
wordsarewithoutanythingcorrespondenttotheminthemind,
therewouldneedsomeexampleswhichifanymanrequire,lethim
takeaSchoolmaninhishands,andseeifhecantranslateanyone

Page54

chapterconcerninganydifficultpoint,astheTrinitytheDeitythe
natureofChristtransubstantiationfreewill,&cintoanyofthe
moderntongues,soastomakethesameintelligibleorintoany
tolerableLatin,suchastheywereacquaintedwithal,thatlivedwhen
theLatintonguewasvulgar.Whatisthemeaningofthesewords.
Thefirstcausedoesnotnecessarilyinflowanythingintothesecond,by
forceoftheessentialsubordinationofthesecondcauses,bywhichitmay
helpittowork?Theyarethetranslationofthetitleofthesixth
chapterofSuarez'firstbook,Oftheconcourse,motion,andhelpof
God.*Whenmenwritewholevolumesofsuchstuff,aretheynot
[40]mad,orintendtomakeothersso?Andparticularly,inthequestion
oftransubstantiationwhereaftercertainwordsspokentheythat
say,thewhiteness,roundness,magnitude,quality,corruptibility,all
whichareincorporeal,&c.gooutofthewafer,intothebodyofour
blessedSaviour,dotheynotmakethosenesses,tudes,andties,tobe
somanyspiritspossessinghisbody?Forbyspirits,theymean
alwaysthings,thatbeingincorporeal,areneverthelessmoveable
fromoneplacetoanother.Sothatthiskindofabsurdity,may
tightlybenumberedamongstthemanysortsofmadnessandallthe
timethatguidedbyclearthoughtsoftheirworldlylust,theyforbear
disputing,orwritingthus,butlucidintervals.Andthusmuchofthe
virtuesanddefectsintellectual.
ChapterIX
OftheSeveralSubjectsofKnowledge*
1.ThereareofKNOWLEDGEtwokindswhereofoneisknowledge
offact:theotherknowledgeoftheconsequenceofoneaffirmationto
another.Theformerisnothingelse,butsenseandmemory,andis
absoluteknowledgeaswhenweseeafactdoing,orrememberitdone:
andthisistheknowledgerequiredinawitness.Thelatteriscalled
scienceandisconditionalaswhenweknow,that,ifthefigureshown
beacircle,thenanystraightlinethroughthecentreshalldivideitinto
twoequalparts.Andthisistheknowledgerequiredinaphilosopher
thatistosay,ofhimthatpretendstoreasoning.
2.Theregisterofknowledgeoffactiscalledhistory.Whereof
therebetwosorts:onecallednaturalhistorywhichisthehistoryof

suchfacts,oreffectsofnature,ashavenodependenceonman'swill
suchasarethehistoriesofmetals,plants,animals,regions,andthe
like.Theother,iscivilhistorywhichisthehistoryofthevoluntary
actionsofmenincommonwealths.
3.Theregistersofscience,aresuchbooksascontainthedemon
strationsofconsequencesofoneaffirmation,toanotherandare
commonlycalledbooksofphilosophywhereofthesortsaremany,
accordingtothediversityofthematterandmaybedividedinsuch
mannerasIhavedividedtheminthefollowingtable.

Page56

Page58

ChapterX
OfPower,Worth,Dignity,Honour,andWorthiness
Power[41]1.Thepowerofaman,(totakeituniversally,)ishispresent
means,toobtainsomefutureapparentgood.Andiseitheroriginal
orinstrumental.
2.Naturalpower,istheeminenceofthefacultiesofbody,or
mind:asextraordinarystrength,form,prudence,arts,eloquence,
liberality,nobility.Instrumentalarethosepowers,whichacquired
bythese,orbyfortune,aremeansandinstrumentstoacquiremore:
asriches,reputation,friends,andthesecretworkingofGod,which
mencallgoodluck.Forthenatureofpower,isinthispoint,liketo
fame,increasingasitproceedsorlikethemotionofheavybodies,
whichthefurthertheygo,makestillthemorehaste.
3.Thegreatestofhumanpowers,isthatwhichiscompounded
ofthepowersofmostmen,unitedbyconsent,inoneperson,
natural,orcivil,thathastheuseofalltheirpowersdependingonhis
willsuchasisthepowerofacommonwealth:ordependingonthe
willsofeachparticularsuchasisthepowerofafactionorofdivers
factionsleagued.Thereforetohaveservants,ispowertohave
friends,ispower:fortheyarestrengthsunited.
4.Alsorichesjoinedwithliberality,ispowerbecauseit
procurethfriends,andservants:withoutliberality,notsobecause
inthiscasetheydefendnotbutexposementoenvy,asaprey.
5.Reputationofpower,ispowerbecauseitdrawethwithitthe
adherenceofthosethatneedprotection.
6.Soisreputationofloveofaman'scountry,(calledpopularity,)
forthesamereason.
7.Also,whatqualitysoevermakethamanbeloved,orfearedof
manyorthereputationofsuchquality,ispowerbecauseitisa
meanstohavetheassistance,andserviceofmany.
8.Goodsuccessispowerbecauseitmakethreputationof
wisdom,orgoodfortunewhichmakesmeneitherfearhim,orrely
onhim.
9.Affabilityofmenalreadyinpower,isincreaseofpower
becauseitgainethlove.
10.Reputationofprudenceintheconductofpeaceorwar,is

powerbecausetoprudentmen,wecommitthegovernmentof
ourselves,morewillinglythantoothers.
11.Nobilityispower,notinallplaces,butonlyinthosecom
monwealths,whereithasprivileges:forinsuchprivilegesconsisteth
theirpower.
12.Eloquenceispowerbecauseitisseemingprudence.
13.Formispowerbecausebeingapromiseofgood,it
recommendethmentothefavourofwomenandstrangers.[42]
14.Thesciences,aresmallpowerbecausenoteminentand
therefore,notacknowledgedinanymannorareatall,butinafew
andinthem,butofafewthings.Forscienceisofthatnature,as
nonecanunderstandittobe,butsuchasinagoodmeasurehave
attainedit.
15.Artsofpublicuse,asfortification,makingofengines,
andotherinstrumentsofwarbecausetheyconfertodefence,and
victory,arepower:andthoughthetruemotherofthem,bescience,
namelythemathematicsyet,becausetheyarebroughtintothe
light,bythehandoftheartificer,theybeesteemed(themidwife
passingwiththevulgarforthemother,)ashisissue.
16.Thevalue,orWORTHofaman,isasofallotherthings,hisWorth.
pricethatistosay,somuchaswouldbegivenfortheuseofhis
power:andthereforeisnotabsolutebutathingdependentonthe
needandjudgmentofanother.Anableconductorofsoldiers,isof
greatpriceintimeofwarpresent,orimminentbutinpeacenotso.
Alearnedanduncorruptjudge,ismuchworthintimeofpeacebut
notsomuchinwar.Andasinotherthings,soinmen,nottheseller,
butthebuyerdeterminestheprice.Forletaman(asmostmendo,)
ratethemselvesatthehighestvaluetheycanyettheirtruevalueis
nomorethanitisesteemedbyothers.
17.Themanifestationofthevaluewesetononeanother,isthat
whichiscommonlycalledhonouring,anddishonouring.Tovaluea
manatahighrate,istohonourhimatalowrate,istodishonourhim.
Buthigh,andlow,inthiscase,istobeunderstoodbycomparisonto
theratethateachmansettethonhimself.
18.Thepublicworthofaman,whichisthevaluesetonhimby
thecommonwealth,isthatwhichmencommonlycallDIGNITY.AndDignity.
thisvalueofhimbythecommonwealth,isunderstood,byofficesof
command,judicature,publicemploymentorbynamesandtitles,
introducedfordistinctionofsuchvalue.
19.Topraytoanother,foraidofanykind,istoHONOURbecause

Page60

Tohonourasignwehaveanopinionhehaspowertohelpandthemore
anddifficulttheaidis,themoreisthehonour.
dishonour.20.Toobey,istohonour,becausenomanobeysthem,whom
theythinkhavenopowertohelp,orhurtthem.Andconsequently
todisobey,istodishonour.
21.Togivegreatgiftstoaman,istohonourhimbecause'tis
buyingofprotection,andacknowledgingofpower.Togivelittle
gifts,istodishonourbecauseitisbutalms,andsignifiesanopinion
oftheneedofsmallhelps.
22.Tobesedulousinpromotinganother'sgoodalsotoflatter,is
tohonourasasignweseekhisprotectionoraid.Toneglect,isto
dishonour.
23.Togiveway,orplacetoanother,inanycommodity,isto
honourbeingaconfessionofgreaterpower.Toarrogate,isto
dishonour.
24.Toshowanysignoflove,orfearofanother,istohonourfor
[43]bothtolove,andtofear,istovalue.Tocontemn[belittle],orlessto
loveorfear,thanheexpects,istodishonourforitisundervaluing.
25.Topraise,magnify,orcallhappy,istohonourbecause
nothingbutgoodness,power,andfelicityisvalued.Torevile,mock,
orpity,istodishonour.
26.Tospeaktoanotherwithconsideration,toappearbefore
himwithdecency,andhumility,istohonourhimassignsoffear
tooffend.Tospeaktohimrashly,todoanythingbeforehim
obscenely,slovenly,impudently,istodishonour.
27.Tobelieve,totrust,torelyonanother,istohonourhimsign
ofopinionofhisvirtueandpower.Todistrust,ornotbelieve,isto
dishonour.
28.Tohearkentoaman'scounsel,ordiscourseofwhatkind
soever,istohonourasasignwethinkhimwise,oreloquent,or
witty.Tosleep,orgoforth,ortalkthewhile,istodishonour.
29.Todothosethingstoanother,whichhetakesforsignsof
honour,orwhichthelaworcustommakesso,istohonourbecause
inapprovingthehonourdonebyothers,heacknowledgeth
thepowerwhichothersacknowledge.Torefusetodothem,isto
dishonour.
30.Toagreewithinopinion,istohonourasbeingasignof
approvinghisjudgment,andwisdom.Todissent,isdishonour,and
anupbraidingoferrorand(ifthedissentbeinmanythings)of
folly.

31.Toimitate,istohonourforitisvehementlytoapprove.To
imitateone'senemy,istodishonour.
32.Tohonourthoseanotherhonours,istohonourhimasa
signofapprobationofhisjudgment.Tohonourhisenemies,isto
dishonourhim.
33.Toemployincounsel,orinactionsofdifficulty,istohonour
asasignofopinionofhiswisdom,orotherpower.Todenyemploy
mentinthesamecases,tothosethatseekit,istodishonour.
34.Allthesewaysofhonouring,arenaturalandaswellwithin,
aswithoutcommonwealths.Butincommonwealths,wherehe,or
theythathavethesupremeauthority,canmakewhatsoeverthey
please,tostandforsignsofhonour,therebeotherhonours.
35.Asovereigndothhonourasubject,withwhatsoevertitle,or
office,oremployment,oraction,thathehimselfwillhavetakenfor
asignofhiswilltohonourhim.
36.ThekingofPersia,honouredMordecai,*whenheappointed
heshouldbeconductedthroughthestreetsintheking'sgarment,
upononeoftheking'shorses,withacrownonhishead,andaprince
beforehim,proclaiming,thusshallitbedonetohimthatthekingwill
honour.AndyetanotherkingofPersia,orthesameanothertime,to
onethatdemandedforsomegreatservice,towearoneoftheking's
robes,gavehimleavesotodobutwiththisaddition,thatheshould
wearitastheking'sfoolandthenitwasdishonour.Sothatofcivil
honour,thefountainisinthepersonofthecommonwealth,and
dependethonthewillofthesovereignandisthereforetemporary,
andcalledcivilhonour,suchasmagistracy,offices,titlesandin[44]
someplacescoatsandscutcheonspainted:andmenhonoursuchas
havethem,ashavingsomanysignsoffavourinthecommonwealth
whichfavourispower.
37.Honourableiswhatsoeverpossession,action,orquality,isanHonourable.
argumentandsignofpower.
38.Andthereforetobehonoured,loved,orfearedofmany,is
honourableasargumentsofpower.Tobehonouredoffewornone,
dishonourable.Dishonourable.
39.Dominion,andvictoryishonourablebecauseacquiredby
powerandservitude,forneed,orfear,isdishonourable.
40.Goodfortune(iflasting,)honourableasasignofthefavour
ofGod.Illfortune,andlosses,dishonourable.Riches,arehonour
ablefortheyarepower.Poverty,dishonourable.Magnanimity,
liberality,hope,courage,confidence,arehonourablefortheypro

Page62

ceedfromtheconscienceofpower.Pusillanimity,parsimony,fear,
diffidence,aredishonourable.
41.Timelyresolution,ordeterminationofwhatamanistodo,is
honourableasbeingthecontemptofsmalldifficulties,anddangers.
Andirresolution,dishonourableasasignoftoomuchvaluingof
littleimpediments,andlittleadvantages:forwhenamanhas
weighedthingsaslongasthetimepermits,andresolvesnot,the
differenceofweightisbutlittleandthereforeifheresolvenot,he
overvalueslittlethings,whichispusillanimity.
42.Allactions,andspeeches,thatproceed,orseemtoproceed,
frommuchexperience,science,discretion,orwit,arehonourable
forallthesearepowers.Actions,orwordsthatproceedfromerror,
ignorance,orfolly,dishonourable.
43.Gravity,asfarforthasitseemstoproceedfromamind
employedonsomethingelse,ishonourablebecauseemploymentis
asignofpower.Butifitseemtoproceedfromapurposetoappear
grave,itisdishonourable.Forthegravityoftheformer,islikethe
steadinessofashipladenwithmerchandisebutofthelatter,like
thesteadinessofashipballastedwithsand,andothertrash.
44.Tobeconspicuous,thatistosay,tobeknown,forwealth,
office,greatactions,oranyeminentgood,ishonourableasasignof
thepowerforwhichheisconspicuous.Onthecontrary,obscurity,
isdishonourable.
45.Tobedescendedfromconspicuousparents,ishonourable
becausetheythemoreeasilyattaintheaids,andfriendsoftheir
ancestors.Onthecontrary,tobedescendedfromobscureparent
age,isdishonourable.*
46.Actionsproceedingfromequity,joinedwithloss,are
honourableassignsofmagnanimity:formagnanimityisasign
ofpower.Onthecontrary,craft,shifting,neglectofequity,is
dishonourable.
47.CovetousnessOfgreatriches,andambitionofgreathonours,
arehonourableassignsofpowertoobtainthem.Covetousness,and
ambition,oflittlegains,orpreferments,isdishonourable.
48.Nordoesitalterthecaseofhonour,whetheranaction(soit
[45]begreatanddifficult,andconsequentlyasignofmuchpower,)be
justorunjust:forhonourconsistethonlyintheopinionofpower.
Thereforetheancientheathendidnotthinktheydishonoured,but
greatlyhonouredtheGods,whentheyintroducedthemintheir
poems,committingrapes,thefts,andothergreat,butunjust,or

uncleanacts:insomuchasnothingissomuchcelebratedinJupiter,
ashisadulteriesnorinMercury,ashisfrauds,andthefts:ofwhose
praises,inahymnofHomer,*thegreatestisthis,thatbeingbornin
themorning,hehadinventedmusicatnoon,andbeforenight,
stolenawaythecattleofApollo,fromhisherdsmen.
49.Alsoamongstmen,tilltherewereconstitutedgreatcommon
wealths,itwasthoughtnodishonourtobeapirate,orahighway
thiefbutratheralawfultrade,notonlyamongsttheGreeks,but
alsoamongstallothernationsasismanifestbythehistories*of
ancienttime.Andatthisday,inthispartoftheworld,privateduels
are,andalwayswillbehonourable,thoughunlawful,tillsuchtime
asthereshallbehonourordainedforthemthatrefuse,andigno
minyforthemthatmakethechallenge.Forduelsalsoaremany
timeseffectsofcourageandthegroundofcourageisalways
strengthorskill,whicharepowerthoughforthemostparttheybe
effectsofrashspeaking,andofthefearofdishonour,inone,orboth
thecombatantswhoengagedbyrashness,aredrivenintotheliststo
avoiddisgrace.
50.Scutcheons,andcoatsofarmshereditary,wheretheyhaveCoatsof
anyeminentprivileges,arehonourableotherwisenot:fortheirarms.
powerconsistetheitherinsuchprivileges,orinriches,orsomesuch
thingasisequallyhonouredinothermen.Thiskindofhonour,
commonlycalledgentry,hathbeenderivedfromtheancient
Germans.Forthereneverwasanysuchthingknown,wherethe
Germancustomswereunknown.Norisitnowanywhereinuse,
wheretheGermanshavenotinhabited.TheancientGreekcom
manders,whentheywenttowar,hadtheirshieldspaintedwith
suchdevicesastheypleasedinsomuchasanunpaintedbucklerwas
asignofpoverty,andofacommonsoldier:buttheytransmittednot
theinheritanceofthem.TheRomanstransmittedthemarksoftheir
families:buttheyweretheimages,notthedevicesoftheirancestors.
AmongstthepeopleofAsia,Africa,andAmerica,thereisnot,nor
wasever,anysuchthing.TheGermansonlyhadthatcustomfrom
whomithasbeenderivedintoEngland,France,Spain,andItaly,
wheningreatnumberstheyeitheraidedtheRomans,ormadetheir
ownconquestsinthesewesternpartsoftheworld.
51.ForGermany,beinganciently,asallothercountries,intheir
beginnings,dividedamongstaninfinitenumberoflittlelords,or
mastersoffamilies,thatcontinuallyhadwarsonewithanother
thosemasters,orlords,principallytotheendtheymight,whenthey

Page64

werecoveredwitharms,beknownbytheirfollowersandpartlyfor
ornament,bothpaintedtheirarmour,ortheirscutcheon,orcoat,
withthepictureofsomebeast,orotherthingandalsoputsome
[46]eminentandvisiblemarkuponthecrestoftheirhelmets.Andthis
ornamentbothofthearms,andcrest,descendedbyinheritanceto
theirchildrentotheeldestpure,andtotherestwithsomenote
ofdiversity,suchastheoldmaster,thatistosayinDutch,the
Herealtthoughtfit.Butwhenmanysuchfamilies,joinedtogether,
madeagreatermonarchy,thisdutyoftheHerealt,todistinguish
scutcheons,wasmadeaprivateofficeapart.Andtheissueof
theselords,isthegreatandancientgentrywhichforthemostpart
bearlivingcreatures,notedforcourage,andrapineorcastles,
battlements,belts,weapons,bars,palisadoes,andothernotesof
warnothingbeingtheninhonour,butvirtuemilitary.Afterwards,
notonlykings,butpopularcommonwealths,gavediversmannersof
scutcheons,tosuchaswentforthtothewar,orreturnedfromit,for
encouragement,orrecompensetotheirservice.Allwhich,byan
observingreader,maybefoundinsuchancienthistories,Greekand
Latin,asmakementionoftheGermannation,andmanners,in
theirtimes.
Titlesof52.Titlesofhonour,suchasareduke,count,marquis,and
honour.baron,arehonourableassignifyingthevaluesetuponthembythe
sovereignpowerofthecommonwealth:whichtitles,wereinold
timetitlesofoffice,andcommand,derivedsomefromtheRomans,
somefromtheGermansandFrench.Dukes,inLatinduces,being
generalsinwar:counts,comites,suchasbearthegeneralcompany
outoffriendship,andwerelefttogovernanddefendplaces
conquered,andpacified:marquises,marchiones,werecountsthat
governedthemarches,orboundsoftheempire.Whichtitlesof
duke,count,andmarquis,cameintotheempire,aboutthetimeof
ConstantinetheGreat,*fromthecustomsoftheGermanmilitia.
Butbaron,seemstohavebeenatitleoftheGauls,andsignifiesa
greatmansuchasweretheking's,orprince'smen,whomthey
employedinwarabouttheirpersonsandseemstobederivedfrom
vir,tober,andbar,thatsignifiedthesameinthelanguageofthe
Gauls,thatvirinLatinandthencetobero,andbaro:sothatsuch
menwerecalledherones,andafterbaronesand(inSpanish)varones.
Buthethatwouldknowmoreparticularlytheoriginaloftitlesof
honour,mayfindit,asIhavedonethis,inMrSelden'smost
excellenttreatise*ofthatsubject.Inprocessoftimetheseofficesof

honour,byoccasionoftrouble,andforreasonsofgoodand
peaceablegovernment,wereturnedintomeretitlesservingfor
themostpart,todistinguishtheprecedence,place,andorder
ofsubjectsinthecommonwealth:andmenweremadedukes,
counts,marquises,andbaronsofplaces,whereintheyhadneither
possession,norcommand:andothertitlesalso,weredevisedtothe
sameend.
53.WORTHINESS,isathingdifferentfromtheworth,orvalueWorthiness.
ofamanandalsofromhismerit,ordesert,andconsistethina
particularpower,orabilityforthat,whereofheissaidtobeworthy:
whichparticularability,isusuallynamedFITNESS,oraptitude.Fitness.
54.Forheisworthiesttobeacommander,tobeajudge,orto
haveanyothercharge,thatisbestfitted,withthequalitiesrequired
tothewelldischargingofitandworthiestofriches,thathasthe[47]
qualitiesmostrequisiteforthewellusingofthem:anyofwhich
qualitiesbeingabsent,onemayneverthelessbeaworthyman,and
valuableforsomethingelse.Again,amanmaybeworthyofriches,
office,andemployment,thatnevertheless,canpleadnorightto
haveitbeforeanotherandthereforecannotbesaidtomeritor
deserveit.Formerit,presupposetharight,andthatthething
deservedisduebypromise:ofwhichIshallsaymorehereafter,
whenIshallspeakofcontracts.
ChapterXI
OftheDifferenceofManners
1.Bymanners,Imeannothere,decencyofbehaviourashowoneWhatishere
shouldsaluteanother,orhowamanshouldwashhismouth,orpickmeantby
histeethbeforecompany,andsuchotherpointsofthesmallmoralsmanners.
butthosequalitiesofmankind,thatconcerntheirlivingtogetherin
peace,andunity.Towhichendwearetoconsider,thatthefelicity
ofthislife,consistethnotinthereposeofamindsatisfied.Forthere
isnosuchfinisultimus,(utmostaim,)norsummumbonum,(greatest
good,)asisspokenofinthebooksoftheoldmoralphilosophers.
Norcanamananymorelive,*whosedesiresareatanend,thanhe,
whosesensesandimaginationsareatastand.Felicityisacontinual
progressofthedesire,fromoneobjecttoanothertheattainingof

Page66

theformer,beingstillbutthewaytothelatter.Thecausewhereof
is,thattheobjectofman'sdesire,isnottoenjoyonceonly,andfor
oneinstantoftimebuttoassureforever,thewayofhisfuture
desire.Andthereforethevoluntaryactions,andinclinationsofall
men,tend,notonlytotheprocuring,butalsototheassuringofa
contentedlifeanddifferonlyintheway:whicharisethpartlyfrom
thediversityofpassions,indiversmenandpartlyfromthediffer
enceoftheknowledge,oropinioneachonehasofthecauses,which
producetheeffectdesired.
Arestless2.Sothatinthefirstplace,Iputforageneralinclinationofall
desireofmankind,aperpetualandrestlessdesireofpowerafterpower,that
power,inallceasethonlyindeath.Andthecauseofthis,isnotalwaysthataman
men.hopesforamoreintensivedelight,thanhehasalreadyattainedto
orthathecannotbecontentwithamoderatepower:butbecausehe
cannotassurethepowerandmeanstolivewell,whichhehath
present,withouttheacquisitionofmore.Andfromhenceitis,that
kings,whosepowerisgreatest,turntheirendeavourstotheassuring
itathomebylaws,orabroadbywars:andwhenthatisdone,there
succeedethanewdesireinsome,offamefromnewconquestin
others,ofeaseandsensualpleasureinothers,ofadmiration,or
beingflatteredforexcellenceinsomeart,orotherabilityofthe
mind.
Loveof3.Competitionofriches,honour,command,orotherpower,
contentioninclinethtocontention,enmity,andwar:becausethewayofone
fromcompetitor,totheattainingofhisdesire,istokill,subdue,supplant,
competition.orrepeltheother.Particularly,competitionofpraise,inclinethtoa
[48]reverenceofantiquity.Formencontendwiththeliving,notwith
thedeadtotheseascribingmorethandue,thattheymayobscure
thegloryoftheother.
Civil4.Desireofease,andsensualdelight,disposethmentoobeya
obediencecommonpower:becausebysuchdesires,amandothabandon
fromloveoftheprotectionthatmightbehopedforfromhisownindustry,
ease.andlabour.Fearofdeath,andwounds,disposethtothesameand
Fromfearofforthesamereason.Onthecontrary,needymen,andhardy,not
death,orcontentedwiththeirpresentconditionasalso,allmenthatare
wounds.ambitiousofmilitarycommand,areinclinedtocontinuethecauses
ofwarandtostiruptroubleandsedition:forthereisnohonour
militarybutbywarnoranysuchhopetomendanillgame,asby
causinganewshuffle.
5.Desireofknowledge,andartsofpeace,inclinethmentoobey

acommonpower:forsuchdesire,containethadesireofleisureandAndfrom
consequentlyprotectionfromsomeotherpowerthantheirown.loveofarts.
6.Desireofpraise,disposethtolaudableactions,suchaspleaseLoveof
themwhosejudgmenttheyvalueforofthosemenwhomweconvirtueflora
temn,wecontemnalsothepraises.Desireoffameafterdeathdoesloveofpraise.
thesame.Andthoughafterdeath,therebenosenseofthepraise
givenusonearth,asbeingjoys,thatareeitherswallowedupin
theunspeakablejoysofHeaven,orextinguishedintheextreme
tormentsofhell:yetisnotsuchfamevainbecausemenhavea
presentdelighttherein,fromtheforesightofit,andofthebenefit
thatmayredoundtherebytotheirposterity:whichthoughtheynow
seenot,yettheyimagineandanythingthatispleasuretothesense,
thesamealsoispleasureintheimagination.*
7.Tohavereceivedfromone,towhomwethinkourselvesequal,Hate,from
greaterbenefitsthanthereishopetorequite,disposethtocounterdifficultyof
feitlovebutreallysecrethatredandputsamanintotheestateofrequiting
adesperatedebtor,thatindecliningthesightofhiscreditor,tacitlygreatbenefits.
wisheshimthere,wherehemightneverseehimmore.Forbenefits
obligeandobligationisthraldomandunrequitableobligation,
perpetualthraldomwhichistoone'sequal,hateful.Buttohave
receivedbenefitsfromone,whomweacknowledgeforsuperior,
inclinestolovebecausetheobligationisnonewdepression:and
cheerfulacceptation,(whichmencallgratitude,)issuchanhonour
donetotheobliger,asistakengenerallyforretribution.Alsoto
receivebenefits,thoughfromanequal,orinferior,aslongasthere
ishopeofrequital,disposethtolove:forintheintentionofthe
receiver,theobligationisofaid,andservicemutualfromwhence
proceedethanemulationofwhoshallexceedinbenefitingthemost
nobleandprofitablecontentionpossiblewhereinthevictorisAndfrom
pleasedwithhisvictory,andtheotherrevengedbyconfessingit.conscienceof
8.Tohavedonemorehurttoaman,thanhecan,oriswillingtodeservingto
expiate,inclineththedoertohatethesufferer.Forhemustexpectbehated.
revenge,orforgivenessbothwhicharehateful.[49]
9.Fearofoppression,disposethamantoanticipate,ortoseekPromptnessto
aidbysociety:forthereisnootherwaybywhichamancansecurehurt,from
hislifeandliberty.fear.
10.Menthatdistrusttheirownsubtlety,areintumult,andAndfrom
sedition,betterdisposedforvictory,thantheythatsupposedistrustof
themselveswise,orcrafty.Fortheselovetoconsult,theothertheirownwit.
(fearingtobecircumvented,)tostrikefirst.Andinsedition,men

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beingalwaysintheprecinctsofbattle,toholdtogether,anduseall
advantagesofforce,isabetterstratagem,thananythatcanproceed
fromsubtletyofwit.
Vain11.Vaingloriousmen,suchaswithoutbeingconscioustothem
undertakingselvesofgreatsufficiency,delightinsupposingthemselvesgallant
fromvainmen,areinclinedonlytoostentationbutnottoattempt:because
glory.whendangerordifficultyappears,theylookfornothingbuttohave
theirinsufficiencydiscovered.
12.Vaingloriousmen,suchasestimatetheirsufficiencybythe
flatteryofothermen,orthefortuneofsomeprecedentaction,
withoutassuredgroundofhopefromthetrueknowledgeof
themselves,areinclinedtorashengagingandintheapproachof
danger,ordifficulty,toretireiftheycan:becausenotseeingtheway
ofsafety,theywillratherhazardtheirhonour,whichmaybesalved
withanexcusethantheirlives,forwhichnosalveissufficient.
Ambition,13.Menthathaveastrongopinionoftheirownwisdomin
fromopinionmatterofgovernment,aredisposedtoambition.Becausewithout
ofsufficiency.publicemploymentincouncilormagistracy,thehonouroftheir
wisdomislost.Andthereforeeloquentspeakersareinclinedto
ambitionforeloquenceseemethwisdom,bothtothemselvesand
others.
Irresolution,14.Pusillanimitydisposethmentoirresolution,andconse
fromtooquentlytolosetheoccasions,andfittestopportunitiesofaction.For
greatvaluingaftermenhavebeenindeliberationtillthetimeofactionapproach,
ofsmallifitbenotthenmanifestwhatisbesttobedone,'tisasign,the
matters.differenceofmotives,theonewayandtheother,arenotgreat:
thereforenottoresolvethen,istolosetheoccasionbyweighingof
trifleswhichispusillanimity.
15.Frugality,(thoughinpoormenavirtue,)makethaman
unapttoachievesuchactions,asrequirethestrengthofmanymen
atonce:foritweakeneththeirendeavour,whichistobenourished
andkeptinvigourbyreward.
Confidencein16.Eloquence,withflattery,disposethmentoconfidein
others,fromthemthathaveitbecausetheformerisseemingwisdom,the
ignoranceoflatterseemingkindness.Addtothemmilitaryreputation,andit
themarksofdisposethmentoadhere,andsubjectthemselvestothosementhat
wisdomandhavethem.Thetwoformer,havinggiventhemcautionagainst
kindness.dangerfromhimthelattergivesthemcautionagainstdangerfrom
others.

17.Wantofscience,thatis,ignoranceofcauses,disposeth,orAndfrom
ratherconstrainethamantorelyontheadvice,andauthorityofignoranceof
others.Forallmenwhomthetruthconcerns,iftheyrelynotonnatural
theirown,mustrelyontheopinionofsomeother,whomtheythinkcauses.
wiserthanthemselves,andseenotwhyheshoulddeceivethem.
18.Ignoranceofthesignificationofwordswhichis,wantof[50]
understanding,disposethmentotakeontrust,notonlythetruthAndfrom
theyknownotbutalsotheerrorsandwhichismore,thenonsensewantof
ofthemtheytrust:forneithererror,nornonsense,canwithoutaunderstanding.
perfectunderstandingofwords,bedetected.
19.Fromthesameitproceedeth,thatmengivedifferentnames,
tooneandthesamething,fromthedifferenceoftheirownpassions:
astheythatapproveaprivateopinion,callitopinionbuttheythat
mislikeit,heresy:andyetheresysignifiesnomorethanprivate
opinionbuthasonlyagreatertinctureofcholer[anger].
20.Fromthesamealsoitproceedeth,thatmencannotdis
tinguish,withoutstudyandgreatunderstanding,betweenone
actionofmanymen,andmanyactionsofonemultitudeasfor
example,betweenoneactionofallthesenatorsofRomeinkilling
Cataline,andthemanyactionsofanumberofsenatorsinkilling
Caesarandthereforearedisposedtotakefortheactionofthe
people,thatwhichisamultitudeofactionsdonebyamultitudeof
men,ledperhapsbythepersuasionofone.
21.Ignoranceofthecauses,andoriginalconstitutionofright,Adherenceto
equity,law,andjustice,disposethamantomakecustomandcustom,from
exampletheruleofhisactionsinsuchmanner,astothinkthatignoranceof
unjustwhichithathbeenthecustomtopunishandthatjust,ofthenatureof
theimpunityandapprobationwhereoftheycanproduceanrightand
example,or(asthelawyerswhichonlyusethisfalsemeasureofwrong.
justicebarbarouslycallit)aprecedentlikelittlechildren,thathave
nootherruleofgoodandevilmanners,butthecorrectionthey
receivefromtheirparents,andmasterssavethatchildrenare
constanttotheirrule,whereas,menarenotsobecausegrown
strong,*andstubborn,theyappealfromcustomtoreason,andfrom
reasontocustom,asitservestheirturnrecedingfromcustomwhen
theirinterestrequiresit,andsettingthemselvesagainstreason,as
oftasreasonisagainstthem:whichisthecause,thatthedoctrineof
rightandwrong,isperpetuallydisputed,bothbythepenandthe
sword:whereasthedoctrineoflines,andfigures,isnotsobecause

Page70

mencarenot,inthatsubjectwhatbetruth,asathingthatcrossesno
man'sambition,profitorlust.ForIdoubtnot,butifithadbeena
thingcontrarytoanyman'sfightofdominion,ortotheinterestof
menthathavedominion,thatthethreeanglesofatriangle,shouldbe
equaltotwoanglesofasquarethatdoctrineshouldhavebeen,ifnot
disputed,yetbytheburningofallbooksofgeometry,suppressed,as
farashewhomitconcernedwasable.
Adherenceto22.Ignoranceofremotecauses,disposethmentoattributeall
privatemen,events,tothecausesimmediate,andinstrumental:fortheseare
fromallthecausestheyperceive.Andhenceitcomestopass,thatinall
ignoranceofplaces,menthataregrievedwithpaymentstothepublic,discharge
thecausesoftheirangeruponthepublicans,thatistosay,farmers,*collectors,
peace.andotherofficersofthepublicrevenueandadheretosuchasfind
faultwiththepublicgovernmentandthereby,whentheyhave
engagedthemselvesbeyondhopeofjustification,fallalsouponthe
[51]supremeauthority,forfearofpunishment,orshameofreceiving
pardon.
Creduhty,23.*Ignoranceofnaturalcausesdisposethamantocredulity,so
fromastobelievemanytimesimpossibilities:forsuchknownothingto
ignoranceofthecontrary,butthattheymaybetruebeingunabletodetectthe
nature.impossibility.Andcredulity,becausemenliketobehearkenedunto
incompany,disposeththemtolying:sothatignoranceitselfwith
outmalice,isabletomakeamanbothtobelievelies,andtellthem
andsometimesalsotoinventthem.
Curiosityto24.Anxietyforthefuturetime,disposethmentoinquireintothe
know,fromcausesofthings:becausetheknowledgeofthem,makethmenthe
careoffuturebetterabletoorderthepresenttotheirbestadvantage.
time.25.Curiosity,orloveoftheknowledgeofcauses,drawsaman
Naturalfromtheconsiderationoftheeffect,toseekthecauseandagain,the
religionfromcauseofthatcausetillofnecessityhemustcometothisthoughtat
thesame.last,thatthereissomecause,whereofthereisnoformercause,but
iseternalwhichisitmencallGod.Sothatitisimpossibletomake
anyprofoundinquiryintonaturalcauses,withoutbeinginclined
therebytobelievethereisoneGodeternalthoughtheycannothave
anyideaofhimintheirmind,answerabletohisnature.Forasaman
thatisbornblind,hearingmentalkofwarmingthemselvesbythe
fire,andbeingbroughttowarmhimselfbythesame,mayeasily
conceive,andassurehimself,thereissomewhatthere,whichmen
callfire,andisthecauseoftheheathefeelsbutcannotimagine
whatitislikenorhaveanideaofitinhismind,suchastheyhave

thatseeitsoalso,bythevisiblethingsinthisworld,andtheir
admirableorder,amanmayconceivethereisacauseofthem,which
mencallGodandyetnothaveanidea,*orimageofhiminhis
mind.
26.Andtheythatmakelittle,ornoinquiryintothenatural
causesofthings,yetfromthefearthatproceedsfromtheignorance
itself,ofwhatitisthathaththepowertodothemmuchgoodor
harm,areinclinedtosuppose,andfeignuntothemselves,several
kindsofpowersinvisibleandtostandinaweoftheirownimagin
ationsandintimeofdistresstoinvokethemasalsointhetimeof
expectedgoodsuccess,togivethemthanksmakingthecreaturesof
theirownfancy,theirgods.Bywhichmeansithathcometopass,
thatfromtheinnumerablevarietyoffancy,menhavecreatedinthe
worldinnumerablesortsofgods.Andthisfearofthingsinvisible,is
thenaturalseedofthat,whicheveryoneinhimselfcallethreligion
andinthemthatworship,orfearthatpowerotherwisethantheydo,
superstition.
27.Andthisseedofreligion,havingbeenobservedbymany
someofthosethathaveobservedit,havebeeninclinedtherebyto
nourish,dress,andformitintolawsandtoaddtoitoftheirown
invention,anyopinionofthecausesoffutureevents,bywhichthey
thoughttheyshouldbebestabletogovernothers,andmakeunto
themselvesthegreatestuseoftheirpowers.
ChapterXII[52]
OfReligion
1.Seeingtherearenosigns,norfruitofreligion,butinmanonlyReligion,in
thereisnocausetodoubt,butthattheseedofreligion,isalsoonlymanonly.
inmanandconsistethinsomepeculiarquality,oratleastin
someeminentdegreethereof,nottobefoundinanyotherliving
creatures.
2.Andfirst,itispeculiartothenatureofman,tobeinquisitiveFirst,from
intothecausesoftheeventstheysee,somemore,somelessbutallhisdesireof
mensomuch,astobecuriousinthesearchofthecausesoftheirknowing
owngoodandevilfortune.causes.

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Fromthecon3.Secondly,uponthesightofanythingthathathabeginning,to
siderationofthinkalsoithadacause,whichdeterminedthesametobegin,then
thebeginningwhenitdid,ratherthansoonerorlater.
ofthings.4.Thirdly,whereasthereisnootherfelicityofbeasts,butthe
Fromhisenjoyingoftheirquotidian[daily]food,ease,andlustsashaving
observationoflittle,ornoforesightofthetimetocome,forwantofobservation,
thesequelofandmemoryoftheorder,consequence,anddependenceofthe
things.thingstheyseemanobservethhowoneeventhathbeenproduced
byanotherandrememberethinthemantecedenceandconse
quenceandwhenhecannotassurehimselfofthetruecausesof
things,(forthecausesofgoodandevilfortuneforthemostpartare
invisible,)hesupposescausesofthem,eithersuchashisownfancy
suggestethortrustethtotheauthorityofothermen,suchashe
thinkstobehisfriends,andwiserthanhimself.
Thenatural5.Thetwofirst,makeanxiety.Forbeingassuredthattherebe
causeofcausesofallthingsthathavearrivedhitherto,orshallarrive
religion,thehereafteritisimpossibleforaman,whocontinuallyendeavoureth
anxietyofthetosecurehimselfagainsttheevilhefears,andprocurethegoodhe
timetocome.desireth,nottobeinaperpetualsolicitudeofthetimetocomeso
thateveryman,especiallythosethatareoverprovident,areina
stateliketothatofPrometheus.ForasPrometheus,(whichinter
preted,is,theprudentman,)wasboundtothehillCaucasus,aplace
oflargeprospect,where,aneaglefeedingonhisliver,devouredin
theday,asmuchaswasrepairedinthenight:sothatman,which
lookstoofarbeforehim,inthecareoffuturetime,hathhisheartall
thedaylong,gnawedonbyfearofdeath,poverty,orothercalamity
andhasnorepose,norpauseofhisanxiety,butinsleep.
Whichmakes6.Thisperpetualfear,alwaysaccompanyingmankindinthe
themfeartheignoranceofcauses,asitwereinthedark,mustneedshavefor
powerofobjectsomething.Andthereforewhenthereisnothingtobeseen,
invisiblethereisnothingtoaccuse,eitheroftheirgood,orevilfortune,but
things.somepower,oragentinvisible:inwhichsenseperhapsitwas,that
someoftheoldpoetssaid,*thatthegodswereatfirstcreatedby
humanfear:whichspokenofthegods,(thatistosay,ofthemany
[53]godsoftheGentiles)isverytrue.Buttheacknowledgingofone
God,eternal,infinite,andomnipotent,maymoreeasilybederived,
fromthedesiremenhavetoknowthecausesofnaturalbodies,and
theirseveralvirtues,andoperationsthanfromthefearofwhatwas
tobefallthemintimetocome.Forhethatfromanyeffectheseeth
cometopass,shouldreasontothenextandimmediatecause

thereof,andfromthencetothecauseofthatcause,andplunge
himselfprofoundlyinthepursuitofcausesshallatlastcometothis,
thattheremustbe(aseventheheathenphilosophersconfessed)one
firstmoverthatis,afirst,andaneternalcauseofallthingswhich
isthatwhichmenmeanbythenameofGod:andallthiswithout
thoughtoftheirfortunethesolicitudewhereof,bothinclinesto
fear,andhindersthemfromthesearchofthecausesofotherthings
andtherebygivesoccasionoffeigningofasmanygods,astherebe
menthatfeignthem.
7.Andforthematter,orsubstanceoftheinvisibleagents,soAndsuppose
fanciedtheycouldnotbynaturalcogitation,falluponanyotherthem
conceit,butthatitwasthesamewiththatofthesoulofmanandincorporeal.
thatthesoulofman,wasofthesamesubstance,withthatwhich
appearethinadream,toonethatsleepethorinalookingglass,to
onethatisawakewhich,mennotknowingthatsuchapparitionsare
nothingelsebutcreaturesofthefancy,thinktobereal,andexternal
substancesandthereforecallthemghostsastheLatinscalledthem
imagines,andurnbraeandthoughtthemspirits,thatis,thinaerial
bodiesandthoseinvisibleagents,whichtheyfeared,tobelike
themsavethattheyappear,andvanishwhentheyplease.Butthe
opinionthatsuchspiritswereincorporeal,orimmaterial,could
neverenterintothemindofanymanbynaturebecause,though
menmayputtogetherwordsofcontradictorysignification,asspirit,
andincorporealyettheycanneverhavetheimaginationofany
thingansweringtothem:andtherefore,menthatbytheir
ownmeditation,arrivetotheacknowledgmentofoneinfinite,
omnipotent,andeternalGod,choserathertoconfessheisincom
prehensible,andabovetheirunderstanding,thantodefinehis
naturebyspiritincorporeal,andthenconfesstheirdefinitiontobe
unintelligible:oriftheygivehimsuchatitle,itisnotdogmatically,
withintentiontomakethedivinenatureunderstoodbutpiously,to
honourhimwithattributes,ofsignifications,asremoteastheycan
fromthegrossnessofbodiesvisible.
8.Then,forthewaybywhichtheythinktheseinvisibleagentsButknownot
wroughttheireffectsthatistosay,whatimmediatecausestheythewayhow
used,inbringingthingstopass,menthatknownotwhatitisthatwetheyeject
callcausing,(thatis,almostallmen)havenootherruletoguessby,anything.
butbyobserving,andrememberingwhattheyhaveseentoprecede
thelikeeffectatsomeothertime,ortimesbefore,withoutseeing
betweentheantecedentandsubsequentevent,anydependenceor

Page74

connexionatall:andthereforefromthelikethingspast,they
expectthelikethingstocomeandhopeforgoodorevilluck,
superstitiously,fromthingsthathavenopartatallinthecausingof
it:astheAtheniansdidfortheirwaratLepanto,demandanother
PhormiothePompeianfactionfortheirwarinAfrica,another
[54]Scipio*andothershavedoneindiversotheroccasionssince.Inlike
mannertheyattributetheirfortunetoastanderby,toaluckyor
unluckyplace,towordsspoken,especiallyifthenameofGodbe
amongstthemascharmingandconjuring(theliturgyofwitches)
insomuchastobelieve,theyhavepowertoturnastoneintobread,
breadintoaman,oranything,intoanything.
Buthonour9.Thirdly,fortheworshipwhichnaturallymenexhibitto
themastheypowersinvisible,itcanbenoother,butsuchexpressionsoftheir
honourmen.reverence,astheywouldusetowardsmengifts,petitions,thanks,
submissionofbody,considerateaddresses,soberbehaviour,
premeditatedwords,swearing(thatis,assuringoneanotherof
theirpromises,)byinvokingthem.Beyondthatreason
suggestethnothingbutleavesthemeithertorestthereorfor
furtherceremonies,torelyonthosetheybelievetobewiser
thanthemselves.
Andattribute10.Lastly,concerninghowtheseinvisiblepowersdeclaretomen
tothemallthethingswhichshallhereaftercometopass,especiallyconcerning
extraordinarytheirgoodorevilfortuneingeneral,orgoodorillsuccessinany
events.particularundertaking,menarenaturallyatastandsavethatusing
toconjectureofthetimetocome,bythetimepast,theyareveryapt,
notonlytotakecasualthings,afteroneortwoencounters,for
prognosticsofthelikeencountereverafter,butalsotobelievethe
likeprognosticsfromothermen,ofwhomtheyhaveonceconceived
agoodopinion.
Fourthings,11.Andinthesefourthings,opinionofghosts,ignoranceof
naturalseedssecondcauses,devotiontowardswhatmenfear,andtakingofthings
ofreligion.casualforprognostics,consisteththenaturalseedofreligionwhich
byreasonofthedifferentfancies,judgments,andpassionsofseveral
men,hathgrownupintoceremoniessodifferent,thatthosewhich
areusedbyoneman,areforthemostpartridiculoustoanother.
Made12.Fortheseseedshavereceivedculturefromtwosortsofmen.
differentbyOnesorthavebeenthey,thathavenourished,andorderedthem,
culture.accordingtotheirowninvention.Theotherhavedoneit,byGod's
commandment,anddirection:butbothsortshavedoneit,witha
purposetomakethosementhatreliedonthem,themoreaptto

obedience,laws,peace,charity,andcivilsociety.Sothatthereligion
oftheformersort,isapartofhumanpoliticsandteachethpartof
thedutywhichearthlykingsrequireoftheirsubjects.Andthe
religionofthelattersortisdivinepoliticsandcontainethprecepts
tothosethathaveyieldedthemselvessubjectsinthekingdomof
God.Oftheformersort,wereallthefoundersofcommonwealths,
andthelawgiversoftheGentiles:ofthelattersort,wereAbraham,
Moses,andourblessedSaviourbywhomhavebeenderivedunto
usthelawsofthekingdomofGod.
13.Andforthatpartofreligion,whichconsistethinopinionsTheabsurd
concerningthenatureofpowersinvisible,thereisalmostnothingopinionof
thathasaname,thathasnotbeenesteemedamongsttheGentiles,Gentilism.
inoneplaceoranother,agod,ordevilorbytheirpoetsfeignedto[55]
beinanimated,inhabited,orpossessedbysomespiritorother.
14.Theunformedmatteroftheworld,wasagod,bythenameof
Chaos.
15.Theheaven,theocean,theplanets,thefire,theearth,the
winds,weresomanygods.
16.Men,women,abird,acrocodile,acalf,adog,asnake,an
onion,aleek,weredeified.Besides,thattheyfilledalmostallplaces,
withspiritscalleddemons:theplains,withPan,andPanises,or
Satyrsthewoods,withFawns,andNymphsthesea,withTritons,
andotherNymphseveryriver,andfountain,withaghostofhis
name,andwithNymphseveryhousewithitsLares,orfamiliars
everyman,withhisGeniushell,withghosts,andspiritualofficers,
asCharon,Cerberus,andtheFuriesandinthenighttime,all
placeswithlarvae,lemures,ghostsofmendeceased,andawhole
kingdomoffairies,andbugbears.Theyhavealsoascribeddivinity,
andbuilttemplestomereaccidents,*andqualitiessuchasaretime,
night,day,peace,concord,love,contention,virtue,honour,health,
rust,fever,andthelikewhichwhentheyprayedfor,oragainst,
theyprayedto,asiftherewereghostsofthosenameshangingover
theirheads,andlettingfall,orwithholdingthatgood,orevil,for,or
againstwhichtheyprayed.Theyinvokedalsotheirownwit,bythe
nameofMusestheirownignorance,bythenameofFortunetheir
ownlustsbythenameofCupidtheirownrage,bythenameof
Furiestheirownprivymembers,bythenameofPriapusand
attributedtheirpollutions,toIncubi,andSuccubae:insomuchas
therewasnothing,whichapoetcouldintroduceasapersoninhis
poem,whichtheydidnotmakeeitheragod,oradevil.

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17.ThesameauthorsofthereligionoftheGentiles,observing
thesecondgroundforreligion,whichismen'signoranceofcauses
andtherebytheiraptnesstoattributetheirfortunetocauses,on
whichtherewasnodependenceatallapparent,tookoccasionto
obtrudeontheirignorance,insteadofsecondcauses,akindof
secondandministerialgodsascribingthecauseoffecundity,
toVenusthecauseofarts,toApolloofsubtletyandcraft,to
Mercuryoftempestsandstorms,toAeolusandofothereffects,
toothergodsinsomuchastherewasamongsttheheathenalmostas
greatvarietyofgods,asofbusiness.
18.Andtotheworship,whichnaturallymenconceivedfittobe
usedtowardstheirgods,namely,oblations,prayers,thanks,andthe
restformerlynamedthesamelegislatorsoftheGentileshaveadded
theirimages,bothinpicture,andsculpturethatthemoreignorant
sort,(thatistosay,themostpartorgeneralityofthepeople,)
thinkingthegodsforwhoserepresentationtheyweremade,were
reallyincluded,andasitwerehousedwithinthem,mightsomuch
themorestandinfearofthem:andendowedthemwithlands,and
houses,andofficers,andrevenues,setapartfromallotherhuman
usesthatis,consecrated,*andmadeholytothosetheiridolsas
caverns,groves,woods,mountains,andwholeislandsandhave
[56]attributedtothem,notonlytheshapes,someofmen,someof
beasts,someofmonstersbutalsothefaculties,andpassionsofmen
andbeastsassense,speech,sex,lust,generation,(andthisnotonly
bymixingonewithanother,topropagatethekindofgodsbutalso
bymixingwithmen,andwomen,tobegetmongrelgods,andbut
inmatesofheaven,asBacchus,Hercules,andothers)besidesanger,
revenge,andotherpassionsoflivingcreatures,andtheactions
proceedingfromthem,asfraud,theft,adultery,sodomy,andany
vicethatmaybetakenforaneffectofpower,oracauseofpleasure
andallsuchvices,asamongstmenaretakentobeagainstlaw,rather
thanagainsthonour.
19.Lastly,totheprognosticsoftimetocomewhicharenat
urally,butconjecturesuponexperienceoftimepastandsupernat
urally,divinerevelationthesameauthorsofthereligionofthe
Gentiles,partlyuponpretendedexperience,partlyuponpretended
revelation,haveaddedinnumerableothersuperstitiouswaysof
divinationandmademenbelievetheyshouldfindtheirfortunes,
sometimesintheambiguousorsenselessanswersofthepriestsat
Delphi,Delos,Ammon,andotherfamousoracleswhichanswers,

weremadeambiguousbydesign,toowntheeventbothwaysor
absurd,bytheintoxicatingvapouroftheplace,whichisveryfre
quentinsulphurouscaverns:sometimesintheleavesoftheSybils
ofwhoseprophecies(likethoseperhapsofNostradamus*forthe
fragmentsnowextantseemtobetheinventionoflatertimes),there
weresomebooksinreputationinthetimeoftheRomanrepublic:
sometimesintheinsignificantspeechesofmadmen,supposedto
bepossessedwithadivinespirit,whichpossessiontheycalled
enthusiasmandthesekindsofforetellingevents,wereaccounted
theomancy,orprophecy:sometimesintheaspectofthestarsat
theirnativitywhichwascalledhoroscopy,andesteemedapartof
judiciaryastrology:sometimesintheirownhopesandfears,
calledthumomancy,orpresage:sometimesinthepredictionof
witches,thatpretendedconferencewiththedeadwhichiscalled
necromancy,conjuring,andwitchcraftandisbutjugglingand
confederateknavery:sometimesinthecasualflight,orfeedingof
birdscalledaugury:sometimesintheentrailsofasacrificedbeast
whichwasaruspicina:sometimesindreams:sometimesincroaking
ofravens,orchatteringofbirds:sometimesinthelineamentsofthe
facewhichwascalledmetoposcopyorbypalmistryinthelinesof
thehandincasualwords,calledomina:sometimesinmonsters,or
unusualaccidentsaseclipses,comets,raremeteors,earthquakes,
inundations,uncouthbirths,andthelike,whichtheycalled
portenta,andostenta,becausetheythoughtthemtoportend,or
foreshowsomegreatcalamitytocomesometimes,inmerelottery,
ascrossandpilecountingholesinasievedippingofversesin
Homer,andVirgilandinnumerableothersuchvainconceits.So
easyarementobedrawntobelieveanything,fromsuchmenas
havegottencreditwiththemandcanwithgentleness,anddex
terity,takeholdoftheirfear,andignorance.
20.Andthereforethefirstfounders,andlegislatorsofcommon[57]
wealthsamongtheGentiles,whoseendswereonlytokeeptheThedesigns
peopleinobedience,andpeace,haveinallplacestakencarefirst,tooftheauthors
imprintintheirmindsabelief,thatthosepreceptswhichtheygaveofthereligion
concerningreligion,mightnotbethoughttoproceedfromtheirofthe
owndevice,butfromthedictatesofsomegod,orotherspiritorelseheathen.
thattheythemselveswereofahighernaturethanmeremortals,that
theirlawsmightthemoreeasilybereceived:soNumaPompilius*
pretendedtoreceivetheceremoniesheinstitutedamongstthe
Romans,fromthenymphEgeria:andthefirstkingandfounderof

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thekingdomofPeru,pretendedhimselfandhiswifetobethe
childrenoftheSunandMahomet,tosetuphisnewreligion,
pretendedtohaveconferenceswiththeHolyGhost,informofa
dove.*Secondly,theyhavehadacare,tomakeitbelieved,that
thesamethingsweredispleasingtothegods,whichwereforbidden
bythelaws.*Thirdly,toprescribeceremonies,supplications,
sacrifices,andfestivals,bywhichtheyweretobelieve,theanger
ofthegodsmightbeappeasedandthatillsuccessinwar,great
contagionsofsickness,earthquakes,andeachman'sprivatemisery,
camefromtheangerofthegods*andtheirangerfromtheneglect
oftheirworship,ortheforgetting,ormistakingsomepointofthe
ceremoniesrequired.AndthoughamongsttheancientRomans,
menwerenotforbiddentodeny,thatwhichinthepoetsiswritten
ofthepains,andpleasuresafterthislifewhichdiversofgreat
authority,andgravityinthatstatehaveintheirharanguesopenly
deridedyetthatbeliefwasalwaysmorecherished,thanthe
contrary.
21.Andbythese,andsuchotherinstitutions,theyobtainedin
ordertotheirend,(whichwasthepeaceofthecommonwealth,)that
thecommonpeopleintheirmisfortunes,layingthefaultonneglect,
orerrorintheirceremonies,orontheirowndisobediencetothe
laws,werethelessapttomutinyagainsttheirgovernors.Andbeing
entertainedwiththepomp,andpastimeoffestivals,andpublic
games,madeinhonourofthegods,needednothingelsebutbread,
tokeepthemfromdiscontent,murmuring,andcommotion
againstthestate.AndthereforetheRomans,thathadconqueredthe
greatestpartofthethenknownworld,madenoscrupleoftolerating
anyreligionwhatsoeverinthecityofRomeitselfunlessithad
somethinginit,thatcouldnotconsistwiththeircivilgovernment
nordoweread,thatanyreligionwasthereforbidden,butthatofthe
Jews*who(beingthepeculiarkingdomofGod)thoughtitunlaw
fultoacknowledgesubjectiontoanymortalkingorstatewhatso
ever.AndthusyouseehowthereligionoftheGentileswasapartof
theirpolicy.
Thetrue22.ButwhereGodhimself,bysupernaturalrevelation,planted
religion,andreligiontherehealsomadetohimselfapeculiarkingdomandgave
thelawsof
laws,notonlyofbehaviourtowardshimselfbutalsotowardsone
God's
anotherandtherebyinthekingdomofGod,thepolicy,andlaws
kingdomthecivil,areapartofreligionandthereforethedistinctionoftemporal,
same.andspiritualdomination,haththerenoplace.Itistrue,thatGodis

kingofalltheearth:yetmayhebekingofapeculiar,andchosen[58]
nation.Forthereisnomoreincongruitytherein,thanthathethat
haththegeneralcommandofthewholearmy,shouldhavewithala
peculiarregiment,orcompanyofhisown.Godiskingofallthe
earthbyhispower:butofhischosenpeople,heiskingbycovenant.
ButtospeakmorelargelyofthekingdomofGod,bothbynature,
andcovenant,Ihaveinthefollowingdiscourseassignedanother
place(chapter35).
23.Fromthepropagationofreligion,itisnothardtounderstandThecausesof
thecausesoftheresolutionofthesameintoitsfirstseeds,orchangein
principleswhichareonlyanopinionofadeity,andofpowersreligion.
invisible,andsupernaturalthatcanneverbesoabolishedoutof
humannature,butthatnewreligionsmayagainbemadetospring
outofthem,bythecultureofsuchmen,asforsuchpurposearein
reputation.
24.Forseeingallformedreligion,isfoundedatfirst,uponthe
faithwhichamultitudehathinsomeoneperson,whomtheybelieve
notonlytobeawiseman,andtolabourtoprocuretheirhappiness,
butalsotobeaholyman,towhomGodhimselfvouchsafethto
declarehiswillsupernaturallyitfollowethnecessarily,whenthey
thathavethegovernmentofreligion,shallcometohaveeitherthe
wisdomofthosemen,theirsincerity,ortheirlovesuspectedor
whentheyshallbeunabletoshowanyprobabletokenofdivine
revelationthatthereligionwhichtheydesiretouphold,mustbe
suspectedlikewiseand(withoutthefearofthecivilsword)contra
dictedandrejected.
25.Thatwhichtakethawaythereputationofwisdom,inhimEnjoining
thatformethareligion,oraddethtoitwhenitisalreadyformed,beliefof
istheenjoiningofabeliefofcontradictories:forbothpartsofaimpossibilities.
contradictioncannotpossiblybetrue:andthereforetoenjointhe
beliefofthem,isanargumentofignorancewhichdetectsthe
authorinthatanddiscreditshiminallthingselseheshallpropound
asfromrevelationsupernatural:whichrevelationamanmayindeed
haveofmanythingsabove,butofnothingagainstnaturalreason.
26.Thatwhichtakethawaythereputationofsincerity,istheDoing
doingorsayingofsuchthings,asappeartobesigns,thatwhattheycontraryto
requireothermentobelieve,isnotbelievedbythemselvesallthereligion
whichdoings,orsayingsarethereforecalledscandalous,becausetheyestablish.
theybestumblingblocks,thatmakementofallinthewayof
religion:asinjustice,cruelty,profaneness,avarice,andluxury.For

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whocanbelieve,thathethatdothordinarilysuchactions,as
proceedfromanyoftheseroots,believeththereisanysuchinvisible
powertobefeared,asheaffrightethothermenwithal,forlesser
faults?
27.Thatwhichtakethawaythereputationoflove,isthebeing
detectedofprivateends:aswhenthebelieftheyrequireofothers,
conducethorseemethtoconducetotheacquiringofdominion,
[59]riches,dignity,orsecurepleasure,tothemselvesonly,orspecially.
Forthatwhichmenreapbenefitbytothemselves,theyarethought
todofortheirownsakes,andnotforloveofothers.
Wantofthe28.Lastly,thetestimonythatmencanrenderofdivinecalling,
testimonyofcanbenoother,thantheoperationofmiraclesortrueprophecy
miracles.(whichalsoisamiracle)orextraordinaryfelicity.Andtherefore,to
thosepointsofreligion,whichhavebeenreceivedfromthemthat
didsuchmiraclesthosethatareaddedbysuch,asapprovenottheir
callingbysomemiracle,obtainnogreaterbelief,thanwhatthe
custom,andlawsoftheplaces,inwhichtheybeeducated,have
wroughtintothem.Forasinnaturalthings,menofjudgment
requirenaturalsigns,andargumentssoinsupernaturalthings,they
requiresignssupernatural,(whicharemiracles,)beforetheycon
sentinwardly,andfromtheirhearts.
29.Allwhichmusesoftheweakeningofmen'sfaith,do
manifestlyappearintheexamplesfollowing.First,wehavethe
exampleofthechildrenofIsraelwhowhenMoses,thathadap
provedhiscallingtothembymiracles,andbythehappyconductof
themoutofEgypt,wasabsentbutfortydays,revoltedfromthe
worshipofthetrueGod,recommendedtothembyhimandsetting
up(Exod.32.1,2)agoldencalffortheirgod,relapsedintothe
idolatryoftheEgyptiansfromwhomtheyhadbeensolately
delivered.Andagain,afterMoses,Aaron,Joshua,andthat
generationwhichhadseenthegreatworksofGodinIsrael,(Judges
2.11)weredeadanothergenerationarose,andservedBaal.Sothat
miraclesfailing,faithalsofailed.
30.Again,whenthesonsofSamuel,(1Sam.8.3)beingconsti
tutedbytheirfatherjudgesinBersabee,receivedbribes,andjudged
unjustly,thepeopleofIsraelrefusedanymoretohaveGodtobe
theirking,inothermannerthanhewaskingofotherpeopleand
thereforecriedouttoSamuel,tochoosethemakingafterthe
mannerofthenations.Sothatjusticefailing,faithalsofailedinso
much,astheydeposedtheirGod,fromreigningoverthem.

31.AndwhereasintheplantingofChristianreligion,theoracles
ceasedinallpartsoftheRomanempire,andthenumberof
Christiansincreasedwonderfullyeveryday,andineveryplace,by
thepreachingoftheApostles,andEvangelistsagreatpartofthat
success,mayreasonablybeattributed,tothecontempt,intowhich
thepriestsoftheGentilesofthattime,hadbroughtthemselves,by
theiruncleanness,avarice,andjugglingbetweenprinces.Alsothe
religionofthechurchofRome,waspartly,forthesamecause
abolishedinEngland,andmanyotherpartsofChristendominso
much,asthefailingofvirtueinthepastors,makethfaithfailinthe
people:andpartlyfrombringingofthephilosophy,anddoctrineof
Aristotleintoreligion,bytheSchoolmenfromwhencetherearose
somanycontradictions,andabsurdities,asbroughttheclergyinto
areputationbothofignorance,andoffraudulentintentionand
inclinedpeopletorevoltfromthem,eitheragainstthewilloftheir
ownprinces,asinFrance,andHollandorwiththeirwill,asin
England.
32.Lastly,amongstthepointsbythechurchofRomedeclared[60]
necessaryforsalvation,therebesomany,manifestlytotheadvan
tageofthePope,andofhisspiritualsubjects,residingintheterri
toriesofotherChristianprinces,thatwereitnotforthemutual
emulationofthoseprinces,theymightwithoutwar,ortrouble,
excludeallforeignauthority,aseasilyasithasbeenexcludedin
England.Forwhoistherethatdoesnotsee,towhosebenefitit
conduceth,tohaveitbelieved,thatakinghathnothisauthority
fromChrist,unlessabishopcrownhim?Thataking,ifhebea
priest,cannotmarry?Thatwhetheraprincebeborninlawful
marriage,ornot,mustbejudgedbyauthorityfromRome?That
subjectsmaybefreedfromtheirallegiance,ifbythecourtofRome,
thekingbejudgedanheretic?Thataking(asChildericofFrance)
maybedeposedbyapope(asPopeZachary,)fornocauseandhis
kingdomgiventooneofhissubjects?Thattheclergy,andregulars,
inwhatcountrysoever,shallbeexemptfromthejurisdiction
oftheirking,incasescriminal?Orwhodoesnotsee,towhoseprofit
redoundthefeesofprivatemasses,andvalesofpurgatory
withothersignsofprivateinterest,enoughtomortifythemost
livelyfaith,if(asIsaid)thecivilmagistrate,andcustomdidnot
moresustainit,thananyopiniontheyhaveofthesanctity,wisdom,
orprobityoftheirteachers?SothatImayattributeallthe
changesofreligionintheworld,tooneandthesamecause

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andthatis,unpleasingpriestsandthosenotonlyamongst
Catholics,buteveninthatchurchthathathpresumedmostof
reformation.*
ChapterXIII
OftheNaturalConditionofMankindAsConcerningTheirFelicity,andMisery
Menby1.Naturehathmademensoequal,inthefacultiesofthebody,
natureequalandmindasthatthoughtherebefoundonemansometimesmani
festlystrongerinbody,orofquickermindthananotheryetwhen
allisreckonedtogether,thedifferencebetweenman,andman,is
notsoconsiderable,asthatonemancanthereuponclaimtohimself
anybenefit,towhichanothermaynotpretend,aswellashe.Foras
tothestrengthofbody,theweakesthasstrengthenoughtokillthe
strongest,eitherbysecretmachination,orbyconfederacywith
others,thatareinthesamedangerwithhimself.
2.Andastothefacultiesofthemind,(settingasidethearts
groundeduponwords,andespeciallythatskillofproceedingupon
general,andinfalliblerules,calledsciencewhichveryfewhave,and
butinfewthingsasbeingnotanativefaculty,bornwithusnor
attained(asprudence,)whilewelookaftersomewhatelse,)Ifindyet
agreaterequalityamongstmen,thanthatofstrength.Forpru
dence,isbutexperiencewhichequaltime,equallybestowsonall
[61]men,inthosethingstheyequallyapplythemselvesunto.That
whichmayperhapsmakesuchequalityincredible,isbutavain
conceitofone'sownwisdom,whichalmostallmenthinkthey
haveinagreaterdegree,thanthevulgarthatis,thanallmenbut
themselves,andafewothers,whombyfame,orforconcurringwith
themselves,theyapprove.Forsuchisthenatureofmen,that
howsoevertheymayacknowledgemanyotherstobemorewitty,or
moreeloquent,ormorelearnedyettheywillhardlybelievetherebe
manysowiseasthemselvesfortheyseetheirownwitathand,and
othermen'satadistance.Butthisprovethratherthatmenarein
thatpointequal,thanunequal.Forthereisnotordinarilyagreater
signoftheequaldistributionofanything,thanthateverymanis
contentedwithhisshare.

3.Fromthisequalityofability,arisethequalityofhopeintheFrom
attainingofourends.Andthereforeifanytwomendesirethesameequality
thing,whichneverthelesstheycannotbothenjoy,theybecomeproceeds
enemiesandinthewaytotheirend,(whichisprincipallytheirowndiffidence.
conservation,andsometimestheirdelectationonly,)endeavourto
destroy,orsubdueoneanother.Andfromhenceitcomestopass,
thatwhereaninvaderhathnomoretofear,thananotherman's
singlepowerifoneplant,sow,build,orpossessaconvenientseat,
othersmayprobablybeexpectedtocomepreparedwithforces
united,todispossess,anddeprivehim,notonlyofthefruitofhis
labour,butalsoofhislife,orliberty.Andtheinvaderagainisinthe
likedangerofanother.
4.Andfromthisdiffidenceofoneanother,thereisnowayforFrom
anymantosecurehimself,soreasonable,asanticipationthatis,bydiffidence
force,orwiles,tomasterthepersonsofallmenhecan,solong,tillwar.
heseenootherpowergreatenoughtoendangerhim:andthisisno
morethanhisownconservationrequireth,andisgenerallyallowed.
Alsobecausetherebesome,thattakingpleasureincontemplating
theirownpowerintheactsofconquest,whichtheypursuefarther
thantheirsecurityrequiresifothers,thatotherwisewouldbeglad
tobeateasewithinmodestbounds,shouldnotbyinvasionincrease
theirpower,theywouldnotbeable,longtime,bystandingonlyon
theirdefence,tosubsist.Andbyconsequence,suchaugmentationof
dominionovermen,beingnecessarytoaman'sconservation,it
oughttobeallowedhim.
5.Again,menhavenopleasure,(butonthecontraryagreat
dealofgrief)inkeepingcompany,wherethereisnopowerableto
overawethemall.Foreverymanlookeththathiscompanion
shouldvaluehim,atthesameratehesetsuponhimself:anduponall
signsofcontempt,orundervaluing,naturallyendeavours,asfaras
hedares(whichamongstthemthathavenocommonpowertokeep
theminquiet,isfarenoughtomakethemdestroyeachother,)to
extortagreatervaluefromhiscontemners,bydamageandfrom
others,bytheexample.
6.Sothatinthenatureofman,wefindthreeprincipalcausesof
quarrel.First,competitionsecondly,diffidencethirdly,glory.
7.Thefirst,makethmeninvadeforgainthesecond,forsafety[62]
andthethird,forreputation.Thefirstuseviolence,tomakethem
selvesmastersofothermen'spersons,wives,children,andcattle
thesecond,todefendthemthethird,fortrifles,asaword,asmile,

Page84

adifferentopinion,andanyothersignofundervalue,eitherdirect
intheirpersons,orbyreflectionintheirkindred,theirfriends,their
nation,theirprofession,ortheirname.
Outofcivil8.*Herebyitismanifest,thatduringthetimemenlivewithout
states,thereisacommonpowertokeepthemallinawe,theyareinthatcondition
alwayswarwhichiscalledwarandsuchawar,asisofeveryman,againstevery
ofeveryoneman.ForWAR,consistethnotinbattleonly,ortheactoffighting
againsteverybutinatractoftime,whereinthewilltocontendbybattleis
one.sufficientlyknown:andthereforethenotionoftime,istobecon
sideredinthenatureofwarasitisinthenatureofweather.Foras
thenatureoffoulweather,liethnotinashowerortwoofrainbut
inaninclinationtheretoofmanydaystogether:sothenatureofwar,
consistethnotinactualfightingbutintheknowndisposition
thereto,duringallthetimethereisnoassurancetothecontrary.All
othertimeisPEACE.
The9.Whatsoeverthereforeisconsequenttoatimeofwar,where
incommoditieseverymanisenemytoeverymanthesameisconsequenttothe
ofsuchatime,whereinmenlivewithoutothersecurity,thanwhattheirown
war.strength,andtheirowninventionshallfurnishthemwithal.Insuch
condition,thereisnoplaceforindustrybecausethefruitthereofis
uncertain:andconsequentlynocultureoftheearthnonavigation,
noruseofthecommoditiesthatmaybeimportedbyseanocom
modiousbuildingnoinstrumentsofmoving,andremovingsuch
thingsasrequiremuchforcenoknowledgeofthefaceoftheearth
noaccountoftimenoartsnolettersnosocietyandwhichisworst
ofall,continualfear,anddangerofviolentdeathandthelifeof
man,solitary,poor,nasty,brutish,andshort.
10.Itmayseemstrangetosomeman,thathasnotwellweighed
thesethingsthatnatureshouldthusdissociate,andrendermenapt
toinvade,anddestroyoneanother:andhemaytherefore,not
trustingtothisinference,madefromthepassions,desireperhapsto
havethesameconfirmedbyexperience.Lethimthereforecon
sider*withhimself,whentakingajourney,hearmshimself,and
seekstogowellaccompaniedwhengoingtosleep,helockshis
doorswheneveninhishousehelockshischestsandthiswhenhe
knowstherebelaws,andpublicofficers,armed,torevengeall
injuriesshallbedonehimwhatopinionhehasofhisfellowsub
jects,whenheridesarmedofhisfellowcitizens,whenhelockshis
doorsandofhischildren,andservants,whenhelockshischests.
Doeshenotthereasmuchaccusemankindbyhisactions,asIdoby

mywords?Butneitherofusaccuseman'snatureinit.Thedesires,
andotherpassionsofman,areinthemselvesnosin.Nomorearethe
actions,thatproceedfromthosepassions,tilltheyknowalawthat
forbidsthem:whichtilllawsbemadetheycannotknow:norcanany
lawbemade,tilltheyhaveagreeduponthepersonthatshall
makeit.
11.Itmayperadventurebethought,therewasneversuchatime,[63]
norconditionofwarasthis*andIbelieveitwasnevergenerallyso,
overalltheworld:buttherearemanyplaces,wheretheyliveso
now.ForthesavagepeopleinmanyplacesofAmerica,exceptthe
governmentofsmallfamilies,theconcordwhereofdependethon
naturallust,havenogovernmentatallandliveatthisdayinthat
brutishmanner,asIsaidbefore.Howsoever,itmaybeperceived
whatmanneroflifetherewouldbe,wheretherewerenocommon
powertofearbythemanneroflife,whichmenthathaveformerly
livedunderapeacefulgovernment,usetodegenerateinto,inacivil
war.
12.Butthoughtherehadneverbeenanytime,wherein
particularmenwereinaconditionofwaroneagainstanother
yetinalltimes,kings,andpersonsofsovereignauthority,because
oftheirindependency,areincontinualjealousies,andinthe
stateandpostureofgladiatorshavingtheirweaponspointing,and
theireyesfixedononeanotherthatis,theirforts,garrisons,
andgunsuponthefrontiersoftheirkingdomsandcontinualspies
upontheirneighbourswhichisapostureofwar.Butbecause
theyupholdthereby,theindustryoftheirsubjectstheredoes
notfollowfromit,thatmisery,whichaccompaniesthelibertyof
particularmen.
13.Tothiswarofeverymanagainsteveryman,thisalsoisInsuchawar
consequentthatnothingcanbeunjust.Thenotionsofrightandnothingis
wrong,justiceandinjusticehavetherenoplace.Wherethereisnounjust.
commonpower,thereisnolaw:wherenolaw,noinjustice.Force,
andfraud,areinwarthetwocardinalvirtues.Justice,andinjustice
arenoneofthefacultiesneitherofthebody,normind.Iftheywere,
theymightbeinamanthatwerealoneintheworld,aswellashis
senses,andpassions.Theyarequalities,thatrelatetomeninso
ciety,notinsolitude.Itisconsequentalsotothesamecondition,
thattherebenopropriety,nodominion,nomineandthinedistinct
butonlythattobeeveryman's,thathecangetandforsolong,as
hecankeepit.Andthusmuchfortheillcondition,whichmanby

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merenatureisactuallyplacedinthoughwithapossibilitytocome
outofit,consistingpartlyinthepassions,partlyinhisreason.
Thepassions14.Thepassionsthatinclinementopeace,arefearofdeath
thatinclinedesireofsuchthingsasarenecessarytocommodiouslivinganda
mentopeace.hopebytheirindustrytoobtainthem.Andreasonsuggestethcon
venientarticlesofpeace,uponwhichmenmaybedrawntoagree
ment.Thesearticles,arethey,whichotherwisearecalledtheLaws
ofNature:whereofIshallspeakmoreparticularly,inthetwo
followingchapters.
[64]ChapterXIV
OftheFirstandSecondNaturalLaws,andofContracts
Rightof1.THERIGHTOFNATURE,whichwriterscommonlycalljus
naturewhat.naturale,isthelibertyeachmanhath,tousehisownpower,ashe
willhimself,forthepreservationofhisownnaturethatistosay,of
hisownlifeandconsequently,ofdoinganything,whichinhisown
judgment,andreason,heshallconceivetobetheaptestmeans
thereunto.
Libertywhat.2.ByLIBERTY,isunderstood,accordingtothepropersignifi
cationoftheword,theabsenceofexternalimpediments:which
impediments,mayofttakeawaypartofaman'spowertodowhathe
wouldbutcannothinderhimfromusingthepowerlefthim,
accordingashisjudgment,andreasonshalldictatetohim.
Alawof3.ALAWOFNATURE,(lexnaturalis,)isaprecept,orgeneralrule,
naturewhat.foundoutbyreason,bywhichamanisforbiddentodo,that,which
isdestructiveofhislife,ortakethawaythemeansofpreservingthe
sameandtoomit,that,bywhichhethinkethitmaybebestpre
served.Forthoughtheythatspeakofthissubject,usetoconfound
Differenceofjus,andlex,rightandlawyettheyoughttobedistinguished
rightandbecauseRIGHT,consistethinlibertytodo,ortoforbear:whereas
law.LAW,determineth,andbindethtooneofthem:sothatlaw,and
right,differasmuch,asobligation,andlibertywhichinoneandthe
Naturallysamematterareinconsistent.
everyman4.Andbecausetheconditionofman,(ashathbeendeclaredin
hasrighttotheprecedentchapter)isaconditionofwarofeveryoneagainst
everything.everyoneinwhichcaseeveryoneisgovernedbyhisownreason

andthereisnothinghecanmakeuseof,thatmaynotbeahelpunto
him,inpreservinghislifeagainsthisenemiesitfolloweth,thatin
suchacondition,everymanhasarighttoeverythingeventoone
another'sbody.Andtherefore,aslongasthisnaturalrightofevery
mantoeverythingendureth,therecanbenosecuritytoanyman,
(howstrongorwisesoeverhebe,)oflivingoutthetime,which
natureordinarilyallowethmentolive.Andconsequentlyitisa
precept,orgeneralruleofreason,*thateveryman,oughttoendeavThe
ourpeace,asfarashehashopeofobtainingitandwhenhecannotfundamental
obtainit,thathemayseek,anduse,allhelps,andadvantagesofwar.lawof
Thefirstbranchofwhichrule,containeththefirst,andfundamentalnature.
lawofnaturewhichis,toseekpeace,andfollowit.Thesecond,the
sumoftherightofnaturewhichis,byallmeanswecan,todefend
ourselves.
5.Fromthisfundamentallawofnature,bywhichmenarecom
mandedtoendeavourpeace,isderivedthissecondlawthatamanThesecond
bewilling,whenothersaresotoo,asfarforth,asforpeace,anddefencelawof
ofhimselfheshallthinkitnecessary,tolaydownthisrighttoallthingsnature.
andbecontentedwithsomuchlibertyagainstothermen,ashewould
allowothermenagainsthimself.Foraslongaseverymanholdeththis
right,ofdoinganythinghelikethsolongareallmeninthe[65]
conditionofwar.Butifothermenwillnotlaydowntheirright,as
wellashethenthereisnoreasonforanyone,todivesthimselfof
his:forthatweretoexposehimselftoprey,(whichnomanisbound
to)ratherthantodiposehimselftopeace.Thisisthatlawofthe
Gospelwhatsoeveryourequirethatothersshoulddotoyou,thatdoye
tothem.Andthatlawofallmen,quodtibifierinonvis,alterine
feceris.*
6.Tolaydownaman'srighttoanything,istodivesthimselfofWhatitisto
theliberty,ofhinderinganotherofthebenefitofhisownrighttothelaydowna
same.Forhethatrenounceth,orpassethawayhisright,givethnotright.
toanyothermanarightwhichhehadnotbeforebecausethereis
nothingtowhicheverymanhadnotrightbynature:butonly
standethoutofhisway,thathemayenjoyhisownoriginalright,
withouthindrancefromhimnotwithouthindrancefromanother.
Sothattheeffectwhichredoundethtooneman,byanotherman's
defectofright,isbutsomuchdiminutionofimpedimentstotheuse
ofhisownrightoriginal.Renouncing
7.Rightislaidaside,eitherbysimplyrenouncingitorbytransarightwhat
ferringittoanother.BysimplyRENOUNCINGwhenhecaresnottoitis.

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Transferringwhomthebenefitthereofredoundeth.ByTRANSFERRINGwhenhe
rightwhat.intendeththebenefitthereoftosomecertainperson,orpersons.
Andwhenamanhathineithermannerabandoned,orgrantedaway
ObligationhisrightthenheissaidtobeOBLIGED,orBOUND,nottohinder
those,towhomsuchrightisgranted,orabandoned,fromthe
Duty.benefitofit:andthatheought,anditishisDUTY,nottomakevoid
Injustice.thatvoluntaryactofhisown:andthatsuchhindranceisINJUSTICE,
andINJURY,asbeingsinejuretherightbeingbeforerenounced,or
transferred.Sothatinjury,orinjustice,inthecontroversiesofthe
world,issomewhatliketothat,whichinthedisputationsofscholars
iscalledabsurdity.Forasitistherecalledanabsurdity,tocontradict
whatonemaintainedinthebeginning:sointheworld,itiscalled
injustice,andinjury,voluntarilytoundothat,whichfromthebe
ginninghehadvoluntarilydone.Thewaybywhichamaneither
simplyrenounceth,ortransferrethhisright,isadeclaration,or
signification,bysomevoluntaryandsufficientsign,orsigns,thathe
dothsorenounce,ortransferorhathsorenounced,ortransferred
thesame,tohimthatacceptethit.Andthesesignsareeitherwords
only,oractionsonlyor(asithappenethmostoften)bothwords,
andactions.AndthesamearetheBONDS,bywhichmenarebound,
andobliged:bonds,thathavetheirstrength,notfromtheirown
nature,(fornothingismoreeasilybrokenthanaman'sword,)but
fromfearofsomeevilconsequenceupontherupture.
8.Whensoeveramantransferrethhisright,orrenouncethititis
eitherinconsiderationofsomerightreciprocallytransferredto
himselforforsomeothergoodhehopethforthereby.Foritisa
[66]voluntaryact:*andofthevoluntaryactsofeveryman,theobjectis
NotallrightssomegoodtohimselfAndthereforetherebesomerights,which
arealienable.nomancanbeunderstoodbyanywords,orothersigns,tohave
abandoned,ortransferred.Asfirstamancannotlaydowntheright
ofresistingthem,thatassaulthimbyforce,totakeawayhis
lifebecausehecannotbeunderstoodtoaimthereby,atanygood
tohimself.Thesamemaybesaidofwounds,andchains,and
imprisonmentbothbecausethereisnobenefitconsequenttosuch
patienceasthereistothepatienceofsufferinganothertobe
wounded,orimprisoned:asalsobecauseamancannottell,whenhe
seethmenproceedagainsthimbyviolence,whethertheyintend
hisdeathornot.Andlastlythemotive,andendforwhichthis
renouncing,andtransferringofrightisintroduced,isnothingelse
butthesecurityofaman'sperson,inhislife,andinthemeansofso

preservinglife,asnottobewearyofit.Andthereforeifamanby
words,orothersigns,seemtodespoilhimselfoftheend,forwhich
thosesignswereintendedheisnottobeunderstoodasifhemeant
it,orthatitwashiswillbutthathewasignorantofhowsuchwords
andactionsweretobeinterpreted.
9.Themutualtransferringofright,isthatwhichmencallContract
CONTRACT.what.
10.Thereisdifference,betweentransferringofrighttothe
thingandtransferring,ortradition,thatis,deliveryofthething
itself.Forthethingmaybedeliveredtogetherwiththetranslation
oftherightasinbuyingandsellingwithreadymoneyorexchange
ofgoods,orlands:anditmaybedeliveredsometimeafter.
11.Again,oneofthecontractors,maydeliverthethingcon
tractedforonhispart,andleavetheothertoperformhispartat
somedeterminatetimeafter,andinthemeantimebetrustedand
thenthecontractonhispart,iscalledPACT,orCOVENANT:orbothCovenant
partsmaycontractnow,toperformhereafter:inwhichcases,hewhat.
thatistoperformintimetocome,beingtrusted,hisperformanceis
calledkeepingofpromise,orfaithandthefailingofperformance(if
itbevoluntary)violationoffaith.
12.Whenthetransferringofright,isnotmutualbutoneof
thepartiestransferreth,inhopetogaintherebyfriendship,or
servicefromanother,orfromhisfriendsorinhopetogainthe
reputationofcharity,ormagnanimityortodeliverhismindfrom
thepainofcompassionorinhopeofrewardinheaventhisisnot
contract,butGIFT,FREEGIFT,GRACE:whichwordssignifyoneandFreegift.
thesamething.
13.Signsofcontract,areeitherexpress,orbyinference.Express,Signsof
arewordsspokenwithunderstandingofwhattheysignify:andsuchcontract
wordsareeitherofthetimepresent,orpastas,Igive,Igrant,Ihaveexpress.
given,Ihavegranted,Iwillthatthisbeyours:orofthefutureas,I
willgive,Iwillgrant:whichwordsofthefuturearecalledPROMISE.Promise.
14.Signsbyinference,aresometimestheconsequenceofwords
sometimestheconsequenceofsilencesometimestheconsequence[67]
ofactionssometimestheconsequenceofforbearinganaction:andSignsof
generallyasignbyinference,ofanycontract,iswhatsoevercontractby
sufficientlyarguesthewillofthecontractor.inference.
15.Wordsalone,iftheybeofthetimetocome,andcontainaFreegift
barepromise,areaninsufficientsignofafreegift,andthereforenotpassethby
obligatory.Foriftheybeofthetimetocome,as,tomorrowIwillwordsofthe
presentorpast.

Page90

give,theyareasignIhavenotgivenyet,andconsequentlythatmy
rightisnottransferred,butremainethtillItransferitbysomeother
act.Butifthewordsbeofthetimepresent,orpast,as,Ihavegiven,
ordogivetobedeliveredtomorrow,thenismymorrow'srightgiven
awaytodayandthatbythevirtueofthewords,thoughtherewere
nootherargumentofmywill.Andthereisagreatdifferenceinthe
significationofthesewords,volohoctuumessecras,andcrasdabo
thatis,betweenIwillthatthisbethinetomorrow,and,Iwillgiveit
theetomorrow:forthewordIwill,intheformermannerofspeech,
signifiesanactofthewillpresentbutinthelatter,itsignifiesa
promiseofanactofthewilltocome:andthereforetheformer
words,beingofthepresent,transferafuturerightthelatter,thatbe
ofthefuture,transfernothing.Butiftherebeothersignsofthewill
totransferaright,besideswordsthen,thoughthegiftbefree,yet
maytherightbeunderstoodtopassbywordsofthefuture:asifa
manpropoundaprizetohimthatcomesfirsttotheendofarace,the
giftisfreeandthoughthewordsbeofthefuture,yettheright
passeth:forifhewouldnothavehiswordssobeunderstood,he
shouldnothaveletthemrun.
Signsof16.Incontracts,therightpasseth,notonlywherethewordsare
contractareofthetimepresent,orpastbutalsowheretheyareofthefuture:
wordsbothofbecauseallcontractismutualtranslation,orchangeofrightand
thepast,thereforehethatpromisethonly,becausehehathalreadyreceived
present,andthebenefitforwhichhepromiseth,istobeunderstoodasifhe
future.intendedtherightshouldpass:forunlesshehadbeencontentto
havehiswordssounderstood,theotherwouldnothaveperformed
hispartfirst.Andforthatcause,inbuying,andselling,andother
actsofcontract,apromiseisequivalenttoacovenantandtherefore
obligatory.
Meritwhat.17.Hethatperformethfirstinthecaseofacontract,issaidto
MERITthatwhichheistoreceivebytheperformanceoftheother
andhehathitasdue.Alsowhenaprizeispropoundedtomany,
whichistobegiventohimonlythatwinnethormoneyisthrown
amongstmany,tobeenjoyedbythemthatcatchitthoughthisbe
afreegiftyetsotowin,orsotocatch,istomerit,andtohaveitas
DUE.Fortherightistransferredinthepropoundingoftheprize,and
inthrowingdownthemoneythoughitbenotdeterminedtowhom,
butbytheeventofthecontention.Butthereisbetweenthesetwo
sortsofmerit,thisdifference,thatincontract,Imeritbyvirtueof
myownpower,andthecontractor'sneedbutinthiscaseoffree

gift,Iamenabledtomeritonlybythebenignityofthegiver:in
contract,Imeritatthecontractor'shandthatheshoulddepartwith
hisrightinthiscaseofgift,Imeritnotthatthegivershouldpart[68]
withhisrightbutthatwhenhehaspartedwithit,itshouldbemine,
ratherthananother's.AndthisIthinktobethemeaningofthat
distinctionoftheSchools,betweenmeriturncongrui,andmeriturn
condigni.*ForGodAlmighty,havingpromisedParadisetothose
men(hoodwinkedwithcarnaldesires,)thatcanwalkthroughthis
worldaccordingtotheprecepts,andlimitsprescribedbyhimthey
say,hethatshallsowalk,shallmeritParadiseexcongruo.But
becausenomancandemandarighttoit,byhisownrighteousness,
oranyotherpowerinhimself,butbythefreegraceofGodonly
theysay,nomancanmeritParadiseexcondigno.ThisIsay,Ithink
isthemeaningofthatdistinctionbutbecausedisputersdonotagree
uponthesignificationoftheirowntermsofart,longerthanitserves
theirturnIwillnotaffirmanythingoftheirmeaning:onlythisI
saywhenagiftisgivenindefinitely,asaprizetobecontendedfor,
hethatwinnethmeriteth,andmayclaimtheprizeasdue.
18.Ifacovenantbemade,whereinneitherofthepartiesperformCovenantsof
presently,buttrustoneanotherintheconditionofmerenature,mutualtrust,
(whichisaconditionofwarofeverymanagainsteveryman,)uponwheninvalid.
anyreasonablesuspicion,itisvoid:butiftherebeacommonpower
setoverthemboth,withrightandforcesufficienttocompelper
formance,itisnotvoid.Forhethatperformethfirst,hasnoassur
ancetheotherwillperformafterbecausethebondsofwordsaretoo
weaktobridlemen'sambition,avarice,anger,andotherpassions,
withoutthefearofsomecoercivepowerwhichintheconditionof
merenature,whereallmenareequal,andjudgesofthejustnessof
theirownfears,cannotpossiblybesupposed.Andthereforehe
whichperformethfirst,doesbutbetrayhimselftohisenemycon
trarytotheright(hecanneverabandon)ofdefendinghislife,and
meansofliving.
19.Butinacivilestate,wherethereisapowersetuptoconstrain
thosethatwouldotherwiseviolatetheirfaith,thatfearisnomore
reasonableandforthatcause,hewhichbythecovenantisto
performfirst,isobligedsotodo.
20.Thecauseoffear,whichmakethsuchacovenantinvalid,
mustbealwayssomethingarisingafterthecovenantmadeassome
newfact,orothersignofthewillnottoperform:elseitcannot
makethecovenantvoid.Forthatwhichcouldnothinderaman

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frompromising,oughtnottobeadmittedasahindranceof
performing.
Rightto21.Hethattransferrethanyright,transferreththemeansof
theend,enjoyingit,asfarasliethinhispower.Ashethatsellethland,is
containethunderstoodtotransfertheherbage,andwhatsoevergrowsuponit
righttothemeans.norcanhethatsellsamillturnawaythestreamthatdrivesit.And
means.theythatgivetoamantherightofgovernmentinsovereignty,are
understoodtogivehimtherightoflevyingmoneytomaintain
soldiersandofappointingmagistratesfortheadministrationof
justice.
Nocovenant22.Tomakecovenantswithbrutebeasts,isimpossiblebecause
withbeasts.notunderstandingourspeech,theyunderstandnot,noracceptof
[69]anytranslationofrightnorcantranslateanyrighttoanother:and
withoutmutualacceptation,thereisnocovenant.
Norwith23.TomakecovenantwithGod,*isimpossible,butbyme
GodwithoutdiationofsuchasGodspeakethto,eitherbyrevelationsupernatu
specialral,orbyhislieutenantsthatgovernunderhim,andinhisname:for
revelation.otherwiseweknownotwhetherourcovenantsbeaccepted,ornot.
Andthereforetheythatvowanythingcontrarytoanylawofnature,
vowinvainasbeingathingunjusttopaysuchvow.Andifitbea
thingcommandedbythelawofnature,itisnotthevow,butthelaw
thatbindsthem.
Nocovenant,24.Thematter,orsubjectofacovenant,isalwayssomething
butofpossiblethatfallethunderdeliberation(fortocovenant,isanactofthewill
andfuture.thatistosayanact,andthelastact,ofdeliberation)andistherefore
alwaysunderstoodtobesomethingtocomeandwhichisjudged
possibleforhimthatcovenanteth,toperform.
25.Andtherefore,topromisethatwhichisknowntobeimposs
ible,isnocovenant.Butifthatproveimpossibleafterwards,which
beforewasthoughtpossible,thecovenantisvalid,andbindeth,
(thoughnottothethingitself,)yettothevalueor,ifthatalsobe
impossible,totheunfeignedendeavourofperformingasmuchasis
possible:fortomorenomancanbeobliged.
Covenants26.Menarefreedoftheircovenantstwowaysbyperformingor
howmadebybeingforgiven.Forperformance,isthenaturalendofobligation
void.andforgiveness,therestitutionoflibertyasbeingaretransferring
Covenantsofthatright,inwhichtheobligationconsisted.
extortedby27.Covenantsenteredintobyfear,intheconditionofmere
feararenature,areobligatory.Forexample,ifIcovenanttopayaransom,
valid.orserviceformylife,toanenemyIamboundbyit.Foritisa

contract,whereinonereceiveththebenefitoflifetheotheristo
receivemoney,orserviceforitandconsequently,wherenoother
law(asinthecondition,ofmerenature)forbiddeththeperform
ance,thecovenantisvalid.Thereforeprisonersofwar,iftrusted
withthepaymentoftheirransom,areobligedtopayit:andifa
weakerprince,makeadisadvantageouspeacewithastronger,for
fearheisboundtokeepitunless(ashathbeensaidbefore)there
arisethsomenew,andjustcauseoffear,torenewthewar.Andeven
incommonwealths,ifIbeforcedtoredeemmyselffromathiefby
promisinghimmoney,Iamboundtopayit,tillthecivillaw
dischargeme.ForwhatsoeverImaylawfullydowithoutobligation,
thesameImaylawfullycovenanttodothroughfear:andwhatI
lawfullycovenant,Icannotlawfullybreak.
28.Aformercovenant,makesvoidalater.ForamanthathathTheformer
passedawayhisrighttoonemantoday,hathitnottopasstocovenantto
morrowtoanother:andthereforethelaterpromisepassethnoright,
one,makes
butisnull.
voidthelater.
29.*Acovenantnottodefendmyselffromforce,byforce,is
toanother.
alwaysvoid.For(asIhaveshowedbefore)nomancantransfer,or
Aman's
laydownhisrighttosavehimselffromdeath,wounds,andimpriscovenantnot
onment,(theavoidingwhereofistheonlyendoflayingdownany
todefend
right)andthereforethepromiseofnotresistingforce,inno
himself,is
covenanttransferrethanyrightnorisobliging.Forthoughaman
void.
maycovenantthus,unlessIdoso,orso,killmehecannotcovenant
[70]
thus,unlessIdoso,orso,Iwillnotresistyou,whenyoucometokillme.
Formanbynaturechooseththelesserevil,whichisdangerofdeath
inresistingratherthanthegreater,whichiscertainandpresent
deathinnotresisting.Andthisisgrantedtobetruebyallmen,in
thattheyleadcriminalstoexecution,andprison,witharmedmen,
notwithstandingthatsuchcriminalshaveconsentedtothelaw,by
whichtheyarecondemned.
30.Acovenanttoaccuseoneself,withoutassuranceofpardon,isNoman
likewiseinvalid.Forintheconditionofnature,whereeveryman
bligedto
isjudge,thereisnoplaceforaccusation:andinthecivilstate,the
accuse
accusationisfollowedwithpunishmentwhichbeingforce,amanis
himself.
notobligednottoresist.Thesameisalsotrue,oftheaccusationof
those,bywhosecondemnationamanfallsintomiseryasofafather,
wife,orbenefactor.Forthetestimonyofsuchanaccuser,ifitbe
notwillinglygiven,ispresumedtobecorruptedbynature:and
thereforenottobereceived:andwhereaman'stestimonyisnotto

Page94

becredited,heisnotboundtogiveit.Alsoaccusationsupontor
ture,arenottobereputedastestimonies.Fortortureistobeused
butasmeansofconjecture,andlight,inthefurtherexamination,
andsearchoftruth:andwhatisinthatcaseconfessed,tendethtothe
easeofhimthatistorturednottotheinformingofthetorturers:
andthereforeoughtnottohavethecreditofasufficienttestimony:
forwhetherhedeliverhimselfbytrue,orfalseaccusation,hedoes
itbytherightofpreservinghisownlife.
Theendof31.Theforceofwords,being(asIhaveformerlynoted)tooweak
anoath.toholdmentotheperformanceoftheircovenantstherearein
man'snature,buttwoimaginablehelpstostrengthenit.Andthose
areeitherafearoftheconsequenceofbreakingtheirwordora
glory,orprideinappearingnottoneedtobreakit.Thislatterisa
generositytoorarelyfoundtobepresumedon,especiallyinthe
pursuersofwealth,command,orsensualpleasurewhicharethe
greatestpartofmankind.Thepassiontobereckonedupon,isfear
whereoftherebetwoverygeneralobjects:one,thepowerofspirits
invisibletheother,thepowerofthosementheyshallthereinof
fend.Ofthesetwo,thoughtheformerbethegreaterpower,yetthe
fearofthelatteriscommonlythegreaterfear.Thefearoftheformer
isineveryman,hisownreligion:whichhathplaceinthenatureof
manbeforecivilsociety.Thelatterhathnotsoatleastnotplace
enough,tokeepmentotheirpromisesbecauseintheconditionof
merenature,theinequalityofpowerisnotdiscerned,butby
theeventofbattle.Sothatbeforethetimeofcivilsociety,orin
theinterruptionthereofbywar,thereisnothingcanstrengthena
covenantofpeaceagreedon,againstthetemptationsofavarice,
ambition,lust,orotherstrongdesire,butthefearofthatinvisible
power,whichtheyeveryoneworshipasGodandfearasarevenger
oftheirperfidy.Allthereforethatcanbedonebetweentwomennot
[71]subjecttocivilpower,istoputoneanothertoswearbytheGodhe
Theformoffeareth:whichswearing,orOATH,isaformofspeech,addedtoa
anoathpromisebywhichhethatpromiseth,signifieth,thatunlessheperform,
herenounceththemercyofhisGod,orcallethtohimforvengeanceon
himselfSuchwastheheathenform,LetJupiterkillmeelse,asIkill
thisbeast.Soisourform,Ishalldothus,andthus,sohelpmeGod.And
this,withtheritesandceremonies,whicheveryoneusethinhisown
religion,thatthefearofbreakingfaithmightbethegreater.
32.Bythisitappears,thatanoathtakenaccordingtoanyother
form,orrite,thanhis,thatsweareth,isinvainandnooath:andthat

thereisnoswearingbyanythingwhichtheswearerthinksnotGod.Nooathbut
Forthoughmenhavesometimesusedtoswearbytheirkings,forbyGod.
fear,orflatteryyettheywouldhaveittherebyunderstood,they
attributedtothemdivinehonour.Andthatswearingunnecessarily
byGod,isbutprofaningofhisname:andswearingbyotherthings,
asmendoincommondiscourse,isnotswearing,butanimpious
custom,gottenbytoomuchvehemenceoftalking.
33.Itappearsalso,thattheoathaddsnothingtotheobligation.Anoathadds
Foracovenant,iflawful,bindsinthesightofGod,withoutthenothingtothe
oath,asmuchaswithit:ifunlawful,bindethnotatallthoughitbeobligation.
confirmedwithanoath.
ChapterXV
OfOtherLawsofNature
l.Fromthatlawofnature,bywhichweareobligedtotransfertoThethirdlaw
another,suchrights,asbeingretained,hinderthepeaceofmankind,ofnature,
therefollowethathirdwhichisthis,thatmenperformtheircovenantsjustice.
made:withoutwhich,covenantsareinvain,andbutemptywords
andtherightofallmentoallthingsremaining,wearestillinthe
conditionofwar.
2.Andinthislawofnature,consisteththefountainandoriginalJusticeand
ofJUSTICE.Forwherenocovenanthathpreceded,therehathnoinjustice
rightbeentransferred,andeverymanhasrighttoeverythingandwhat.
consequently,noactioncanbeunjust.Butwhenacovenantismade,
thentobreakitisunjust:andthedefinitionofINJUSTICE,isnoother
thanthenotperformanceofcovenant.Andwhatsoeverisnotunjust,is
just.
3.Butbecausecovenantsofmutualtrust,wherethereisafearofJusticeand
notperformanceoneitherpart,(ashathbeensaidintheformerproprietybegin
chapter,)areinvalidthoughtheoriginalofjusticebethemakingofwiththe
covenantsyetinjusticeactuallytherecanbenone,tillthecauseconstitutionof
ofsuchfearbetakenawaywhichwhilemenareinthenaturalcommonwealth.
conditionofwar,cannotbedone.Thereforebeforethenamesof
just,andunjustcanhaveplace,theremustbesomecoercivepower,
tocompelmenequallytotheperformanceoftheircovenants,bythe
terrorofsomepunishment,greaterthanthebenefittheyexpectby

Page96

[72]thebreachoftheircovenantandtomakegoodthatpropriety,which
bymutualcontractmenacquire,inrecompenseoftheuniversal
righttheyabandon:andsuchpowerthereisnonebeforetheerec
tionofacommonwealth.Andthisisalsotobegatheredoutofthe
ordinarydefinitionofjusticeintheSchools:fortheysay,thatjustice
istheconstantwillofgivingtoeverymanhisown.*Andtherefore
wherethereisnoown,thatis,nopropriety,thereisnoinjusticeand
wherethereisnocoercivepowererected,thatis,wherethereisno
commonwealth,thereisnoproprietyallmenhavingrighttoall
things:thereforewherethereisnocommonwealth,therenothingis
unjust.Sothatthenatureofjustice,consistethinkeepingofvalid
covenants:butthevalidityofcovenantsbeginsnotbutwiththe
constitutionofacivilpower,sufficienttocompelmentokeepthem:
andthenitisalsothatproprietybegins.
Justicenot4.Thefoolhathsaidinhisheart,thereisnosuchthingas
contrarytojustice*andsometimesalsowithhistongueseriouslyalleging,that
reason.everyman'sconservation,andcontentment,beingcommittedtohis
owncare,therecouldbenoreason,whyeverymanmightnotdo
whathethoughtconducedthereunto:andthereforealsotomake,or
notmakekeep,ornotkeepcovenants,wasnotagainstreason,when
itconducedtoone'sbenefit.Hedoesnotthereindeny,thattherebe
covenantsandthattheyaresometimesbroken,sometimeskeptand
thatsuchbreachofthemmaybecalledinjustice,andtheobservance
ofthemjustice:buthequestioneth,whetherinjustice,takingaway
thefearofGod,(forthesamefoolhathsaidinhisheartthereisno
God,)maynotsometimesstandwiththatreason,whichdictatethto
everymanhisowngoodandparticularlythen,whenitconduceth
tosuchabenefit,asshallputamaninacondition,toneglectnot
onlythedispraise,andrevilings,butalsothepowerofothermen.
ThekingdomofGodisgottenbyviolence:*butwhatifitcouldbe
gottenbyunjustviolence?wereitagainstreasonsotogetit,whenit
isimpossibletoreceivehurtbyit?andifitbenotagainstreason,it
isnotagainstjustice:orelsejusticeisnottobeapprovedforgood.
Fromsuchreasoningasthis,successfulwickednesshathobtained
thenameofvirtue:andsomethatinallotherthingshavedisallowed
theviolationoffaithyethaveallowedit,whenitisforthegetting
ofakingdom.Andtheheathenthatbelieved,thatSaturnwas
deposedbyhissonJupiter,believedneverthelessthesameJupiterto
betheavengerofinjustice:somewhatliketoapieceoflawin
Coke's*CommentariesonLittletonwherehesays,iftherightheirof

thecrownbeattaintedoftreasonyetthecrownshalldescendto
him,andeoinstantetheattainderbevoid:fromwhichinstancesa
manwillbeverypronetoinferthatwhentheheirapparentofa
kingdom,shallkillhimthatisinpossession,thoughhisfatheryou
maycallitinjustice,orbywhatothernameyouwillyetitcannever
beagainstreason,seeingallthevoluntaryactionsofmentendtothe
benefitofthemselvesandthoseactionsaremostreasonable,that
conducemosttotheirends.Thisspeciousreasoningisnevertheless
false.[73]
5.Forthequestionisnotofpromisesmutual,wherethereisno
securityofperformanceoneithersideaswhenthereisnocivil
powererectedoverthepartiespromisingforsuchpromisesare
nocovenants:buteitherwhereoneofthepartieshasperformed
alreadyorwherethereisapowertomakehimperformthereisthe
questionwhetheritbeagainstreason,thatis,againstthebenefitof
theothertoperform,ornot.AndIsayitisnotagainstreason.For
themanifestationwhereof,wearetoconsiderfirst,thatwhenaman
dothathing,whichnotwithstandinganythingcanbeforeseen,and
reckonedon,tendethtohisowndestruction,howsoeversomeacci
dentwhichhecouldnotexpect,arrivingmayturnittohisbenefit
yetsucheventsdonotmakeitreasonablyorwiselydone.Secondly,
thatinaconditionofwar,whereineverymantoeveryman,forwant
ofacommonpowertokeepthemallinawe,isanenemy,thereisno
mancanhopebyhisownstrength,orwit,todefendhimself
fromdestruction,withoutthehelpofconfederateswhereeveryone
expectsthesamedefencebytheconfederation,thatanyoneelse
does:andthereforehewhichdeclareshethinksitreasontodeceive
thosethathelphim,caninreasonexpectnoothermeansofsafety,
thanwhatcanbehadfromhisownsinglepower.Hethereforethat
breakethhiscovenant,andconsequentlydeclareththathethinkshe
maywithreasondoso,cannotbereceivedintoanysociety,that
unitethemselvesforpeaceanddefence,butbytheerrorofthem
thatreceivehimnorwhenheisreceived,beretainedinit,without
seeingthedangeroftheirerrorwhicherrorsamancannotreason
ablyreckonuponasthemeansofhissecurity:andthereforeifhebe
left,orcastoutofsociety,heperishethandifheliveinsociety,itis
bytheerrorsofothermen,whichhecouldnotforesee,norreckon
uponandconsequentlyagainstthereasonofhispreservationand
so,asallmenthatcontributenottohisdestruction,forbearhimonly
outofignoranceofwhatisgoodforthemselves.

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6.*Asfortheinstanceofgainingthesecureandperpetualfelic
ityofheaven,byanywayitisfrivolous:therebeingbutoneway
imaginableandthatisnotbreaking,butkeepingofcovenant.
7.Andfortheotherinstanceofattainingsovereigntybyrebel
lionitismanifest,thatthoughtheeventfollow,yetbecauseit
cannotreasonablybeexpected,butratherthecontraryandbecause
bygainingitso,othersaretaughttogainthesameinlikemanner,
theattemptthereofisagainstreason.Justicetherefore,thatistosay,
keepingofcovenant,isaruleofreason,bywhichweareforbidden
todoanythingdestructivetoourlifeandconsequentlyalawof
nature.
8.Therebesomethatproceedfurtherandwillnothavethelaw
ofnature,tobethoseruleswhichconducetothepreservationof
man'slifeonearthbuttotheattainingofaneternalfelicityafter
deathtowhichtheythinkthebreachofcovenantmayconduceand
consequentlybejustandreasonable(sucharetheythatthinkita
[74]workofmerittokill,ordepose,orrebelagainst,thesovereignpower
constitutedoverthembytheirownconsent.)Butbecausethereisno
naturalknowledgeofman'sestateafterdeathmuchlessofthe
rewardthatisthentobegiventobreachoffaithbutonlyabelief
groundeduponothermen'ssayingthattheyknowitsupernaturally,
orthattheyknowthose,thatknewthem,thatknewothers,that
knewitsupernaturallybreachoffaithcannotbecalledapreceptof
reason,ornature.
Covenants9.Others,thatallowforalawofnature,thekeepingoffaith,do
notneverthelessmakeexceptionofcertainpersonsasheretics,and
dischargedbysuchasusenottoperformtheircovenanttoothers:andthisalsois
theviceofagainstreason.Forifanyfaultofaman,besufficienttodischarge
thepersontoourcovenantmadethesameoughtinreasontohavebeensufficient
whomtheytohavehinderedthemakingofit.
aremade.10.Thenamesofjust,andunjust,whentheyareattributedto
Justiceofmenandmen,signifyonethingandwhentheyareattributedtoactions,
menandanother.Whentheyareattributedtomen,theysignifyconformity,
justiceoforinconformityofmanners,toreason.Butwhentheyareattributed
actionswhat.toactions,theysignifytheconformity,orinconformitytoreason,
notofmanners,ormanneroflife,butofparticularactions.Ajust
mantherefore,ishethattakethallthecarehecan,thathisactions
maybealljust:andanunjustman,ishethatneglectethit.And
suchmenaremoreofteninourlanguagestyledbythenamesof
righteous,andunrighteousthanjust,andunjustthoughthe

meaningbethesame.Thereforearighteousman,doesnotlosethat
title,byone,orafewunjustactions,thatproceedfromsudden
passion,ormistakeofthings,orpersons:nordoesanunrighteous
man,losehischaracter,forsuchactions,ashedoes,orforbearsto
do,forfear:becausehiswillisnotframedbythejustice,butbythe
apparentbenefitofwhatheistodo.Thatwhichgivestohuman
actionstherelishofjustice,isacertainnoblenessorgallantnessof
courage,(rarelyfound,)bywhichamanscornstobebeholdingfor
thecontentmentofhislife,tofraud,orbreachofpromise.This
justiceofthemanners,*isthatwhichismeant,wherejusticeis
calledavirtueandinjusticeavice.
11. Butthejusticeofactionsdenominatesmen,notjust,but
guiltless:andtheinjusticeofthesame,(whichisalsocalledinjury,)
givesthembutthenameofguilty.
12.Again,theinjusticeofmanners,isthedisposition,oraptiJusticeof
rudetodoinjuryandisinjusticebeforeitproceedtoactand
manners,and
withoutsupposinganyindividualpersoninjured.Buttheinjustice
justiceof
ofanaction,(thatistosayinjury,)supposethanindividualperson
actions.
injurednamelyhim,towhomthecovenantwasmade:andthere
foremanytimestheinjuryisreceivedbyoneman,whenthedamage
redoundethtoanother.Aswhenthemastercommandethhis
servanttogivemoneytoastrangerifitbenotdone,theinjuryis
donetothemaster,whomhehadbeforecovenantedtoobeybutthe
damageredoundethtothestranger,towhomhehadnoobligation
andthereforecouldnotinjurehim.Andsoalsoincommonwealths,
privatemenmayremittooneanothertheirdebtsbutnotrobberies
[75]
orotherviolences,wherebytheyareendamagedbecausethe
detainingofdebt,isaninjurytothemselvesbutrobberyand
violence,areinjuriestothepersonofthecommonwealth.
13.Whatsoeverisdonetoaman,conformabletohisownwillNothingdone
signifiedtothedoer,isnoinjurytohim.Forifhethatdoethit,hath
toamanby
notpassedawayhisoriginalrighttodowhatheplease,bysome
hisown
antecedentcovenant,thereisnobreachofcovenantandtherefore
consentcan
noinjurydonehim.Andifhehavethenhiswilltohaveitdone
beinjury.
beingsignified,isareleaseofthatcovenant:andsoagainthereisno
injurydonehim.
14.Justiceofactions,isbywriters*dividedintocornmutative,
anddistributive:andtheformertheysayconsistethinproportion
arithmeticalthelatterinproportiongeometrical.Commutative
therefore,theyplaceintheequalityofvalueofthethingscontracted

Justice
commutative
and
distributive.

Page100

foranddistributive,inthedistributionofequalbenefit,tomenof
equalmerit.Asifitwereinjusticetoselldearerthanwebuyorto
givemoretoamanthanhemerits.Thevalueofallthingscontracted
for,ismeasuredbytheappetiteofthecontractors:andthereforethe
justvalue,isthatwhichtheybecontentedtogive.Andmerit
(besidesthatwhichisbycovenant,wheretheperformanceonone
part,meriteththeperformanceoftheotherpart,andfallsunder
justicecommutative,notdistributive,)isnotduebyjusticebutis
rewardedofgraceonly.Andthereforethisdistinction,inthesense
whereinitusethtobeexpounded,isnotright.Tospeakproperly,
commutativejustice,isthejusticeofacontractorthatis,aperform
anceofcovenant,inbuying,andsellinghiring,andlettingtohire
lending,andborrowingexchanging,bartering,andotheractsof
contract.
15.Anddistributivejustice,thejusticeofanarbitratorthatisto
say,theactofdefiningwhatisjust.Wherein,(beingtrustedbythem
thatmakehimarbitrator,)ifheperformhistrust,heissaidto
distributetoeverymanhisown:andthisisindeedjustdistribution,
andmaybecalled(thoughimproperly)distributivejusticebut
moreproperlyequitywhichalsoisalawofnature,asshallbeshown
indueplace.
Thefourth16.AsjusticedependethonantecedentcovenantsodoesGRATI
lawofTUDEdependonantecedentgracethatistosay,antecedentfreegift:
nature,andisthefourthlawofnaturewhichmaybeconceivedinthisform,
gratitude.thatamanwhichreceivethbenefitfloraanotherofmeregrace,endeav
ourthathewhichgivethit,havenoreasonablecausetorepenthimofhis
goodwill.Fornomangiveth,butwithintentionofgoodtohimself
becausegiftisvoluntaryandofallvoluntaryacts,theobjectisto
everymanhisowngoodofwhichifmenseetheyshallbefrus
trated,therewillbenobeginningofbenevolence,ortrustnor
consequentlyofmutualhelpnorofreconciliationofonemanto
anotherandthereforetheyaretoremainstillintheconditionof
warwhichiscontrarytothefirstandfundamentallawofnature,
whichcommandethmentoseekpeace.Thebreachofthislaw,is
[76]calledingratitudeandhaththesamerelationtograce,thatinjustice
Thefifth,hathtoobligationbycovenant.
mutual17.Afifthlawofnature,isCOMPLAISANCEthatistosay,that
accommodation,everymanstrivetoaccommodatehimselftotherest.Fortheunder
orstandingwhereof,wemayconsider,thatthereisinmen'saptnessto
complaisance.society,adiversityofnature,risingfromtheirdiversityofaffec

tionsnotunliketothatweseeinstonesbroughttogetherfor
buildingofanedifice.Forasthatstonewhichbytheasperity,and
irregularityoffigure,takesmoreroomfromothers,thanitselffills
andforthehardness,cannotbeeasilymadeplain,andthereby
hindereththebuilding,isbythebuilderscastawayasunprofitable,
andtroublesome:soalso,amanthatbyasperityofnature,will
strivetoretainthosethingswhichtohimselfaresuperfluous,andto
othersnecessaryandforthestubbornnessofhispassions,cannotbe
corrected,istobeleft,orcastoutofsociety,ascumbersome
thereunto.Forseeingeveryman,notonlybyright,butalsoby
necessityofnature,issupposedtoendeavourallhecan,toobtain
thatwhichisnecessaryforhisconservationhethatshalloppose
himselfagainstit,forthingssuperfluous,isguiltyofthewarthat
thereuponistofollowandthereforedoththat,whichiscontraryto
thefundamentallawofnature,whichcommandethtoseekpeace.
Theobserversofthislaw,maybecalledSOCIABLE,(theLatinscall
themcommodi)thecontrary,stubborn,insociable,froward[perverse],
intractable.
18.Asixthlawofnature,isthis,thatuponcautionofthefuture
time,amanoughttopardontheoffencespastofthemthatrepenting,
desireit.ForPARDON,isnothingbutgrantingofpeacewhichthough
grantedtothemthatpersevereintheirhostility,benotpeace,but
fearyetnotgrantedtothemthatgivecautionofthefuturetune,is
signofanaversiontopeaceandthereforecontrarytothelawof
nature.

Thesixth,
facilityto
pardon.

19.Aseventhis,thatinrevenges,(thatis,retributionofevilfor
Theseventh,
evil,)menlooknotatthegreatnessoftheevilpast,butthegreatnessofthatin
thegoodtofollow.Wherebyweareforbiddentoinflictpunishmentrevenges,men
withanyotherdesign,thanforcorrectionoftheoffender,ordirecrespectonly
tionofothers.Forthislawisconsequenttothenextbeforeit,that
thefuture
commandethpardon,uponsecurityofthefuturetime.Besides,
good.
revengewithoutrespecttotheexample,andprofittocome,isa
triumph,orgloryinginthehurtofanother,tendingtonoend(for
theendisalwayssomewhattocome)andgloryingtonoend,is
vainglory,andcontrarytoreasonandtohurtwithoutreason,
tendethtotheintroductionofwarwhichisagainstthelawof
natureandiscommonlystyledbythenameofcruelty.
20.Andbecauseallsignsofhatred,orcontempt,provoketoTheeighth,
fightinsomuchasmostmenchooserathertohazardtheirlife,than
against
nottoberevengedwemayintheeighthplace,foralawofnature,
contumely.

Page102

setdownthisprecept,thatnomanbydeed,word,countenance,or
gesture,declarehatred,orcontemptofanother.Thebreachofwhich
law,iscommonlycalledcontumely.
Theninth,
21. Thequestionwhoisthebetterman,hasnoplaceinthe
againstpride.conditionofmerenaturewhere,(ashasbeenshewnbefore,)allmen
[77]
areequal.Theinequalitythatnowis,hasbeenintroducedbythe
lawscivil.IknowthatAristotleinthefirstbookofhisPolitics,fora
foundationofhisdoctrine,makethmenbynature,somemorewor
thytocommand,meaningthewisersort(suchashethoughthimself
tobeforhisphilosophy)otherstoserve,(meaningthosethathad
strongbodies,butwerenotphilosophersashe)asifmasterand
servantwerenotintroducedbyconsentofmen,butbydifferenceof
wit:whichisnotonlyagainstreasonbutalsoagainstexperience.
Forthereareveryfewsofoolish,thathadnotrathergovernthem
selves,thanbegovernedbyothers:norwhenthewiseintheirown
conceit,contendbyforce,withthemwhodistrusttheirownwis
dom,dotheyalways,oroften,oralmostatanytime,getthevictory.
Ifnaturethereforehavemademenequal,thatequalityistobe
acknowledged:orifnaturehavemademenunequalyetbecause
menthatthinkthemselvesequal,willnotenterintoconditionsof
peace,butuponequalterms,suchequalitymustbeadmitted.
Andthereforefortheninthlawofnature,Iputthis,thatevery
manacknowledgeanotherforhisequalbynature.Thebreachofthis
preceptispride.
Thetenth,
against
arrogance.

22.Onthislaw,dependethanother,thatattheentranceinto
conditionsofpeace,nomanrequiretoreservetohimselfanyright,which
heisnotcontentshouldbereservedtoeveryoneoftherest.Asitis
necessaryforallmenthatseekpeace,tolaydowncertainrightsof
naturethatistosay,nottohavelibertytodoalltheylist:soisit
necessaryforman'slife,toretainsomeasrighttogoverntheirown
bodiesenjoyair,water,motion,waystogofromplacetoplaceand
allthingselse,withoutwhichamancannotlive,ornotlivewell.If
inthiscase,atthemakingofpeace,menrequireforthemselves,that
whichtheywouldnothavetobegrantedtoothers,theydocontrary
totheprecedentlaw,thatcommandeththeacknowledgmentof
naturalequality,andthereforealsoagainstthelawofnature.The
observersofthislaw,arethosewecallmodest,andthebreakers
arrogantmen.TheGreekscalltheviolationofthislaw
thatis,adesireofmorethantheirshare.

23.Alsoifamanbetrustedtojudgebetweenmanandman,itisa
preceptofthelawofnature,thathedealequallybetweenthem.For
withoutthat,thecontroversiesofmencannotbedeterminedbutby
war.Hethereforethatispartialinjudgment,dothwhatinhimlies,
todetermenfromtheuseofjudges,andarbitratorsandconse
quently,(againstthefundamentallawofnature)isthecauseofwar.

Theeleventh,
equity.

24.Theobservanceofthislaw,fromtheequaldistributionto
eachman,ofthatwhichinreasonbelongethtohim,iscalledEQUITY,
and(asIhavesaidbefore)distributivejustice:theviolation,
acception[favouritism]ofpersons,
.
25.Andfromthisfollowethanotherlaw,thatsuchthingsascanThetwelfth,
notbedivided,beenjoyedincommon,ifitcanbeandifthequantityofequaluseof
thethingpermit,withoutstintotherwiseproportionablytothenumberthings
ofthemthathaveright.Forotherwisethedistributionisunequal,common.
andcontrarytoequity.
26.Butsomethingstherebe,thatcanneitherbedivided,nor[78]
enjoyedincommon.Then,thelawofnature,whichprescribethThe
equity,requireth,thattheentirerightorelse,(makingtheusealterthirteenth,
nate,)thefirstpossession,bedeterminedbylot.Forequaldistribution,oflot.
isofthelawofnatureandothermeansofequaldistributioncannot
beimagined.
27.Oflotstherebetwosorts,arbitrary,andnaturalArbitrary,is
The
thatwhichisagreedonbythecompetitors:natural,iseitherprimofourteenth,of
geniture,(whichtheGreekcalls
,whichsignifies,given
primogeniture,
bylot)orfirstseizure.
andfirst
28.Andthereforethosethingswhichcannotbeenjoyedincomseizing.
mon,nordivided,oughttobeadjudgedtothefirstpossessorandin
somecasestothefirstborn,asacquiredbylot.*
29.Itisalsoalawofnature,thatallmenthatmediatepeace,be
allowedsafeconduct.Forthelawthatcommandethpeace,astheend,
commandethintercession,asthemeansandtointercessionthe
meansissafeconduct.

Thefifteenth,
ofmediators.

30.Andbecause,thoughmenbeneversowillingtoobserveThe
theselaws,theremayneverthelessarisequestionsconcerninga
sixteenth,of
man'sactionfirst,whetheritweredone,ornotdonesecondly(if
submissionto
done)whetheragainstthelaw,ornotagainstthelawtheformer
arbitrement.
whereof,iscalledaquestionoffactthelatteraquestionofright,
thereforeunlessthepartiestothequestion,covenantmutuallyto
standtothesentenceofanother,theyareasfarfrompeaceasever.

Page104

Thisother,towhosesentencetheysubmitiscalledanARBITRATOR.
Andthereforeitisofthelawofnature,thattheythatareatcontro
versy,submittheirrighttothejudgmentofanarbitrator.
The
31.Andseeingeverymanispresumedtodoallthingsinorderto
seventeenth,hisownbenefit,nomanisafitarbitratorinhisowncause:andifhe
nomanishiswereneversofityetequityallowingtoeachpartyequalbenefit,if
ownjudge.onebeadmittedtobejudge,theotheristobeadmittedalsoandso
thecontroversy,thatis,thecauseofwar,remains,againstthelawof
nature.
The
32.Forthesamereasonnomaninanycauseoughttobereceived
eighteenth,noforarbitrator,towhomgreaterprofit,orhonour,orpleasureappar
mantobeentlyarisethoutofthevictoryofoneparty,thanoftheother:forhe
judge,thathathtaken(thoughanunavoidablebribe,yet)abribeandnoman
hasinhimacanbeobligedtotrusthim.Andthusalsothecontroversy,andthe
naturalcauseconditionofwarremaineth,contrarytothelawofnature.
ofpartiality.
33.Andinacontroversyoffact,thejudgebeingtogivenomore
The
credittoone,thantotheother,(iftherebenootherarguments)
nineteenth,ofmustgivecredittoathirdortoathirdandfourthormore:forelse
witnesses.thequestionisundecided,andlefttoforce,contrarytothelawof
nature.
34.Thesearethelawsofnature,dictatingpeace,forameansof
theconservationofmeninmultitudesandwhichonlyconcernthe
doctrineofcivilsociety.Therebeotherthingstendingtothede
structionofparticularmenasdrunkenness,andallotherpartsof
intemperancewhichmaythereforealsobereckonedamongstthose
thingswhichthelawofnaturehathforbiddenbutarenotnecessary
[79]
tobementioned,norarepertinentenoughtothisplace.
Arule,by35.Andthoughthismayseemtoosubtleadeductionofthe
whichthe
lawsofnature,tobetakennoticeofbyallmenwhereofthe
lawsof
mostpartaretoobusyingettingfood,andtheresttoonegligent
naturemay
tounderstandyettoleaveallmeninexcusable,theyhavebeen
easilybe
contractedintooneeasysum,intelligibleeventothemeanest
examined.capacityandthatis,Donotthattoanother,whichthouwouldest
nothavedonetothyself,whichshewethhim,thathehasnomoreto
doinlearningthelawsofnature,but,whenweighingtheactions
ofothermenwithhisown,theyseemtooheavy,toputtheminto
theotherpartofthebalance,andhisownintotheirplace,thathis
ownpassions,andselflove,mayaddnothingtotheweightand
thenthereisnoneoftheselawsofnaturethatwillnotappearunto
himveryreasonable.

36.Thelawsofnatureobligeinforointerno*thatistosay,theyThelawsof
bindtoadesiretheyshouldtakeplace:butinforoexternothatis,tonatureoblige
theputtingtheminact,notalways.Forhethatshouldbemodest,inconscience
andtractable,andperformallhepromises,insuchtime,andalways,but
place,wherenomanelseshoulddoso,shouldbutmakehimselfaineffectthen
preytoothers,andprocurehisowncertainruin,contrarytotheonlywhen
groundofalllawsofnature,whichtendtonature'spreservation.thereis
Andagain,hethathavingsufficientsecurity,thatothersshallsecurity.
observethesamelawstowardshim,observesthemnothimself,
seekethnotpeace,butwarandconsequentlythedestructionof
hisnaturebyviolence.
37.Andwhatsoeverlawsbindinforointerno,maybebroken,not
onlybyafactcontrarytothelaw,butalsobyafactaccordingtoit,
incaseamanthinkitcontrary.Forthoughhisactioninthiscase,be
accordingtothelawyethispurposewasagainstthelawwhich
wheretheobligationisinforointerno,isabreach.
38.Thelawsofnatureareimmutableandeternalforinjustice,Thelawsof
ingratitude,arrogance,pride,iniquity,acceptionofpersons,andthenatureare
rest,canneverbemadelawful.Foritcanneverbethatwarshalleternal
preservelife,andpeacedestroyit.
39.Thesamelaws,becausetheyobligeonlytoadesire,andAndyeteasy.
endeavour,Imeananunfeignedandconstantendeavour,areeasyto
beobserved.Forinthattheyrequirenothingbutendeavourhethat
endeavoureththeirperformance,fulfilleththemandhethat
fulfilleththelaw,isjust.
40.Andthescienceofthem,isthetrueandonlymoralphilosThescienceof
ophy.Formoralphilosophyisnothingelsebutthescienceofwhattheselaws,is
isgood,andevil,intheconversation,andsocietyofmankind.Good,thetrue
andevil,arenamesthatsignifyourappetites,andaversionswhichmoral
indifferenttempers,customs,anddoctrinesofmen,aredifferent:philosophy.
anddiversmen,differnotonlyintheirjudgment,onthesensesof
whatispleasant,andunpleasanttothetaste,smell,hearing,touch,
andsightbutalsoofwhatisconformable,ordisagreeabletoreason,
intheactionsofcommonlife.Nay,thesameman,indiverstimes,
differsfromhimselfandonetimepraiseth,thatis,callethgood,
whatanothertimehedispraiseth,andcallethevil:fromwhencearise[80]
disputes,controversies,andatlastwar.Andthereforesolongasa
manisintheconditionofmerenature,(whichisaconditionofwar,)
asprivateappetiteisthemeasureofgood,andevil:andconse
quentlyallmenagreeonthis,thatpeaceisgood,andthereforealso

Page106

theway,ormeansofpeace,which(asIhaveshewedbefore)are
justice,gratitude,modesty,equity,mercy,andtherestofthelawsof
nature,aregoodthatistosaymoralvirtuesandtheircontraryvices,
evil.Nowthescienceofvirtueandvice,ismoralphilosophy
andthereforethetruedoctrineofthelawsofnature,isthetrue
moralphilosophy.Butthewritersofmoralphilosophy,thoughthey
acknowledgethesamevirtuesandvicesyetnotseeingwherein
consistedtheirgoodnessnorthattheycometobepraised,asthe
meansofpeaceable,sociable,andcomfortablelivingplacethemin
amediocrityofpassions:asifnotthecause,butthedegreeofdaring,
madefortitudeornotthecause,butthequantityofagift,made
liberality.
41.Thesedictatesofreason,menusedtocallbythenameof
lawsbutimproperly:fortheyarebutconclusions,ortheorems
concerningwhatconducethtotheconservationanddefenceof
themselveswhereaslaw,properlyisthewordofhim,thatby
righthathcommandoverothers.Butyetifweconsiderthesame
theorems,asdeliveredinthewordofGod,thatbyright
commandethallthingsthenaretheyproperlycalledlaws.
ChapterXVI
OfPersons,Authors,andThingsPersonated*
Aperson1.Aperson,ishe,whosewordsoractionsareconsidered,eitherashis
what.own,orasrepresentingthewordsoractionsofanotherman,orofany
otherthingtowhomtheyareattributed,whethertrulyorbyfiction.
Person2.Whentheyareconsideredashisown,thenishecalleda
natural,andnaturalperson:andwhentheyareconsideredasrepresentingthe
artificial.wordsandactionsofanother,thenisheafeignedorartificialperson.
Theword3.ThewordpersonisLatin:insteadwhereoftheGreekshave
person,
,whichsignifiestheface,aspersonainLatinsignifiesthe
whence.disguise,oroutwardappearanceofaman,counterfeitedonthestage
andsometimesmoreparticularlythatpartofit,whichdisguiseththe
face,asamaskorvizard[visor]:andfromthestage,hathbeen
translatedtoanyrepresenterofspeechandaction,aswellintri
bunals,astheatres.Sothataperson,isthesamethatanactoris,both
onthestageandincommonconversationandtopersonate,istoact,

orrepresenthimself,oranotherandhethatactethanother,issaidto
bearhisperson,oractinhisname(inwhichsenseCicerousethit*
wherehesays,Unussustineotrespersonasmei,adversarii,etjudicis,I
bearthreepersonsmyown,myadversary's,andthejudge's)andis
calledindiversoccasions,diverselyasarepresenter,orrepresenta[81]
tive,alieutenant,avicar,anattorney,adeputy,aprocurator,anactor,
andthelike.
4.Ofpersonsartificial,somehavetheirwordsandactionsowned
bythosewhomtheyrepresent.AndthenthepersonistheactorandActor.
hethatownethhiswordsandactions,istheAUTHOR:inwhichcaseAuthor.
theactoractethbyauthority.Forthatwhichinspeakingofgoods
andpossessions,iscalledanowner,andinLatindominus,inGreek

speakingofactions,iscalledauthor.Andastherightof
possession,iscalleddominionsotherightofdoinganyaction,is
calledAUTHORITYandsometimeswarrant.*Sothatbyauthority,isAuthority.
alwaysunderstoodarightofdoinganyact:anddonebyauthority,
donebycommission,orlicencefromhimwhoserightitis.
5.Fromhenceitfolloweth,thatwhentheactormakethacovCovenantsby
enantbyauthority,hebindeththerebytheauthor,nolessthanifheauthority,
hadmadeithimselfandnolesssubjectethhimtoalltheconsebindthe
quencesofthesame.Andthereforeallthathathbeensaidformerly,author.
(chap.XIV)ofthenatureofcovenantsbetweenmanandmanin
theirnaturalcapacity,istruealsowhentheyaremadebytheir
actors,representers,orprocurators,thathaveauthorityfromthem,
sofarforthasisintheircommission,butnofurther.
6.Andthereforehethatmakethacovenantwiththeactor,or
representer,notknowingtheauthorityhehath,dothitathis
ownperil.Fornomanisobligedbyacovenant,whereofheisnot
authornorconsequentlybyacovenantmadeagainst,orbesidethe
authorityhegave.
7.WhentheactordothanythingagainstthelawofnaturebyButnotthe
commandoftheauthor,ifhebeobligedbyformercovenanttoobeyactor.
him,nothe,buttheauthorbreakeththelawofnature:forthough
theactionbeagainstthelawofnatureyetitisnothis:butcontrar
ily,torefusetodoit,isagainstthelawofnature,thatforbiddeth
breachofcovenant.
8.Andhethatmakethacovenantwiththeauthor,bymediationTheauthority
oftheactor,notknowingwhatauthorityhehath,butonlytakeshisistobe
wordincasesuchauthoritybenotmademanifestuntohimuponshown.
demand,isnolongerobliged:forthecovenantmadewiththe

Page108

author,isnotvalid,withouthiscounterassurance.Butifhethatso
covenanteth,knewbeforehandhewastoexpectnootherassurance,
thantheactor'swordthenisthecovenantvalidbecausetheactor
inthiscasemakethhimselftheauthor.Andtherefore,aswhenthe
authorityisevident,thecovenantobligeththeauthor,nottheactor
sowhentheauthorityisfeigned,itobligeththeactoronlythere
beingnoauthorbuthimself.
Things9.Therearefewthings,thatareincapableofbeingrepresented
personated,byfiction.Inanimatethings,asachurch,anhospital,abridge,may
inanimate.bepersonatedbyarector,master,oroverseer.Butthingsinanimate,
cannotbeauthors,northereforegiveauthoritytotheiractors:yet
theactorsmayhaveauthoritytoprocuretheirmaintenance,given
[82]thembythosethatareowners,orgovernorsofthosethings.And
therefore,suchthingscannotbepersonated,beforetherebesome
stateofcivilgovernment.
Irrational.10.Likewisechildren,fools,andmadmenthathavenouseof
reason,maybepersonatedbyguardians,orcuratorsbutcanbeno
authors(duringthattime)ofanyactiondonebythem,longerthan
(whentheyshallrecovertheuseofreason)theyshalljudgethesame
reasonable.Yetduringthefolly,hethathathrightofgoverning
them,maygiveauthoritytotheguardian.Butthisagainhasnoplace
butinastatecivil,becausebeforesuchestate,thereisnodominion
ofpersons.
Falsegods.11.Anidol,ormerefigmentofthebrain,maybepersonatedas
werethegodsoftheheathenwhichbysuchofficersasthestate
appointed,werepersonated,andheldpossessions,andothergoods,
andrights,whichmenfromtimetotimededicated,andconsecrated
untothem.Butidolscannotbeauthors:foranidolisnothing.The
authorityproceededfromthestate:andthereforebeforeintroduc
tionofcivilgovernment,thegodsoftheheathencouldnotbe
personated.
Thetrue12.ThetrueGodmaybepersonated.Ashewasfirst,byMoses
God.whogovernedtheIsraelites(thatwerenothis,butGod'speople,)
notinhisownname,withhocdicitMosesbutinGod'sname,with
hocdicitDominus.*Secondly,bytheSonofman,hisownSon,our
blessedSaviourJesusChrist,thatcametoreduce[recall]theJews,
andinduceallnationsintothekingdomofhisfathernotasof
himself,butassentfromhisfather.Andthirdly,bytheHolyGhost,
orComforter,speaking,andworkingintheApostles:whichHoly

Ghost,wasaComforterthatcamenotofhimselfbutwassent,and
proceededfromthembothonthedayofPentecost.*
13.Amultitudeofmen,aremadeoneperson,whentheyarebyAmultitude
oneman,oroneperson,representedsothatitbedonewiththeofmen,how
consentofeveryoneofthatmultitudeinparticular.Foritistheoneperson.
unityoftherepresenter,nottheunityoftherepresented,that
makeththepersonone.Anditistherepresenterthatbeareththe
person,andbutoneperson:andunity,cannototherwisebeunder
stoodinmultitude.
14.Andbecausethemultitudenaturallyisnotone,butmanyEveryoneis
theycannotbeunderstoodforonebutmanyauthors,ofeverythingauthor.
theirrepresentativesaith,ordothintheirnameeverymangiving
theircommonrepresenter,authorityfromhimselfinparticularand
owningalltheactionstherepresenterdoth,incasetheygivehim
authoritywithoutstint:otherwise,whentheylimithiminwhat,and
howfarheshallrepresentthem,noneofthemownethmore,than
theygavehimcommissiontoact.Anactormay
15.Andiftherepresentativeconsistofmanymen,thevoiceofbemanymen
thegreaternumber,mustbeconsideredasthevoiceofthemall.madeoneby
Forifthelessernumberpronounce(forexample)intheaffirmative,pluralityof
andthegreaterinthenegative,therewillbenegativesmorethan.voices
enoughtodestroytheaffirmativesandtherebytheexcessof[83]
negatives,standinguncontradicted,aretheonlyvoicetherep
resentativehath.
16.Andarepresentativeofevennumber,especiallywhentheRepresentatives,
numberisnotgreat,wherebythecontradictoryvoicesarewhenthe
oftentimesequal,isthereforeoftentimesmute,andincapableofnumberis
action.Yetinsomecasescontradictoryvoicesequalinnumber,mayeven,
determineaquestionasincondemning,orabsolving,equalityofunprofitable.
votes,eveninthattheycondemnnot,doabsolvebutnotonthe
contrarycondemn,inthattheyabsolvenot.Forwhenacauseis
heardnottocondemn,istoabsolve:butonthecontrary,tosaythat
notabsolving,iscondemning,isnottrue.Thelikeitisinadeliber
ationofexecutingpresently,ordeferringtillanothertime:forwhen
thevoicesareequal,thenotdecreeingexecution,isadecreeof
dilation.
17.Orifthenumberbeodd,asthree,ormore,(menorassemNegative
blies)whereofeveryonehasbyanegativevoice,authoritytotakevoice.
awaytheeffectofalltheaffirmativevoicesoftherest,thisnumber

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isnorepresentativebecausebythediversityofopinions,and
interestsofmen,itbecomesoftentimes,andincasesofthegreatest
consequence,amuteperson,andunapt,asformanythingselse,so
forthegovernmentofamultitude,especiallyintimeofwar.
18.Ofauthorstherebetwosorts.Thefirstsimplysocalled
whichIhavebeforedefinedtobehim,thatowneththeactionof
anothersimply.Thesecondishe,thatownethanaction,orcov
enantofanotherconditionallythatistosay,heundertakethtodoit,
iftheotherdothitnot,at,orbeforeacertaintime.Andthese
authorsconditional,aregenerallycalledSURETIES,inLatin,
fidejussores,andsponsoresandparticularlyfordebt,praedesandfor
appearancebeforeajudge,ormagistrate,vades.

Part2[85]
OfCommonwealth
ChapterXVII
OftheCauses,Generation,andDefinitionofACommonwealth*
1.Thefinalcause,end,ordesignofmen,(whonaturallyloveTheendof
liberty,anddominionoverothers,)intheintroductionofthatrecommonwealth,
straintuponthemselves,(inwhichweseethemliveincommonparticular
wealths,)istheforesightoftheirownpreservation,andofamoresecurity:
contentedlifetherebythatistosay,ofgettingthemselvesoutfrom
thatmiserableconditionofwar,whichisnecessarilyconsequent(as
hathbeenshown,chapterXIII)tothenaturalpassionsofmen,when
thereisnovisiblepowertokeeptheminawe,andtiethembyfear
ofpunishmenttotheperformanceoftheircovenants,andobser
vationofthoselawsofnaturesetdowninthefourteenthand
fifteenthchapters.
2.Forthelawsofnature(asjustice,equity,modesty,mercy,and(inWhichisnot
sum)doingtoothers,aswewouldbedoneto,)ofthemselves,withouttobehad
theterrorofsomepower,tocausethemtobeobserved,arecontraryfromthelaw
toournaturalpassions,thatcarryustopartiality,pride,revenge,ofnature:
andthelike.Andcovenants,withoutthesword,arebutwords,and
ofnostrengthtosecureamanatall.Thereforenotwithstandingthe
lawsofnature(whicheveryonehaththenkept,whenhehasthewill
tokeepthem,whenhecandoitsafely)iftherebenopowererected,
ornotgreatenoughforoursecurityeverymanwill,andmay
lawfullyrelyonhisownstrengthandart,forcautionagainstall
othermen.Andinallplaces,wheremenhavelivedbysmallfam
ilies,torobandspoiloneanother,hasbeenatrade,andsofarfrom
beingreputedagainstthelawofnature,thatthegreaterspoilsthey
gained,thegreaterwastheirhonour*andmenobservednoother
lawstherein,butthelawsofhonourthatis,toabstainfromcruelty,
leavingtomentheirlives,andinstrumentsofhusbandry.Andas
smallfamiliesdidthensonowdocitiesandkingdomswhicharebut
greaterfamilies(fortheirownsecurity)enlargetheirdominions,

Page112

uponallpretencesofdanger,andfearofinvasion,orassistancethat
maybegiventoinvaders,andendeavourasmuchastheycan,to
subdue,orweakentheirneighbours,byopenforce,andsecretarts,
forwantofothercaution,justlyandarerememberedforitinafter
ageswithhonour.
Norfromthe3.Norisitthejoiningtogetherofasmallnumberofmen,that
conjunctionofgivesthemthissecuritybecauseinsmallnumbers,smalladditions
afewmenorontheonesideortheother,maketheadvantageofstrengthsogreat,
families:asissufficienttocarrythevictoryandthereforegivesencourage
[86]menttoaninvasion.Themultitudesufficienttoconfideinforour
security,isnotdeterminedbyanycertainnumber,butbycompari
sonwiththeenemywefearandisthensufficient,whentheoddsof
theenemyisnotofsovisibleandconspicuousmoment,todeter
minetheeventofwar,astomovehimtoattempt.
Norfroma4.Andbethereneversogreatamultitudeyetiftheiractionsbe
greatdirectedaccordingtotheirparticularjudgments,andparticular
multitude,appetites,theycanexpecttherebynodefence,norprotection,
unlessneitheragainstacommonenemy,noragainsttheinjuriesofone
directedbyanother.Forbeingdistractedinopinionsconcerningthebestuse
onejudgment.andapplicationoftheirstrength,theydonothelp,buthinderone
anotherandreducetheirstrengthbymutualoppositiontonothing:
wherebytheyareeasily,notonlysubduedbyaveryfewthatagree
togetherbutalsowhenthereisnocommonenemy,theymakewar
uponeachother,fortheirparticularinterests.Forifwecould
supposeagreatmultitudeofmentoconsentintheobservationof
justice,andotherlawsofnature,withoutacommonpowertokeep
themallinawewemightaswellsupposeallmankindtodothe
sameandthenthereneitherwouldbe,norneedtobeanycivil
government,orcommonwealthatallbecausetherewouldbepeace
withoutsubjection.
Andthat5.Norisitenoughforthesecurity,whichmendesireshould
continually.lastallthetimeoftheirlife,thattheybegoverned,anddirected
byonejudgment,foralimitedtimeasinonebattle,oronewar.
Forthoughtheyobtainavictorybytheirunanimousendeavour
againstaforeignenemyyetafterwards,wheneithertheyhaveno
commonenemy,orhethatbyonepartisheldforanenemy,isby
anotherpartheldforafriend,theymustneedsbythedifference
oftheirinterestsdissolve,andfallagainintoawaramongst
themselves.

6.Itistrue,thatcertainlivingcreatures,asbees,andants,liveWhycertain
sociablyonewithanother,(whicharethereforebyAristotlenumcreatures
bered*amongstpoliticalcreatures)andyethavenootherdirection,without
thantheirparticularjudgmentsandappetitesnorspeech,wherebyreason,or
oneofthemcansignifytoanother,whathethinksexpedientforthespeech,do
commonbenefit:andthereforesomemanmayperhapsdesiretonevertheless
know,whymankindcannotdothesame.TowhichIanswer,livein
7.First,thatmenarecontinuallyincompetitionforhonourandsociety,
dignity,whichthesecreaturesarenotandconsequentlyamongstwithoutany
mentherearisethonthatground,envyandhatred,andfinallywarcoercive
butamongstthesenotso.power.
8.Secondly,thatamongstthesecreatures,thecommongood
differethnotfromtheprivateandbeingbynatureinclinedtotheir
private,theyprocuretherebythecommonbenefit.Butman,whose
joyconsistethincomparinghimselfwithothermen,canrelish
nothingbutwhatiseminent.
9.Thirdly,thatthesecreatures,havingnot(asman)theuseof
reason,donotsee,northinktheyseeanyfault,intheadministration
oftheircommonbusiness:whereasamongstmen,therearevery[87]
many,thatthinkthemselveswiser,andablertogovernthepublic,
betterthantherestandthesestrivetoreformandinnovate,onethis
way,anotherthatwayandtherebybringitintodistractionandcivil
war.
10.Fourthly,thatthesecreatures,thoughtheyhavesomeuseof
voice,inmakingknowntooneanothertheirdesires,andother
affectionsyettheywantthatartofwords,bywhichsomemencan
representtoothers,thatwhichisgood,inthelikenessofeviland
evil,inthelikenessofgoodandaugment,ordiminishtheapparent
greatnessofgoodandevildiscontentingmen,andtroublingtheir
peaceattheirpleasure.
11.Fifthly,irrationalcreaturescannotdistinguishbetweenin
jury,anddamageandthereforeaslongastheybeatease,theyare
notoffendedwiththeirfellows:whereasmanisthenmosttrouble
some,whenheismostatease:forthenitisthathelovestoshewhis
wisdom,andcontroltheactionsofthemthatgovernthecommon
wealth.
12.Lastly,theagreementofthesecreaturesisnaturalthatof
men,isbycovenantonly,whichisartificial:andthereforeitisno
wonderiftherebesomewhatelserequired(besidescovenant)to

Page114

maketheiragreementconstantandlastingwhichisacommon
power,tokeeptheminawe,andtodirecttheiractionstothe
commonbenefit.
The13.Theonlywaytoerectsuchacommonpower,asmaybeable
generationtodefendthemfromtheinvasionofforeigners,andtheinjuriesof
ofaoneanother,andtherebytosecuretheminsuchsort,asthatbytheir
commonwealth.ownindustry,andbythefruitsoftheearth,theymaynourish
themselvesandlivecontentedlyis,toconferalltheirpowerand
strengthupononeman,orupononeassemblyofmen,thatmay
reducealltheirwills,bypluralityofvoices,untoonewill:whichis
asmuchastosay,toappointoneman,orassemblyofmen,tobear
theirpersonandeveryonetoown,andacknowledgehimselftobe
authorofwhatsoeverhethatsobeareththeirperson,shallact,or
causetobeacted,inthosethingswhichconcernthecommonpeace
andsafetyandthereintosubmittheirwills,everyonetohiswill,
andtheirjudgments,tohisjudgment.Thisismorethanconsent,or
concorditisarealunityofthemall,inoneandthesameperson,
madebycovenantofeverymanwitheveryman,insuchmanner,as
ifeverymanshouldsaytoeveryman,Iauthorizeandgiveupmy
rightofgoverningmyself,tothisman,ortothisassemblyofmen,onthis
condition,thatthougiveupthyrighttohim,andauthorizeallhis
actionsinlikemanner.Thisdone,themultitudesounitedinone
person,iscalledaCOMMONWEALTH,inLatinCIVITAS.Thisisthe
generationofthatgreatLEVIATHAN,orrather(tospeakmorerever
ently)ofthatMortalGod,towhichweoweundertheImmortalGod,
ourpeaceanddefence.Forbythisauthority,givenhimbyevery
[88]particularmaninthecommonwealth,hehaththeuseofsomuch
powerandstrengthconferredonhim,thatbyterrorthereof,heis
enabledtoconform*thewillsofthemall,topeaceathome,and
mutualaidagainsttheirenemiesabroad.Andinhimconsisteththe
Theessenceofthecommonwealthwhich(todefineit,)isoneperson,of
definitionofawhoseactsagreatmultitude,bymutualcovenantsonewithanother,
commonwealth.havemadethemselveseveryonetheauthor,totheendhemayusethe
strengthandmeansofthemall,asheshallthinkexpedient,fortheir
peaceandcommondefence.
Sovereign,14.Andhethatcarrieththisperson,iscalledSOVEREIGN,andsaid
andsubject,tohavesovereignpower,andeveryonebesides,hisSUBJECT.
what.15.Theattainingtothissovereignpower,isbytwoways.One,
bynaturalforceaswhenamanmakethhischildren,tosubmit
themselves,andtheirchildrentohisgovernment,asbeingableto

destroythemiftheyrefuseorbywarsubduethhisenemiestohis
will,givingthemtheirlivesonthatcondition.Theother,iswhen
menagreeamongstthemselves,tosubmittosomeman,orassembly
ofmen,voluntarily,onconfidencetobeprotectedbyhimagainst
allothers.Thislatter,maybecalledapoliticalcommonwealth,or
commonwealthbyinstitutionandtheformer,acommonwealthby
acquisition.Andfirst,Ishallspeakofacommonwealthbyinstitu
tion.
ChapterXVIII
OftheRightsofSovereignsbyInstitution*
1.Acommonwealthissaidtobeinstituted,whenamultitudeofmenTheactof
doagree,andcovenant,everyone,witheveryone,thattowhatsoeverinstitutinga
man,orassemblyofmen,shallbegivenbythemajorpart,therighttocommonwealth,
presentthepersonofthemall(thatistosay,tobetheirrepresentawhat.
tive)everyone,aswellhethatvotedforit,ashethatvotedagainstit,
shallauthorizealltheactionsandjudgments,ofthatman,oras
semblyofmen,inthesamemanner,asiftheywerehisown,tothe
end,tolivepeaceablyamongstthemselves,andbeprotectedagainst
othermen.
2.FromthisinstitutionofacommonwealtharederivedalltheTheconse
rights,andfacultiesofhim,orthem,onwhomthesovereignpowerquencestosuch
isconferredbytheconsentofthepeopleassembled.institutions,are
3.First,becausetheycovenant,itistobeunderstood,theyare1.The
notobligedbyformercovenanttoanythingrepugnanthereunto.subjects
Andconsequentlytheythathavealreadyinstitutedacommoncannot
wealth,beingtherebyboundbycovenant,toowntheactions,andchangethe
judgmentsofone,cannotlawfullymakeanewcovenant,amongstformof
themselves,tobeobedienttoanyother,inanythingwhatsoever,government.
withouthispermission.Andtherefore,theythataresubjectstoa
monarch,cannotwithouthisleaveeastoffmonarchy,andreturnto
theconfusionofadisunitedmultitudenortransfertheirperson
fromhimthatbearethit,toanotherman,orotherassemblyofmen:
fortheyarebound,everymantoeveryman,toown,andbereputed
authorofall,thathethatalreadyistheirsovereign,shalldo,and[89]
judgefittobedone:sothatanyonemandissenting,alltherest

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shouldbreaktheircovenantmadetothatman,whichisinjustice:
andtheyhavealsoeverymangiventhesovereigntytohimthat
beareththeirpersonandthereforeiftheydeposehim,theytake
fromhimthatwhichishisown,andsoagainitisinjustice.Besides,
ifhethatattemptethtodeposehissovereign,bekilled,orpunished
byhimforsuchattempt,heisauthorofhisownpunishment,as
beingbytheinstitution,authorofallhissovereignshalldo:and
becauseitisinjusticeforamantodoanything,forwhichhemaybe
punishedbyhisownauthority,heisalsouponthattitle,unjust.And
whereassomemenhavepretendedfortheirdisobediencetotheir
sovereign,anewcovenant,made,notwithmen,butwithGodthis
alsoisunjust:forthereisnocovenantwithGod,*butbymediation
ofsomebodythatrepresentethGod'spersonwhichnonedothbut
God'slieutenant,whohaththesovereigntyunderGod.Butthis
pretenceofcovenantwithGod,issoevidentalie,eveninthe
pretenders'ownconsciences,thatitisnotonlyanactofanunjust,
butalsoofavile,andunmanlydisposition.
2.Sovereign4.Secondly,becausetherightofbearingthepersonofthemall,
powercannotisgiventohimtheymakesovereign,bycovenantonlyofoneto
beforfeited.another,andnotofhimtoanyofthemtherecanhappennobreach
ofcovenantonthepartofthesovereignandconsequentlynoneof
hissubjects,byanypretenceofforfeiture,canbefreedfromhis
subjection.Thathewhichismadesovereignmakethnocovenant
withhissubjectsbeforehand,ismanifestbecauseeitherhemust
makeitwiththewholemultitude,asonepartytothecovenantorhe
mustmakeaseveralcovenantwitheveryman.Withthewhole,as
oneparty,itisimpossiblebecauseasyettheyarenotoneperson:
andifhemakesomanyseveralcovenantsastherebemen,those
covenantsafterhehaththesovereigntyarevoidbecausewhatact
soevercanbepretendedbyanyoneofthemforbreachthereof,isthe
actbothofhimself,andofalltherest,becausedoneintheperson,
andbytherightofeveryoneoftheminparticular.Besides,ifany
one,ormoreofthem,pretendabreachofthecovenantmadebythe
sovereignathisinstitutionandothers,oroneotherofhissubjects,
orhimselfalone,pretendtherewasnosuchbreach,thereisinthis
case,nojudgetodecidethecontroversyitreturnsthereforetothe
swordagainandeverymanrecovereththerightofprotectinghim
selfbyhisownstrength,contrarytothedesigntheyhadinthe
institution.Itisthereforeinvaintograntsovereigntybywayof
precedentcovenant.Theopinionthatanymonarchreceivethhis

powerbycovenant,thatistosayoncondition,proceedethfrom
wantofunderstandingthiseasytruth,thatcovenantsbeingbut
words,andbreath,havenoforcetooblige,contain,constrain,or
protectanyman,butwhatithasfromthepublicswordthatis,from
theuntiedhandsofthatman,orassemblyofmenthathaththe
sovereignty,andwhoseactionsareavouchedbythemall,andper
formedbythestrengthofthemall,inhimunited.Butwhenan[90]
assemblyofmenismadesovereignthennomanimaginethany
suchcovenanttohavepassedintheinstitutionfornomanissodull
astosay,forexample,thepeopleofRome,madeacovenantwiththe
Romans,toholdthesovereigntyonsuchorsuchconditionswhich
notperformed,theRomansmightlawfullydeposetheRoman
people.Thatmenseenotthereasontobealikeinamonarchy,and
inapopulargovernment,proceedethfromtheambitionofsome,
thatarekindertothegovernmentofanassembly,whereofthey
mayhopetoparticipate,thanofmonarchy,whichtheydespairto
enjoy.
5.Thirdly,becausethemajorparthathbyconsenting3.Noman
voicesdeclaredasovereignhethatdissentedmustnowconsentcanwithout
withtherestthatis,becontentedtoavowalltheactionsheinjustice
shalldo,orelsejustlybedestroyedbytherest.Forifhevoluntarilyprotest
enteredintothecongregationofthemthatwereassembled,heagainstthe
sufficientlydeclaredtherebyhiswill(andthereforetacitlyinstitutionof
covenanted)tostandtowhatthemajorpartshouldordain:andthesovereign
thereforeifherefusetostandthereto,ormakeprotestationagainstdeclaredby
anyoftheirdecrees,hedoescontrarytohiscovenant,andthereforethemajor
unjustly.Andwhetherhebeofthecongregation,ornotandpart.
whetherhisconsentbeasked,ornot,hemusteithersubmitto
theirdecrees,orbeleftintheconditionofwarhewasinbefore
whereinhemightwithoutinjusticebedestroyedbyanymanwhat
soever.
6.Fourthly,becauseeverysubjectisbythisinstitutionauthorof4.The
alltheactions,andjudgmentsofthesovereigninstituteditfollows,sovereign's
thatwhatsoeverhedoth,itcanbenoinjurytoanyofhissubjectsactions
noroughthetobebyanyofthemaccusedofinjustice.Forhethatcannotbe
dothanythingbyauthorityfromanother,doththereinnoinjurytojustlyaccused
himbywhoseauthorityheacteth:butbythisinstitutionofacornbythe
monwealth,everyparticularmanisauthorofallthesovereigndoth:subject.
andconsequentlyhethatcomplainethofinjuryfromhissovereign,
complainethofthatwhereofhehimselfisauthorandtherefore

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oughtnottoaccuseanymanbuthimselfnonorhimselfofinjury
becausetodoinjurytoone'sself,isimpossible.Itistruethatthey
thathavesovereignpower,maycommitiniquitybutnotinjustice,
orinjuryinthepropersignification.
5.Whatsoever7.Fifthly,andconsequentlytothatwhichwassaidlast,noman
thesovereignthathathsovereignpowercanjustlybeputtodeath,orotherwisein
dothisanymannerbyhissubjectspunished.Forseeingeverysubjectis
unpunishableauthoroftheactionsofhissovereignhepunishethanother,forthe
bytheactionscommittedbyhimself.
subject.8.Andbecausetheendofthisinstitution,isthepeaceand
6.Thedefenceofthemallandwhosoeverhasrighttotheend,hasright
sovereignistothemeansitbelongethofright,towhatsoeverman,orassembly
judgeofwhatthathaththesovereignty,tobejudgebothofthemeansofpeace
isnecessaryanddefenceandalsoofthehindrances,anddisturbancesof
forthepeacethesameandtodowhatsoeverheshallthinknecessarytobedone,
anddefencebothbeforehand,forthepreservingofpeaceandsecurity,bypre
ofhis[91]ventionofdiscordathome,andhostilityfromabroadand,when
subjects.peaceandsecurityarelost,fortherecoveryofthesame.And
therefore,
Andjudgeof9.Sixthly,itisannexedtothesovereignty,tobejudgeofwhat
whatopinionsanddoctrinesareaverse,andwhatconducingtopeaceand
doctrinesareconsequently,onwhatoccasions,howfar,andwhat,menaretobe
fittobetrustedwithal,inspeakingtomultitudesofpeopleandwhoshall
taughtthem.examinethedoctrinesofallbooksbeforetheybepublished.*For
theactionsofmenproceedfromtheiropinionsandinthewell
governingofopinions,consisteththewellgoverningofmen'sac
tions,inordertotheirpeace,andconcord.Andthoughinmatterof
doctrine,nothingoughttoberegardedbutthetruthyetthisisnot
repugnanttoregulatingthesamebypeace.Fordoctrinerepugnant
topeace,cannomorebetrue,thanpeaceandconcordcanbeagainst
thelawofnature.Itistrue,thatinacommonwealth,wherebythe
negligence,orunskilfulnessofgovernors,andteachers,falsedoc
trinesarebytimegenerallyreceivedthecontrarytruthsmaybe
generallyoffensive:Yetthemostsudden,androughbustlinginofa
newtruth,thatcanbe,doesneverbreakthepeace,butonlysome
timesawakethewar.Forthosementhataresoremisslygoverned,
thattheydaretakeuparms,todefend,orintroduceanopinion,are
stillinwarandtheirconditionnotpeace,butonlyacessationof
armsforfearofoneanotherandtheyliveasitwere,intheprecincts
ofbattlecontinually.Itbelongeththereforetohimthathaththe

sovereignpower,tobejudge,orconstitutealljudgesofopinionsand
doctrines,asathingnecessarytopeacetherebytopreventdiscord
andcivilwar.
10.Seventhly,isannexedtothesovereignty,thewholepower7.Theright
ofprescribingtherules,wherebyeverymanmayknow,whatgoodsofmaking
hemayenjoy,andwhatactionshemaydo,withoutbeingmolestedrules
byanyofhisfellowsubjects:andthisisitmencallpropriety.Forwherebythe
beforeconstitutionofsovereignpower(ashathalreadybeenshown)subjectsmay
allmenhadrighttoallthingswhichnecessarilycausethwar:everyman
andthereforethispropriety,beingnecessarytopeace,anddependknowwhatis
ingonsovereignpower,istheactofthatpower,inordertothesohisown,as
publicpeace.Theserulesofpropriety(ormeumandtuum)andofnoother
good,evil,lawful,andunlawfulintheactionsofsubjects,aresubjectcan
thecivillaws*thatistosay,thelawsofeachcommonwealthinwithout
particularthoughthenameofcivillawbenowrestrainedtotheinjusticetake
ancientcivillawsofthecityofRomewhichbeingtheheadofaitfromhim.
greatpartoftheworld,herlawsatthattimewereinthesepartsthe
civillaw.
11.Eighthly,isannexedtothesovereignty,therightofjudica8.Tohim
turethatistosay,ofhearinganddecidingallcontroversies,whichalsobelongeth
mayariseconcerninglaw,eithercivil,ornaturalorconcerningfact.therightof
Forwithoutthedecisionofcontroversies,thereisnoprotectionofjudicature
onesubject,againsttheinjuriesofanotherthelawsconcerninganddecision
meumandtuumareinvainandtoeverymanremaineth,fromtheofcontroversy.
naturalandnecessaryappetiteofhisownconservation,therightof
protectinghimselfbyhisprivatestrength,whichistheconditionof
war,andcontrarytotheendforwhicheverycommonwealthis[92]
instituted.
12.Ninthly,isannexedtothesovereignty,therightofmaking9.Andof
war,andpeacewithothernations,andcommonwealthsthatistomakingwar,
say,ofjudgingwhenitisforthepublicgood,andhowgreatforcesandpeace,as
aretobeassembled,armed,andpaidforthatendandtolevymoneyheshallthink
uponthesubjects,todefraytheexpensesthereof.Forthepowerbybest.
whichthepeoplearetobedefended,consistethintheirarmiesand
thestrengthofanarmy,intheunionoftheirstrengthunderone
commandwhichcommandthesovereigninstituted,thereforehath
becausethecommandofthemilitia,withoutotherinstitution,
makethhimthathathitsovereign.Andthereforewhosoeverismade
generalofanarmy,hethathaththesovereignpowerisalways
generalissimo[commanderinchief].

Page120

10.Andof13.Tenthly,isannexedtothesovereignty,thechoosingof
choosingallallcounsellors,ministers,magistrates,andofficers,bothin
counsellorsandpeace,andwar.Forseeingthesovereignischargedwiththe
ministers,bothend,whichisthecommonpeaceanddefenceheisunderstoodto
ofpeaceandhavepowertousesuchmeans,asheshallthinkmostfitforhis
war.discharge.
11.Andof14.Eleventhly,tothesovereigniscommittedthepowerofre
rewardingandwardingwithriches,orhonourandofpunishingwithcorporal,or
punishing,andpecuniarypunishment,orwithignominyeverysubjectaccordingto
that(wherenothelawhehathformerlymadeoriftherebenolawmade,according
formerlawhathasheshalljudgemosttoconducetotheencouragingofmentoserve
determinedthethecommonwealth,ordeterringofthemfromdoingdisserviceto
measureofit)thesame.
arbitrarily.15.Lastly,consideringwhatvaluemenarenaturallyapttoset
12.Andofuponthemselveswhatrespecttheylookforfromothersandhow
honourandlittletheyvalueothermenfromwhencecontinuallyariseamongst
order.them,emulation,quarrels,factions,andatlastwar,tothedestroy
ingofoneanother,anddiminutionoftheirstrengthagainstacom
monenemyitisnecessarythattherebelawsofhonour,andapublic
rateoftheworthofsuchmenashavedeserved,orareabletodeserve
wellofthecommonwealthandthattherebeforceinthehandsof
someorother,toputthoselawsinexecution.Butithathalready
beenshown,thatnotonlythewholemilitia,orforcesofthecom
monwealthbutalsothejudicatureofallcontroversies,isannexedto
thesovereignty.Tothesovereignthereforeitbelongethalsotogive
titlesofhonourandtoappointwhatorderofplace,anddignity,
eachmanshallholdandwhatsignsofrespect,inpublicorprivate
meetings,theyshallgivetooneanother.
Theserights16.Thesearetherights,whichmaketheessenceofsover
areeignty*andwhicharethemarks,wherebyamanmaydiscernin
indivisible.whatman,orassemblyofmen,thesovereignpowerisplaced,and
resideth.Fortheseareincommunicable,andinseparable.The
powertocoinmoneytodisposeoftheestateandpersonsofinfant
heirstohavepraeemptioninmarketsandallotherstatutepreroga
tives,maybetransferredbythesovereignanyyetthepowerto
protecthissubjectsberetained.Butifhetransferthemilitia,he
[93]retainsthejudicatureinvain,forwantofexecutionofthelaws:orif
hegrantawaythepowerofraisingmoneythemilitiaisinvain:or
ifhegiveawaythegovernmentofdoctrines,menwillbefrighted
intorebellionwiththefearofspirits.Andsoifweconsideranyone

ofthesaidrights,weshallpresentlysee,thattheholdingofallthe
rest,willproducenoeffect,intheconservationofpeaceandjustice,
theendforwhichallcommonwealthsareinstituted.Andthisdiv
isionisit,whereofitissaid,akingdomdividedinitselfcannotstand:*
forunlessthisdivisionprecede,divisionintooppositearmiescan
neverhappen.Iftherehadnotfirstbeenanopinionreceivedofthe
greatestpartofEngland,thatthesepowersweredividedbetween
theKing,andtheLords,andtheHouseofCommons,thepeople
hadneverbeendividedandfallenintothiscivilwar*firstbetween
thosethatdisagreedinpoliticsandafterbetweenthedissenters
aboutthelibertyofreligionwhichhavesoinstructedmeninthis
pointofsovereignright,thattherebefewnow(inEngland,)thatdo
notsee,thattheserightsareinseparable,andwillbesogenerally
acknowledgedatthenextreturnofpeaceandsocontinue,filltheir
miseriesareforgottenandnolonger,exceptthevulgarbebetter
taughtthantheyhavehithertobeen.
17.Andbecausetheyareessentialandinseparablerights,itfolAndcanby
lowsnecessarily,thatinwhatsoeverwordsanyofthemseemtobenograntpass
grantedaway,yetifthesovereignpoweritselfbenotindirecttermsawaywithout
renounced,andthenameofsovereignnomoregivenbythegranteesdirect
tohimthatgrantsthem,thegrantisvoid:forwhenhehasgrantedrenouncingof
allhecan,ifwegrantbackthesovereignty,allisrestored,asinsepthesovereign
arablyannexedthereunto.power.
18.Thisgreatauthoritybeingindivisible,andinseparablyanThepower
nexedtothesovereignty,thereislittlegroundfortheopinionofandhonourof
them,thatsayofsovereignkings,thoughtheybesingulismajores,ofsubjects
greaterpowerthaneveryoneoftheirsubjects,yettheybeuniversisvanishethin
minores,oflesspowerthanthemalltogether.Forifbyalltogether,thepresence
theymeannotthecollectivebodyasoneperson,thenalltogether,ofthepower
andeveryone,signifythesameandthespeechisabsurd.Butifbysovereign.
alltogether,theyunderstandthemasoneperson(whichpersonthe
sovereignbears,)thenthepowerofalltogether,isthesamewiththe
sovereign'spowerandsoagainthespeechisabsurd:whichabsurd
itytheyseewellenough,whenthesovereigntyisinanassemblyof
thepeoplebutinamonarchtheyseeitnotandyetthepowerof
sovereigntyisthesameinwhomsoeveritbeplaced.
19.Andasthepower,soalsothehonourofthesovereign,ought
tobegreater,thanthatofany,orallthesubjects.Forinthesover
eigntyisthefountainofhonour.Thedignitiesoflord,earl,duke,
andprincearehiscreatures.Asinthepresenceofthemaster,the

Page122

servantsareequal,andwithoutanyhonouratallsoarethesubjects,
inthepresenceofthesovereign.Andthoughtheyshinesomemore,
someless,whentheyareoutofhissightyetinhispresence,they
shinenomorethanthestarsinthepresenceofthesun.
[94]20.Butamanmayhereobject,thattheconditionofsubjectsis
Sovereignverymiserableasbeingobnoxioustothelusts,andotherirregular
powernotsopassionsofhim,orthemthathavesounlimitedapowerintheir
hurtfulasthehands.Andcommonlytheythatliveunderamonarch,thinkitthe
wantofit,faultofmonarchyandtheythatliveunderthegovernmentof
andthehurtdemocracy,orothersovereignassembly,attributealltheinconven
proceedsforiencetothatformofcommonwealthwhereasthepowerinall
thegreatestforms,iftheybeperfectenoughtoprotectthem,isthesamenot
partfromnotconsideringthatthestateofmancanneverbewithoutsomeincom
submittingmodityorotherandthatthegreatest,thatinanyformofgovern
readilytoamentcanpossiblyhappentothepeopleingeneral,isscarcesensible,
less.inrespectofthemiseries,andhorriblecalamities,thataccompanya
civilwarorthatdissoluteconditionofmasterlessmen,without
subjectiontolaws,andacoercivepowertotietheirhandsfrom
rapineandrevenge:norconsideringthatthegreatestpressureof
sovereigngovernors,proceedethnotfromanydelight,orprofitthey
canexpectinthedamage,orweakeningoftheirsubjects,inwhose
vigour,consisteththeirownstrengthandglorybutintherestive
nessofthemselves,thatunwillinglycontributingtotheirownde
fence,makeitnecessaryfortheirgovernorstodrawfromthemwhat
theycanintimeofpeace,thattheymayhavemeansonanyemer
gentoccasion,orsuddenneed,toresist,ortakeadvantageontheir
enemies.Forallmenarebynatureprovidedofnotablemultiplying
glasses(thatistheirpassionsandselflove,)throughwhich,every
littlepaymentappearethagreatgrievancebutaredestituteofthose
prospectiveglasses,(namelymoralandcivilscience,)toseeafaroff
themiseriesthathangoverthem,andcannotwithoutsuchpay
mentsbeavoided.

ChapterXIX
OftheSeveralKindsofCommonwealthbyInstitution,andofSuccessiontotheSovereignPower*
1.Thedifferenceofcommonwealths,consistethinthedifferenceThedifferent
ofthesovereign,orthepersonrepresentativeofallandeveryoneofformsof
themultitude.Andbecausethesovereigntyiseitherinoneman,orcommonwealths
inanassemblyofmorethanoneandintothatassemblyeithereverybutthree.
manhathrighttoenter,ornoteveryone,butcertainmendis
tinguishedfromtherestitismanifest,therecanbebutthreekinds
ofcommonwealth.Fortherepresentativemustneedsbeoneman,
ormore:andifmore,thenitistheassemblyofall,orbutofapart.
Whentherepresentativeisoneman,thenisthecommonwealtha
MONARCHY:whenanassemblyofallthatwillcometogether,thenit
isaDEMOCRACY,orpopularcommonwealth:whenanassemblyofa
partonly,thenitiscalledanARISTOCRACY.*Otherkindofcommon
wealththerecanbenone:foreitherone,ormore,orall,must
havethesovereignpower(whichIhaveshowntobeindivisible)
entire.
2.Therebeothernamesofgovernment,inthehistories,and[95]
booksofpolicyastyranny,andoligarchy:buttheyarenotthenamesTyrannyand
ofotherformsofgovernment,butofthesameformsmisliked.Foroligarchy,but
theythatarediscontentedundermonarchy,callittyrannyandtheydifferent
thataredispleasedwitharistocracy,callitoligarchy:soalso,theynamesof
whichfindthemselvesgrievedunderademocracy,callitanarchy,monarchy,
(whichsignifieswantofgovernment)andyetIthinknomanbeand
lieves,thatwantofgovernment,isanynewkindofgovernment:noraristocracy.
bythesamereasonoughttheytobelieve,thatthegovernmentisof
onekind,whentheylikeit,andanother,whentheymislikeit,orare
oppressedbythegovernors.
3.Itismanifest,thatmenwhoareinabsoluteliberty,may,ifSubordinate
theyplease,giveauthoritytooneman,torepresentthemeveryonerepresentatives
aswellasgivesuchauthoritytoanyassemblyofmenwhatsoeverdangerous.
andconsequentlymaysubjectthemselves,iftheythinkgood,toa
monarch,asabsolutely,astoanyotherrepresentative.Therefore,
wherethereisalreadyerectedasovereignpower,therecanbeno
otherrepresentativeofthesamepeople,butonlytocertainparticu

Page124

larends,bythesovereignlimited.Forthatweretoerecttwosover
eignsandeverymantohavehispersonrepresentedbytwoactors,
thatbyopposingoneanother,mustneedsdividethatpower,which
(ifmenwillliveinpeace)isindivisibleandtherebyreducethe
multitudeintotheconditionofwar,contrarytotheendforwhichall
sovereigntyisinstituted.Andthereforeasitisabsurd,tothinkthat
asovereignassembly,invitingthepeopleoftheirdominion,tosend
uptheirdeputies,withpowertomakeknowntheiradvice,orde
sires,shouldthereforeholdsuchdeputies,ratherthanthemselves,
fortheabsoluterepresentativesofthepeople:soitisabsurdalso,to
thinkthesameinamonarchy.AndIknownothowthissomanifest
atruth,shouldoflatebesolittleobservedthatinamonarchy,he
thathadthesovereigntyfromadescentofsixhundredyears,was
alonecalledsovereign,hadthetitleofMajestyfromeveryoneofhis
subjects,andwasunquestionablytakenbythemfortheirking,was
notwithstandingneverconsideredastheirrepresentativethatname
withoutcontradictionpassingforthetitleofthosemen,whichathis
commandweresentupbythepeopletocarrytheirpetitions,and
givehim(ifhepermittedit)theiradvice.Whichmayserveasan
admonition,forthosethatarethetrue,andabsoluterepresentative
ofapeople,toinstructmeninthenatureofthatoffice,andtotake
heedhowtheyadmitofanyothergeneralrepresentationuponany
occasionwhatsoever,iftheymeantodischargethetrustcommitted
tothem.
Comparison4.Thedifferencebetweenthesethreekindsofcommonwealth,
ofmonarchy,consistethnotinthedifferenceofpowerbutinthedifferenceof
withconvenience,oraptitudetoproducethepeace,andsecurityofthe
sovereignpeopleforwhichendtheywereinstituted.Andtocomparemon
assemblies.archywiththeothertwo,wemayobservefirst,thatwhosoever
beareththepersonofthepeople,orisoneofthatassemblythat
bearsit,bearethalsohisownnaturalperson.Andthoughhebe
[96]carefulinhispoliticpersontoprocurethecommoninterestyethe
ismore,ornolesscarefultoprocuretheprivategoodofhimself,his
family,kindred,andfriendsandforthemostpart,ifthepublic
interestchancetocrosstheprivate,hepreferstheprivate:forthe
passionsofmen,arecommonlymorepotentthantheirreason.
Fromwhenceitfollows,thatwherethepublicandprivateinterest
aremostcloselyunited,thereisthepublicmostadvanced.Nowin
monarchy,theprivateinterestisthesamewiththepublic.The
riches,power,andhonourofamonarchariseonlyfromtheriches,

strength,andreputationofhissubjects.Fornokingcanberich,nor
glorious,norsecurewhosesubjectsareeitherpoor,orcontempt
ible,ortooweakthroughwant,ordissension,tomaintainawar
againsttheirenemies:whereasinademocracy,oraristocracy,the
publicprosperityconfersnotsomuchtotheprivatefortuneofone
thatiscorrupt,orambitious,asdothmanytimesaperfidiousadvice,
atreacherousaction,oracivilwar.
5.Secondly,thatamonarchreceivethcounselofwhom,when,
andwherehepleasethandconsequentlymayheartheopinionof
menversedinthematteraboutwhichhedeliberates,ofwhatrank
orqualitysoever,andaslongbeforethetimeofaction,andwithas
muchsecrecy,ashewill.Butwhenasovereignassemblyhasneed
ofcounsel,noneareadmittedbutsuchashavearighttheretofrom
thebeginningwhichforthemostpartareofthosewhohave
beenversedmoreintheacquisitionofwealththanofknowledge
andaretogivetheiradviceinlongdiscourses,whichmay,and
docommonlyexcitementoaction,butnotgoverntheminit.For
theunderstandingisbytheflameofthepassions,neverenlightened,
butdazzled.Noristhereanyplace,ortime,whereinan
assemblycanreceivecounselwithsecrecy,becauseoftheirown
multitude.
6.Thirdly,thattheresolutionsofamonarch,aresubjecttono
otherinconstancy,thanthatofhumannaturebutinassemblies,
besidesthatofnature,therearisethaninconstancyfromthe
number.Fortheabsenceofafew,thatwouldhavetheresolution
oncetaken,continuefirm,(whichmayhappenbysecurity,
negligence,orprivateimpediments,)orthediligentappearanceofa
fewofthecontraryopinion,undoestoday,allthatwasconcluded
yesterday.
7.Fourthly,thatamonarchcannotdisagreewithhimself,outof
envy,orinterestbutanassemblymayandthattosuchaheight,as
mayproduceacivilwar.
8.Fifthly,thatinmonarchythereisthisinconveniencethatany
subject,bythepowerofoneman,fortheenrichingofafavouriteor
flatterer,maybedeprivedofallhepossessethwhichIconfessisa
greatandinevitableinconvenience.Butthesamemayaswellhap
pen,wherethesovereignpowerisinanassembly:fortheirpoweris
thesameandtheyareassubjecttoevilcounsel,andtobeseduced
byorators,asamonarchbyflatterersandbecomingoneanother's
flatterers,serveoneanother'scovetousnessandambitionbyturns.

Page126

Andwhereasthefavouritesofmonarchs,arefew,andtheyhave
noneelsetoadvancebuttheirownkindredthefavouritesofan
[97]assembly,aremanyandthekindredmuchmorenumerous,thanof
anymonarch.Besides,thereisnofavouriteofamonarch,which
cannotaswellsuccourhisfriends,ashurthisenemies:butorators,
thatistosay,favouritesofsovereignassemblies,thoughtheyhave
greatpowertohurt,havelittletosave.Fortoaccuse,requiresless
eloquence(suchisman'snature)thantoexcuseandcondemnation,
thanabsolutionmoreresemblesjustice.
9.Sixthly,thatitisaninconvenienceinmonarchy,thatthe
sovereigntymaydescenduponaninfant,oronethatcannotdiscern
betweengoodandevil:andconsistethinthis,thattheuseofhis
power,mustbeinthehandofanotherman,orofsomeassemblyof
men,whicharetogovernbyhisright,andinhisnameascurators,
andprotectorsofhisperson,andauthority.Buttosaythereis
inconvenience,inputtingtheuseofthesovereignpower,intothe
handofaman,oranassemblyofmenistosaythatallgovernment
ismoreinconvenient,thanconfusion,andcivilwar.Andtherefore
allthedangerthatcanbepretended,mustarisefromthecontention
ofthose,thatforanofficeofsogreathonour,andprofit,may
becomecompetitors.Tomakeitappear,thatthisinconvenience,
proceedethnotfromthatformofgovernmentwecallmonarchy,we
aretoconsider,thattheprecedentmonarch,hathappointedwho
shallhavethetuitionofhisinfantsuccessor,eitherexpresslyby
testament,ortacitly,bynotcontrollingthecustominthatcase
received:andthensuchinconvenience(ifithappen)istobeat
tributed,nottothemonarchy,buttotheambition,andinjusticeof
thesubjectswhichinallkindsofgovernment,wherethepeopleare
notwellinstructedintheirduty,andtherightsofsovereignty,isthe
same.Orelsetheprecedentmonarchhathnotatalltakenorderfor
suchtuitionandthenthelawofnaturehathprovidedthissufficient
rule,thatthetuitionshallbeinhim,thathathbynaturemost
interestinthepreservationoftheauthorityoftheinfant,andto
whomleastbenefitcanaccruebyhisdeath,ordiminution.For
seeingeverymanbynatureseekethhisownbenefit,andpromotion
toputaninfantintothepowerofthose,thatcanpromotethem
selvesbyhisdestruction,ordamage,isnottuition,buttreachery.So
thatsufficientprovisionbeingtaken,againstalljustquarrel,about
thegovernmentunderachild,ifanycontentionarisetothedisturb
anceofthepublicpeace,itisnottobeattributedtotheformof

monarchy,buttotheambitionofsubjects,andignoranceoftheir
duty.Ontheotherside,thereisnogreatcommonwealth,thesover
eigntywhereofisinagreatassembly,whichisnot,astoconsul
tationsofpeace,andwar,andmakingoflaws,inthesamecondition,
asifthegovernmentwereinachild.Forasachildwantsthe
judgmenttodissentfromcounselgivenhim,andisthereby
necessitatedtotaketheadviceofthem,orhim,towhomheis
committed:soanassemblywanteththeliberty,todissentfromthe
counselofthemajorpart,beitgood,orbad.Andasachildhasneed
ofatutor,orprotector,topreservehisperson,andauthority:soalso
(ingreatcommonwealths,)thesovereignassembly,inallgreatdan
gersandtroubles,haveneedofcustodeslibertatisthatisofdictators,[98]
orprotectorsoftheirauthoritywhichareasmuchastemporary
monarchstowhomforatime,theymaycommittheentireexercise
oftheirpowerandhave(attheendofthattime)beenoftener
deprivedthereof,thaninfantkings,bytheirprotectors,regents,or
anyothertutors.
10.Thoughthekindsofsovereigntybe,asIhavenowshown,
butthreethatistosay,monarchy,whereonemanhasitordemo
cracy,wherethegeneralassemblyofsubjectshathitoraristocracy,
whereitisinanassemblyofcertainpersonsnominated,orother
wisedistinguishedfromtherest:yethethatshallconsiderthe
particularcommonwealthsthathavebeen,andareintheworld,will
notperhapseasilyreducethemtothree,andmaytherebybein
clinedtothinktherebeotherforms,arisingfromthesemingled
together.Asforexample,electivekingdomswherekingshavethe
sovereignpowerputintotheirhandsforatimeorkingdoms,
whereinthekinghathapowerlimited:whichgovernments,are
neverthelessbymostwriterscalledmonarchy.Likewiseifapopular,
oraristocraticalcommonwealth,subdueanenemy'scountry,and
governthesame,byapresident,procurator,orothermagistrate
thismayseemperhapsatfirstsight,tobeademocratical,or
aristocraticalgovernment.Butitisnotso.Forelectivekings,arenot
sovereigns,butministersofthesovereignnorlimitedkingssover
eigns,butministersofthemthathavethesovereignpower:norare
thoseprovinceswhichareinsubjectiontoademocracy,oraristo
cracyofanothercommonwealth,democraticallyoraristocratically
governed,butmonarchically.
11.Andfirst,concerninganelectiveking,whosepowerislimited
tohislife,asitisinmanyplacesofChristendomatthisdayorto

Page128

certainyearsormonths,asthedictator'spoweramongstthe
Romansifhehaverighttoappointhissuccessor,heisnomore
electivebuthereditary.Butifhehavenopowertoelecthissucces
sor,thenthereissomeotherman,orassemblyknown,whichafter
hisdeceasemayelectanew,orelsethecommonwealthdieth,and
dissolvethwithhim,andreturnethtotheconditionofwar.Ifitbe
knownwhohavethepowertogivethesovereigntyafterhisdeath,it
isknownalsothatthesovereigntywasinthembefore:fornonehave
righttogivethatwhichtheyhavenotrighttopossess,andkeepto
themselves,iftheythinkgood.Butiftherebenonethatcangivethe
sovereignty,afterthedeceaseofhimthatwasfirstelectedthenhas
hepower,nayheisobligedbythelawofnature,toprovide,
byestablishinghissuccessor,tokeepthosethathadtrustedhim
withthegovernment,fromrelapsingintothemiserablecondition
ofcivilwar.Andconsequentlyhewas,whenelected,asovereign
absolute.
12.Secondly,thatkingwhosepowerislimited,isnotsuperiorto
him,orthemthathavethepowertolimititandhethatisnot
[99]superior,isnotsupremethatistosaynotsovereign.Thesover
eigntythereforewasalwaysinthatassemblywhichhadtherightto
limithimandbyconsequencethegovernmentnotmonarchy,but
eitherdemocracy,oraristocracyasofoldtimeinSpartawherethe
kingshadaprivilegetoleadtheirarmiesbutthesovereigntywasin
theEphori.*
13.Thirdly,whereasheretoforetheRomanpeople,governedthe
landofJudea(forexample)byapresidentyetwasnotJudeathere
foreademocracybecausetheywerenotgovernedbyanyassembly,
intothewhich,anyofthem,hadrighttoenternoranaristocracy
becausetheywerenotgovernedbyanyassembly,intowhich,any
mancouldenterbytheirelection:buttheyweregovernedbyone
person,whichthoughastothepeopleofRomewasanassemblyof
thepeople,ordemocracyyetastothepeopleofJudea,whichhad
norightatallofparticipatinginthegovernment,wasamonarch.
Forthoughwherethepeoplearegovernedbyanassembly,chosen
bythemselvesoutoftheirownnumber,thegovernmentiscalleda
democracy,oraristocracyyetwhentheyaregovernedbyanassem
bly,notoftheirownchoosing,'tisamonarchynotofoneman,over
anothermanbutofonepeople,overanotherpeople.
Oftheright14.Ofalltheseformsofgovernment,thematterbeingmortal,so
ofsuccession.thatnotonlymonarchs,butalsowholeassembliesdie,itisnecessary

fortheconservationofthepeaceofmen,thatastherewasorder
takenforanartificialman,sotherebeorderalsotaken,foran
artificialeternityoflifewithoutwhich,menthataregovernedbyan
assembly,shouldreturnintotheconditionofwarineveryageand
theythataregovernedbyoneman,assoonastheirgovernor
dieth.Thisartificialeternity,isthatwhichmencalltherightof
succession.
15.Thereisnoperfectformofgovernment,wherethedisposing
ofthesuccessionisnotinthepresentsovereign.Forifitbeinany
otherparticularman,orprivateassembly,itisinapersonsubject,
andmaybeassumedbythesovereignathispleasureandconse
quentlytherightisinhimself.Andifitbeinnoparticularman,but
lefttoanewchoicethenisthecommonwealthdissolvedandthe
rightisinhimthatcangetitcontrarytotheintentionofthemthat
didinstitutethecommonwealth,fortheirperpetual,andnottem
porarysecurity.
16.Inademocracy,thewholeassemblycannotfail,unlessthe
multitudethataretobegovernedfail.Andthereforequestionsof
therightofsuccession,haveinthatformofgovernmentnoplaceat
all.
17.Inanaristocracy,whenanyoftheassemblydieth,theelec
tionofanotherintohisroombelongethtotheassembly,asthe
sovereign,towhombelongeththechoosingofallcounsellors,
andofficers.Forthatwhichtherepresentativedoth,asactor,every
oneofthesubjectsdoth,asauthor.Andthoughthesovereign
assembly,maygivepowertoothers,toelectnewmen,forsupply
oftheircourtyetitisstillbytheirauthority,thattheelectionis
madeandbythesameitmay(whenthepublicshallrequireit)be
recalled.
18.Thegreatestdifficultyabouttherightofsuccession,is[100]
inmonarchy:andthedifficultyarisethfromthis,thatatfirstsight,Thepresent
itisnotmanifestwhoistoappointthesuccessornormanytimes,monarchhath
whoitiswhomhehathappointed.Forinboththesecases,thererightto
isrequiredamoreexactratiocination,thaneverymanisaccustomeddisposeofthe
touse.Astothequestion,whoshallappointthesuccessor,succession.
ofamonarchthathaththesovereignauthoritythatistosay,who
shalldetermineoftherightofinheritance,(forelectivekings
andprinceshavenotthesovereignpowerinpropriety,butinuse
only,)wearetoconsider,thateitherhethatisinpossession,
hasrighttodisposeofthesuccession,orelsethatrightisagainin

Page130

thedissolvedmultitude.Forthedeathofhimthathaththe
sovereignpowerinpropriety,leavesthemultitudewithoutany
sovereignatallthatis,withoutanyrepresentativeinwhom
theyshouldbeunited,andbecapableofdoinganyoneactionatall:
andthereforetheyareincapableofelectionofanynewmonarch
everymanhavingequalrighttosubmithimselftosuchashe
thinksbestabletoprotecthimorifhecan,protecthimselfby
hisownswordwhichisareturntoconfusion,andtothecondition
ofawarofeverymanagainsteveryman,contrarytotheend
forwhichmonarchyhaditsfirstinstitution.Thereforeitis
manifest,thatbytheinstitutionofmonarchy,thedisposingofthe
successor,isalwayslefttothejudgmentandwillofthepresent
possessor.
19.Andforthequestion(whichmayarisesometimes)whoitis
thatthemonarchinpossession,hathdesignedtothesuccessionand
inheritanceofhispoweritisdeterminedbyhisexpresswords,and
testamentorbyothertacitsignssufficient.
Succession20.Byexpresswords,ortestament,whenitisdeclaredbyhimin
passethbyhislifetime,vivavoce,orbywritingasthefirstemperorsofRome
expressdeclaredwhoshouldbetheirheirs.Forthewordheirdoesnotof
wordsitselfimplythechildren,ornearestkindredofamanbut
whomsoeveramanshallanywaydeclare,hewouldhavetosucceed
himinhisestate.Ifthereforeamonarchdeclareexpressly,thatsuch
amanshallbehisheir,eitherbywordorwriting,thenisthatman
immediatelyafterthedeceaseofhispredecessor,investedinthe
fightofbeingmonarch.
Or,bynot21.Butwheretestament,andexpresswordsarewanting,other
controllinganaturalsignsofthewillaretobefollowed:whereoftheoneis
customcustom.Andthereforewherethecustomis,thatthenextof
kindredabsolutelysucceedeth,therealsothenextofkindred
hathrighttothesuccessionforthat,ifthewillofhimthatwasin
possessionhadbeenotherwise,hemighteasilyhavedeclared
thesameinhislifetime.Andlikewisewherethecustomis,that
thenextofthemalekindredsucceedeth,therealsothe
rightofsuccessionisinthenextofthekindredmale,forthe
samereason.Andsoitisifthecustomweretoadvance
thefemale.Forwhatsoevercustomamanmaybyawordcontrol,
anddoesnot,itisanaturalsignhewouldhavethatcustom
stand.

22.Butwhereneithercustom,nortestamenthathpreceded,[101]
thereitistobeunderstood,first,thatamonarch'swillis,thattheOr,by
governmentremainmonarchicalbecausehehathapprovedthatpresumption
governmentinhimself.Secondly,thatachildofhisown,male,orofnatural
female,bepreferredbeforeanyotherbecausemenarepresumedtoaffection.
bemoreinclinedbynature,toadvancetheirownchildren,thanthe
childrenofothermenandoftheirown,ratheramalethanafemale
becausemen,arenaturallyfitterthanwomen,foractionsoflabour
anddanger.Thirdly,wherehisownissuefaileth,ratherabrother
thanastrangerandsostillthenearerinblood,ratherthanthemore
remotebecauseitisalwayspresumedthatthenearerofkin,is
thenearerinaffectionand'tisevidentthatamanreceivesalways,
byreflection,themosthonourfromthegreatnessofhisnearest
kindred.
23.ButifitbelawfulforamonarchtodisposeofthesuccessionTodisposeof
bywordsofcontract,ortestament,menmayperhapsobjectagreatthesuccession,
inconvenience:forhemaysell,orgivehisrightofgoverningtoathoughtoa
strangerwhich,becausestrangers(thatis,mennotusedtolivekingof
underthesamegovernment,norspeakingthesamelanguage)doanother
commonlyundervalueoneanother,mayturntotheoppressionofnation,not
hissubjectswhichisindeedagreatinconvenience:butitunlawful.
proceedethnotnecessarilyfromthesubjectiontoastranger's
government,butfromtheunskilfulnessofthegovernors,ignorant
ofthetruerulesofpolitics.AndthereforetheRomanswhenthey
hadsubduedmanynations,tomaketheirgovernmentdigestible,
werewonttotakeawaythatgrievance,asmuchastheythought
necessary,bygivingsometimestowholenations,andsometimesto
principalmenofeverynationtheyconquered,notonlytheprivi
leges,butalsothenameofRomansandtookmanyofthemintothe
senate,andofficesofcharge,evenintheRomancity.Andthiswas
itourmostwisekingJames,aimedat,inendeavouringtheunionof
histworealmsofEnglandandScotland.Whichifhecouldhave
obtained,hadinalllikelihoodpreventedthecivilwars,whichmake
boththosekingdoms,atthispresent,miserable.Itisnottherefore
anyinjurytothepeople,foramonarchtodisposeofthesuccession
bywillthoughbythefaultofmanyprinces,ithathbeensometimes
foundinconvenient.Ofthelawfulnessofit,thisalsoisanargument,
thatwhatsoeverinconveniencecanarrivebygivingakingdomtoa
stranger,mayarrivealsobysomarryingwithstrangers,astheright

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ofsuccessionmaydescenduponthem:yetthisbyallmenisac
countedlawful.
ChapterXX
OfDominionPaternal,andDespotical
A1.Acommonwealthbyacquisition,isthat,wherethesovereign
commonwealthpowerisacquiredbyforceanditisacquiredbyforce,whenmen
byacquisition.singly,ormanytogetherbypluralityofvoices,forfearofdeath,or
bonds,doauthorizealltheactionsofthatman,orassembly,that
[102]haththeirlivesandlibertyinhispower.
Wherein2.Andthiskindofdominion,orsovereignty,differethfrom
differentsovereigntybyinstitution,onlyinthis,thatmenwhochoosetheir
fromasovereign,doitforfearofoneanother,andnotofhimwhomthey
commonwealthinstitute:butinthiscase,theysubjectthemselves,tohimtheyare
byinstitution.afraidof.Inbothcasestheydoitforfear:whichistobenotedby
them,thatholdallsuchcovenants,asproceedfromfearofdeath,or
violence,void:whichifitweretrue,noman,inanykindofcom
monwealth,couldbeobligedtoobedience.Itistrue,thatina
commonwealthonceinstituted,oracquired,promisesproceeding
fromfearofdeath,orviolence,arenoconvenants,norobliging,
whenthethingpromisediscontrarytothelawsbutthereasonis
not,becauseitwasmadeuponfear,butbecausehethatpromiseth,
hathnorightinthethingpromised.Also,whenhemaylawfully
perform,anddothnot,itisnottheinvalidityofthecovenant,that
absolvethhim,butthesentenceofthesovereign.Otherwise,
whensoeveramanlawfullypromiseth,heunlawfullybreaketh:but
whenthesovereign,whoistheactor,acquittethhim,thenheis
acquittedbyhimthatextortedthepromise,asbytheauthorofsuch
absolution.
Therightsof3.Buttherights,andconsequencesofsovereignty,arethesame
sovereigntyinboth.Hispowercannot,withouthisconsent,betransferredto
thesameinanother:hecannotforfeitit:hecannotbeaccusedbyanyofhis
both.subjects,ofinjury:hecannotbepunishedbythem:heisjudgeof
whatisnecessaryforpeaceandjudgeofdoctrines:heissolelegis
latorandsupremejudgeofcontroversiesandofthetimes,and
occasionsofwar,andpeace:tohimitbelongethtochoosemagis

trates,counsellors,commanders,andallotherofficers,andminis
tersandtodetermineofrewards,andpunishments,honour,and
order.Thereasonswhereof,arethesamewhicharcallegedinthe
precedentchapter,forthesamerights,andconsequencesofsover
eigntybyinstitution.
4.Dominionisacquiredtwowaysbygeneration,andbyconDominion
quest.Thefightofdominionbygeneration,isthat,whichthepaternalhow
parenthathoverhischildrenandiscalledPATERNAL.*Andisnotattained.
soderivedfromthegeneration,asifthereforetheparenthadNotby
dominionoverhischildbecausehebegathimbutfromthegeneration,
child'sconsent,eitherexpress,orbyothersufficientargumentsbutby
declared.Forastothegeneration,Godhathordainedtomanacontract
helperandtherebealwaystwothatareequallyparents:the
dominionthereforeoverthechild,shouldbelongequallytoboth
andhebeequallysubjecttoboth,whichisimpossiblefornoman
canobeytwomasters.Andwhereassomehaveattributedthedo
miniontothemanonly,asbeingofthemoreexcellentsexthey
misreckoninit.Forthereisnotalwaysthatdifferenceofstrength,
orprudencebetweenthemanandthewoman,asthatthefightcan
bedeterminedwithoutwar.Incommonwealths,thiscontroversyis
decidedbythecivillaw:andforthemostpart,(butnotalways)the
sentenceisinfavourofthefatherbemuseforthemostpartcom
monwealthshavebeenerectedbythefathers,notbythemothersof[103]
families.Butthequestionliethnowinthestateofmerenature
wheretherearesupposednolawsofmatrimonynolawsforthe
educationofchildrenbutthelawofnature,andthenaturalincli
nationofthesexes,onetoanother,andtotheirchildren.Inthis
conditionofmerenature,eithertheparentsbetweenthemselves
disposeofthedominionoverthechildbycontractordonotdispose
thereofatall.Iftheydisposethereof,thefightpassethaccordingto
thecontract.Wefindinhistory*thattheAmazonscontractedwith
themenoftheneighbouringcountries,towhomtheyhadrecourse
forissue,thattheissuemaleshouldbesentback,butthefemale
remainwiththemselves:sothatthedominionofthefemaleswasin
themother.
5.Iftherebenocontract,thedominionisinthemother.ForinOreducation
theconditionofmerenature,wheretherearcnomatrimoniallaws,
itcannotbeknownwhoisthefather,unlessitbedeclaredbythe
mother:andthereforethefightofdominionoverthechild
dependethonherwill,andisconsequentlyhers.Again,seeingthe

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infantisfirstinthepowerofthemother,soasshemayeither
nourish,orexposeitifshenourishit,itowethitslifetothemother
andisthereforeobligedtoobeyher,ratherthananyotherandby
consequencethedominionoveritishers.Butifsheexposeit,and
anotherfind,andnourishit,thedominionisinhimthatnourisheth
it.Foritoughttoobeyhimbywhomitispreservedbecause
preservationoflifebeingtheend,forwhichonemanbecomes
subjecttoanother,everymanissupposedtopromiseobedience,to
him,inwhosepoweritistosave,ordestroyhim.
Orprecedent6.Ifthemotherbethefather'ssubject,thechild,isinthe
subjectionoffather'spower:andifthefatherbethemother'ssubject,(aswhena
oneofthesovereignqueenmarriethoneofhersubjects,*)thechildissubject
parentstothetothemotherbecausethefatheralsoishersubject.
other.7.Ifamanandwoman,monarchsoftwoseveralkingdoms,have
achild,andcontractconcerningwhoshallhavethedominionof
him,therightofthedominionpassethbythecontract.Ifthey
contractnot,thedominionfolloweththedominionoftheplaceof
hisresidence.Forthesovereignofeachcountryhathdominionover
allthatresidetherein.
8.Hethathaththedominionoverthechild,hathdominionalso
overthechildrenofthechildandovertheirchildren'schildren.
Forhethathathdominionoverthepersonofaman,hathdominion
overallthatishiswithoutwhich,dominionwerebutatitle,without
theeffect.
Therightof9.Therightofsuccessiontopaternaldominion,proceedeth
successioninthesamemanner,asdoththerightofsuccessionofmonarchy
followeththeofwhichIhavealreadysufficientlyspokenintheprecedent
rulesoftherightchapter.
ofpossession.10.Dominionacquiredbyconquest,orvictoryinwar,isthat
DespoticalwhichsomewriterscallDESPOTICAL,from
,which
dominionhowsignifiethalord,ormasterandisthedominionofthemasteroverhis
attained.[104]servant.Andthisdominionisthenacquiredtothevictor,whenthe
vanquished,toavoidthepresentstrokeofdeath,covenantetheither
inexpresswords,orbyothersufficientsignsofthewill,thatsolong
ashislife,andthelibertyofhisbodyisallowedhim,thevictorshall
havetheusethereof,athispleasure.Andaftersuchcovenantmade,
thevanquishedisaSERVANT,andnotbefore:forbythewordservant
(whetheritbederivedfromservire,toserve,orfromservare,tosave,
whichIleavetogrammarianstodispute)isnotmeantacaptive,
whichiskeptinprison,orbonds,tilltheownerofhimthattook

him,orboughthimofonethatdid,shallconsiderwhattodowith
him:(forsuchmen,(commonlycalledslaves,)havenoobligationat
allbutmaybreaktheirbonds,ortheprisonandkill,orcarryaway
captivetheirmaster,justly:)butone,thatbeingtaken,hathcorporal
libertyallowedhimanduponpromisenottorunaway,nortodo
violencetohismaster,istrustedbyhim.
11.Itisnotthereforethevictory,thatgiveththerightofdoNotbythe
minionoverthevanquished,buthisowncovenant.Norishevictory,but
obligedbecauseheisconqueredthatistosay,beaten,andtaken,orbytheconsent
puttoflightbutbecausehecomethin,andsubmittethtothevictorofthe
noristhevictorobligedbyanenemy'srenderinghimself,(withoutvanquished.
promiseoflife,)tosparehimforthishisyieldingtodiscretion
whichobligesnotthevictorlonger,thaninhisowndiscretionhe
shallthinkfit.
12.Andthatwhichmendo,whentheydemand(asitisnow
called)quarter,(whichtheGreekscalled
,takingalive,)isto
evadethepresentfuryofthevictor,bysubmission,andtocom
poundfortheirlife,withransom,orservice:andthereforehethat
hathquarter,hathnothislifegiven,butdeferredtillfartherdelib
erationforitisnotayieldingonconditionoflife,buttodiscretion.
Andthenonlyishislifeinsecurity,andhisservicedue,whenthe
victorhathtrustedhimwithhiscorporalliberty.Forslavesthat
workinprisonsorfetters,doitnotofduty,buttoavoidthecruelty
oftheirtaskmasters.
13.Themasteroftheservant,ismasteralsoofallhehathand
mayexacttheusethereofthatistosay,ofhisgoods,ofhislabour,
ofhisservants,andofhischildren,asoftenasheshallthinkfit.For
heholdethhislifeofhismaster,bythecovenantofobediencethat
is,ofowning,andauthorizingwhatsoeverthemastershalldo.And
incasethemaster,ifherefuse,killhim,orcasthimintobonds,or
otherwisepunishhimforhisdisobedience,heishimselftheauthor
ofthesameandcannotaccusehimofinjury.
14.Insum,therightsandconsequencesofbothpaternal
anddespoticaldominion,aretheverysamewiththoseofasovereign
byinstitutionandforthesamereasons:whichreasonsareset
downintheprecedentchapter.Sothatforamanthatismonarchof
diversnations,whereofhehath,inonethesovereigntybyinsti
tutionofthepeopleassembled,andinanotherbyconquest,thatis
bythesubmissionofeachparticular,toavoiddeathorbondsto
demandofonenationmorethanoftheother,fromthetitleof

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conquest,asbeingaconquerednation,isanactofignoranceofthe
[105]fightsofsovereigntyforthesovereignisabsoluteoverbothalikeor
elsethereisnosovereigntyatallandsoeverymanmaylawfully
protecthimself,ifhecan,withhisownsword,whichisthecon
ditionofwar.
Difference15.Bythisitappears,thatagreatfamilyifitbenotpartofsome
betweenacommonwealth,isofitself,astotherightsofsovereignty,alittle
familyandamonarchywhetherthatfamilyconsistofamanandhischildrenor
kingdom.ofamanandhisservantsorofaman,andhischildren,andservants
together:whereinthefatherormasteristhesovereign.Butyeta
familyisnotproperlyacommonwealthunlessitbeofthatpowerby
itsownnumber,orbyotheropportunities,asnottobesubdued
withoutthehazardofwar.Forwhereanumberofmenaremani
festlytooweaktodefendthemselvesunited,everyonemayusehis
ownreasonintimeofdanger,tosavehisownlife,eitherbyflight,
orbysubmissiontotheenemy,asheshallthinkbestinthesame
mannerasaverysmallcompanyofsoldiers,surprisedbyanarmy,
maycastdowntheirarms,anddemandquarter,orrunaway,rather
thanbeputtothesword.Andthusmuchshallsuffice,concerning
whatIfindbyspeculation,anddeduction,ofsovereignfights,from
thenature,need,anddesignsofmen,inerectingofcommon
wealths,andputtingthemselvesundermonarchs,orassemblies,
entrustedwithpowerenoughfortheirprotection.
Therightsof16.LetusnowconsiderwhattheScriptureteachethinthesame
monarchypoint.ToMoses,thechildrenofIsraelsaythus:Speakthoutous,
fromandwewillheartheebutletnotGodspeaktous,lestwedie.(Exod.20.
Scripture.19.)ThisisabsoluteobediencetoMoses.Concerningtherightof
kings,GodhimselfbythemouthofSamuel,saith,(1Sam.8.11,12,
&c.)Thisshallbetherightofthekingyouwillhavetoreignoveryou.
Heshalltakeyoursons,andsetthemtodrivehischariots,andtobehis
horsemen,andtorunbeforehischariotsandgatherinhisharvestand
tomakehisenginesofwar,andinstrumentsofhischariotsandshalltake
yourdaughterstomakeperfumes,tobehiscooks,andbakers.Heshall
takeyourfields,yourvineyards,andyouroliveyards,andgivethemto
hisservants.Heshalltakethetitheofyourcornandwine,andgiveitto
themenofhischamber,andtohisotherservants.Heshalltakeyour
manservants,andyourmaidservants,andthechoiceofyouryouth,
andemploytheminhisbusiness.Heshalltakethetitheofyourflocks
andyoushallbehisservants.*Thisisabsolutepower,andsummed

upinthelastwords,youshallbehisservants.Again,whenthepeople
heardwhatpowertheirkingwastohave,yettheyconsentedthereto,
andsaythus,(verse19)wewillbeasallothernations,andourking
shalljudgeourcauses,andgobeforeus,toconductourwars.Hereis
confirmedtherightthatsovereignshave,bothtothemilitia,andto
alljudicatureinwhichiscontainedasabsolutepower,asoneman
canpossiblytransfertoanother.Again,theprayerofking
SolomontoGod,wasthis(1Kings3.9):Givetothyservantunder
standing,tojudgethypeople,andtodiscernbetweengoodandevil.It
belongeththereforetothesovereigntobejudge,andtoprescribethe[106]
rulesofdiscerninggoodandevil:whichrulesarelawsandtherefore
inhimisthelegislativepower.SaulsoughtthelifeofDavidyet
whenitwasinhispowertoslaySaul,andhisservantswouldhave
doneit,Davidforbadthem,saying,(1Sam.24.9)GodforbidI
shoulddosuchanactagainstmyLord,theanointedofGod.For
obedienceofservantsSt.Paulsaith:(Col.3.22)Servantsobeyyour
mastersinallthingsand,(Col.3.20)childrenobeyyourparentsinall
things.Thereissimpleobedienceinthosethataresubjecttopater
nal,ordespoticaldominion.Again,(Matt.23.2,3)TheScribesand
PhariseessitinMoses'chair,andthereforeallthattheyshallbidyou
observe,thatobserveanddo.Thereagainissimpleobedience.AndSt.
Paul,(Titus3.2)Warnthemthattheysubjectthemselvestoprinces,and
tothosethatareinauthority,andobeythem.Thisobedienceisalso
simple.Lastly,ourSaviourhimselfacknowledges,thatmenought
topaysuchtaxesasarebykingsimposed,wherehesays,giveto
CaesarthatwhichisCaesar'sandpaidsuchtaxeshimself.Andthat
theking'sword,issufficienttotakeanythingfromanysubject,
whenthereisneedandthatthekingisjudgeofthatneed:forhe
himself,askingoftheJews,commandedhisdisciplestotaketheass,
andass'scolttocarryhimintoJerusalem,saying,(Matt.21.2,3)Go
intothevillageoveragainstyou,andyoushallfindasheasstied,and
hercoltwithher,untiethem,andbringthemtome.Andifanymanask
you,whatyoumeanbyit,saytheLordhathneedofthem:andtheywill
letthemgo.Theywillnotaskwhetherhisnecessitybeasufficient
titlenorwhetherhebejudgeofthatnecessitybutacquiesceinthe
willoftheLord.
17.TotheseplacesmaybeaddedalsothatofGenesis,(3.5)Ye
shallbeasgods,knowinggoodandevil.Andverse11.Whotoldthee
thatthouwastnaked?hastthoueatenofthetree,ofwhichIcommanded

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theethoushouldestnoteat?Forthecognizanceorjudicatureofgood
andevil,beingforbiddenbythenameofthefruitofthetreeof
knowledge,asatrialofAdam'sobediencethedeviltoinflamethe
ambitionofthewoman,towhomthatfruitalreadyseemedbeauti
ful,toldherthatbytastingit,theyshouldbeasgods,knowing
goodandevil.Whereuponhavingbotheaten,theydidindeedtake
uponthemGod'soffice,whichisjudicatureofgoodandevilbut
acquirednonewabilitytodistinguishbetweenthemaright.And
whereasitissaid,thathavingeaten,theysawtheywerenakedno
manhathsointerpretedthatplace,asiftheyhadbeenformerly
blind,andsawnottheirownskins:themeaningisplain,thatitwas
thentheyfirstjudgedtheirnakedness(whereinitwasGod'swillto
createthem)tobeuncomelyandbybeingashamed,didtacitly
censureGodhimself.AndthereuponGodsaith,Hastthoueaten,
&c.asifheshouldsay,doestthouthatowestmeobedience,take
upontheetojudgeofmycommandments?Wherebyitisclearly,
(thoughallegorically,)signified,thatthecommandsofthemthat
havetherighttocommand,arenotbytheirsubjectstobecensured,
nordisputed.
[107]
18.Sothatitappearethplainly,tomyunderstanding,bothfrom
Sovereign
reason,andScripture,thatthesovereignpower,whetherplacedin
poweroughtoneman,asinmonarchy,orinoneassemblyofmen,asinpopular,
inall
andaristocraticalcommonwealths,isasgreat,aspossiblymen
commonwealthscanbeimaginedtomakeit.Andthoughofsounlimitedapower,
tobe
menmayfancymanyevilconsequences,yettheconsequencesof
absolute.thewantofit,whichisperpetualwarofeverymanagainsthis
neighbour,aremuchworse.Theconditionofmaninthislife
shallneverbewithoutinconveniencesbuttherehappenethinno
commonwealthanygreatinconvenience,butwhatproceedsfrom
thesubject'sdisobedience,andbreachofthosecovenants,from
whichthecommonwealthhathitsbeing.Andwhosoever
thinkingsovereignpowertoogreat,willseektomakeitless,must
subjecthimself,tothepower,thatcanlimititthatistosay,toa
greater.
19.Thegreatestobjectionis,thatofthepracticewhenmenask,
where,andwhen,suchpowerhasbysubjectsbeenacknowledged.
Butonemayaskthemagain,when,orwherehastherebeena
kingdomlongfreefromseditionandcivilwar.Inthosenations,
whosecommonwealthshavebeenlonglived,andnotbeende
stroyedbutbyforeignwar,thesubjectsneverdiddisputeofthe

sovereignpower.Buthowsoever,anargumentfromthepracticeof
men,thathavenotsiftedtothebottom,andwithexactreason
weighedthecauses,andnatureofcommonwealths,andsufferdaily
thosemiseries,thatproceedfromtheignorancethereof,isinvalid.
Forthoughinallplacesoftheworld,menshouldlaythefoundation
oftheirhousesonthesand,itcouldnotthencebeinferred,thatso
itoughttobe.Theskillofmaking,andmaintainingcommon
wealths,consistethincertainrules,asdotharithmeticandgeo
metrynot(astennisplay)onpracticeonly:whichrules,neither
poormenhavetheleisure,normenthathavehadtheleisure,have
hithertohadthecuriosity,orthemethodtofindout.
ChapterXXI
OftheLibertyofSubjects
1.Liberty,*orFREEDOM,signifieth(properly)theabsenceofLiberty,
opposition(byopposition,Imeanexternalimpedimentsoftoowhat.
tion)andmaybeappliednolesstoirrational,andinanimatecrea
tures,thantorational.Forwhatsoeverissotied,orenvironed,asit
cannotmove,butwithinacertainspace,whichspaceisdetermined
bytheoppositionofsomeexternalbody,wesayithathnotlibertyto
gofurther.Andsoofalllivingcreatures,whilsttheyareimprisoned,
orrestrained,withwalls,orchainsandofthewaterwhilstitiskept
inbybanks,orvessels,thatotherwisewouldspreaditselfintoa
largerspace,weusetosay,theyarenotatliberty,tomoveinsuch
manner,aswithoutthoseexternalimpedimentstheywould.But
whentheimpedimentofmotion,isintheconstitutionofthe
thingitself,weusenottosay,itwantsthelibertybutthepowerto
moveaswhenastoneliethstill,oramanisfastenedtohisbedby
sickness.
2.Andaccordingtothisproper,andgenerallyreceivedmeaning[108]
oftheword,aFREEMAN,ishe,thatinthosethings,whichbyhisstrengthWhatitisto
andwitheisabletodo,isnothinderedtodowhathehasawillto.Butbefree.
whenthewordsfree,andliberty,areappliedtoanythingbutbodies,
theyareabusedforthatwhichisnotsubjecttomotion,isnot
subjecttoimpediment:andtherefore,when'tissaid(forexample)
thewayisfree,nolibertyofthewayissignified,butofthosethat

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walkinitwithoutstop.Andwhenwesayagiftisfree,thereisnot
meantanylibertyofthegift,butofthegiver,thatwasnotboundby
anylaw,orcovenanttogiveit.Sowhenwespeakfreely,itisnotthe
libertyofvoice,orpronunciation,butoftheman,whomnolawhath
obligedtospeakotherwisethanhedid.Lastly,fromtheuseofthe
wordfreewill,nolibertycanbeinferredofthewill,desire,or
inclination,butthelibertyofthemanwhichconsistethinthis,that
hefindsnostop,indoingwhathehasthewill,desire,orinclination
todo.*
Fearand3.Fearandlibertyareconsistentaswhenamanthroweth
libertyhisgoodsintotheseaforfeartheshipshouldsink,*hedothit
consistent.neverthelessverywillingly,andmayrefusetodoitifhewill:itis
thereforetheaction,ofonethatwasfree:soamansometimes
payshisdebt,onlyforfearofimprisonment,whichbecause
nobodyhinderedhimfromdetaining,wastheactionofamanat
liberty.Andgenerallyallactionswhichmendoincommonwealths,
forfearofthelaw,areactions,whichthedoershadlibertyto
omit.
Libertyand4.Liberty,andnecessityareconsistent:asinthewater,thathath
necessitynotonlyliberty,butanecessityofdescendingbythechannelso
consistent.likewiseintheactionswhichmenvoluntarilydo:which,because
theyproceedfromtheirwill,proceedfromlibertyandyet,because
everyactofman'swill,andeverydesire,andinclinationproceedeth
fromsomecause,andthatfromanothercause,inacontinualchain,
(whosefirstlinkisinthehandofGodthefirstofallcauses,)they
proceedfromnecessity.Sothattohimthatcouldseetheconnexion
ofthosecauses,thenecessityofallmen'svoluntaryactions,would
appearmanifest.AndthereforeGod,thatseeth,anddisposethall
things,seethalsothatthelibertyofmanindoingwhathewill,is
accompaniedwiththenecessityofdoingthatwhichGodwill,andno
more,norless.*Forthoughmenmaydomanythings,whichGod
doesnotcommand,noristhereforeauthorofthemyettheycan
havenopassion,norappetitetoanything,ofwhichappetiteGod's
willisnotthecause.Anddidnothiswillassurethenecessityof
man'swill,andconsequentlyofallthatonman'swilldependeth,the
libertyofmenwouldbeacontradiction,andimpedimenttothe
omnipotenceandlibertyofGod.Andthisshallsuffice,(asto
thematterinhand)ofthatnaturalliberty,whichonlyisproperly
calledliberty.

5.Butasmen,fortheattainingofpeace,andconservationofArtificial
themselvesthereby,havemadeanartificialman,whichwecallabonds,or
commonwealthsoalsohavetheymadeartificialchains,calledcivilcovenants.
laws,whichtheythemselves,bymutualcovenants,havefastenedat[109]
oneend,tothelipsofthatman,orassembly,towhomtheyhave
giventhesovereignpowerandattheotherendtotheirownears.
Thesebondsintheirownnaturebutweak,mayneverthelessbe
madetohold,bythedanger,thoughnotbythedifficultyofbreaking
them.
6.Inrelationtothesebondsonlyitis,thatIamtospeaknow,ofLibertyof
thelibertyofsubjects.Forseeingthereisnocommonwealthinthesubjects
world,whereinthereberulesenoughsetdown,fortheregulatingofconsistethin
alltheactions,andwordsofmen(asbeingathingimpossible:)itlibertyfrom
followethnecessarily,thatinallkindsofactions,bythelawscovenants.
praetermitted[passedover],menhavetheliberty,ofdoingwhat
theirownreasonsshallsuggest,forthemostprofitabletothem
selves.Forifwetakelibertyinthepropersense,forcorporalliberty
thatistosay,freedomfromchains,andprison,itwereveryabsurd
formentoclamourastheydo,forthelibertytheysomanifestly
enjoy.Again,ifwetakeliberty,foranexemptionfromlaws,itisno
lessabsurd,formentodemandastheydo,thatliberty,bywhichall
othermenmaybemastersoftheirlives.Andyetasabsurdasitis,
thisisittheydemandnotknowingthatthelawsareofnopowerto
protectthem,withoutaswordinthehandsofaman,ormen,to
causethoselawstobeputinexecution.Thelibertyofasubject,lieth
thereforeonlyinthosethings,whichinregulatingtheiractions,the
sovereignhathpraetermitted:suchasisthelibertytobuy,andsell,
andotherwisecontractwithoneanothertochoosetheirownabode,
theirowndiet,theirowntradeoflife,andinstitutetheirchildrenas
theythemselvesthinkfitandthelike.
7.Neverthelesswearenottounderstand,thatbysuchliberty,Libertyofthe
thesovereignpoweroflife,anddeath,iseitherabolished,orlimited.subject
Forithasbeenalreadyshown,thatnothingthesovereignrepconsistent
resentativecandotoasubject,onwhatpretencesoever,canpropwiththe
erlybecalledinjustice,orinjurybecauseeverysubjectisauthorofunlimited
everyactthesovereigndothsothatheneverwantethrighttoanypowerofthe
thing,otherwise,thanashehimselfisthesubjectofGod,andboundsovereign.
therebytoobservethelawsofnature.Andthereforeitmay,and
dothoftenhappenincommonwealths,thatasubjectmaybeputto

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death,bythecommandofthesovereignpowerandyetneitherdo
theotherwrong:aswhenJeptha*causedhisdaughtertobesacri
ficed:inwhich,andthelikecases,hethatsodieth,hadlibertytodo
theaction,forwhichheisnevertheless,withoutinjuryputtodeath.
Andthesameholdethalsoinasovereignprince,thatputtethto
deathaninnocentsubject.Forthoughtheactionbeagainstthelaw
ofnature,asbeingcontrarytoequity,(aswasthekillingofUriah,by
David*)yetitwasnotaninjurytoUriah,buttoGod.NottoUriah,
becausetherighttodowhathepleased,wasgivenhimbyUriah
himself:andyettoGod,becauseDavidwasGod'ssubjectand
prohibitedalliniquitybythelawofnature.Whichdistinction,
Davidhimself,whenherepentedthefact,evidentlyconfirmed,
saying,TotheeonlyhaveIsinned.Inthesamemanner,thepeopleof
[110]Athens,whentheybanishedthemostpotentoftheircommon
wealthfortenyears,thoughttheycommittednoinjusticeandyet
theyneverquestionedwhatcrimehehaddonebutwhathurthe
woulddo:naytheycommandedthebanishmentoftheyknewnot
whomandeverycitizenbringinghisoystershellintothemarket
place,writtenwiththenameofhimhedesiredshouldbebanished,
withoutactuallyaccusinghim,sometimesbanishedanAristides,for
hisreputationofjusticeandsometimesascurrilousjester,as
Hyperbolus,*tomakeajestofit.Andyetamancannotsay,the
sovereignpeopleofAthenswantedrighttobanishthemoran
Athenianthelibertytojest,ortobejust.
Theliberty8.Theliberty,whereofthereissofrequent,andhonourable
whichwritersmention,inthehistories,andphilosophyoftheancientGreeks,and
praise,istheRomans,andinthewritings,anddiscourseofthosethatfromthem
libertyofhavereceivedalltheirlearninginthepolitics,isnotthelibertyof
sovereignsparticularmenbutthelibertyofthecommonwealth:whichisthe
notofprivatesamewiththat,whicheverymanthenshouldhave,iftherewereno
men.civillaws,norcommonwealthatall.Andtheeffectsofitalsobethe
same.Forasamongstmasterlessmen,thereisperpetualwar,of
everymanagainsthisneighbournoinheritance,totransmittothe
son,nortoexpectfromthefathernoproprietyofgoods,orlands
nosecuritybutafullandabsolutelibertyineveryparticularman:
soinstates,andcommonwealthsnotdependentononeanother,
everycommonwealth,(noteveryman)hasanabsoluteliberty,todo
whatitshalljudge(thatistosay,whatthatman,orassemblythat
representethit,shalljudge)mostconducingtotheirbenefit.But
withal,theyliveintheconditionofaperpetualwar,anduponthe

confinesofbattle,withtheirfrontiersarmed,andcannonsplanted
againsttheirneighboursroundabout.TheAthenians,andRomans
werefreethatis,freecommonwealths:notthatanyparticularmen
hadthelibertytoresisttheirownrepresentativebutthattheir
representativehadthelibertytoresist,orinvadeotherpeople.
ThereiswrittenontheturretsofthecityofLuccaingreatcharac
tersatthisday,thewordLIBERTASyetnomancanthenceinfer,that
aparticularmanhasmoreliberty,orimmunityfromtheserviceof
thecommonwealththere,thaninConstantinople.Whethera
commonwealthbemonarchical,orpopular,thefreedomisstillthe
same.
9.Butitisaneasything,formentobedeceived,bythespecious
nameoflibertyandforwantofjudgmenttodistinguish,mistake
thatfortheirprivateinheritance,andbirthright,whichistheright
ofthepubliconly.Andwhenthesameerrorisconfirmedbythe
authorityofmeninreputationfortheirwritingsonthissubject,itis
nowonderifitproducesedition,andchangeofgovernment.In
thesewesternpartsoftheworld,wearemadetoreceiveour
opinionsconcerningtheinstitution,andrightsofcommonwealths,
fromAristotle,Cicero,andothermen,GreeksandRomans,that
livingunderpopularstates,derivedthoserights,notfromtheprin
ciplesofnature,buttranscribedthemintotheirbooks,outofthe
practiceoftheirowncommonwealths,whichwerepopularasthe[111]
grammariansdescribetherulesoflanguage,outofthepracticeof
thetimeortherulesofpoetry,outofthepoemsofHomerand
Virgil.AndbecausetheAtheniansweretaught,(tokeepthemfrom
desireofchangingtheirgovernment,)thattheywerefreemen,and
allthatlivedundermonarchywereslavesthereforeAristotleputsit
downinhisPolitics,(lib.6.cap.2.)Indemocracy,LIBERTYistobe
supposed:foritiscommonlyheld,thatnomanisFREEinanyother
government.AndasAristotlesoCicero,andotherwritershave
groundedtheircivildoctrine,ontheopinionsoftheRomans,who
weretaughttohatemonarchy,atfirst,bythemthathavingdeposed
theirsovereign,sharedamongstthemthesovereigntyofRomeand
afterwardsbytheirsuccessors.AndbyreadingoftheseGreek,and
Latinauthors,menfromtheirchildhoodhavegottenahabit(under
afalseshowofliberty,)offavouringtumults,andoflicentious
controllingtheactionsoftheirsovereignsandagainofcontrolling
thosecontrollerswiththeeffusionofsomuchbloodasIthinkI
maytrulysay,therewasneveranythingsodearlybought,asthese

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westernpartshaveboughtthelearningoftheGreekandLatin
tongues.
Libertyof10.Tocomenowtotheparticularsofthetruelibertyofasub
subjectshowjectthatistosay,whatarethethings,whichthoughcommandedby
tobethesovereign,hemaynevertheless,withoutinjustice,refusetodo
measured.wearetoconsider,whatrightswepassaway,whenwemakea
commonwealthor(whichisallone)whatlibertywedenyourselves,
byowningalltheactions(withoutexception)oftheman,orassem
blywemakeoursovereign.Forintheactofoursubmission,
consistethbothourobligation,andourlibertywhichmusttherefore
beinferredbyargumentstakenfromthencetherebeingnoobli
gationonanyman,whicharisethnotfromsomeactofhisownfor
allmenequally,arebynaturefree.Andbecausesucharguments,
musteitherbedrawnfromtheexpresswords,Iauthorizeallhis
actions,orfromtheintentionofhimthatsubmittethhimselftohis
power,(whichintentionistobeunderstoodbytheendforwhichhe
sosubmitteth)theobligation,andlibertyofthesubject,istobe
derived,eitherfromthosewords,(orothersequivalent)orelse
fromtheendoftheinstitutionofsovereigntynamely,thepeaceof
thesubjectswithinthemselves,andtheirdefenceagainstacommon
enemy.
Subjectshave11.Firsttherefore,seeingsovereigntybyinstitution,isbycov
libertytoenantofeveryonetoeveryoneandsovereigntybyacquisition,by
defendtheircovenantsofthevanquishedtothevictor,orchildtotheparentit
ownbodies,ismanifest,thateverysubjecthaslibertyinallthosethings,the
evenagainstrightwhereofcannotbycovenantbetransferred.Ihaveshewn
themthatbeforeinthe14thchapter,thatcovenants,nottodefendaman's
lawfullyownbody,arevoid.Therefore,
invadethem.12.Ifthesovereigncommandaman(thoughjustlycondemned,)
Arenottokill,wound,ormaimhimselfornottoresistthosethatassault
boundtohurthimortoabstainfromtheuseoffood,air,medicine,oranyother
themselves.[112]thing,withoutwhichhecannotliveyethaththatmanthelibertyto
disobey.
13.Ifamanbeinterrogatedbythesovereign,orhisauthority,
concerningacrimedonebyhimself,heisnotbound(without
assuranceofpardon)toconfessitbecausenoman(asIhaveshown
inthesamechapter)canbeobligedbycovenanttoaccuse
himself.
14.Again,theconsentofasubjecttosovereignpower,iscon
tainedinthesewords,Iauthorize,ortakeuponme,allhisactionsin

whichthereisnorestrictionatall,ofhisownformernaturalliberty:
forbyallowinghimtokillme,Iamnotboundtokillmyselfwhenhe
commandsme.Itisonethingtosay,killme,ormyfellow,ifyou
pleaseanotherthingtosay,Iwillkillmyself,ormyfellow.It
followeththerefore,that
15.Nomanisboundbythewordsthemselves,eithertokill
himself,oranyothermanandconsequently,thattheobligationa
manmaysometimeshave,uponthecommandofthesovereignto
executeanydangerous,ordishonourableoffice,dependethnoton
thewordsofoursubmissionbutontheintention,whichistobe
understoodbytheendthereof.Whenthereforeourrefusaltoobey,
frustratestheendforwhichthesovereigntywasordainedthen
thereisnolibertytorefuse:otherwisethereis.*
16.Uponthisground,amanthatiscommandedasasoldiertoNorto
fightagainsttheenemy,thoughhissovereignhaverightenoughtowarfare,
punishhisrefusalwithdeath,mayneverthelessinmanycasesunlessthey
refuse,withoutinjusticeaswhenhesubstitutethasufficientsolidervoluntarily
inhisplace:forinthiscasehedesertethnottheserviceoftheundertakeit.
commonwealth.Andthereisallowancetobemadefornaturaltim
orousnessnotonlytowomen,(ofwhomnosuchdangerousdutyis
expected,)butalsotomenoffemininecourage.Whenarmiesfight,
thereisononeside,orboth,arunningawayyetwhentheydoitnot
outoftreachery,butfear,theyarenotesteemedtodoitunjustly,
butdishonourably.Forthesamereason,toavoidbattle,isnot
injustice,butcowardice.Buthethatenrollethhimselfasoldier,or
takethimprestmoney[advancepayment],takethawaytheexcuseof
atimorousnatureandisobliged,notonlytogotothebattle,but
alsonottorunfromit,withouthiscaptain'sleave.Andwhenthe
defenceofthecommonwealth,requirethatoncethehelpofallthat
areabletobeararms,everyoneisobligedbecauseotherwisethe
institutionofthecommonwealth,whichtheyhavenotthepurpose,
orcouragetopreserve,wasinvain.
17.Toresisttheswordofthecommonwealth,indefenceof
anotherman,guilty,orinnocent,nomanhathlibertybecausesuch
liberty,takesawayfromthesovereign,themeansofprotectingus
andisthereforedestructiveoftheveryessenceofgovernment.But
incaseagreatmanymentogether,havealreadyresistedthesover
eignpowerunjustly,orcommittedsomecapitalcrime,forwhich
everyoneofthemexpectethdeath,whetherhavetheynotthe
libertythentojointogether,andassist,anddefendoneanother?

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Certainlytheyhave:fortheybutdefendtheirlives,whichtheguilty
[113]manmayaswelldo,astheinnocent.Therewasindeedinjusticein
thefirstbreachoftheirdutytheirbearingofarmssubsequenttoit,
thoughitbetomaintainwhattheyhavedone,isnonewunjustact.
Andifitbeonlytodefendtheirpersons,itisnotunjustatall.But
theofferofpardontakethfromthem,towhomitisoffered,theplea
ofselfdefence,andmakeththeirperseveranceinassisting,orde
fendingtherest,unlawful.
Thegreatest18.Asforotherliberties,theydependonthesilenceofthelaw.
libertyofIncaseswherethesovereignhasprescribednorule,therethesub
subjects,jecthaththelibertytodo,orforbear,accordingtohisowndis
dependethoncretion.Andthereforesuchlibertyisinsomeplacesmore,andin
thesilenceofsomelessandinsometimesmore,inothertimesless,accordingas
thelaw.theythathavethesovereigntyshallthinkmostconvenient.Asfor
example,therewasatime,wheninEnglandamanmightenterinto
hisownland,(anddispossesssuchaswrongfullypossessedit,)by
force.Butinaftertimes,thatlibertyofforcibleentry,wastaken
awaybyastatutemade(bytheking)inparliament.Andinsome
placesoftheworld,menhavethelibertyofmanywives:inother
places,suchlibertyisnotallowed.
19.Ifasubjecthaveacontroversywithhissovereign,ofdebt,or
ofrightofpossessionoflandsorgoods,orconcerninganyservice
requiredathishands,orconcerninganypenalty,corporal,orpecu
niary,groundedonaprecedentlawhehaththesamelibertytosue
forhisright,asifitwereagainstasubjectandbeforesuchjudges,
asareappointedbythesovereign.Forseeingthesovereign
demandethbyforceofaformerlaw,andnotbyvirtueofhispower
hedeclareththereby,thatherequirethnomore,thanshallappearto
beduebythatlaw.Thesuitthereforeisnotcontrarytothewillof
thesovereignandconsequentlythesubjecthaththelibertyto
demandthehearingofhiscauseandsentence,accordingtothat
law.Butifhedemand,ortakeanythingbypretenceofhispower
therelieth,inthatcase,noactionoflawforallthatisdonebyhim
invirtueofhispower,isdonebytheauthorityofeverysubject,and
consequentlyhethatbringsanactionagainstthesovereign,bringsit
againsthimself.
20.Ifamonarch,orsovereignassembly,grantalibertytoall,or
anyofhissubjects,whichgrantstanding,heisdisabledtoprovide
fortheirsafety,thegrantisvoidunlesshedirectlyrenounce,or
transferthesovereigntytoanother.Forinthathemightopenly,(if

ithadbeenhiswill,)andinplainterms,haverenounced,or
transferredit,anddidnotitistobeunderstooditwasnothiswill
butthatthegrantproceededfromignoranceoftherepugnancy
betweensuchalibertyandthesovereignpower:andthereforethe
sovereigntyisstillretainedandconsequentlyallthosepowers,
whicharenecessarytotheexercisingthereofsuchasarethepower
ofwar,andpeace,ofjudicature,ofappointingofficers,andcouncil
lors,oflevyingmoney,andtherestnamedintheeighteenth
chapter.
21.Theobligationofsubjectstothesovereign,isunderstoodto[114]
lastaslong,andnolonger,thanthepowerlasteth,bywhichheisInwhatcases
abletoprotectthem.Fortherightmenhavebynaturetoprotectsubjectsare
themselves,whennoneelsecanprotectthem,canbynocovenantbeabsolvedof
relinquished.Thesovereigntyisthesoulofthecommonwealththeir
whichoncedepartedfromthebody,themembersdonomoreobedienceto
receivetheirmotionfromit.Theendofobedienceisprotectiontheir
which,wheresoeveramanseethit,eitherinhisown,orinanother'ssovereign.
sword,natureappliethhisobediencetoit,andhisendeavourto
maintainit.Andthoughsovereignty,intheintentionofthemthat
makeit,beimmortalyetisitinitsownnature,notonlysubjectto
violentdeath,byforeignwarbutalsothroughtheignorance,and
passionsofmen,ithathinit,fromtheveryinstitution,manyseeds
ofanaturalmortality,byintestinediscord.
22.Ifasubjectbetakenprisonerinwarorhisperson,orhisIncaseof
meansoflifebewithintheguardsoftheenemy,andhathhislifeandcaptivity.
corporallibertygivenhim,onconditiontobesubjecttothevictor,
hehathlibertytoaccepttheconditionandhavingacceptedit,isthe
subjectofhimthattookhimbecausehehadnootherwayto
preservehimself.Thecaseisthesame,ifhebedetainedonthesame
terms,inaforeigncountry.Butifamanbeheldinprison,orbonds,
orisnottrustedwiththelibertyofhisbodyhecannotbeunder
stoodtobeboundbycovenanttosubjectionandthereforemay,if
hecan,makehisescapebyanymeanswhatsoever.
23.Ifamonarchshallrelinquishthesovereignty,bothforhimIncasethe
self,andhisheirshissubjectsreturntotheabsolutelibertyofsovereigncast
naturebecause,thoughnaturemaydeclarewhoarehissons,andoffthe
whoarethenearestofhiskinyetitdependethonhisownwill,(asgovernment
hathbeensaidintheprecedentchapter,)whoshallbehisheir.Iffromhimself
thereforehewillhavenoheir,thereisnosovereignty,norsubjecandhisheirs.
tion.Thecaseisthesame,ifhediewithoutknownkindred,and

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withoutdeclarationofhisheir.Forthentherecannoheirbeknown,
andconsequentlynosubjectionbedue.
Incaseof24.Ifthesovereignbanishhissubjectduringthebanishment,
banishment.heisnotsubject.Buthethatissentonamessage,orhathleave
totravel,isstillsubjectbutitis,bycontractbetweensovereigns,
notbyvirtueofthecovenantofsubjection.Forwhosoeverentereth
intoanother'sdominion,issubjecttoallthelawsthereofunless
hehaveaprivilegebytheamityofthesovereigns,orbyspecial
licence.
Incasethe25.Ifamonarchsubduedbywar,renderhimselfsubjecttothe
sovereignvictorhissubjectsaredeliveredfromtheirformerobligation,
renderhimselfandbecomeobligedtothevictor.Butifhebeheldprisoner,orhave
subjecttonotthelibertyofhisownbodyheisnotunderstoodtohave
another.givenawaytherightofsovereigntyandthereforehissubjectsare
obligedtoyieldobediencetothemagistratesformerlyplaced,
governingnotintheirownname,butinhis.For,hisrightremain
[115]ing,thequestionisonlyoftheadministrationthatistosay,ofthe
magistratesandofficerswhich,ifhehavenotmeanstoname,heis
supposedtoapprovethose,whichhehimselfhadformerly
appointed.
ChapterXXII
OfSystemsSubject,Political,andPrivate
Thedivers1.Havingspokenofthegeneration,form,andpowerofacom
sortsofmonwealth,Iaminordertospeaknextofthepartsthereof.And
systemsoffirstofsystems,whichresemblethesimilarparts,ormusclesofa
people.bodynatural.BySYSTEMSIunderstandanynumbersofmenjoined
inoneinterest,oronebusiness.Ofwhich,someareregular,and
someirregular.Regulararethose,whereoneman,orassemblyof
men,isconstitutedrepresentativeofthewholenumber.Allother
areirregular.
2.Ofregular,someareabsolute,andindependent,subjectto
nonebuttheirownrepresentative:suchareonlycommonwealths
ofwhichIhavespokenalreadyinthefivelastprecedent

chapters.Othersaredependentthatistosay,subordinatetosome
sovereignpower,towhicheveryone,asalsotheirrepresentativeis
subject.
3.Ofsystemssubordinate,somearepolitical,andsomeprivate.
Political(otherwisecalledbodiespolitic,andpersonsinlaw,)arethose,
whicharemadebyauthorityfromthesovereignpowerofthecom
monwealth.Private,arethose,whichareconstitutedbysubjects
amongstthemselves,orbyauthorityfromastranger.Fornoauth
orityderivedfromforeignpower,withinthedominionofanother,is
publicthere,butprivate.
4.Andofprivatesystems,somearelawfulsomeunlawful.Law
ful,arethosewhichareallowedbythecommonwealth:allotherare
unlawful.Irregularsystems,arethosewhichhavingnorepresenta
tive,consistonlyinconcourseofpeoplewhichifnotforbiddenby
thecommonwealth,normadeonevildesign,(suchasareconfluxof
peopletomarkets,orshows,oranyotherharmlessend,)arelawful.
Butwhentheintentionisevil,or(ifthenumberbeconsiderable)
unknown,theyareunlawful.
5.Inbodiespolitic,thepoweroftherepresentativeisalwaysInallbodies
limited:andthatwhichprescribeththelimitsthereof,isthepowerpoliticthe
sovereign.Forpowerunlimited,isabsolutesovereignty.Andthepowerofthe
sovereignineverycommonwealth,istheabsoluterepresentativeofrepresentative
allthesubjectsandthereforenoother,canberepresentativeofanyislimited.
partofthem,butsofarforth,asheshallgiveleave.Andtogiveleave
toabodypoliticofsubjects,tohaveanabsoluterepresentativetoall
intentsandpurposes,weretoabandonthegovernmentofsomuch
ofthecommonwealth,andtodividethedominion,contrarytotheir
peaceanddefencewhichthesovereigncannotbeunderstoodtodo,
byanygrant,thatdoesnotplainly,anddirectlydischargethemof[116]
theirsubjection.Forconsequencesofwords,arenotthesignsofhis
will,whenotherconsequencesaresignsofthecontrarybutrather
signsoferror,andmisreckoningtowhichallmankindistoo
prone.
6.Theboundsofthatpower,whichisgiventotherepresentative
ofabodypolitic,aretobetakennoticeof,fromtwothings.Oneis
theirwrit,orlettersfromthesovereign:theotheristhelawofthe
commonwealth.
7.ForthoughintheinstitutionoracquisitionofacommonByletters
wealth,whichisindependent,thereneedsnowriting,becausethepatents.

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poweroftherepresentativehastherenootherbounds,butsuch
asaresetoutbytheunwrittenlawofnatureyetinsubordinate
bodies,therearesuchdiversitiesoflimitationnecessary,concerning
theirbusinesses,times,andplaces,ascanneitherberemembered
withoutletters,nortakennoticeof,unlesssuchlettersbe
patent,*thattheymaybereadtothem,andwithalsealed,or
testified,withtheseals,orotherpermanentsignsoftheauthority
sovereign.
Andthelaws.8.Andbecausesuchlimitationisnotalwayseasy,orperhaps
possibletobedescribedinwritingtheordinarylaws,commonto
allsubjects,mustdeterminewhattherepresentativemaylawfully
do,inallcases,wherethelettersthemselvesaresilent.And
therefore,
Whenthe9.*Inabodypolitic,iftherepresentativebeoneman,whatso
representativeeverhedoesinthepersonofthebody,whichisnotwarrantedinhis
isoneman,letters,norbythelaws,ishisownact,andnottheactofthe
hisbody,norofanyothermemberthereofbesideshimself:because
unwarrantedfurtherthanhisletters,orthelawslimit,herepresentethnoman's
actsarehisperson,buthisown.Butwhathedoesaccordingtothese,istheact
ownonly.ofeveryone:foroftheactofthesovereigneveryoneisauthor,
becauseheistheirrepresentativeunlimitedandtheactofhim
thatrecedesnotfromthelettersofthesovereign,istheactof
thesovereign,andthereforeeverymemberofthebodyisauthorof
it.
Whenitisan10.Butiftherepresentativebeanassemblywhatsoeverthat
assembly,itisassemblyshalldecree,notwarrantedbytheirletters,orthelaws,is
theactoftheactoftheassembly,orbodypolitic,andtheactofeveryoneby
themthatwhosevotethedecreewasmadebutnottheactofanymanthat
assentedonly.beingpresentvotedtothecontrarynorofanymanabsent,unless
hevoteditbyprocuration[proxy].Itistheactoftheassembly,
becausevotedbythemajorpartandifitbeacrime,theassembly
maybepunished,asfarforthasitiscapable,asbydissolution,or
forfeitureoftheirletters,(whichistosuchartificial,andfictitious
bodies,capital,)or(iftheassemblyhaveacommonstock,wherein
noneoftheinnocentmembershavepropriety,)bypecuniarymulct
[fine].Forfromcorporalpenaltiesnaturehathexemptedallbodies
politic.Buttheythatgavenottheirvote,arethereforeinnocent,
becausetheassemblycannotrepresentanymaninthingsunwar
rantedbytheirletters,andconsequentlyarenotinvolvedintheir
votes.

11.Ifthepersonofthebodypoliticbeinginoneman,borrowWhenthe
moneyofastranger,thatis,ofonethatisnotofthesamebody,(forrepresentative
nolettersneedlimitborrowing,seeingitislefttomen'sownincliisoneman,if
nationstolimitlending),thedebtistherepresentative's.Forifheheborrow
shouldhaveauthorityfromhisletters,tomakethememberspay[117]
whatheborroweth,heshouldhavebyconsequencethesovereigntymoney,or
ofthemandthereforethegrantwereeithervoid,asproceedingoweit,by
fromerror,commonlyincidenttohumannature,andaninsufficientcontract,heis
signofthewillofthegranterorifitbeavowedbyhim,thenistheliableonly,
representersovereign,andfallethnotunderthepresentquestion,themembers
whichisonlyofbodiessubordinate.Nomemberthereforeisobligednot.
topaythedebtsoborrowed,buttherepresentativehimself:because
hethatlendethit,beingastrangertotheletters,andtothequalifi
cationofthebody,understandeththoseonlyforhisdebtors,thatare
engaged:andseeingtherepresentercanengagehimself,andnone
else,hashimonlyfordebtorwhomustthereforepayhim,outofthe
commonstock(iftherebeany,)or,(iftherebenone)outofhisown
estate.
12.Ifhecomeintodebtbycontract,ormulct,thecaseisthe
same.
13.Butwhentherepresentativeisanassembly,andthedebttoWhenitisan
astrangerallthey,andonlytheyareresponsibleforthedebt,assembly,
thatgavetheirvotestotheborrowingofit,ortothecontractthattheyonlyare
madeitdue,ortothefactforwhichthemulctwasimposedbecauseliablethat
everyoneofthoseinvotingdidengagehimselfforthepayment:forhave
hethatisauthoroftheborrowing,isobligedtothepayment,assented.
evenofthewholedebt,thoughwhenpaidbyanyone,hebe
discharged.
14.Butifthedebtbetooneoftheassembly,theassemblyonlyIfthedebtbe
isobligedtothepayment,outoftheircommonstock(iftheyhavetooneofthe
any:)forhavinglibertyofvote,ifhevotethemoneyshallbeborassembly,the
rowed,hevotesitshallbepaidifhevoteitshallnotbeborrowed,bodyonlyis
orbeabsent,yetbecauseinlending,hevoteththeborrowing,heobliged.
contradictethhisformervote,andisobligedbythelatter,and
becomesbothborrowerandlender,andconsequentlycannotde
mandpaymentfromanyparticularman,butfromthecommon
treasureonlywhichfailinghehathnoremedy,norcomplaint,but
againsthimself,thatbeingprivytotheactsoftheassembly,andto
theirmeanstopay,andnotbeingenforced,didnevertheless
throughhisownfollylendhismoney.

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Protestation15.Itismanifestbythis,thatinbodiespoliticsubordinate,and
againstthesubjecttoasovereignpower,itissometimesnotonlylawful,but
decreesofexpedient,foraparticularmantomakeopenprotestationagainst
bodiespoliticthedecreesoftherepresentativeassembly,andcausetheirdissentto
sometimesberegistered,ortotakewitnessofitbecauseotherwisetheymaybe
lawfulbutobligedtopaydebtscontracted,andberesponsibleforcrimescom
againstmittedbyothermen.Butinasovereignassembly,thatlibertyis
sovereigntakenaway,bothbecausehethatprotesteththere,deniestheir
powernever.sovereigntyandalsobecausewhatsoeveriscommandedbythe
sovereignpower,isastothesubject(thoughnotsoalwaysinthe
sightofGod)justifiedbythecommandforofsuchcommandevery
subjectistheauthor.
Bodies16.Thevarietyofbodiespolitic,isalmostinfinite:fortheyare
politicfornotonlydistinguishedbytheseveralaffairs,forwhichtheyare
governmentconstituted,whereinthereisanunspeakablediversitybutalsoby
ofaprovince,thetimes,places,andnumbers,subjecttomanylimitations.Andas
[118]totheiraffairs,someareordainedforgovernmentasfirst,the
colony,orgovernmentofaprovincemaybecommittedtoanassemblyofmen,
town.whereinallresolutionsshalldependonthevotesofthemajorpart
andthenthisassemblyisabodypolitic,andtheirpowerlimitedby
commission.Thiswordprovincesignifiesacharge,orcareofbusi
ness,whichhewhosebusinessitis,committethtoanotherman,to
beadministeredfor,andunderhimandthereforewheninone
commonwealththerebediverscountries,thathavetheirlawsdis
tinctonefromanother,orarefardistantinplace,theadministration
ofthegovernmentbeingcommittedtodiverspersons,those
countrieswherethesovereignisnotresident,butgovernsbycom
mission,arecalledprovinces.Butofthegovernmentofaprovince,
byanassemblyresidingintheprovinceitself,therebefewexam
ples.TheRomanswhohadthesovereigntyofmanyprovincesyet
governedthemalwaysbypresidents,andpraetorsandnotbyas
semblies,astheygovernedthecityofRome,andterritoriesadja
cent.Inlikemanner,whentherewerecoloniessentfromEngland,
toplantVirginia,andSommerislands[theBermudas]thoughthe
governmentsofthemhere,werecommittedtoassembliesinLon
don,yetdidthoseassembliesnevercommitthegovernmentunder
themtoanyassemblythere,butdidtoeachplantationsendone
governor.Forthougheveryman,wherehecanbepresentbyna
ture,desirestoparticipateofgovernmentyetwheretheycannotbe

present,theyarebynaturealsoinclined,tocommitthegovernment
oftheircommoninterestrathertoamonarchical,thanapopular
formofgovernment:whichisalsoevidentinthosementhathave
greatprivateestateswhowhentheyareunwillingtotakethepains
ofadministeringthebusinessthatbelongstothem,chooseratherto
trustoneservant,thananassemblyeitheroftheirfriendsorser
vants.Buthowsoeveritbeinfact,yetwemaysupposethegovern
mentofaprovince,orcolonycommittedtoanassembly:andwhen
itis,thatwhichinthisplaceIhavetosay,isthisthatwhatsoever
debtisbythatassemblycontractedorwhatsoeverunlawfulactis
decreed,istheactonlyofthosethatassented,andnotofanythat
dissented,orwereabsent,forthereasonsbeforealleged.Alsothat
anassemblyresidingoutoftheboundsofthatcolonywhereofthey
havethegovernment,cannotexecuteanypoweroverthepersons,or
goodsofanyofthecolony,toseizeonthemfordebt,orotherduty,
inanyplacewithoutthecolonyitself,ashavingnojurisdiction,nor
authorityelsewhere,butarelefttotheremedy,whichthelawofthe
placealloweththem.Andthoughtheassemblyhaveright,toimpose
amulctuponanyoftheirmembers,thatshallbreakthelawsthey
makeyetoutofthecolonyitself,theyhavenorighttoexecutethe
same.Andthatwhichissaidhere,oftherightsofanassembly,
forthegovernmentofaprovince,oracolony,isapplicablealsoto
anassemblyforthegovernmentofatown,anuniversity,ora
college,orachurch,orforanyothergovernmentoverthepersons
ofmen.
17.Andgenerally,inallbodiespolitic,ifanyparticularmember[119]
conceivehimselfinjuredbythebodyitself,thecognizanceofhis
causebelongethtothesovereign,andthosethesovereignhath
ordainedforjudgesinsuchcauses,orshallordainforthatparticular
causeandnottothebodyitself.Forthewholebodyisinthiscase
hisfellowsubject,whichinasovereignassembly,isotherwise:for
there,ifthesovereignbenotjudge,thoughinhisowncause,there
canbenojudgeatall.
18.Inabodypolitic,forthewellorderingofforeigntraffic,theBodiespolitic
mostcommodiousrepresentativeisanassemblyofallthemembersforordering
thatistosay,suchaone,aseveryonethatadventurethhismoney,oftrade.
maybepresentatallthedeliberations,andresolutionsofthebody,
iftheywillthemselves.Forproofwhereof,wearetoconsiderthe
end,forwhichmenthataremerchants,andmaybuyandsell,

Page154

export,andimporttheirmerchandise,accordingtotheirown
discretions,doneverthelessbindthemselvesupinonecorporation.
Itistrue,therebefewmerchants,thatwiththemerchandisethey
buyathome,canfreightaship,toexportitorwiththattheybuy
abroad,tobringithomeandhavethereforeneedtojointogetherin
onesocietywhereeverymanmayeitherparticipateofthegain,
accordingtotheproportionofhisadventureortakehisown,and
sellwhathetransports,orimports,atsuchpricesashethinksfit.
Butthisisnobodypolitic,therebeingnocommonrepresentativeto
obligethemtoanyotherlaw,thanthatwhichiscommontoallother
subjects.Theendoftheirincorporating,istomaketheirgainthe
greaterwhichisdonetwowaysbysolebuying,andsoleselling,
bothathome,andabroad.Sothattogranttoacompanyofmer
chantstobeacorporation,orbodypolitic,istograntthemadouble
monopoly,whereofoneistobesolebuyersanothertobesole
sellers.Forwhenthereisacompanyincorporateforanyparticular
foreigncountry,theyonlyexportthecommoditiesvendibleinthat
countrywhichissolebuyingathome,andsolesellingabroad.For
athomethereisbutonebuyer,andabroadbutonethatselleth:both
whichisgainfultothemerchant,becausetherebytheybuyathome
atlower,andsellabroadathigherrates:andabroadthereisbutone
buyerofforeignmerchandise,andbutonethatsellsthemathome
bothwhichagainaregainfultotheadventurers.
19.Ofthisdoublemonopolyonepartisdisadvantageoustothe
peopleathome,theothertoforeigners.Forathomebytheirsole
exportationtheysetwhatpricetheypleaseonthehusbandry,and
handyworksofthepeopleandbythesoleimportation,whatprice
theypleaseonallforeigncommoditiesthepeoplehaveneedofboth
whichareillforthepeople.Onthecontrary,bythesolesellingof
thenativecommoditiesabroad,andsolebuyingtheforeigncom
moditiesupontheplace,theyraisethepriceofthose,andabatethe
priceofthese,tothedisadvantageoftheforeigner:forwherebut
oneselleth,themerchandiseisthedearerandwherebutone
[120]buyeth,thecheaper.Suchcorporationsthereforearenootherthan
monopoliesthoughtheywouldbeveryprofitableforacommon
wealth,ifbeingboundupintoonebodyinforeignmarketsthey
wereatlibertyathome,everymantobuy,andsellatwhatpricehe
could.
20.Theendthenofthesebodiesofmerchants,beingnota
commonbenefittothewholebody,(whichhaveinthiscaseno

commonstock,butwhatisdeductedoutoftheparticularadven
tures,forbuilding,buying,victuallingandmanningofships,)but
theparticulargainofeveryadventurer,itisreasonthateveryonebe
acquaintedwiththeemploymentofhisownthatis,thateveryone
beoftheassembly,thatshallhavethepowertoorderthesameand
beacquaintedwiththeiraccounts.Andthereforetherepresentative
ofsuchabodymustbeanassembly,whereeverymemberofthe
bodymaybepresentattheconsultations,ifhewill.
21.Ifabodypoliticofmerchants,contractadebttoastrangerby
theactoftheirrepresentativeassembly,everymemberisliableby
himselfforthewhole.Forastrangercantakenonoticeoftheir
privatelaws,butconsidereththemassomanyparticularmen,
obligedeveryonetothewholepayment,tillpaymentmadebyone
dischargethalltherest:butifthedebtbetooneofthecompany,
thecreditorisdebtorforthewholetohimself,andcannottherefore
demandhisdebt,butonlyfromthecommonstock,ifthere
beany.
22.Ifthecommonwealthimposeataxuponthebody,itis
understoodtobelaiduponeverymemberproportionablytohis
particularadventureinthecompany.Forthereisinthiscase
noothercommonstock,butwhatismadeoftheirparticular
adventures.
23.Ifamulctbelaiduponthebodyforsomeunlawfulact,they
onlyareliablebywhosevotestheactwasdecreed,orbywhose
assistanceitwasexecutedforinnoneoftherestisthereanyother
crimebutbeingofthebodywhichifacrime,(becausethebodywas
ordainedbytheauthorityofthecommonwealth,)isnothis.
24.Ifoneofthemembersbeindebtedtothebody,hemaybe
suedbythebodybuthisgoodscannotbetaken,norhisperson
imprisonedbytheauthorityofthebodybutonlybyauthorityofthe
commonwealth:foriftheycandoitbytheirownauthority,theycan
bytheirownauthoritygivejudgmentthatthedebtisduewhichis
asmuchastobejudgeintheirowncause.
25.Thesebodiesmadeforthegovernmentofmen,oroftraffic,Abodypolitic
beeitherperpetual,orforatimeprescribedbywriting.Buttherebeforcounselto
bodiesalsowhosetimesarelimited,andthatonlybythenatureofbegivento
theirbusiness.Forexample,ifasovereignmonarch,orasovereignthesovereign.
assembly,shallthinkfittogivecommandtothetowns,andother
severalpartsoftheirterritory,tosendtohimtheirdeputies,to
informhimofthecondition,andnecessitiesofthesubjects,orto

Page156

[121]advisewithhimforthemakingofgoodlaws,orforanyothercause,
aswithonepersonrepresentingthewholecountry,suchdeputies,
havingaplaceandtimeofmeetingassignedthem,arethere,and
atthattime,abodypolitic,representingeverysubjectofthat
dominionbutitisonlyforsuchmattersasshallbepropounded
untothembythatman,orassembly,thatbythesovereignauthority
sentforthemandwhenitshallbedeclaredthatnothingmore
shallbepropounded,nordebatedbythem,thebodyisdissolved.
Foriftheyweretheabsoluterepresentativesofthepeople,then
wereitthesovereignassemblyandsotherewouldbetwosovereign
assemblies,ortwosovereigns,overthesamepeoplewhichcannot
consistwiththeirpeace.Andthereforewherethereisonceasover
eignty,therecanbenoabsoluterepresentationofthepeople,butby
it.Andforthelimitsofhowfarsuchabodyshallrepresentthe
wholepeople,theyaresetforthinthewritingbywhichtheywere
sentfor.Forthepeoplecannotchoosetheirdeputiestootherintent,
thanisinthewritingdirectedtothemfromtheirsovereign
expressed.
Aregular26.Privatebodiesregular,andlawful,arethosethatareconsti
privatebody,tutedwithoutletters,orotherwrittenauthority,savingthelaws
lawful,asacommontoallothersubjects.Andbecausetheybeunitedinone
family.personrepresentative,theyareheldforregularsuchasareall
families,inwhichthefather,ormasterordereththewholefamily.
Forheobligethhischildren,andservants,asfarasthelaw
permitteth,thoughnotfurther,becausenoneofthemareboundto
obedienceinthoseactions,whichthelawhathforbiddentobedone.
Inallotheractions,duringthetimetheyareunderdomesticgovern
ment,theyaresubjecttotheirfathers,andmasters,astotheir
immediatesovereigns.Forthefather,andmaster,beingbeforethe
institutionofcommonwealth,absolutesovereignsintheirownfam
ilies,theyloseafterwardnomoreoftheirauthority,thanthelawof
thecommonwealthtakethfromthem.
Private27.Privatebodiesregular,butunlawful,arethosethatunite
bodiesthemselvesintoonepersonrepresentative,withoutanypublic
regular,butauthorityatallsuchasarethecorporationsofbeggars,thieves,and
unlawful.gipsies,thebettertoordertheirtradeofbeggingandstealingand
thecorporationsofmen,thatbyauthorityfromanyforeignperson,
unitethemselvesinanother'sdominion,fortheeasierpropagation
ofdoctrines,andformakingaparty,againstthepowerofthe
commonwealth.

28.Irregularsystems,intheirnaturebutleagues,orsometimesSystems
mereconcourseofpeople,withoutuniontoanyparticulardesign,irregular,
byobligation*ofonetoanother,butproceedingonlyfromasuchasare
similitudeofwillsandinclinations,becomelawful,orunlawful,private
accordingtothelawfulness,orunlawfulnessofeveryparticularleagues.
man'sdesigntherein:andhisdesignistobeunderstoodbythe
occasion.
29.Theleaguesofsubjects,(becauseleaguesarecommonly
madeformutualdefence,)areinacommonwealth(whichisnomore
thanaleagueofallthesubjectstogether)forthemostpartunnecess
ary,andsavourofunlawfuldesignandareforthatcauseunlawful,
andgocommonlybythenameoffactions,orconspiracies.Fora[122]
leaguebeingaconnexionofmenbycovenants,iftherebenopower
giventoanyonemanorassembly(asintheconditionofmere
nature)tocompelthemtoperformance,issolongonlyvalid,as
therearisethnojustcauseofdistrust:andthereforeleaguesbetween
commonwealths,overwhomthereisnohumanpowerestablished,
tokeepthemallinawe,arenotonlylawful,butalsoprofitablefor
thetimetheylast.Butleaguesofthesubjectsofoneandthesame
commonwealth,whereeveryonemayobtainhisrightbymeansof
thesovereignpower,areunnecessarytothemaintainingofpeace
andjustice,and(incasethedesignofthembeevilorunknownto
thecommonwealth)unlawful.Forallunitingofstrengthbyprivate
men,is,ifforevilintent,unjustifforintentunknown,dangerous
tothepublic,andunjustlyconcealed.
30.Ifthesovereignpowerbeinagreatassembly,andanumberSecretcabals.
ofmen,partoftheassembly,withoutauthority,consultapart,to
contrivetheguidanceoftherestthisisafaction,orconspiracy
unlawful,asbeingafraudulentseducingoftheassemblyfortheir
particularinterest.Butifhe,whoseprivateinterestistobedebated
andjudgedintheassembly,makeasmanyfriendsashecaninhim
itisnoinjusticebecauseinthiscaseheisnopartoftheassembly.
Andthoughhehiresuchfriendswithmoney,(unlesstherebean
expresslawagainstit,)yetitisnotinjustice.Forsometimes,
(asmen'smannersare,)justicecannotbehadwithoutmoney*
andeverymanmaythinkhisowncausejust,tillitbeheard,and
judged.
31.Inallcommonwealths,ifprivatemenentertainmoreserFeudsof
vants,thanthegovernmentofhisestate,andlawfulemploymentheprivate
hasforthemrequires,itisfaction,andunlawful.Forhavingthefamilies.

Page158

protectionofthecommonwealth,heneedethnotthedefenceof
privateforce.Andwhereasinnationsnotthoroughlycivilized,sev
eralnumerousfamilieshavelivedincontinualhostility,andinvaded
oneanotherwithprivateforceyetitisevidentenough,thatthey
havedoneunjustlyorelsetheyhadnocommonwealth.
Factionsfor32.Andasfactionsforkindred,soalsofactionsforgovernment
government.ofreligion,asofPapists,Protestants,&c.*orofstate,aspatricians,
andplebeiansofoldtimeinRome,andofaristocraticalsand
democraticalsofoldtimeinGreece,areunjust,asbeingcontraryto
thepeaceandsafetyofthepeople,andatakingoftheswordoutof
thehandofthesovereign.
Concourseof33.Concourseofpeopleisanirregularsystem,thelawfulness,or
people.unlawfulness,whereofdependethontheoccasion,andonthe
numberofthemthatareassembled.Iftheoccasionbelawful,and
manifest,theconcourseislawfulastheusualmeetingofmenat
church,oratapublicshow,inusualnumbers:forifthenumbersbe
extraordinarilygreat,theoccasionisnotevidentandconsequently
hethatcannotrenderaparticularandgoodaccountofhisbeing
amongstthem,istobejudgedconsciousofanunlawful,andtu
multuousdesign.Itmaybelawfulforathousandmen,tojointoa
petitiontobedeliveredtoajudge,ormagistrateyetifathousand
[123]mencometopresentit,itisatumultuousassemblybecausethere
needsbutoneortwoforthatpurpose.Butinsuchcasesasthese,it
isnotasetnumberthatmakestheassemblyunlawful,butsucha
number,asthepresentofficersarenotabletosuppress,andbringto
justice.
34.Whenanunusualnumberofmen,assembleagainstaman
whomtheyaccusetheassemblyisanunlawfultumultbecausethey
maydelivertheiraccusationtothemagistratebyafew,orbyone
man.SuchwasthecaseofSt.PaulatEphesuswhereDemetrius
andagreatnumberofothermen,broughttwoofPaul'scompanions
beforethemagistrate,sayingwithonevoice,GreatisDianaofthe
Ephesianswhichwastheirwayofdemandingjusticeagainstthem
forteachingthepeoplesuchdoctrine,aswasagainsttheirreligion,
andtrade.Theoccasionhere,consideringthelawsofthatpeople,
wasjustyetwastheirassemblyjudgedunlawful,andthemagistrate
reprehendedthemforitinthesewords(Acts19.40),IfDemetrius
andtheotherworkmencanaccuseanyman,ofanything,therebepleas,
anddeputies,letthemaccuseoneanother.Andifyouhaveanyother
thingtodemand,yourcasemaybejudgedinanassemblylawfullycalled.

Forweareindangertobeaccusedforthisday'ssedition,because,there
isnocausebywhichanymancanrenderanyreasonofthisconcourseof
people.Wherehecallethanassembly,whereofmencangivenojust
account,asedition,andsuchastheycouldnotanswerfor.Andthis
isallIshallsayconcerningsystems,andassembliesofpeople,which
maybecompared(asIsaid,)tothesimilarpartsofman'sbodysuch
asbelawful,tothemusclessuchasareunlawful,towens[warts],
biles,andapostems[abscesses],engenderedbytheunnaturalcon
fluxofevilhumours.
ChapterXXIII
OfthePublicMinistersofSovereignPower
1.InthelastchapterIhavespokenofthesimilarpartsofacom
monwealth:inthisIshallspeakofthepartsorganical,whichare
publicministers.
2.APUBLICMINISTER,ishe,thatbythesovereign,(whetheraPublic
monarchoranassembly,)isemployedinanyaffairs,withauthorityministerwho.
torepresentinthatemployment,thepersonofthecommonwealth.
Andwhereaseveryman,orassemblythathathsovereignty,
representethtwopersons,or(asthemorecommonphraseis)has
twocapacites,onenatural,andanotherpolitic,(asamonarch,hath
thepersonnotonlyofthecommonwealth,butalsoofamananda
sovereignassemblyhaththepersonnotonlyofthecommonwealth,
butalsooftheassembly)theythatbeservantstothemintheir
naturalcapacity,arenotpublicministersbutthoseonlythatserve
themintheadministrationofthepublicbusiness.Andtherefore[124]
neitherushers,norsergeants,norotherofficersthatwaitonthe
assembly,fornootherpurpose,butforthecommodityofthemen
assembled,inanaristocracy,ordemocracynorstewards,chamber
lains,cofferers,oranyotherofficersofthehouseholdofamonarch,
arepublicministersinamonarchy.
3.Ofpublicministers,somehavechargecommittedtothemofaMinistersfor
generaladministration,eitherofthewholedominion,orofapartthegeneral
thereof.Ofthewhole,astoaprotector,orregent,maybecommittedadministration.
bythepredecessorofaninfantking,duringhisminority,thewhole
administrationofhiskingdom.Inwhichcase,everysubjectissofar

Page160

obligedtoobedience,astheordinancesheshallmake,andthe
commandsheshallgivebeintheking'sname,andnotinconsistent
withhissovereignpower.Ofapart,orprovinceaswheneithera
monarch,orasovereignassembly,shallgivethegeneralcharge
thereoftoagovernor,lieutenant,praefect,orviceroy:andinthis
casealso,everyoneofthatprovinceisobligedtoallheshalldointhe
nameofthesovereign,andthatisnotincompatiblewiththesover
eign'sright.Forsuchprotectors,viceroys,andgovernors,haveno
otherright,butwhatdependsonthesovereign'swillandnocom
missionthatcanbegiventhem,canbeinterpretedforadeclaration
ofthewilltotransferthesovereignty,withoutexpressandperspicu
ouswordstothatpurpose.Andthiskindofpublicministers
resembleththenerves,andtendonsthatmovetheseverallimbsofa
bodynatural.
Forspecial4.Othershavespecialadministrationthatistosay,chargesof
administration,somespecialbusiness,eitherathome,orabroad:asathome,first,
asforfortheeconomyofacommonwealth,theythathaveauthoritycon
economy.cerningthetreasure,astributes,impositions,rents,fines,orwhat
soeverpublicrevenue,tocollect,receive,issue,ortaketheaccounts
thereof,arepublicministers:ministers,becausetheyservetheper
sonrepresentative,andcandonothingagainsthiscommand,nor
withouthisauthority:public,becausetheyservehiminhispolitical
capacity.
5.Secondly,theythathaveauthorityconcerningthemilitiato
havethecustodyofarms,forts,portstolevy,pay,orconduct
solidersortoprovideforanynecessarythingfortheuseofwar,
eitherbylandorsea,arepublicministers.Butasoldierwithout
command,thoughhefightforthecommonwealth,doesnotthere
forerepresentthepersonofitbecausethereisnonetorepresentit
to.Foreveryonethathathcommand,representsittothemonly
whomhecommandeth.
For6.Theyalsothathaveauthoritytoteach,ortoenableothersto
instructionofteachthepeopletheirdutytothesovereignpower,andinstruct
thepeople.themintheknowledgeofwhatisjust,andunjust,therebytorender
themmoreapttoliveingodliness,andinpeaceamongstthem
selves,andresistthepublicenemy,arepublicministers:ministers,
inthattheydoitnotbytheirownauthority,butbyanother'sand
public,becausetheydoit(orshoulddoit)bynoauthoritybutthat
[125]ofthesovereign.Themonarch,orthesovereignassemblyonlyhath
immediateauthorityfromGod,toteachandinstructthepeople

andnomanbutthesovereign,receivethhispowerDeigratiasimply
thatistosay,fromthefavourofnonebutGod:allother,receive
theirsfromthefavourandprovidenceofGod,andtheirsovereigns
asinamonarchyDeigratiaetregisorDeiprovidentiaetvoluntate
regis.*
7.Theyalsotowhomjurisdictionisgiven,arepublicministers.For
Forintheirseatsofjusticetheyrepresentthepersonofthesoverjudicature.
eignandtheirsentence,ishissentencefor(ashathbeenbefore
declared)alljudicatureisessentiallyannexedtothesovereigntyand
thereforeallotherjudgesarebutministersofhim,orthemthathave
thesovereignpower.Andascontroversiesareoftwosorts,namely
offactandoflawsoarejudgments,someoffact,someoflaw:and
consequentlyinthesamecontroversy,theremaybetwojudges,one
offact,anotheroflaw.
8.Andinboththesecontroversies,theremayariseacontroversy
betweenthepartyjudged,andthejudgewhichbecausetheybe
bothsubjectstothesovereign,oughtinequitytobejudgedbymen
agreedonbyconsentofbothfornomancanbejudgeinhisown
cause.Butthesovereignisalreadyagreedonforjudgebythem
both,andisthereforeeithertohearthecause,anddetermineit
himself,orappointforjudgesuchastheyshallbothagreeon.And
thisagreementisthenunderstoodtobemadebetweenthemdivers
waysasfirst,ifthedefendantbeallowedtoexceptagainstsuchof
hisjudges,whoseinterestmakethhimsuspectthem,(forastothe
complainanthehathalreadychosenhisownjudge,)thosewhichhe
exceptethnotagainst,arejudgeshehimselfagreeson.Secondly,if
heappealtoanyotherjudge,hecanappealnofurtherforhisappeal
ishischoice.Thirdly,ifheappealtothesovereignhimself,andhe
byhimself,orbydelegateswhichthepartiesshallagreeon,give
sentencethatsentenceisfinal:forthedefendantisjudgedbyhis
ownjudges,thatistosay,byhimself.
9.Thesepropertiesofjustandrationaljudicatureconsidered,I
cannotforbeartoobservetheexcellentconstitutionofthecourtsof
justice,establishedbothforCommon,andalsoforPublicPleasin
England.ByCommonPleas,Imeanthose,whereboththecom
plainantanddefendantaresubjects:andbypublic,(whicharealso
calledPleasoftheCrown)those,wherethecomplainantisthe
sovereign.Forwhereasthereweretwoordersofmen,whereofone
wasLords,theotherCommonstheLordshadthisprivilege,to
haveforjudgesifthepleawerepublic*inallcapitalcrimes,none

Page162

butLordsandofthem,asmanyaswouldbepresentwhichbeing
everacknowledgedasaprivilegeoffavour,theirjudgeswerenone
butsuchastheyhadthemselvesdesired.Andinallcontroversies,
everysubject(asalsoincivilcontroversiestheLords)hadfor
judges,menofthecountrywherethematterincontroversylay
againstwhichhemightmakehisexceptions,tillatlasttwelvemen
[126]withoutexceptionbeingagreedon,theywerejudgedbythose
twelve.Sothathavinghisownjudges,therecouldbenothing
allegedbytheparty,whythesentenceshouldnotbefinal.These
publicpersons,withauthorityfromthesovereignpower,eitherto
instruct,orjudgethepeople,aresuchmembersofthecommon
wealth,asmayfitlybecomparedtotheorgansofvoiceinabody
natural.
For10.Publicministersarealsoallthose,thathaveauthorityfrom
execution.thesovereign,toprocuretheexecutionofjudgmentsgivento
publishthesovereign'scommandstosuppresstumultstoappre
hend,andimprisonmalefactorsandotheractstendingtothecon
servationofthepeace.Foreveryacttheydobysuchauthority,isthe
actofthecommonwealthandtheirservice,answerabletothatofthe
hands,inabodynatural.
11.Publicministersabroad,arethosethatrepresenttheperson
oftheirownsovereign,toforeignstates.Suchareambassadors,
messengers,agents,andheralds,sentbypublicauthority,andon
publicbusiness.
12.Butsuchasaresentbyauthorityonlyofsomeprivateparty
ofatroubledstate,thoughtheybereceived,areneitherpublic,nor
privateministersofthecommonwealthbecausenoneoftheirac
tionshavethecommonwealthforauthor.Likewise,anambassador
sentfromaprince,tocongratulate,condole,ortoassistatasolem
nitythoughtheauthoritybepublicyetbecausethebusinessis
private,andbelongingtohiminhisnaturalcapacityisaprivate
person.Alsoifamanbesentintoanothercountry,secretlyto
exploretheircounsels,andstrengththoughboththeauthority,and
thebusinessbepublicyetbecausethereisnonetotakenoticeofany
personinhim,buthisownheisbutaprivateministerbutyeta
ministerofthecommonwealthandmaybecomparedtoaneyein
thebodynatural.Andthosethatareappointedtoreceivethepet
itionsorotherinformationsofthepeople,andareasitwerethe
publicear,arepublicministers,andrepresenttheirsovereigninthat
office.

13.Neitheracouncillor(noracouncilofstate,ifweconsideritCouncillors
withnoauthorityofjudicatureorcommand,butonlyofgivingwithoutother
advicetothesovereignwhenitisrequired,orofofferingitwhenitemployment
isnotrequired,)isapublicperson.Fortheadviceisaddressedtothethantoadvise
sovereignonly,whosepersoncannotinhisownpresence,bereprearenotpublic
sentedtohim,byanother.Butabodyofcouncillors,areneverministers.
withoutsomeotherauthority,eitherofjudicature,orofimmediate
administration:asinamonarchy,theyrepresentthemonarch,in
deliveringhiscommandstothepublicministers:inademocracy,
thecouncil,orsenatepropoundstheresultoftheirdeliberationsto
thepeople,asacouncilbutwhentheyappointjudges,orhear
causes,orgiveaudiencetoambassadors,itisinthequalityofa
ministerofthepeople:andinanaristocracythecouncilofstateis
thesovereignassemblyitselfandgivescounseltononebut
themselves.
ChapterXXXIV[127]
OftheNutrition,andProcreationofACommonwealth
1.Thenutritionofacommonwealthconsisteth,intheplenty,andThe
distributionofmaterialsconducingtolife:inconcoction,orprepnourishment
arationand(whenconcocted)intheconveyanceofit,byconvenientofa
conduits,tothepublicuse.commonwealth
2.Asfortheplentyofmatter,itisathinglimitedbynature,toconsistethin
thosecommodities,whichfrom(thetwobreastsofourcommonthe
mother)land,andsea,Godusuallyeitherfreelygiveth,orforlabourcommodities
sellethtomankind.ofseaand
3.Forthematterofthisnutriment,consistinginanimals,land:
vegetals,andminerals,Godhathfreelylaidthembeforeus,inor
neartothefaceoftheearthsoasthereneedethnomorebutthe
labour,andindustryofreceivingthem.Insomuchasplenty
dependeth(nexttoGod'sfavour)merelyonthelabourandindustry
ofmen.
4.Thismatter,commonlycalledcommodities,ispartlynative,
andpartlyforeign:native,thatwhichistobehadwithintheterritory
ofthecommonwealth:foreign,thatwhichisimportedfromwithout.

Page164

Andbecausethereisnoterritoryunderthedominionofonecom
monwealth,(exceptitbeofveryvastextent,)thatproducethall
thingsneedfulforthemaintenance,andmotionofthewholebody
andfewthatproducenotsomethingmorethannecessarythe
superfluouscommoditiestobehadwithin,becomenomoresuper
fluous,butsupplythesewantsathome,byimportationofthat
whichmaybehadabroad,eitherbyexchange,orbyjustwar,orby
labour:foraman'slabouralso,isacommodityexchangeablefor
benefit,aswellasanyotherthing:andtherehavebeencommon
wealthsthathavingnomoreterritory,thanhathservedthemfor
habitation,havenevertheless,notonlymaintained,butalsoin
creasedtheirpower,partlybythelabouroftradingfromoneplace
toanother,andpartlybysellingthemanufactures,whereofthe
materialswerebroughtinfromotherplaces.
Andtheright5.Thedistributionofthematerialsofthisnourishment,isthe
distributionofconstitutionofmine,andthine,andhisthatistosay,inoneword
them.proprietyandbelongethinallkindsofcommonwealthtothesover
eignpower.Forwherethereisnocommonwealth,thereis(ashath
beenalreadyshown)aperpetualwarofeverymanagainsthisneigh
bourandthereforeeverythingishisthatgettethit,andkeepethit
byforcewhichisneitherpropriety,norcommunitybutuncertainty.
Whichissoevident,thatevenCicero,(apassionatedefenderof
liberty,)inapublicpleading,attributethallproprietytothelaw
civil,Letthecivillaw,saithhe,beonceabandoned,orbutnegligently
guarded,(nottosayoppressed,)andthereisnothing,thatanymancan
[128]besuretoreceiveflorahisancestor,orleavetohischildren.Andagain
Takeawaythecivillaw,andnomanknowswhatishisown,andwhat
anotherman's.*Seeingthereforetheintroductionofproprietyisan
effectofcommonwealthwhichcandonothingbutbytheperson
thatrepresentsit,itistheactonlyofthesovereignandconsisteth
inthelaws,whichnonecanmakethathavenotthesovereignpower.
Andthistheywellknewofold,whocalledthatvoV,(thatisto
say,distribution,)whichwecalllawanddefinedjustice,bydistribut
ingtoeverymanhisown.
Allprivate6.Inthisdistribution,thefirstlaw,isfordivisionoftheland
estatesoflanditself:whereinthesovereignassignethtoeverymanaportion,ac
proceedcordingashe,andnotaccordingasanysubject,oranynumberof
originallyfromthem,shalljudgeagreeabletoequity,andthecommongood.The
thearbitrarychildrenofIsrael,wereacommonwealthinthewildernessbut
distributionofthesovereign.wantedthecommoditiesoftheearth,tilltheyweremastersofthe

LandofPromisewhichafterwardwasdividedamongstthem,not
bytheirowndiscretion,butbythediscretionofEleazarthePriest,
andJoshuatheirGeneral:whowhenthereweretwelvetribes,mak
ingthemthirteenbysubdivisionofthetribeofJosephmadenever
thelessbuttwelveportionsofthelandandordainedforthetribeof
Levinolandbutassignedthemthetenthpartofthewholefruits
whichdivisionwasthereforearbitrary.Andthoughapeoplecoming
intopossessionofalandbywar,donotalwaysexterminatethe
ancientinhabitants,(asdidtheJews,)butleavetomany,ormost,or
allofthemtheirestatesyetitismanifesttheyholdthemafterwards,
asofthevictors'distributionasthepeopleofEnglandheldalltheirs
ofWilliamtheConqueror.
7.Fromwhencewemaycollect,thattheproprietywhichaProprietyof
subjecthathinhislands,consistethinarighttoexcludeallotherasubject
subjectsfromtheuseofthemandnottoexcludetheirsovereign,beexcludesnot
itanassembly,oramonarch.Forseeingthesovereign,thatistosay,thedominion
thecommonwealth(whosepersonherepresenteth,)isunderstoodofthe
todonothingbutinordertothecommonpeaceandsecurity,thissovereign,but
distributionoflands,istobeunderstoodasdoneinordertotheonlyof
same:andconsequently,whatsoeverdistributionanothershallmakeanother
inprejudicethereof,iscontrarytothewillofeverysubject,thatsubject.
committedhispeace,andsafetytohisdiscretion,andconscience
andthereforebythewillofeveryoneofthem,istobereputedvoid.
Itistrue,thatasovereignmonarch,orthegreaterpartofasovereign
assembly,mayordainthedoingofmanythingsinpursuitoftheir
passions,contrarytotheirownconsciences,whichisabreachof
trust,andofthelawofnaturebutthisisnotenoughtoauthorize
anysubject,eithertomakewarupon,orsomuchastoaccuseof
injustice,oranywaytospeakeviloftheirsovereignbecausethey
haveauthorizedallhisactions,andinbestowingthesovereign
power,madethemtheirown.Butinwhatcasesthecommandsof
sovereignsarecontrarytoequity,andthelawofnature,istobe
consideredhereafterinanotherplace.*
8.Inthedistributionofland,thecommonwealthitself,maybe[129]
conceivedtohaveaportion,andpossess,andimprovethesamebyThepublicis
theirrepresentativeandthatsuchportionmaybemadesufficient,nottobe
tosustainthewholeexpensetothecommonpeace,anddefencedieted.
necessarilyrequired:whichwereverytrue,iftherecouldbeany
representativeconceivedfreefromhumanpassions,andinfirmities.
Butthenatureofmenbeingasitis,thesettingforthofpublicland,

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orofanycertainrevenueforthecommonwealth,isinvainand
tendethtothedissolutionofgovernment,andtotheconditionof
merenature,andwar,assoonaseverthesovereignpowerfalleth
intothehandsofamonarch,orofanassembly,thatareeithertoo
negligentofmoney,ortoohazardousinengagingthepublicstock
intoalongorcostlywar.Commonwealthscanendurenodiet:for
seeingtheirexpenseisnotlimitedbytheirownappetite,butby
externalaccidents,andtheappetitesoftheirneighbours,thepublic
richescannotbelimitedbyotherlimits,thanthosewhichthe
emergentoccasionsshallrequire.AndwhereasinEngland,there
werebytheConqueror,diverslandsreservedtohisownuse,(be
sidesforests,andchases,eitherforhisrecreation,orpreservationof
woods,)anddiversservicesreservedonthelandhegavehissub
jectsyetitseemstheywerenotreservedforhismaintenanceinhis
public,butinhisnaturalcapacity:forhe,andhissuccessorsdidfor
allthat,layarbitrarytaxesonallsubjects'land,whentheyjudgedit
necessary.Orifthosepubliclands,andservices,wereordainedasa
sufficientmaintenanceofthecommonwealth,itwascontrarytothe
scopeoftheinstitutionbeing(asitappearedbythoseensuingtaxes)
insufficient,and(asitappearsbythelatesmallrevenueofthe
crown)subjecttoalienation,anddiminution.Itisthereforeinvain,
toassignaportiontothecommonwealthwhichmaysell,orgiveit
awayanddoessell,andgiveitaway,when'tisdonebytheir
representative.
Theplaces9.Asthedistributionoflandsathomesoalsotoassigninwhat
andmatterofplaces,andforwhatcommodities,thesubjectshalltrafficabroad,
trafficbelongethtothesovereign.Forifitdidbelongtoprivatepersonsto
depend,asusetheirowndiscretiontherein,someofthemwouldbedrawnfor
theirgain,bothtofurnishtheenemywithmeanstohurtthecommon
distribution,wealth,andhurtitthemselves,byimportingsuchthings,aspleasing
onthemen'sappetites,beneverthelessnoxious,oratleastunprofitableto
sovereign.them.Andthereforeitbelongethtothecommonwealth(thatis,to
thesovereignonly,)toapprove,ordisapprovebothoftheplaces,
andmatterofforeigntraffic.
Thelawsof10.Further,seeingitisnotenoughtothesustentation[upkeep]
transferringofacommonwealth,thateverymanhaveaproprietyinaportionof
proprietyland,orinsomefewcommodities,oranaturalpropertyinsome
belongalsotousefulart,andthatthereisnoartintheworld,butisnecessary
thesovereign.eitherforthebeing,orwellbeingalmostofeveryparticularmanit
isnecessary,thatmendistributethatwhichtheycanspare,and

transfertheirproprietytherein,mutuallyonetoanother,byex
change,andmutualcontract.Andthereforeitbelongethtothe[130]
commonwealth,(thatistosay,tothesovereign,)toappointinwhat
manner,allkindsofcontractbetweensubjects,(asbuying,selling,
exchanging,borrowing,lending,letting,andtakingtohire,)areto
bemadeandbywhatwordsandsignstheyshallbeunderstoodfor
valid.Andforthematter,anddistributionofthenourishment,to
theseveralmembersofthecommonwealth,thusmuch(considering
themodelofthewholework)issufficient.
11.Byconcoction,Iunderstandthereducingofallcommodities,Moneythe
whicharenotpresentlyconsumed,butreservedfornourishmentinbloodofa
timetocome,tosomethingofequalvalue,andwithalsoportable,ascommonwealth.
nottohinderthemotionofmenfromplacetoplacetotheenda
manmayhaveinwhatplacesoever,suchnourishmentastheplace
affordeth.Andthisisnothingelsebutgold,andsilver,andmoney.
Forgoldandsilver,being(asithappens)almostinallcountriesof
theworldhighlyvalued,isacommodiousmeasureofthevalueofall
thingselsebetweennationsandmoney(ofwhatmattersoever
coinedbythesovereignofacommonwealth,)isasufficientmeasure
ofthevalueofallthingselse,betweenthesubjectsofthatcommon
wealth.Bythemeansofwhichmeasures,allcommodities,movable
andimmovable,aremadetoaccompanyamantoallplacesofhis
resort,withinandwithouttheplaceofhisordinaryresidenceand
thesamepassethfrommantoman,withinthecommonwealthand
goesroundabout,nourishing(asitpasseth)everypartthereofinso
muchasthisconcoction,isasitwerethesanguificationofthe
commonwealth:fornaturalbloodisinlikemannermadeofthe
fruitsoftheearthandcirculating,nourishethbythewayevery
memberofthebodyofman.
12.Andbecausesilverandgold,havetheirvaluefromthematter
itselftheyhavefirstthisprivilege,thatthevalueofthemcannotbe
alteredbythepowerofone,norofafewcommonwealthsasbeing
acommonmeasureofthecommoditiesofallplaces.Butbase
money,mayeasilybeenhanced,orabased.Secondly,theyhavethe
privilegetomakecommonwealthsmove,andstretchouttheirarms,
whenneedis,intoforeigncountriesandsupply,notonlyprivate
subjectsthattravel,butalsowholearmieswithprovision.Butthat
coin,whichisnotconsiderableforthematter,butforthestampof
theplace,beingunabletoendurechangeofair,hathitseffectat
homeonlywherealsoitissubjecttothechangeoflaws,andthereby

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tohavethevaluediminished,totheprejudicemanytimesofthose
thathaveit.
Theconduits13.Theconduits,andwaysbywhichitisconveyedtothepublic
andwayofuse,areoftwosortsone,thatconveyethittothepubliccoffers
moneytothetheother,thatissueththesameoutagainforpublicpayments.Of
publicuse.thefirstsort,arecollectors,receivers,andtreasurersofthesecond
arethetreasurersagain,andtheofficersappointedforpayment
ofseveralpublicorprivateministers.Andinthisalso,theartificial
manmaintainshisresemblancewiththenaturalwhoseveins
receivingthebloodfromtheseveralpartsofthebody,carryittothe
[131]heartwherebeingmadevital,theheartbythearteriessendsitout
again,toenliven,andenableformotionallthemembersofthe
same.*
Thechildren14.Theprocreation,orchildrenofacommonwealth,arethose
ofawecallplantations,orcolonieswhicharenumbersofmensentout
commonwealthfromthecommonwealth,underaconductor,orgovernor,toinhabit
colomes.aforeigncountry,eitherformerlyvoidofinhabitants,ormadevoid
thenbywar.Andwhenacolonyissettled,theyareeitheracom
monwealthofthemselves,dischargedoftheirsubjectiontotheir
sovereignthatsentthem,(ashathbeendonebymanycommon
wealths,ofancienttime,)inwhichcasethecommonwealthfrom
whichtheywent,wascalledtheirmetropolis,ormother,andre
quiresnomoreofthem,thanfathersrequireofthechildren,whom
theyemancipate,andmakefreefromtheirdomesticgovernment,
whichishonour,andfriendshiporelsetheyremainunitedtotheir
metropolis,aswerethecoloniesofthepeopleofRomeandthen
theyarenocommonwealthsthemselves,butprovinces,andpartsof
thecommonwealththatsentthem.Sothattherightofcolonies
(savinghonour,andleaguewiththeirmetropolis,)dependeth
whollyontheirlicence,orletters,bywhichtheirsovereignauthor
isedthemtoplant.
ChapterXXV
OfCounsel
Counsel1.Howfallaciousitistojudgeofthenatureofthings,bythe
what.ordinaryandinconstantuseofwords,appearethinnothingmore,
thanintheconfusionofcounsels,andcommands,*arisingfromthe

imperativemannerofspeakinginthemboth,andinmanyother
occasionsbesides.Forthewordsdothis,arethewordsnotonlyof
himthatcommandethbutalsoofhimthatgivethcounselandof
himthatexhortethandyettherearebutfew,thatseenotthatthese
areverydifferentthingsorthatcannotdistinguishbetweenthem,
whentheyperceivewhoitisthatspeaketh,andtowhomthespeech
isdirected,anduponwhatoccasion.Butfindingthosephrasesin
men'swritings,andbeingnotable,ornotwillingtoenterintoa
considerationofthecircumstances,theymistakesometimesthe
preceptsofcounsellors,forthepreceptsofthemthatcommandand
sometimesthecontraryaccordingasitbestagreethwiththecon
clusionstheywouldinfer,ortheactionstheyapprove.Toavoid
whichmistakes,andrendertothosetermsofcommanding,counsel
ling,andexhorting,theirproperanddistinctsignifications,Idefine
themthus.
2.COMMANDis,whereamansaith,dothis,ordonotthis,withoutDifferences
expectingotherreasonthanthewillofhimthatsaysit.Fromthisitbetween
followethmanifestly,thathethatcommandeth,pretendeththerebycommandand
hisownbenefit:forthereasonofhiscommandishisownwillcounsel.
only,andtheproperobjectofeveryman'swill,issomegoodto[132]
himself.
3.COUNSEL,iswhereamansaith,do,ordonotthis,anddeduceth
hisreasonsfromthebenefitthatarrivethbyittohimtowhomhe
saithit.Andfromthisitisevident,thathethatgivethcounsel,
pretendethonly(whatsoeverheintendeth)thegoodofhim,to
whomhegivethit.
4.Thereforebetweencounselandcommand,onegreatdiffer
enceis,thatcommandisdirectedtoaman'sownbenefitand
counseltothebenefitofanotherman.Andfromthisarisethanother
difference,thatamanmaybeobligedtodowhatheiscommanded
aswhenhehathcovenantedtoobey:buthecannotbeobligedtodo
asheiscounselled,becausethehurtofnotfollowingit,ishisown
orifheshouldcovenanttofollowit,thenisthecounselturnedinto
thenatureofacommand.Athirddifferencebetweenthemis,that
nomancanpretendarighttobeofanotherman'scounselbecause
heisnottopretendbenefitbyittohimself:buttodemandrightto
counselanother,arguesawilltoknowhisdesigns,ortogainsome
othergoodtohimselfwhich(asIsaidbefore)isofeveryman'swill
theproperobject.
5.Thisalsoisincidenttothenatureofcounselthatwhatsoever

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itbe,hethataskethit,cannotinequityaccuse,orpunishit:forto
askcounselofanother,istopermithimtogivesuchcounselashe
shallthinkbestandconsequently,hethatgivethcounseltohis
sovereign,(whetheramonarch,oranassembly)whenheaskethit,
cannotinequitybepunishedforit,whetherthesamebeconform
abletotheopinionofthemost,ornot,soitbetothepropositionin
debate.Forifthesenseoftheassemblycanbetakennoticeof,
beforethedebatebeended,theyshouldneitherask,nortakeany
furthercounselforthesenseoftheassembly,istheresolutionofthe
debate,andendofalldeliberation.Andgenerallyhethatdemandeth
counsel,isauthorofitandthereforecannotpunishitandwhatthe
sovereigncannot,nomanelsecan.Butifonesubjectgivethcounsel
toanother,todoanythingcontrarytothelaws,whetherthatcounsel
proceedfromevilintention,orfromignoranceonly,itispunishable
bythecommonwealthbecauseignoranceofthelaw,isnogood
excuse,whereeverymanisboundtotakenoticeofthelawstowhich
heissubject.
Exhortation6.EXHORTATIONandDEHORTATIONiscounsel,accompaniedwith
and>signsinhimthatgivethit,ofvehementdesiretohaveitfollowed:
dehortation,ortosayitmorebriefly,counselvehementlypressed.Forhethat
what.exhorteth,dothnotdeducetheconsequencesofwhatheadvisethto
bedone,andtiehimselfthereintotherigouroftruereasoningbut
encourageshimhecounselleth,toaction:ashethatdehorteth,
deterrethhimfromit.And,therefore,theyhaveintheirspeeches,a
regardtothecommonpassions,andopinionsofmen,indeducing
theirreasonsandmakeuseofsimilitudes,metaphors,examples,
andothertoolsoforatory,topersuadetheirhearersoftheutility,
honour,orjusticeoffollowingtheiradvice.
[133]7.Fromwhencemaybeinferred,first,thatexhortationand
dehortationisdirectedtothegoodofhimthatgiveththecounsel,
notofhimthataskethit,whichiscontrarytothedutyofacounsel
lorwho(bythedefinitionofcounsel)oughttoregard,nothisown
benefit,buthiswhomheadviseth.Andthathedirectethhiscounsel
tohisownbenefit,ismanifestenough,bythelongandvehement
urging,orbytheartificialgivingthereofwhichbeingnotrequired
ofhim,andconsequentlyproceedingfromhisownoccasions,is
directedprincipallytohisownbenefit,andbutaccidentallytothe
goodofhimthatiscounselled,ornotatall.
8.Secondly,thattheuseofexhortationanddehortationlieth
onlywhereamanistospeaktoamultitudebecausewhenthe

speechisaddressedtoone,hemayinterrupthim,andexaminehis
reasonsmorerigorously,thancanbedoneinamultitudewhichare
toomanytoenterintodispute,anddialoguewithhimthatspeaketh
indifferentlytothemallatonce.
9.Thirdly,thattheythatexhortanddehort,wheretheyare
requiredtogivecounsel,arecorruptcounsellors,andasit
werebribedbytheirowninterest.Forthoughthecounseltheygive
beneversogoodyethethatgivesit,isnomoreagoodcounsellor,
thanhethatgivethajustsentenceforareward,isajustjudge.
Butwhereamanmaylawfullycommand,asafatherinhisfamily,or
aleaderinanarmy,hisexhortationsanddehortations,arenot
onlylawful,butalsonecessary,andlaudable:butthentheyareno
morecounsels,butcommandswhichwhentheyareforexecution
ofsourlabour,sometimesnecessity,andalwayshumanityrequireth
tobesweetenedinthedelivery,byencouragement,andinthe
tuneandphraseofcounsel,ratherthaninharsherlanguageof
command.
10.*Examplesofthedifferencebetweencommandandcounsel,
wemaytakefromtheformsofspeechthatexpresstheminHoly
Scripture.HavenootherGodsbutmemaketothyselfnograven
imagetakenotGod'snameinvainsanctifythesabbathhonourthy
parentskillnotstealnot,&carecommandsbecausethereasonfor
whichwearetoobeythem,isdrawnfromthewillofGodourking,
whomweareobligedtoobey.Butthesewords,Sellallthouhast
giveittothepoorandfollowme,arecounselbecausethereasonfor
whichwearetodoso,isdrawnfromourownbenefitwhichisthis,
thatweshallhavetreasureinHeaven.Thesewords,Gointothe
villageoveragainstyou,andyoushallfindanasstied,andhercolt
looseher,andbringhertome,areacommand:forthereasonoftheir
factisdrawnfromthewilloftheirMaster:butthesewords,Repent
andbebaptizedinthenameofJesus,arecounselbecausethereason
whyweshouldsodo,tendethnottoanybenefitofGodAlmighty,
whoshallstillbekinginwhatmannersoeverwerebelbutof
ourselves,whohavenoothermeansofavoidingthepunishment
hangingoverusforoursinspast.
11.Asthedifferenceofcounselfromcommand,hathbeennowDifferencesof
deducedfromthenatureofcounsel,consistinginadeducingofthefitandunfit
benefit,orhurtthatmayarisetohimthatistobecounselled,bythecounsellots.
necessaryorprobableconsequencesoftheactionhepropoundeth[134]
somayalsothedifferencesbetweenapt,andineptcounsellorsbe

Page172

derivedfromthesame.Forexperience,*beingbutmemoryofthe
consequencesoflikeactionsformerlyobserved,andcounselbut
thespeechwherebythatexperienceismadeknowntoanotherthe
virtues,anddefectsofcounsel,arethesamewiththevirtues,and
defectsintellectual:andtothepersonofacommonwealth,hiscoun
sellorsservehimintheplaceofmemory,andmentaldiscourse.But
withthisresemblanceofthecommonwealth,toanaturalman,there
isonedissimilitudejoined,ofgreatimportancewhichis,thata
naturalmanreceivethhisexperience,fromthenaturalobjectsof
sense,whichworkuponhimwithoutpassion,orinterestoftheir
ownwhereastheythatgivecounseltotherepresentativepersonof
acommonwealth,mayhave,andhaveoftentheirparticularends,
andpassions,thatrendertheircounselsalwayssuspected,andmany
timesunfaithful.Andthereforewemaysetdownforthefirstcon
ditionofagoodcounsellor,thathisends,andinterests,benotinconsist
entwiththeendsandinterestsofhimhecounselleth.
12.Secondly,becausetheofficeofacounsellor,whenanaction
comesintodeliberation,istomakemanifesttheconsequencesofit,
insuchmanner,ashethatiscounselledmaybetrulyandevidently
informedheoughttopropoundhisadvice,insuchformofspeech,
asmaymakethetruthmostevidentlyappearthatistosay,withas
firmratiocination,assignificantandproperlanguage,andasbriefly,
astheevidencewillpermit.Andthereforerash,andunevidentinfer
ences(suchasarefetchedonlyfromexamples,orauthorityofbooks,
andarenotargumentsofwhatisgood,orevilbutwitnessesoffact,
orofopinion)obscure,confused,andambiguousexpressions,alsoall
metaphoricalspeeches,tendingtothestirringupofpassion,(because
suchreasoning,andsuchexpressions,areusefulonlytodeceive,or
toleadhimwecounseltowardsotherendsthanhisown)arerepug
nanttotheofficeofacounsellor.
13.Thirdly,becausetheabilityofcounsellingproceedethfrom
experience,andlongstudyandnomanispresumedtohaveex
perienceinallthosethingsthattotheadministrationofagreat
commonwealtharenecessarytobeknown,nomanispresumedtobe
agoodcounsellor,butinsuchbusiness,ashehathnotonlybeenmuch
versedin,buthathalsomuchmeditatedon,andconsidered.Forseeing
thebusinessofacommonwealthisthis,topreservethepeoplein
peaceathome,anddefendthemagainstforeigninvasion,weshall
find,itrequiresgreatknowledgeofthedispositionofmankind,of

therightsofgovernment,andofthenatureofequity,law,justice,
andhonour,nottobeattainedwithoutstudyandofthestrength,
commodities,places,bothoftheirowncountry,andtheirneigh
boursasalsooftheinclinations,anddesignsofallnationsthatmay
anywayannoythem.Andthisisnotattainedto,withoutmuch
experience.Ofwhichthings,notonlythewholesum,buteveryone
oftheparticularsrequirestheage,andobservationofamaninyears,[135]
andofmorethanordinarystudy.Thewitrequiredforcounsel,asI
havesaidbefore(chap.8)isjudgment.Andthedifferencesofmen
inthatpointcomefromdifferenteducation,ofsometoonekindof
study,orbusiness,andofotherstoanother.Whenforthedoingof
anything,therebeinfalliblerules,(asinengines,andedifices,the
rulesofgeometry,)alltheexperienceoftheworldcannotequal
hiscounsel,thathaslearnt,orfoundouttherule.Andwhenthere
isnosuchrule,hethathathmostexperienceinthatparticular
kindofbusiness,hasthereinthebestjudgment,andisthebest
counsellor.
14.Fourthly,tobeabletogivecounseltoacommonwealth,in
abusinessthathathreferencetoanothercommonwealth,itisneces
sarytobeacquaintedwiththeintelligences,andlettersthatcome
fromthence,andwithalltherecordsoftreaties,andothertransactions
ofstatebetweenthemwhichnonecando,butsuchastherep
resentativeshallthinkfit.Bywhichwemaysee,thattheywhoare
notcalledtocounsel,canhavenogoodcounselinsuchcasesto
obtrude.
15.Fifthly,supposingthenumberofcounsellorsequal,amanis
bettercounselledbyhearingthemapart,thaninanassemblyand
thatformanycauses.First,inhearingthemapart,youhavethe
adviceofeverymanbutinanassemblymanyofthemdelivertheir
advicewithaye,orno,orwiththeirhands,orfeet,notmovedby
theirownsense,butbytheeloquenceofanother,orforfearof
displeasingsomethathavespoken,orthewholeassembly,bycon
tradictionorforfearofappearingdullerinapprehension,than
thosethathaveapplaudedthecontraryopinion.Secondly,inan
assemblyofmany,therecannotchoosebutbesomewhoseinterests
arecontrarytothatofthepublicandthesetheirinterestsmake
passionate,andpassioneloquent,andeloquencedrawsothersinto
thesameadvice.Forthepassionsofmen,whichasunderaremod
erate,astheheatofonebrandinanassemblyarelikemanybrands,

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thatinflameoneanother(especiallywhentheyblowoneanother
withorations)tothesettingofthecommonwealthonfire,under
pretenceofcounsellingit.Thirdly,inhearingeverymanapart,one
mayexamine(whenthereisneed)thetruth,orprobabilityofhis
reasons,andofthegroundsoftheadvicehegives,byfrequent
interruptions,andobjectionswhichcannotbedoneinanassembly,
where(ineverydifficultquestion)amanisratherastonied[bewil
dered],anddazzledwiththevarietyofdiscourseuponit,than
informedofthecourseheoughttotake.Besides,therecannotbean
assemblyofmany,calledtogetherforadvice,whereintherebenot
some,thathavetheambitiontobethoughteloquent,andalso
learnedinthepoliticsandgivenottheiradvicewithcareofthe
businesspropounded,butoftheapplauseoftheirmotleyorations
madeofthediverscolouredthreads,orshredsofauthorswhichis
animpertinenceatleast,thattakesawaythetimeofseriousconsul
[136]tation,andinthesecretwayofcounsellingapart,iseasilyavoided.
Fourthly,indeliberationsthatoughttobekeptsecret,(whereof
therebemanyoccasionsinpublicbusiness,)thecounselsofmany,
andespeciallyinassemblies,aredangerousandthereforegreat
assembliesarenecessitatedtocommitsuchaffairstolessernumbers,
andofsuchpersonsasaremostversedinthem,andinwhosefidelity
theyhavemostconfidence.
16.Toconclude,whoistherethesofarapprovesthetakingof
counselfromagreatassemblyofcounsellors,thatwishethfor,or
wouldacceptoftheirpains,whenthereisaquestionofmarryinghis
children,disposingofhislands,governinghishousehold,orman
aginghisprivateestate,especiallyiftherebeamongstthemsuchas
wishnothisprosperity?Amanthatdothhisbusinessbythehelpof
manyandprudentcounsellors,witheveryoneconsultingapartin
hisproperelement,doesitbest,ashethatusethablesecondsat
tennisplay,placedintheirproperstations.Hedoesnextbest,that
usethhisownjudgmentonlyashethathasnosecondatall.Buthe
thatiscarriedupanddowntohisbusinessinaframedcounsel,
whichcannotmovebutbythepluralityofconsentingopinions,the
executionwhereofiscommonly(outofenvy,orinterest)retarded
bythepartdissenting,doesitworstofall,andislikeonethatis
carriedtotheball,thoughbygoodplayers,yetinawheelbarrow,or
otherframe,heavyofitself,andretardedalsobytheinconcurrent
judgments,andendeavoursofthemthatdriveitandsomuchthe
more,astheybemorethatsettheirhandstoitandmostofall,when

thereisone,ormoreamongstthem,thatdesiretohavehimlose.
Andthoughitbetrue,thatmanyeyesseemorethanoneyetitisnot
tobeunderstoodofmanycounsellorsbutthenonly,whenthefinal
resolutionisinoneman.Otherwise,becausemanyeyesseethe
samethingindiverslines,andareapttolookasquinttowards
theirprivatebenefittheythatdesirenottomisstheirmark,though
theylookaboutwithtwoeyes,yettheyneveraimbutwithone
andthereforenogreatpopularcommonwealthwaseverkeptup,but
eitherbyaforeignenemythatunitedthemorbythereputation
ofsomeeminentmanamongstthemorbythesecretcounselofa
feworbythemutualfearofequalfactionsandnotbytheopen
consultationsoftheassembly.Andasforverylittlecommon
wealths,betheypopular,ormonarchical,thereisnohumanwisdom
canupholdthem,longerthanthejealousylastethoftheirpotent
neighbours.
ChapterXXVI
OfCivilLaws*
1.Bycivillaws,Iunderstandthelaws,thatmenarethereforeCivillaw
boundtoobserve,becausetheyaremembers,notofthis,orthatwhat.
commonwealthinparticular,butofacommonwealth.Forthe
knowledgeofparticularlawsbelongethtothem,thatprofessthe[137]
studyofthelawsoftheirseveralcountriesbuttheknowledgeof
civillawingeneral,toanyman.TheancientlawofRomewascalled
theircivillaw,fromthewordcivitas,whichsignifiesacommon
wealth:andthosecountries,whichhavingbeenundertheRoman
empire,andgovernedbythatlaw,retainstillsuchpartthereofas
theythinkfit,andcallthatpartthecivillaw,todistinguishit
fromtherestoftheirowncivillaws.ButthatisnotitIintendto
speakofheremydesignbeingnottoshowwhatislawhere,and
therebutwhatislawasPlato,Aristotle,Cicero,anddiversothers
havedone,withouttakinguponthemtheprofessionofthestudyof
thelaw.
2.Andfirstitismanifest,thatlawingeneral,isnotcounsel,but
commandnoracommandofanymantoanymanbutonlyofhim,
whosecommandisaddressedtooneformerlyobligedtoobeyhim.

Page176

Andasforcivillaw,itaddethonlythenameofthepersoncom
manding,whichispersonacivitatis,thepersonofthecommon
wealth.
3.Whichconsidered,Idefinecivillawinthismanner.CIVIL
LAW,istoeverysubject,thoserules,whichthecommonwealthhath
commandedhim,byword,writing,orothersufficientsignofthewill,to
makeuseof,forthedistinctionofright,andwrongthatistosay,ofwhat
iscontrary,andwhatisnotcontrarytotherule.
4.Inwhichdefinition,thereisnothingthatisnotatfirstsight
evident.Foreverymanseeth,thatsomelawsareaddressedtoallthe
subjectsingeneralsometoparticularprovincessometoparticular
vocationsandsometoparticularmenandarethereforelaws,to
everyofthosetowhomthecommandisdirectedandtononeelse.
Asalso,thatlawsaretherulesofjust,andunjustnothingbeing
reputedunjust,thatisnotcontrarytosomelaw.Likewise,thatnone
canmakelawsbutthecommonwealthbecauseoursubjectionisto
thecommonwealthonly:andthatcommands,aretobesignifiedby
sufficientsignsbecauseamanknowsnototherwisehowtoobey
them.Andtherefore,whatsoevercanfromthisdefinitionby
necessaryconsequencebededuced,oughttobeacknowledgedfor
truth.NowIdeducefromitthisthatfolloweth.
15.Thelegislatorinallcommonwealths,isonlythesovereign,be
Thesovereignheoneman,asinamonarchy,oroneassemblyofmen,asina
islegislator.democracy,oraristocracy.Forthelegislator,ishethatmakeththe
law.Andthecommonwealthonly,prescribes,andcommandeththe
observationofthoserules,whichwecalllaw:thereforethecom
monwealthisthelegislator.Butthecommonwealthisnoperson,
norhascapacitytodoanything,butbytherepresentative,(thatis,
thesovereign)andthereforethesovereignisthesolelegislator.For
thesamereason,nonecanabrogatealawmade,butthesovereign
becausealawisnotabrogated,butbyanotherlaw,thatforbiddeth
ittobeputinexecution.
[138]6.Thesovereignofacommonwealth,beitanassembly,orone
2.man,isnotsubjecttothecivillaws.Forhavingpowertomake,and
Andnotrepeallaws,hemaywhenhepleaseth,freehimselffromthatsubjec
subjecttotion,byrepealingthoselawsthattroublehim,andmakingofnew
civillaw.andconsequentlyhewasfreebefore.Forheisfree,thatcanbefree
whenhewill:norisitpossibleforanypersontobeboundtohimself
becausehethatcanbind,canreleaseandthereforehethatisbound
tohimselfonly,isnotbound.

7.Whenlonguseobtaineththeauthorityofalaw,itisnotthe3.
lengthoftimethatmakeththeauthority,butthewillofthesorerUse,alaw
eignsignifiedbyhissilence,(forsilenceissometimesanargumentofnotbyvirtue
consent)anditisnolongerlaw,thanthesovereignshallbesilentoftime,but
therein.Andthereforeifthesovereignshallhaveaquestionofrightofthe
grounded,notuponhispresentwill,butuponthelawsformerlysovereign's
madethelengthoftimeshallbringnoprejudicetohisrightbuttheconsent.
questionshallbejudgedbyequity.Formanyunjustactions,and
unjustsentences,gouncontrolledalongertime,thananymancan
remember.Andourlawyersaccountnocustomslaw,butsuchasare
reasonable,andthatevilcustomsaretobeabolished:butthejudg
mentofwhatisreasonable,andofwhatistobeabolished,belongeth
tohimthatmakeththelaw,whichisthesovereignassembly,or
monarch.
8.Thelawofnature,andthecivillaw,containeachother,and4.
areofequalextent.Forthelawsofnature,whichconsistinequity,Thelawof
justice,gratitude,andothermoralvirtuesonthesedepending,innature,and
theconditionofmerenature(asIhavesaidbeforeintheendofthethecivillaw
fifteenthchapter,)arenotproperlylaws,butqualitiesthatdisposecontaineach
mentopeace,andobedience.Whenacommonwealthisoncesetother.
tled,thenaretheyactuallylaws,andnotbeforeasbeingthenthe
commandsofthecommonwealthandthereforealsocivillaws:forit
isthesovereignpowerthatobligesmentoobeythem.Forinthe
differencesofprivatemen,todeclare,whatisequity,whatisjustice,
andwhatismoralvirtue,andtomakethembinding,thereisneedof
theordinancesofsovereignpower,andpunishmentstobeordained
forsuchasshallbreakthemwhichordinancesarethereforepartof
thecivillaw.Thelawofnaturethereforeisapartofthecivillawin
allcommonwealthsoftheworld.Reciprocallyalso,thecivillawisa
partofthedictatesofnature.Forjustice,thatistosay,performance
ofcovenant,andgivingtoeverymanhisown,isadictateofthelaw
ofnature.Buteverysubjectinacommonwealth,hathcovenantedto
obeythecivillaw(eitheronewithanother,aswhentheyassemble
tomakeacommonrepresentative,orwiththerepresentativeitself
onebyone,whensubduedbytheswordtheypromiseobedience,
thattheymayreceivelife)andthereforeobediencetothecivillaw
ispartalsoofthelawofnature.Civil,andnaturallawarenot
differentkinds,butdifferentpartsoflawwhereofonepartbeing
written,iscalledcivil,theotherunwritten,natural.Buttherightof
nature,thatis,thenaturallibertyofman,maybythecivillawbe

Page178

abridged,andrestrained:nay,theendofmakinglaws,isnoother,
butsuchrestraintwithoutthewhichtherecannotpossiblybeany
[139]peace.Andlawwasbroughtintotheworldfornothingelse,butto
limitthenaturallibertyofparticularmen,insuchmanner,asthey
mightnothurt,butassistoneanother,andjointogetheragainsta
commonenemy.
5.9.Ifthesovereignofonecommonwealth,subdueapeoplethat
Provincialhavelivedunderotherwrittenlaws,andafterwardsgovernthemby
lawsarenotthesamelaws,bywhichtheyweregovernedbeforeyetthoselaws
madebyarethecivillawsofthevictor,andnotofthevanquishedcom
custom,butmonwealth.Forthelegislatorishe,notbywhoseauthoritythe
bythelawswerefirstmade,butbywhoseauthoritytheynowcontinueto
sovereignbelaws.Andthereforewheretherebediversprovinces,within
power.thedominionofacommonwealth,andinthoseprovincesdiversity
oflaws,whichcommonlyarecalledthecustomsofeachseveral
province,wearenottounderstandthatsuchcustomshavetheir
force,onlyfromlengthoftimebutthattheywereancientlylaws
written,orotherwisemadeknown,fortheconstitutions,andstat
utesoftheirsovereignsandarenowlaws,notbyvirtueofthe
prescriptionoftime,butbytheconstitutionsoftheirpresentsover
eigns.Butifanunwrittenlaw,inalltheprovincesofadominion,
shallbegenerallyobserved,andnoiniquityappearintheuse
thereofthatlawcanbenootherbutalawofnature,equallyobliging
allmankind.
6.10.Seeingthenalllaws,written,andunwritten,havetheirau
Somefoolishthority,andforce,fromthewillofthecommonwealththatistosay,
opinionsoffromthewilloftherepresentativewhichinamonarchyisthe
lawyersmonarch,andinothercommonwealthsthesovereignassemblya
concerningmanmaywonderfromwhenceproceedsuchopinions,asarefound
themakingofinthebooksoflawyersofeminenceinseveralcommonwealths,
laws.directly,orbyconsequencemakingthelegislativepowerdependon
privatemen,orsubordinatejudges.Asforexample,thatthecommon
law,hathnocontrollerbuttheparliamentwhichistrueonlywherea
parliamenthasthesovereignpower,andcannotbeassembled,nor
dissolved,butbytheirowndiscretion.Foriftherebearightinany
elsetodissolvethem,thereisarightalsotocontrolthem,and
consequentlytocontroltheircontrollings.Andiftherebenosuch
right,thenthecontrolleroflawsisnotparliamentum,butrexin
parliamento.Andwhereaparliamentissovereign,ifitshouldassem
bleneversomany,orsowisemen,fromthecountriessubjectto

them,forwhatsoevercauseyetthereisnomanwillbelieve,that
suchanassemblyhaththerebyacquiredtothemselvesalegislative
power.Item,thatthetwoarmsofacommonwealth,areforceand
justicethefirstwhereofisinthekingtheotherdepositedinthehandsof
theparliament.Asifacommonwealthcouldconsist,wheretheforce
wereinanyhand,whichjusticehadnottheauthoritytocommand
andgovern.
11.Thatlawcanneverbeagainstreason,ourlawyersareagreed
andthatnottheletter,(thatiseveryconstructionofit,)butthat
whichisaccordingtotheintentionofthelegislator,isthelaw.And
itistrue:butthedoubtis,ofwhosereasonitis,thatshallbereceived
forlaw.Itisnotmeantofanyprivatereasonforthentherewould[140]
beasmuchcontradictioninthelaws,asthereisintheSchoolsnor
yet,(asSirEdwardCoke*makesit,)anartificialperfectionofreason,SirEdw.
gottenbylongstudy,observation,andexperience,(ashiswas.)ForitisCokeupon
possiblelongstudymayincrease,andconfirmerroneoussentences:Littleton,lib.
andwheremenbuildonfalsegrounds,themoretheybuild,the2,ch.6,fol.
greateristheruin:andofthosethatstudy,andobservewithequal97,b.
time,anddiligence,thereasonsandresolutionsare,andmustre
maindiscordant:andthereforeitisnotthatjurisprudentia,orwis
domofsubordinatejudgesbutthereasonofthisourartificialman
thecommonwealth,andhiscommand,thatmakethlaw:andthe
commonwealthbeingintheirrepresentativebutoneperson,there
cannoteasilyariseanycontradictioninthelawsandwhenthere
doth,thesamereasonisable,byinterpretation,oralteration,totake
itaway.Inallcourtsofjustice,thesovereign(whichisthepersonof
thecommonwealth,)ishethatjudgeth:thesubordinatejudge,
oughttohaveregardtothereason,whichmovedhissovereignto
makesuchlaw,thathissentencemaybeaccordingthereuntowhich
thenishissovereign'ssentenceotherwiseitishisown,andan
unjustone.
12.Fromthis,thatthelawisacommand,andacommand8.
consistethindeclaration,ormanifestationofthewillofhimthatLawmade,if
commandeth,byvoice,writing,orsomeothersufficientargumentnotalsomade
ofthesame,wemayunderstand,thatthecommandofthecommonknown,isno
wealth,islawonlytothose,thathavemeanstotakenoticeofit.Overlaw.
naturalfools,children,ormadmenthereisnolaw,nomorethan
overbrutebeastsnoraretheycapableofthetitleofjust,orunjust
becausetheyhadneverpowertomakeanycovenant,ortounder
standtheconsequencesthereofandconsequentlynevertookupon

Page180

themtoauthorizetheactionsofanysovereign,astheymustdothat
maketothemselvesacommonwealth.Andasthosefrom
whomnature,oraccidenthathtakenawaythenoticeofalllawsin
generalsoalsoeveryman,fromwhomanyaccident,notproceeding
fromhisowndefault,hathtakenawaythemeanstotakenoticeof
anyparticularlaw,isexcused,ifheobserveitnotandtospeak
properly,thatlawisnolawtohim.Itisthereforenecessary,to
considerinthisplace,whatarguments,andsignsbesufficientfor
theknowledgeofwhatisthelawthatistosay,whatisthewillof
thesovereign,aswellinmonarchies,asinotherformsof
government.
Unwritten13.Andfirst,ifitbealawthatobligesallthesubjectswithout
lawsareallexception,andisnotwritten,norotherwisepublishedinsuchplaces
ofthemlaws.astheymaytakenoticethereof,itisalawofnature.Forwhatsoever
ofnaturemenaretotakeknowledgeofforlaw,notuponothermen'swords,
buteveryonefromhisownreason,mustbesuchasisagreeableto
thereasonofallmenwhichnolawcanbe,butthelawofnature.
Thelawsofnaturethereforeneednotanypublishing,norprocla
mationasbeingcontainedinthisonesentence,approvedbyallthe
world,Donotthattoanother,whichthouthinkestunreasonabletobe
donebyanothertothyself.
[141]14.Secondly,ifitbealawthatobligesonlysomeconditionof
men,oroneparticularman,andbenotwritten,norpublishedby
word,thenalsoitisalawofnatureandknownbythesameargu
ments,andsigns,thatdistinguishthoseinsuchacondition,from
othersubjects.Forwhatsoeverlawisnotwritten,orsomeway
publishedbyhimthatmakesitlaw,canbeknownnoway,butbythe
reasonofhimthatistoobeyitandisthereforealsoalawnotonly
civil,butnatural.Forexample,ifthesovereignemployapublic
minister,withoutwritteninstructionswhattodoheisobligedto
takeforinstructionsthedictatesofreasonasifhemakeajudge,the
judgeistotakenotice,thathissentenceoughttobeaccordingtothe
reasonofhissovereign,whichbeingalwaysunderstoodtobeequity,
heisboundtoitbythelawofnature:orifanambassador,heis(in
allthingsnotcontainedinhiswritteninstructions)totakefor
instructionthatwhichreasondictatestobemostconducingtohis
sovereign'sinterestsandsoofallotherministersofthesovereignty,
publicandprivate.Allwhichinstructionsofnaturalreasonmaybe
comprehendedunderonenameoffidelitywhichisabranchof
naturaljustice.

15.Thelawofnatureexcepted,itbelongethtotheessenceof
allotherlaws,tobemadeknown,toeverymanthatshallbeobliged
toobeythem,eitherbyword,orwriting,orsomeotheract,
knowntoproceedfromthesovereignauthority.Forthewillof
another,cannotbeunderstood,butbyhisownword,oract,orby
conjecturetakenfromhisscopeandpurposewhichintheperson
ofthecommonwealth,istobesupposedalwaysconsonantto
equityandreason.Andinancienttime,beforeletterswereincom
monuse,thelawsweremanytimesputintoversethatthe
rudepeopletakingpleasureinsinging,orrecitingthem,mightthe
moreeasilyretaintheminmemory.AndforthesamereasonSolo
mon(Prov.7.3)advisethaman,tobindthetencommandments
uponhistenfingers.AndforthelawwhichMosesgavetothe
peopleofIsraelattherenewingofthecovenant(Deut.11.19),he
biddeththemtoteachittheirchildren,bydiscoursingofitboth
athome,anduponthewayatgoingtobed,andatrisingfrombed
andtowriteitupontheposts,anddoorsoftheirhousesand(Deut.
31.12)toassemblethepeople,man,woman,andchild,tohearit
read.
16.Norisitenoughthelawbewritten,andpublishedbutalsoNothingis
thattherebemanifestsigns,thatitproceedethfromthewillofthelawwherethe
sovereign.Forprivatemen,whentheyhave,orthinktheyhavelegislator
forceenoughtosecuretheirunjustdesigns,andconvoythemsafelycannotbe
totheirambitiousends,maypublishforlawswhattheyplease,known.
without,oragainstthelegislativeauthority.Thereistherefore
requisite,notonlyadeclarationofthelaw,butalsosufficientsigns
oftheauthor,andauthority.Theauthor,orlegislatorissupposedin
everycommonwealthtobeevident,becauseheisthesovereign,who
havingbeenconstitutedbytheconsentofeveryone,issupposedby
everyonetobesufficientlyknown.Andthoughtheignorance,and
securityofmenbesuch,forthemostpart,asthatwhenthememory[142]
ofthefirstconstitutionoftheircommonwealthiswornout,theydo
notconsider,bywhosepowertheyusedtobedefendedagainsttheir
enemies,andtohavetheirindustryprotected,andtoberighted
wheninjuryisdonethemyetbecausenomanthatconsiders,can
makequestionofit,noexcusecanbederivedfromtheignoranceof
wherethesovereigntyisplaced.Anditisadictateofnaturalreason,
andconsequentlyanevidentlawofnature,thatnomanoughtto
weakenthatpower,theprotectionwhereofhehathhimselfde
manded,orwittinglyreceivedagainstothers.Thereforeofwhois

Page182

sovereign,noman,butbyhisownfault,(whatsoeverevilmen
suggest,)canmakeanydoubt.Thedifficultyconsistethintheevi
denceoftheauthorityderivedfromhimtheremovingwhereof,
dependethontheknowledgeofthepublicregisters,publiccounsels,
Differencepublicministers,andpublicsealsbywhichalllawsaresufficiently
betweenverifiedverified,Isay,notauthorized:fortheverification,isbutthe
verifyingandtestimonyandrecord,nottheauthorityofthelawwhichconsisteth
authorizing.inthecommandofthesovereignonly.
Thelaw17.Ifthereforeamanhaveaquestionofinjury,dependingon
verifiedbythelawofnaturethatistosay,oncommonequitythesentenceof
thethejudge,thatbycommissionhathauthoritytotakecognizanceof
subordinatesuchcauses,isasufficientverificationofthelawofnatureinthat
judge.individualcase.Forthoughtheadviceofonethatprofesseththe
studyofthelaw,beusefulfortheavoidingofcontentionyetitisbut
advice:'tisthejudgemusttellmenwhatislaw,uponthehearingof
thecontroversy.
Bythepublic18.Butwhenthequestionisofinjury,orcrime,uponawritten
registers.laweverymanbyrecoursetotheregisters,byhimself,orothers,
may(ifhewill)besufficientlyinformed,beforehedosuchinjury,or
committhecrime,whetheritbeaninjury,ornot:nayheoughtto
doso:forwhenamandoubtswhethertheacthegoethabout,be
just,orunjustandmayinformhimself,ifhewillthedoingis
unlawful.Inlikemanner,hethatsupposethhimselfinjured,ina
casedeterminedbythewrittenlaw,whichhemaybyhimself,or
othersseeandconsiderifhecomplainbeforeheconsultswiththe
law,hedoesunjustly,andbewrayethadispositionrathertovex
othermen,thantodemandhisownright.
Byletters19.Ifthequestionbeofobediencetoapublicofficertohave
patent,andseenhiscommission,withthepublicseal,andhearditreadorto
publicseal.havehadthemeanstobeinformedofit,ifamanwould,isa
sufficientverificationofhisauthority.Foreverymanisobligedto
dohisbestendeavour,toinformhimselfofallwrittenlaws,thatmay
concernhisownfutureactions.
The20.Thelegislatorknownandthelaws,eitherbywriting,orby
interpretationthelightofnature,sufficientlypublishedtherewantethyetanother
ofthelawverymaterialcircumstancetomakethemobligatory.Foritisnotthe
dependethonletter,buttheintendment,ormeaningthatistosay,theauthentic
thesovereigninterpretationofthelaw(whichisthesenseofthelegislator,)in
power.whichthenatureofthelawconsistethandthereforetheinterpret
[143]ationofalllawsdependethontheauthoritysovereignandthe

interpreterscanbenonebutthose,whichthesovereign,(towhom
onlythesubjectowethobedience)shallappoint.Forelse,bythe
craftofaninterpreter,thelawmaybemadetobearasense,contrary
tothatofthesovereignbywhichmeanstheinterpreterbecomesthe
legislator.
21.Alllaws,written,andunwritten,haveneedofinterpretation.Alllawsneed
Theunwrittenlawofnature,thoughitbeeasytosuch,aswithoutinterpretation.
partiality,andpassion,makeuseoftheirnaturalreason,andthere
foreleavestheviolatorsthereofwithoutexcuseyetconsidering
therebeveryfew,perhapsnone,thatinsomecasesarenotblinded
byselflove,orsomeotherpassion,itisnowbecomeofalllawsthe
mostobscureandhasconsequentlythegreatestneedofableinter
preters.Thewrittenlaws,iftheybeshort,areeasilymisinterpreted,
fromthediverssignificationsofaword,ortwo:iflong,theybemore
obscurebythediverssignificationsofmanywords:insomuchasno
writtenlaw,deliveredinfew,ormanywords,canbewellunder
stood,withoutaperfectunderstandingofthefinalcauses[pur
poses],forwhichthelawwasmadetheknowledgeofwhichfinal
causesisinthelegislator.Tohimthereforetherecannotbeanyknot
inthelaw,insolubleeitherbyfindingouttheends,toundoitbyor
elsebymakingwhatendshewill,(asAlexanderdidwithhissword
intheGordianknot,)bythelegislativepowerwhichnoother
interpretercando.
22.Theinterpretationofthelawsofnature,inacommonwealth,The
dependethnotonthebooksofmoralphilosophy.Theauthorityofauthentical
writers,withouttheauthorityofthecommonwealth,makethnotinterpretation
theiropinionslaw,betheyneversotrue.ThatwhichIhavewrittenoflawisnot
inthistreatise,concerningthemoralvirtues,andoftheirnecessity,thatof
fortheprocuring,andmaintainingpeace,thoughitbeevidentwriters.
truth,isnotthereforepresentlylawbutbecauseinallcommon
wealthsintheworld,itispartofthecivillaw.Forthoughitbe
naturallyreasonableyetitisbythesovereignpowerthatitislaw:
otherwise,itwereagreaterror,tocallthelawsofnatureunwritten
lawwhereofweseesomanyvolumespublishedbydiversauthors,
andinthemsomanycontradictionsofoneanother,andof
themselves.Theinterpreterof
23.Theinterpretationofthelawofnature,isthesentenceofthethelawisthejudge
judgeconstitutedbythesovereignauthority,tohearanddeterminegitvingsentenceviva
suchcontroversies,asdependthereonandconsistethintheapplivoceinevery
cationofthelawtothepresentcase.Forintheactofjudicature,theparticularcase.

Page184

judgedothnomorebutconsider,whetherthedemandoftheparty,
beconsonanttonaturalreason,andequityandthesentencehe
giveth,isthereforetheinterpretationofthelawofnaturewhich
interpretationisauthenticnotbecauseitishisprivatesentencebut
becausehegivethitbyauthorityofthesovereign,wherebyitbe
comesthesovereign'ssentencewhichislawforthattime,tothe
partiespleading.
[144]24.Butbecausethereisnojudgesubordinate,norsovereign,but
Thesentencemayerrinajudgmentofequityifafterwardinanotherlikecasehe
ofajudgefinditmoreconsonanttoequitytogiveacontrarysentence,heis
doesnotbindobligedtodoit.Noman'serrorbecomeshisownlawnorobliges
him,orhimtopersistinit.Neither(forthesamereason)becomesitalawto
anotherjudgeotherjudges,thoughsworntofollowit.Forthoughawrongsen
togiveliketencegivenbyauthorityofthesovereign,ifheknowandallowit,in
sentenceinsuchlawsasaremutable,beaconstitutionofanewlaw,incases,in
likecaseseverwhicheverylittlecircumstanceisthesameyetinlawsimmutable,
after.suchasarethelawsofnature,theyarenolawstothesame,orother
judges,inthelikecasesforeverafter.Princessucceedoneanother
andonejudgepasseth,anothercomethnay,heavenandearthshall
passbutnotonetittleofthelawofnatureshallpassforitisthe
eternallawofGod.Thereforeallthesentencesofprecedentjudges
thathaveeverbeen,cannotaltogethermakealawcontrarytonatural
equity:noranyexamplesofformerjudges,canwarrantanun
reasonablesentence,ordischargethepresentjudgeofthetroubleof
studyingwhatisequity(inthecaseheistojudge,)fromtheprinci
plesofhisownnaturalreason.Forexamplesake,'tisagainstthelaw
ofnature,topunishtheinnocentandinnocentishethatacquitteth
himselfjudicially,andisacknowledgedforinnocentbythejudge.
Putthecasenow,thatamanisaccusedofacapitalcrime,andseeing
thepowerandmaliceofsomeenemy,andthefrequentcorruption
andpartialityofjudges,runnethawayforfearoftheevent,and
afterwardsistaken,andbroughttoalegaltrial,andmakethit
sufficientlyappear,hewasnotguiltyofthecrime,andbeingthereof
acquitted,isneverthelesscondemnedtolosehisgoodsthisisa
manifestcondemnationoftheinnocent.Isaytherefore,thatthereis
noplaceintheworld,wherethiscanbeaninterpretationofalawof
nature,orbemadealawbythesentencesofprecedentjudges,that
haddonethesame.Forhethatjudgeditfirst,judgedunjustlyand
noinjusticecanbeapatternofjudgmenttosucceedingjudges.A

writtenlawmayforbidinnocentmentofly,andtheymaybepun
ishedforflying:butthatflyingforfearofinjury,shouldbetakenfor
apresumptionofguilt,afteramanisalreadyabsolvedofthecrime
judicially,iscontrarytothenatureofapresumption,whichhathno
placeafterjudgmentgiven.Yetthisissetdownbyagreatlawyer*
forthecommonlawofEngland.Ifaman(saithhe)thatisinnocent,
beaccusedoffelony,andforfearflyethforthesamealbeithejudicially
acquittethhimselfofthefelonyyetifitbefoundthathefledforthe
felony,heshallnotwithstandinghisinnocency,forfeitallhisgoods,
chattels,debts,andduties.Forastotheforfeitureofthem,thelawwill
admitnoproofagainstthepresumptioninlaw,groundeduponhisflight.
Hereyousee,aninnocentman,judiciallyacquitted,notwithstanding
hisinnocency,(whennowrittenlawforbadhimtofly)afterhis
acquittal,uponapresumptioninlaw,condemnedtoloseallthegoods
hehath.Ifthelawgrounduponhisflightapresumptionofthefact,
(whichwascapital,)thesentenceoughttohavebeencapital:ifthe[145]
presumptionwerenotofthefact,forwhatthenoughthetolosehis
goods?ThisthereforeisnolawofEnglandnoristhecondemnation
groundeduponapresumptionoflaw,butuponthepresumptionof
thejudges.Itisalsoagainstlaw,tosaythatnoproofshallbe
admittedagainstapresumptionoflaw.Foralljudges,sovereignand
subordinate,iftheyrefusetohearproof,refusetodojustice:for
thoughthesentencebejust,yetthejudgesthatcondemnwithout
hearingtheproofsoffered,areunjustjudgesandtheirpresumption
isbutprejudicewhichnomanoughttobringwithhimtotheseat
ofjustice,whatsoeverprecedentjudgments,orexamplesheshall
pretendtofollow.Therebeotherthingsofthisnature,wherein
men'sjudgmentshavebeenperverted,bytrustingtoprecedents:
butthisisenoughtoshow,thatthoughthesentenceofthejudge,be
alawtothepartypleading,yetitisnolawtoanyjudge,thatshall
succeedhiminthatoffice.
25.Inlikemanner,whenquestionisofthemeaningofwritten
laws,heisnottheinterpreterofthem,thatwritethacommentary
uponthem.Forcommentariesarecommonlymoresubjecttocavil,
thanthetextandthereforeneedothercommentariesandsothere
willbenoendofsuchinterpretation.Andthereforeunlesstherebe
aninterpreterauthorizedbythesovereign,fromwhichthesubordi
natejudgesarenottorecede,theinterpretercanbenootherthan
theordinaryjudges,inthesamemanner,astheyareincasesofthe

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unwrittenlawandtheirsentencesaretobetakenbythemthat
plead,forlawsinthatparticularcasebutnottobindotherjudges,
inlikecasestogivelikejudgments.Forajudgemayerrinthe
interpretationevenofwrittenlawsbutnoerrorofasubordinate
judge,canchangethelaw,whichisthegeneralsentenceofthe
sovereign.
The26.Inwrittenlaws,menusetomakeadifferencebetweenthe
differenceletter,andthesentenceofthelaw:andwhenbytheletter,ismeant
betweenthewhatsoevercanbegatheredfromthebarewords,'tiswelldis
letterandtinguished.Forthesignificationsofalmostallwords,areeitherin
sentenceofthemselves,orinthemetaphoricaluseofthem,ambiguousandmay
thelaw.bedrawninargument,tomakemanysensesbutthereisonlyone
senseofthelaw.Butifbytheletter,bemeanttheliteralsense,then
theletter,andthesentenceorintentionofthelaw,isallone.Forthe
literalsenseisthat,whichthelegislatorintended,shouldbythe
letterofthelawbesignified.Nowtheintentionofthelegislatoris
alwayssupposedtobeequity:foritwereagreatcontumelyfora
judgetothinkotherwiseofthesovereign.Heoughttherefore,ifthe
wordsofthelawdonotfullyauthorizeareasonablesentence,to
supplyitwiththelawofnatureorifthecasebedifficult,torespite
[postpone]judgmenttillhehavereceivedmoreampleauthority.
Forexample,awrittenlawordaineth,thathewhichisthrustoutof
hishousebyforce,shallberestoredbyforce:ithappensthataman
bynegligenceleaveshishouseempty,andreturningiskeptoutby
force,inwhichcasethereisnospeciallawordained.Itisevident,
[146]thatthiscaseiscontainedinthesamelaw:forelsethereisno
remedyforhimatallwhichistobesupposedagainsttheintention
ofthelegislator.Again,thewordofthelaw,commandethtojudge
accordingtotheevidence:amanisaccusedfalselyofafact,which
thejudgehimselfsawdonebyanotherandnotbyhimthatis
accused.Inthiscaseneithershalltheletterofthelawbefollowedto
thecondemnationoftheinnocent,norshallthejudgegivesentence
againsttheevidenceofthewitnessesbecausetheletterofthelawis
tothecontrary:butprocureofthesovereignthatanotherbemade
judge,andhimselfwitness.Sothattheincommoditythatfollows
thebarewordsofawrittenlaw,mayleadhimtotheintentionofthe
law,wherebytointerpretthesamethebetterthoughnoincom
moditycanwarrantasentenceagainstthelaw.Foreveryjudgeof
right,andwrong,isnotjudgeofwhatiscommodious,orincom
modioustothecommonwealth.

27.Theabilitiesrequiredinagoodinterpreterofthelaw,thatisTheabilities
tosay,inagoodjudge,arenotthesamewiththoseofanadvocaterequiredina
namelythestudyofthelaws.Forajudge,asheoughttotakenoticejudge.
ofthefact,fromnonebutthewitnessessoalsoheoughttotake
noticeofthelawfromnothingbutthestatutes,andconstitutionsof
thesovereign,allegedinthepleading,ordeclaredtohimbysome
thathaveauthorityfromthesovereignpowertodeclarethemand
neednottakecarebeforehand,whatheshalljudgeforitshallbe
givenhimwhatheshallsayconcerningthefact,bywitnessesand
whatheshallsayinpointoflaw,fromthosethatshallintheir
pleadingsshowit,andbyauthorityinterpretitupontheplace.The
LordsofParliamentinEnglandwerejudges,andmostdifficult
causeshavebeenheardanddeterminedbythemyetfewofthem
weremuchversedinthestudyofthelaws,andfewerhadmade
professionofthem:andthoughtheyconsultedwithlawyers,
thatwereappointedtobepresentthereforthatpurposeyetthey
alonehadtheauthorityofgivingsentence.Inlikemanner,inthe
ordinarytrialsofright,twelvemenofthecommonpeople,are
thejudges,andgivesentence,notonlyofthefact,butoftheright
andpronouncesimplyforthecomplainant,orforthedefendant
thatistosay,arejudges,notonlyofthefact,butalsooftheright:
andinaquestionofcrime,notonlydeterminewhetherdone,ornot
donebutalsowhetheritbemurder,homicide,felony,assault,andthe
like,whicharedeterminationsoflaw:butbecausetheyarenot
supposedtoknowthelawofthemselves,thereisonethathath
authoritytoinformthemofit,intheparticularcasetheyareto
judgeof.Butyetiftheyjudgenotaccordingtothathetellsthem,
theyarenotsubjecttherebytoanypenaltyunlessitbemade
appear,thattheydiditagainsttheirconsciences,orhadbeencor
ruptedbyreward.
28.Thethingsthatmakeagoodjudge,orgoodinterpreterofthe
laws,are,first,arightunderstandingofthatprincipallawofnature
calledequitywhichdependingnotonthereadingofothermen's
writings,butonthegoodnessofaman'sownnaturalreason,and
meditation,ispresumedtobeinthosemost,thathavehadmost[147]
leisure,andhadthemostinclinationtomeditatethereon.Secondly,
contemptofunnecessaryriches,andpreferments.Thirdly,tobeablein
judgmenttodivesthimselfofallfear,anger,hatred,love,andcom
passion.Fourthly,andlastly,patiencetoheardiligentattentionin
hearingandmemorytoretain,digest,andapplywhathehathheard.

Page188

Divisionsof29.Thedifferenceanddivisionofthelaws,hasbeenmadein
law.diversmanners,accordingtothedifferentmethods,ofthosemen
thathavewrittenofthem.Foritisathingthatdependethnoton
nature,butonthescopeofthewriterandissubservienttoevery
man'spropermethod.IntheInstitutionsofJustinian,*wefind
1.sevensortsofcivillaws.Theedicts,constitutions,andepistlesofthe
prince,thatis,oftheemperorbecausethewholepowerofthe
peoplewasinhim.Likethese,aretheproclamationsofthekingsof
England.
2.30.ThedecreesofthewholepeopleofRome(comprehendingthe
senate,)whentheywereputtothequestionbythesenate.These
werelaws,atfirst,bythevirtueofthesovereignpowerresidingin
thepeopleandsuchofthemasbytheemperorswerenotabrogated,
remainedlawsbytheauthorityimperial.Foralllawsthatbind,are
understoodtobelawsbyhisauthoritythathaspowertorepeal
them.Somewhatliketotheselaws,aretheActsofParliamentin
England.
3.31.Thedecreesofthecommonpeople(excludingthesenate,)when
theywereputtothequestionbythetribuneofthepeople.Forsuch
ofthemaswerenotabrogatedbytheemperors,remainedlawsby
theauthorityimperial.Liketothese,weretheordersoftheHouse
ofCommonsinEngland.
4.32.Senatusconsulta,theordersofthesenatebecausewhenthe
peopleofRomegrewsonumerous,asitwasinconvenienttoas
semblethemitwasthoughtfitbytheemperor,thatmenshould
consultthesenate,insteadofthepeopleandthesehavesome
resemblancewiththeActsofCouncil.
5.33.Theedictsofpraetors,and(insomecases)ofaediles:suchasare
thechiefjusticesinthecourtsofEngland.
6.34.Responsaprudentumwhichwerethesentences,andopinion
ofthoselawyers,towhomtheemperorgaveauthoritytointerpret
thelaw,andtogiveanswertosuchasinmatteroflawdemanded
theiradvicewhichanswers,thejudgesingivingjudgmentwere
obligedbytheconstitutionsoftheemperortoobserve:andshould
belikethereportsofcasesjudged,ifotherjudgesbebythelawof
Englandboundtoobservethem.Forthejudgesofthecommonlaw
ofEngland,arenotproperlyjudges,butjurisconsultiofwhomthe
judges,whoareeitherthelords,ortwelvemenofthecountry,arein
pointoflawtoaskadvice.
7.35.Also,unwrittencustoms,(whichintheirownnaturearean

imitationoflaw,)bythetacitconsentoftheemperor,incasetheybe
notcontrarytothelawofnature,areverylaws.
36.Anotherdivisionoflaws,isintonaturalandpositive.Natural1.Another
arethosewhichhavebeenlawsfromalleternityandarecallednot1.divisionof
onlynatural,butalsomorallawsconsistinginthemoralvirtues,as1.law.
justice,equity,andallhabitsofthemindthatconducetopeace,and[148]
charityofwhichIhavealreadyspokeninthefourteenthand
fifteenthchapters.
37.Positive,arethosewhichhavenotbeenfrometernitybut
havebeenmadelawsbythewillofthosethathavehadthesovereign
poweroverothersandareeitherwritten,ormadeknowntomen,
bysomeotherargumentofthewilloftheirlegislator.
38.Again,ofpositivelawssomearehuman,somedivineandof
humanpositivelaws,somearedistributive,somepenal.Distributive
arethosethatdeterminetherightsofthesubjects,declaringtoevery
manwhatitis,bywhichheacquirethandholdethaproprietyin
lands,orgoods,andarightorlibertyofaction:andthesespeakto
allthesubjects.Penalarethose,whichdeclare,whatpenaltyshallbe
inflictedonthosethatviolatethelawandspeaktotheministers
andofficersordainedforexecution.Forthougheveryoneoughtto
beinformedofthepunishmentsordainedbeforehandfortheir
transgressionneverthelessthecommandisnotaddressedtothe
delinquent,(whocannotbesupposedwillfaithfullypunishhim
self,)buttopublicministersappointedtoseethepenaltyexecuted.
Andthesepenallawsareforthemostpartwrittentogetherwiththe
lawsdistributiveandaresometimescalledjudgments.Foralllaws
aregeneraljudgments,orsentencesofthelegislatorasalsoevery
particularjudgment,isalawtohim,whosecaseisjudged.
39.Divinepositivelaws(fornaturallawsbeingeternal,anduniDivine
versal,arealldivine,)arethose,whichbeingthecommandmentsofpositivelaw
God,(notfromalleternity,noruniversallyaddressedtoallmen,buthowmade
onlytoacertainpeople,ortocertainpersons,)aredeclaredforsuch,knowntobe
bythosewhomGodhathauthorizedtodeclarethem.Butthislaw.
authorityofmantodeclarewhatbethesepositivelawsofGod,how
canitbeknown?Godmaycommandamanbyasupernaturalway,
todeliverlawstoothermen.Butbecauseitisoftheessenceoflaw,
thathewhoistobeobliged,beassuredoftheauthorityofhimthat
declarethit,whichwecannotnaturallytakenoticetobefromGod,
howcanamanwithoutsupernaturalrevelationbeassuredoftherevel
ationreceivedbythedeclarer?*andhowcanhebeboundtoobeythem?

Page190

Forthefirstquestion,howamancanbeassuredoftherevelationof
another,withoutarevelationparticularlytohimself,itisevidently
impossible.Forthoughamanmaybeinducedtobelievesuch
revelation,fromthemiraclestheyseehimdo,orfromseeingthe
extraordinarysanctityofhislife,orfromseeingtheextraordinary
wisdom,orextraordinaryfelicityofhisactions,allwhicharemarks
ofGod'sextraordinaryfavouryettheyarenotassuredevidencesof
specialrevelation.Miraclesaremarvellousworks:butthatwhichis
marvelloustoone,maynotbesotoanother.Sanctitymaybe
feignedandthevisiblefelicitiesofthisworld,aremostoftenthe
[149]workofGodbynatural,andordinarycauses.Andthereforenoman
caninfalliblyknowbynaturalreason,thatanotherhashadasuper
naturalrevelationofGod'swillbutonlyabeliefeveryone(asthe
signsthereofshallappeargreater,orlesser)afirmeroraweaker
belief.
40.Butforthesecond,howcanhebeboundtoobeythemitis
notsohard.Forifthelawdeclared,benotagainstthelawofnature
(whichisundoubtedlyGod'slaw)andheundertaketoobeyit,heis
boundbyhisownactboundIsaytoobeyit,butnotboundto
believeit:formen'sbelief,andinteriorcogitations,arenotsubject
tothecommands,butonlytotheoperationofGod,ordinary,or
extraordinary.Faithofsupernaturallaw,isnotafulfilling,butonly
anassentingtothesameandnotadutythatweexhibittoGod,but
agiftwhichGodfreelygivethtowhomhepleasethasalsounbelief
isnotabreachofanyofhislawsbutarejectionofthemall,except
thelawsnatural.ButthisthatIsay,willbemadeyetclearer,bythe
examplesandtestimoniesconcerningthispointinholyScripture.
ThecovenantGodmadewithAbraham(inasupernaturalmanner)
wasthus,(Gen.17.10)Thisisthecovenantwhichthoushaltobserve
betweenmeandtheeandthyseedafterthee.Abraham'sseedhadnot
thisrevelation,norwereyetinbeingyettheyareapartytothe
covenant,andboundtoobeywhatAbrahamshoulddeclaretothem
forGod'slawwhichtheycouldnotbe,butinvirtueoftheobedi
encetheyowedtotheirparentswho(iftheybesubjecttonoother
earthlypower,ashereinthecaseofAbraham)havesovereignpower
overtheirchildren,andservants.Again,whereGodsaithto
Abraham,Intheeshallallnationsoftheearthbeblessed:forIknow
thouwiltcommandthychildren,andthyhouseaftertheetokeeptheway
oftheLord,andtoobserverighteousnessandjudgment,itismanifest,
theobedienceofhisfamily,whohadnorevelation,dependedon

theirformerobligationtoobeytheirsovereign.AtMountSinai
MosesonlywentuptoGodthepeoplewereforbiddentoapproach
onpainofdeathyettheywereboundtoobeyallthatMoses
declaredtothemforGod'slaw.Uponwhatground,butonthis
submissionoftheirown,Speakthoutous,andwewillheartheebut
letnotGodspeaktous,lestwedie?Bywhichtwoplacesitsufficiently
appeareth,thatinacommonwealth,asubjectthathasnocertainand
assuredrevelationparticularlytohimselfconcerningthewillof
God,istoobeyforsuch,thecommandofthecommonwealth:forif
menwereatliberty,totakeforGod'scommandments,theirown
dreamsandfancies,orthedreamsandfanciesofprivatemenscarce
twomenwouldagreeuponwhatareGod'scommandmentsandyet
inrespectofthem,everymanwoulddespisethecommandmentsof
thecommonwealth.Iconcludetherefore,thatinallthingsnot
contrarytothemorallaw,(thatistosay,tothelawofnature,)all
subjectsareboundtoobeythatfordivinelaw,whichisdeclaredto
beso,bythelawsofthecommonwealth.Whichalsoisevidentto
anyman'sreasonforwhatsoeverisnotagainstthelawofnature,
maybemadelawinthenameofthemthathavethesovereign[150]
powerandthereisnoreasonmenshouldbethelessobligedbyit,
whenitispropoundedinthenameofGod.Besides,thereisnoplace
intheworldwheremenarepermittedtopretendothercommand
mentsofGod,thanaredeclaredforsuchbythecommonwealth.
ChristianstatespunishthosethatrevoltfromChristianreligion,
andallotherstates,thosethatsetupanyreligionbythemforbidden.
Forinwhatsoeverisnotregulatedbythecommonwealth,'tisequity
(whichisthelawofnature,andthereforeaneternallawofGod)that
everymanequallyenjoyhisliberty.
41.Thereisalsoanotherdistinctionoflaws,intofundamental,Another
andnotfundamental:butIcouldneverseeinanyauthor,whatadivisionof
fundamentallawsignifieth.Neverthelessonemayveryreasonablylaws.
distinguishlawsinthatmanner.
42.Forafundamentallawineverycommonwealthisthat,whichA
beingtakenaway,thecommonwealthfaileth,andisutterlydisfundamental
solvedasabuildingwhosefoundationisdestroyed.Andthereforelaw,what.
afundamentallawisthat,bywhichsubjectsareboundtouphold
whatsoeverpowerisgiventothesovereign,whetheramonarch,or
asovereignassembly,withoutwhichthecommonwealthcannot
standsuchasisthepowerofwarandpeace,ofjudicature,of
electionofofficers,andofdoingwhatsoeverheshallthinknecessary

Page192

forthepublicgood.Notfundamentalisthat,theabrogating
whereof,drawethnotwithitthedissolutionofthecommonwealth
suchasarethelawsconcerningcontroversiesbetweensubjectand
subject.Thusmuchofthedivisionoflaws.
Difjerence43.Ifindthewordslexcivilis,andjuscivile,thatistosaylawand
betweenlawrightcivil,promiscuouslyusedforthesamething,eveninthemost
andright.learnedauthorswhichneverthelessoughtnottobeso.Forrightis
liberty,namelythatlibertywhichthecivillawleavesus:butcivillaw
isanobligationandtakesfromusthelibertywhichthelawofnature
gaveus.Naturegavearighttoeverymantosecurehimselfbyhis
ownstrength,andtoinvadeasuspectedneighbour,bywayof
prevention:butthecivillawtakesawaythatliberty,inallcases
wheretheprotectionofthelawmaybesafelystayedfor.Insomuch
aslexandjus,areasdifferentasobligationandliberty.
Andbetween44.Likewiselawsandchartersaretakenpromiscuouslyforthe
alawandasamething.Yetchartersaredonationsofthesovereignandnot
charter.laws,butexemptionsfromlaw.Thephraseofalawis,jubeo,injungo,
Icommandandenjoin:thephraseofacharteris,dedi,concessi,Ihave
given,Ihavegranted:butwhatisgivenorgranted,toaman,isnot
forceduponhim,byalaw.Alawmaybemadetobindallthe
subjectsofacommonwealth:aliberty,orcharterisonlytooneman,
orsomeonepartofthepeople.Fortosayallthepeopleofa
commonwealth,havelibertyinanycasewhatsoever,istosay,thatin
suchcase,therehathbeennolawmadeorelsehavingbeenmade,
isnowabrogated.
[151]ChapterXXVII
OfCrimes,Excuses,andExtenuations
Sinwhat.1.Asin,isnotonlyatransgressionofalaw,butalsoanycontempt
ofthelegislator.Forsuchcontempt,isabreachofallhislawsat
once.Andthereforemayconsist,notonlyinthecommissionofafact,
orinspeakingofwordsbythelawsforbidden,orintheomissionof
whatthelawcommandeth,butalsointheintention,orpurposeto
transgress.Forthepurposetobreakthelaw,issomedegreeof
contemptofhim,towhomitbelongethtoseeitexecuted.Tobe
delightedintheimaginationonly,ofbeingpossessedofanother

man'sgoods,servants,orwife,withoutanyintentiontotakethem
fromhimbyforceorfraud,isnobreachofthelaw,thatsaith,Thou
shaltnotcovet:noristhepleasureamanmayhaveinimagining,or
dreamingofthedeathofhim,fromwhoselifeheexpectethnothing
butdamage,anddispleasure,asinbuttheresolvingtoputsomeact
inexecution,thattendeththereto.Fortobepleasedinthefictionof
that,whichwouldpleaseamanifitwerereal,isapassionso
adherenttothenaturebothofman,andeveryotherlivingcreature,
astomakeitasin,weretomakesinofbeingaman.Theconsider
ationofthis,hasmademethinkthemtoosevere,bothtothem
selves,andothers,thatmaintain,thatthefirstmotionsofthemind,
(thoughcheckedwiththefearofGod)besins.*ButIconfessitis
safertoerronthathand,thanontheother.
2.ACRIME,isasin,consistinginthecommitting(bydeed,orAcrime,
word)ofthatwhichthelawforbiddeth,ortheomissionofwhatitwhat.
hathcommanded.Sothateverycrimeisasinbutnoteverysina
crime.Tointendtosteal,orkill,isasin,thoughitneverappearin
word,orfact:forGodthatseeththethoughtsofman,canlayitto
hischarge:buttillitappearbysomethingdone,orsaid,bywhich
theintentionmaybearguedbyahumanjudge,ithathnotthename
ofcrime:whichdistinctiontheGreeksobserved,intheword

whereoftheformer,(whichis
translatedsin,)signifiethanyswervingfromthelawwhatsoeverbut
thetwolatter,(whicharetranslatedcrime,)signifythatsinonly,
whereofonemanmayaccuseanother.Butofintentions,which
neverappearbyanyoutwardact,thereisnoplaceforhuman
accusation.InlikemannertheLatinsbypeccatum,whichissin,
signifyallmannerofdeviationfromthelawbutbycrimen,(which
wordtheyderivefromcerno,whichsignifiestoperceive,)theymean
onlysuchsins,asmaybemadeappearbeforeajudgeandtherefore
arenotmereintentions.
3.Fromthisrelationofsintothelaw,andofcrimetothecivilWhereno
law,maybeinferred,first,thatwherelawceaseth,sinceaseth.Butcivillawis,
becausethelawofnatureiseternal,violationofcovenants,ingratithereisnocrime.
tude,arrogance,andallfactscontrarytoanymoralvirtue,cannever[152]
ceasetobesin.Secondly,thatthecivillawceasing,crimescease:for
therebeingnootherlawremaining,butthatofnature,thereisno
placeforaccusationeverymanbeinghisownjudge,andaccused
onlybyhisownconscience,andclearedbytheuprightnessofhis
ownintention.Whenthereforehisintentionisright,hisfactisno

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sin:ifotherwise,hisfactissinbutnotcrime.Thirdly,thatwhen
thesovereignpowerceaseth,crimealsoceaseth:forwherethereis
nosuchpower,thereisnoprotectiontobehadfromthelawand
thereforeeveryonemayprotecthimselfbyhisownpower:forno
manintheinstitutionofsovereignpowercanbesupposedtogive
awaytherightofpreservinghisownbodyforthesafetywhereof
allsovereigntywasordained.Butthisistobeunderstoodonlyof
those,thathavenotthemselvescontributedtothetakingawayof
thepowerthatprotectedthem:forthatwasacrimefromthe
beginning.
Ignoranceof4.Thesourceofeverycrime,issomedefectoftheunderstand
thelawofingorsomeerrorinreasoningorsomesuddenforceofthepas
naturesions.Defectintheunderstanding,isignoranceinreasoning,
excusethnoerroneousopinion.Again,ignoranceisofthreesortsofthelaw,and
man.ofthesovereign,andofthepenalty.Ignoranceofthelawofnature
excusethnomanbecauseeverymanthathathattainedtotheuseof
reason,issupposedtoknow,heoughtnottodotoanother,whathe
wouldnothavedonetohimself.Thereforeintowhatplacesoevera
manshallcome,ifhedoanythingcontrarytothatlaw,itisacrime.
IfamancomefromtheIndieshither,andpersuademenhereto
receiveanewreligion,orteachthemanythingthattendethto
disobedienceofthelawsofthiscountry,thoughhebeneversowell
persuadedofthetruthofwhatheteacheth,hecommitsacrime,and
maybejustlypunishedforthesame,notonlybecausehisdoctrine
isfalse,butalsobecausehedoesthatwhichhewouldnotapprovein
another,namely,thatcomingfromhence,heshouldendeavourto
alterthereligionthere.*Butignoranceofthecivillaw,shallexcuse
amaninastrangecountry,tillitbedeclaredtohimbecause,fill
thennocivillawisbinding.
Ignoranceof5.Inthelikemanner,ifthecivillawofaman'sowncountry,be
thecivillawnotsosufficientlydeclared,ashemayknowitifhewillnorthe
excusethactionagainstthelawofnaturetheignoranceisagoodexcuse:in
sometimes.othercasesignoranceofthecivillaw,excusethnot.
Ignoranceof6.Ignoranceofthesovereignpower,intheplaceofaman's
thesovereignordinaryresidence,excusethhimnotbecauseheoughttotake
excusethnot.noticeofthepower,bywhichhehathbeenprotectedthere.
Ignoranceof7.Ignoranceofthepenalty,wherethelawisdeclared,excuseth
thepenaltynoman:forinbreakingthelaw,whichwithoutafearofpenaltyto
excusethnot.follow,werenotalaw,butvainwords,heundergoeththepenalty,
thoughheknownotwhatitisbecause,whosoevervoluntarilydoth

anyaction,acceptethalltheknownconsequencesofitbutpunish
mentisaknownconsequenceoftheviolationofthelaws,inevery
commonwealthwhichpunishment,ifitbedeterminedalreadyby[153]
thelaw,heissubjecttothatifnot,thenheissubjecttoarbitrary
punishment.Foritisreason,thathewhichdoesinjury,without
otherlimitationthanthatofhisownwill,shouldsufferpunishment
withoutotherlimitation,thanthatofhiswillwhoselawisthereby
violated.
8.Butwhenapenalty,iseitherannexedtothecrimeinthelawPunishments
itself,orhathbeenusuallyinflictedinthelikecasestherethedeclared
delinquentisexcusedfromagreaterpenalty.Forthepunishmentbeforethe
foreknown,ifitbenotgreatenoughtodetermenfromtheaction,isfact,excuse
aninvitementtoit:becausewhenmencomparethebenefitoftheirfloragreater
injustice,withtheharmoftheirpunishment,bynecessityofnaturepunishments
theychoosethatwhichappearethbestforthemselves:andthereforeafterit.
whentheyarepunishedmorethanthelawhadformerlydeter
mined,ormorethanotherswerepunishedforthesamecrimeitis
thelawthattempted,anddeceiveththem.
9.Nolaw,madeafterafactdone,canmakeitacrime:becauseifNothingcan
thefactbeagainstthelawofnature,thelawwasbeforethefactandbemadea
apositivelawcannotbetakennoticeof,beforeitbemadeandcrimebya
thereforecannotbeobligatory.Butwhenthelawthatforbiddethalawmade
fact,ismadebeforethefactbedoneyethethatdoththefact,isafterthefact.
liabletothepenaltyordainedafter,incasenolesserpenaltywere
madeknownbefore,neitherbywriting,norbyexample,forthe
reasonimmediatelybeforealleged.
10.Fromdefectinreasoning,(thatistosay,fromerror,)menareFalse
pronetoviolatethelaws,threeways.First,bypresumptionoffalseprinciplesof
principles:aswhenmen,fromhavingobservedhowinallplaces,rightand
andinallages,unjustactionshavebeenauthorized,bytheforce,wrongcauses
andvictoriesofthosewhohavecommittedthemandthatpotentofcrime.
men,breakingthroughthecobweblawsoftheircountry,theweaker
sort,andthosethathavefailedintheirenterprises,havebeenes
teemedtheonlycriminalshavethereupontakenforprinciples,
andgroundsoftheirreasoning,thatjusticeisbutavainword:that
whatsoeveramancangetbyhisownindustry,andhazard,ishisown:
thatthepracticeofallnationscannotbeunjust:thatexamplesofformer
timesaregoodargumentsofdoingthelikeagainandmanymore
ofthatkind:whichbeinggranted,noactinitselfcanbeacrime,
butmustbemadeso(notbythelaw,but)bythesuccessofthem

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thatcommititandthesamefactbevirtuous,orvicious,asfortune
pleasethsothatwhatMariusmakesacrime,Syllashallmake
meritorious,andCaesar(thesamelawsstanding)turnagainintoa
crime,totheperpetualdisturbanceofthepeaceofthecommon
wealth.
Falseteachers11.Secondly,byfalseteachers,thateithermisinterpretthelaw
misinterpretingofnature,makingittherebyrepugnanttothelawcivilorbyteach
thelawofingforlaws,suchdoctrinesoftheirown,ortraditionsofformer
nature,times,asareinconsistentwiththedutyofasubject.
[154]12.Thirdly,byerroneousinferencesfromtrueprincipleswhich
Andfalsehappenscommonlytomenthatarehasty,andprecipitateincon
inferencescluding,andresolvingwhattodosuchasarethey,thathaveboth
fromtrueagreatopinionoftheirownunderstanding,andbelievethatthings
principlesbyofthisnaturerequirenottimeandstudy,butonlycommonexperi
teachers.ence,andagoodnaturalwitwhereofnomanthinkshimself
unprovided:whereastheknowledge,ofrightandwrong,whichis
nolessdifficult,thereisnomanwillpretendto,withoutgreatand
longstudy.Andofthosedefectsinreasoning,thereisnonethatcan
excuse(thoughsomeofthemmayextenuate)acrime,inanyman,
thatpretendethtotheadministrationofhisownprivatebusiness
muchlessinthemthatundertakeapublicchargebecausethey
pretendtothereason,uponthewantwhereoftheywouldground
theirexcuse.
Bytheir13.Ofthepassionsthatmostfrequentlyarethecausesofcrime,
passionsone,isvainglory,orafoolishoverratingoftheirownworthasif
differenceofworth,wereaneffectoftheirwit,orriches,orblood,
orsomeothernaturalquality,notdependingonthewillofthose
thathavethesovereignauthority.Fromwhenceproceedethapre
sumptionthatthepunishmentsordainedbythelaws,andextended
generallytoallsubjects,oughtnottobeinflictedonthem,withthe
samerigourtheyareinflictedonpoor,obscure,andsimplemen,
comprehendedunderthenameofthevulgar.
Presumption14.Thereforeithappenethcommonly,thatsuchasvaluethem
ofriches,selvesbythegreatnessoftheirwealth,adventureoncrimes,upon
hopeofescapingpunishment,bycorruptingpublicjustice,orob
tainingpardonbymoney,orotherrewards.
Andfriends15.Andthatsuchashavemultitudeofpotentkindredand
popularmen,thathavegainedreputationamongstthemultitude,
takecouragetoviolatethelaws,fromahopeofoppressingthe
power,towhomitbelongethtoputtheminexecution.

16.Andthatsuchashaveagreat,andfalseopinionoftheirownWisdom.
wisdom,takeuponthemtoreprehendtheactions,andcallinques
tiontheauthorityofthemthatgovern,andsotounsettlethelaws
withtheirpublicdiscourse,asthatnothingshallbeacrime,but
whattheirowndesignsrequireshouldbeso.Ithappenethalsotothe
samemen,tobepronetoallsuchcrimes,asconsistincraft,andin
deceivingoftheirneighboursbecausetheythinktheirdesignsare
toosubtletobeperceived.TheseIsayareeffectsofafalsepresump
tionoftheirownwisdom.Forofthemthatarethefirstmoversin
thedisturbanceofcommonwealth,(whichcanneverhappenwith
outacivilwar)veryfewareleftalivelongenough,toseetheirnew
designsestablished:sothatthebenefitoftheircrimes,redoundeth
toposterity,andsuchaswouldleasthavewishedit:whichargues
theywerenotsowise,astheythoughttheywere.Andthosethat
deceiveuponhopeofnotbeingobserved,docommonlydeceive
themselves,(thedarknessinwhichtheybelievetheyliehidden,
beingnothingelsebuttheirownblindness)andarenowiserthan
children,thatthinkallhid,byhidingtheirowneyes.
17.Andgenerallyallvaingloriousmen,(unlesstheybewithal
timorous),aresubjecttoangerasbeingmorepronethanothersto[155]
interpretforcontempt,theordinarylibertyofconversation:and
therearefewcrimesthatmaynotbeproducedbyanger.
18.Asforthepassions,ofhate,lust,ambition,andcovetousness,Hatred,lust,
whatcrimestheyareapttoproduce,issoobvioustoeveryambition,
man'sexperienceandunderstanding,asthereneedethnothingtobecovetousness,
saidofthem,savingthattheyareinfirmities,soannexedtothecausesof
nature,bothofman,andallotherlivingcreatures,asthattheircrime.
effectscannotbehindered,butbyextraordinaryuseofreason,ora
constantseverityinpunishingthem.Forinthosethingsmen
hate,theyfindacontinual,andunavoidablemolestationwhereby
eitheraman'spatiencemustbeeverlasting,orhemustbeeasedby
removingthepowerofthatwhichmolestethhim:theformeris
difficultthelatterismanytimesimpossible,withoutsomeviolation
ofthelaw.Ambition,andcovetousnessarepassionsalsothat
areperpetuallyincumbent,andpressingwhereasreasonisnot
perpetuallypresent,toresistthem:andthereforewhensoever
thehopeofimpunityappears,theireffectsproceed.Andforlust,
whatitwantsinthelasting,ithathinthevehemence,which
sufficethtoweighdowntheapprehensionofalleasy,oruncertain
punishments.

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Fear19.Ofallpassions,thatwhichinclinethmenleasttobreakthe
sometimeslaws,isfear.Nay,(exceptingsomegenerousnatures,)itistheonly
causeofthing,(whenthereisappearanceofprofit,orpleasurebybreaking
crime,asthelaws,)thatmakesmenkeepthem.Andyetinmanycasesacrime
whenthemaybecommittedthroughfear.
dangeris20.Fornoteveryfearjustifiestheactionitproduceth,butthe
neitherfearonlyofcorporealhurt,whichwecallbodilyfear,andfromwhich
present,noramancannotseehowtobedelivered,butbytheaction.Amanis
corporeal.assaulted,fearspresentdeath,fromwhichheseesnothowtoescape,
butbywoundinghimthatassaultethhim:ifhewoundhimtodeath,
thisisnocrimebecausenomanissupposedatthemakingofa
commonwealth,tohaveabandonedthedefenceofhislife,orlimbs,
wherethelawcannotarrivetimeenoughtohisassistance.Buttokill
aman,becausefromhisactions,orhisthreatenings,Imayarguehe
willkillmewhenhecan,(seeingIhavetime,andmeanstodemand
protection,fromthesovereignpower,)isacrime.Again,aman
receiveswordsofdisgraceorsomelittleinjuries(forwhichtheythat
madethelaws,hadassignednopunishment,northoughtitworthy
ofamanthathaththeuseofreason,totakenoticeof,)andisafraid,
unlessherevengeit,heshallfallintocontempt,andconsequentlybe
obnoxioustothelikeinjuriesfromothersandtoavoidthis,breaks
thelaw,andprotectshimselfforthefuture,bytheterrorofhis
privaterevenge.Thisisacrime:forthehurtisnotcorporeal,but
phantastical,and(thoughinthiscorneroftheworld,madesensible
byacustomnotmanyyearssincebegun,amongstyoungandvain
men,)solight,asagallantman,andonethatisassuredofhisown
courage,cannottakenoticeof.Alsoamanmaystandinfearof
spirits,eitherthroughhisownsuperstition,orthroughtoomuch
creditgiventoothermen,thattellhimofstrangedreamsand
[156]visionsandtherebybemadebelievetheywillhurthim,fordoing,
oromittingdiversthings,whichnevertheless,todo,oromit,is
contrarytothelawsandthatwhichissodone,oromitted,isnotto
beexcusedbythisfearbutisacrime.For(asIhaveshownbefore
inthesecondchapter)dreamsbenaturallybutthefanciesremaining
insleep,aftertheimpressionsoursenseshadformerlyreceived
wakingandwhenmenarebyanyaccidentunassuredtheyhave
slept,seemtoberealvisionsandthereforehethatpresumesto
breakthelawuponhisown,oranother'sdream,orpretended
vision,oruponotherfancyofthepowerofinvisiblespirits,thanis
permittedbythecommonwealth,leaveththelawofnature,whichis

acertainoffence,andfolloweththeimageryofhisown,or
anotherprivateman'sbrain,whichhecanneverknowwhetherit
signifiethanything,ornothing,norwhetherhethattellshisdream,
saytrue,orliewhichifeveryprivatemanshouldhaveleavetodo,
(astheymustbythelawofnature,ifanyonehaveit)therecould
nolawbemadetohold,andsoallcommonwealthwouldbe
dissolved.
21.Fromthesedifferentsourcesofcrimes,itappearsalready,Crimesnot
thatallcrimesarenot(astheStoicsofoldtimemaintained*)oftheequal.
samealloy.Thereisplace,notonlyforEXCUSE,bywhichthatwhich
seemedacrime,isprovedtobenoneatallbutalsoforEXTENUA
TION,bywhichthecrime,thatseemedgreat,ismadeless.For
thoughallcrimesdoequallydeservethenameofinjustice,asall
deviationfromastraightlineisequallycrookedness,whichthe
Stoicsrightlyobserved:yetitdoesnotfollowthatallcrimesare
equallyunjust,nomorethanthatallcrookedlinesareequally
crookedwhichtheStoicsnotobserving,helditasgreatacrime,to
killahen,againstthelaw,astokillone'sfather.
22.Thatwhichtotallyexcusethafact,andtakesawayfromittheTotalexcuses.
natureofacrime,canbenonebutthat,whichatthesametime,
takethawaytheobligationofthelaw.Forthefactcommittedonce
againstthelaw,ifhethatcommitteditbeobligedtothelaw,canbe
nootherthanacrime.
23.Thewantofmeanstoknowthelaw,totallyexcuseth:forthe
lawwhereofamanhasnomeanstoinformhimself,isnotobligatory.
Butthewantofdiligencetoinquire,shallnotbeconsideredasa
wantofmeansnorshallanyman,thatpretendethtoreasonenough
forthegovernmentofhisownaffairs,besupposedtowantmeansto
knowthelawsofnaturebecausetheyareknownbythereasonhe
pretendsto:onlychildren,andmadmenareexcusedfromoffences
againstthelawnatural.
24.Whereamaniscaptive,orinthepoweroftheenemy,(andhe
istheninthepoweroftheenemy,whenhisperson,orhismeansof
living,isso,)ifitbewithouthisownfault,theobligationofthelaw
ceasethbecausehemustobeytheenemy,ordieandconsequently
suchobedienceisnocrime:fornomanisobliged(whentheprotec
tionofthelawfaileth,)nottoprotecthimself,bythebestmeanshe
can.
25.Ifamanbytheterrorofpresentdeath,becompelledtodoa[157]
factagainstthelaw,heistotallyexcusedbecausenolawcanoblige

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amantoabandonhisownpreservation.Andsupposingsuchalaw
wereobligatoryyetamanwouldreasonthus,If!doitnot,Idie
presentlyifIdoit,Idieafterwardsthereforebydoingit,thereistime
oflifegainednaturethereforecompelshimtothefact.
26.Whenamanisdestituteoffood,orotherthingnecessaryfor
hislife,andcannotpreservehimselfanyotherway,butbysomefact
againstthelawasifinagreatfaminehetakethefoodbyforce,or
stealth,whichhecannotobtainformoney,norcharityorindefence
ofhislife,snatchawayanotherman'sswordheistotallyexcused,
forthereasonnextbeforealleged.
Excuses27.Again,factsdoneagainstthelaw,bytheauthorityofanother,
againstthearebythatauthorityexcusedagainsttheauthorbecausenoman
author.oughttoaccusehisownfactinanother,thatisbuthisinstrument:
butitisnotexcusedagainstathirdpersontherebyinjuredbecause
intheviolationofthelaw,boththeauthor,andactorarecriminals.
Fromhenceitfolloweththatwhenthatman,orassembly,thathath
thesovereignpower,commandethamantodothatwhichiscon
trarytoaformerlaw,thedoingofitistotallyexcused:forheought
nottocondemnithimself,becauseheistheauthorandwhatcannot
justlybecondemnedbythesovereign,cannotjustlybepunishedby
anyother.Besides,whenthesovereigncommandethanythingtobe
doneagainsthisownformerlaw,thecommand,astothatparticular
fact,isanabrogationofthelaw.
28.Ifthatman,orassembly,thathaththesovereignpower,
disclaimanyrightessentialtothesovereignty,wherebythere
accruethtothesubject,anylibertyinconsistentwiththesovereign
power,thatistosay,withtheverybeingofacommonwealth,ifthe
subjectshallrefusetoobeythecommandinanything,contraryto
thelibertygranted,thisisneverthelessasin,andcontrarytothe
dutyofthesubject:forheoughttotakenoticeofwhatisinconsist
entwiththesovereignty,becauseitwaserectedbyhisownconsent,
andforhisowndefenceandthatsuchlibertyasisinconsistentwith
it,wasgrantedthroughignoranceoftheevilconsequencethereof.
Butifhenotonlydisobey,butalsoresistapublicministerinthe
executionofit,thenitisacrimebecausehemighthavebeen
righted,(withoutanybreachofthepeace,)uponcomplaint.
29.Thedegreesofcrimearetakenondiversscales,and
measured,first,bythemalignityofthesource,orcausesecondly,by
thecontagionoftheexamplethirdly,bythemischiefoftheeffect
andfourthly,bytheconcurrenceoftimes,places,andpersons.

30.Thesamefactdoneagainstthelaw,ifitproceedfromprePresumption
sumptionofstrength,riches,orfriendstoresistthosethataretoofpower
executethelaw,isagreatercrime,thanifitproceedfromhopeofaggravateth.
notbeingdiscovered,orofescapebyflight:forpresumptionof
impunitybyforce,isaroot,fromwhencespringeth,atalltimes,and[158]
uponalltemptations,acontemptofalllawswhereasinthelatter
case,theapprehensionofdanger,thatmakesamanfly,rendershim
moreobedientforthefuture.Acrimewhichweknowtobeso,is
greaterthanthesamecrimeproceedingfromafalsepersuasionthat
itislawfulforhethatcommittethitagainsthisownconscience,
presumethonhisforce,orotherpower,whichencourageshimto
committhesameagain:buthethatdothitbyerror,aftertheerror
isshewnhim,isconformabletothelaw.
31.He,whoseerrorproceedsfromtheauthorityofateacher,orEvilteachers
aninterpreterofthelawpubliclyauthorized,isnotsofaulty,asheextenuate.
whoseerrorproceedethfromaperemptorypursuitofhisown
principlesandreasoning:forwhatistaughtbyonethatteachethby
publicauthority,thecommonwealthteacheth,andhatharesem
blanceoflaw,tillthesameauthoritycontrollethitandinallcrimes
thatcontainnotinthemadenialofthesovereignpower,nor
areagainstanevidentlaworauthorizeddoctrine,excuseth
totally:whereashethatgroundethhisactionsonhisprivatejudg
ment,oughtaccordingtotherectitude,orerrorthereof,tostand,or
fall.
32.Thesamefact,ifithavebeenconstantlypunishedinotherExamplesof
men,isagreatercrime,thaniftherehavebeenmanyprecedentimpunity,
examplesofimpunity.Forthoseexamples,aresomanyhopesofextenuate.
impunity,givenbythesovereignhimself:andbecausehewhich
furnishesamanwithsuchahope,andpresumptionofmercy,as
encouragethhimtooffend,hathhispartintheoffencehecannot
reasonablychargetheoffenderwiththewhole.
33.Acrimearisingfromasuddenpassion,isnotsogreat,asPremeditation
whenthesamearisethfromlongmeditation:forintheformercaseaggravateth.
thereisaplaceforextenuation,inthecommoninfirmityofhuman
nature:buthethatdothitwithpremeditation,hasusedcircumspec
tion,andcasthiseye,onthelaw,onthepunishment,andonthe
consequencethereoftohumansocietyallwhich,incommittingthe
crime,hehathcontemnedandpostposedtohisownappetite.But
thereisnosuddennessofpassionsufficientforatotalexcuse:forall
thetimebetweenthefirstknowingofthelaw,andthecommission

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ofthefact,shallbetakenforatimeofdeliberationbecauseheought
bymeditationofthelaw,torectifytheirregularityofhispassions
continually.
34.Wherethelawispublicly,andwithassiduity,beforeallthe
peopleread,andinterpretedafactdoneagainstit,isagreater
crime,thanwheremenareleftwithoutsuchinstruction,toenquire
ofitwithdifficulty,uncertainty,andinterruptionoftheircallings,
andbeinformedbyprivatemen:forinthiscase,partofthefaultis
dischargeduponcommoninfirmitybut,intheformer,thereis
apparentnegligence,whichisnotwithoutsomecontemptofthe
sovereignpower.
Tacit35.Thosefactswhichthelawexpresslycondemneth,butthe
approbationlawmakerbyothermanifestsignsofhiswilltacitlyapproveth,are
ofthelesscrimes,thanthesamefacts,condemnedbothbythelaw,
sovereignandlawmaker.Forseeingthewillofthelawmakerisalaw,
extenuates.thereappearinthiscasetwocontradictorylawswhichwould
[159]totallyexcuse,ifmenwereboundtotakenoticeofthesovereign's
approbation,byotherarguments,thanareexpressedbyhiscom
mand.Butbecausetherearepunishmentsconsequent,notonly
tothetransgressionofhislaw,butalsototheobservingofit,he
isinpartacauseofthetransgression,andthereforecannot
reasonablyimputethewholecrimetothedelinquent.Forexample,
thelawcondemnethduelsthepunishmentismadecapital:on
thecontrarypart,hethatrefusethduel,issubjecttocontempt
andscorn,withoutremedyandsometimesbythesovereign
himselfthoughtunworthytohaveanycharge,orprefermentinwar:
ifthereuponheacceptduel,consideringallmenlawfullyendcavour
toobtainthegoodopinionofthemthathavethesovereign
power,heoughtnotinreasontoberigorouslypunishedseeing
partofthefaultmaybedischargedonthepunisher:whichIsay,
notaswishinglibertyofprivaterevenges,oranyotherkindof
disobediencebutacareingovernors,nottocountenanceany
thingobliquely,whichdirectlytheyforbid.Theexamplesof
princes,tothosethatseethem,are,andeverhavebeen,more
potenttogoverntheiractions,thanthelawsthemselves.And
thoughitbeourdutytodo,notwhattheydo,butwhattheysay
yetwillthatdutyneverbeperformed,tillitpleaseGodtogive
mananextraordinary,andsupernaturalgracetofollowthat
precept.

36.Again,ifwecomparecrimesbythemischiefoftheireffects,Comparison
first,thesamefact,whenitredoundstothedamageofmany,isofcrimes
greater,thanwhenitredoundstothehurtoffew.Andtherefore,poretheir
whenafacthurteth,notonlyinthepresent,butalso,(byexample,)effects.
inthefuture,itisagreatercrime,thanifithurtonlyinthepresent:
fortheformer,isafertilecrime,andmultipliestothehurtofmany
thelatterisbarren.Tomaintaindoctrinescontrarytothereligion
establishedinthecommonwealth,isagreaterfault,inanauthorized
preacher,thaninaprivateperson:soalsoisit,toliveprofanely,
incontinently,ordoanyirreligiousactwhatsoever.Likewiseina
professorofthelaw,tomaintainanypoint,ordoanyact,that
tendethtotheweakeningofthesovereignpower,isagreatercrime,
thaninanotherman:alsoinamanthathathsuchreputationfor
wisdom,asthathiscounselsarefollowed,orhisactionsimitatedby
many,hisfactagainstthelaw,isagreatercrime,thanthesamefact
inanother:forsuchmennotonlycommitcrime,butteachitforlaw
toallothermen.Andgenerallyallcrimesarethegreater,bythe
scandaltheygivethatistosay,bybecomingstumblingblocksto
theweak,thatlooknotsomuchuponthewaytheygoin,asuponthe
lightthatothermancarrybeforethem.
37.AlsofactsofhostilityagainstthepresentstateofthecomLaesa
monwealth,aregreatercrimes,thanthesameactsdonetoprivateMajestas.
men:forthedamageextendsitselftoall:sucharethebetrayingof
thestrengths,orrevealingofthesecretsofthecommonwealthtoan
enemyalsoallattemptsupontherepresentativeofthecommon
wealth,beitamonarch,oranassemblyandallendeavoursbyword,[160]
ordeed,todiminishtheauthorityofthesame,eitherinthepresent
time,orinsuccession:whichcrimestheLatinsunderstandby
criminalaesaemajestatis,andconsistindesign,oract,contrarytoa
fundamentallaw.
38.Likewisethosecrimes,whichrenderjudgmentsofnoeffect,Briberyand
aregreatercrimes,thaninjuriesdonetoone,orafewpersonsastofalse
receivemoneytogivefalsejudgment,ortestimony,isagreatertestimony.
crime,thanotherwisetodeceiveamanofthelike,oragreatersum
becausenotonlyhehaswrong,thatfallsbysuchjudgmentsbutall
judgmentsarerendereduseless,andoccasionministeredtoforce,
andprivaterevenges.
39.Alsorobbery,anddepeculation[embezzlement]ofthepublicDepeculation.
treasure,orrevenues,isagreatercrime,thantherobbing,or

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defraudingofaprivatemanbecausetorobthepublic,istorob
manyatonce.
Counterfeiting40.Alsothecounterfeitusurpationofpublicministry,the
authority.counterfeitingofpublicseals,orpubliccoin,thancounterfeitingof
aprivateman'sperson,orhissealbecausethefraudthereof,
extendethtothedamageofmany.
Crimes41.Offactsagainstthelaw,donetoprivatemen,thegreater
againstcrime,isthat,wherethedamageinthecommonopinionofmen,is
privatemenmostsensible.Andtherefore
compared.42.Tokillagainstthelaw,isagreatercrime,thananyother
injury,lifepreserved.
43.Andtokillwithtorment,greater,thansimplytokill.
44.Andmutilationofalimb,greater,thanthespoilingamanof
hisgoods.
45.Andthespoilingamanofhisgoods,byterrorofdeath,or
wounds,thanbyclandestinesurreption.
46.Andbyclandestinesurreption,thanbyconsentfraudulently
obtained.
47.Andtheviolationofchastitybyforce,greater,thanby
flattery.
48.Andofawomanmarried,thanofawomannotmarried.
49.Forallthesethingsarecommonlysovaluedthoughsome
menaremore,andsomelesssensibleofthesameoffence.Butthe
lawregardethnottheparticular,butthegeneralinclinationofman
kind.
50.Andthereforetheoffencementake,fromcontumely,in
words,orgesture,whentheyproducenootherharm,thanthe
presentgriefofhimthatisreproached,hathbeenneglectedinthe
lawsoftheGreeks,Romans,andotherbothancient,andmodem
commonwealthssupposingthetruecauseofsuchgrieftoconsist,
notinthecontumely,(whichtakesnoholduponmenconsciousof
theirownvirtue,)butinthepusillanimityofhimthatisoffendedby
it.
51.Alsoacrimeagainstaprivateman,ismuchaggravatedbythe
person,time,andplace.Fortokillone'sparent,isagreatercrime,
thantokillanother:fortheparentoughttohavethehonourofa
sovereign,(thoughhesurrenderedhispowertothecivillaw,)be
causehehaditoriginallybynature.Andtorobapoorman,isa

52.Andacrimecommittedinthetime,orplaceappointedfor
devotion,isgreater,thanifcommittedatanothertimeorplace:for
itproceedsfromagreatercontemptofthelaw.
53.Manyothercasesofaggravation,andextenuationmightbe
added:butbytheseIhavesetdown,itisobvioustoeveryman,to
takethealtitudeofanyothercrimeproposed.
54.Lastly,becauseinalmostallcrimesthereisaninjurydone,Publiccrimes
notonlytosomeprivatemen,butalsotothecommonwealththewhat.
samecrime,whentheaccusationisinthenameofthecommon
wealth,iscalledapubliccrime:andwheninthenameofaprivate
man,aprivatecrimeandthepleasaccordingthereuntocalledpub
lic,judiciapublica,PleasoftheCrownorPrivatePleas.Asinan
accusationofmurder,iftheaccuserbeaprivateman,thepleaisa
PrivatePleaiftheaccuserbethesovereign,thepleaisaPublic
Plea.
ChapterXXVIII
OfPunishments,andRewards
1.Apunishment, isanevilinflictedbypublicauthority,onhimthatThedefinition
hathdone,oromittedthatwhichisjudgedbythesameauthoritytobeaof
transgressionofthelawtotheendthatthewillofmenmaytherebythepunishment.
betterbedisposedtoobedience.
2.BeforeIinferanythingfromthisdefinition,thereisaquestionRightto
tobeanswered,ofmuchimportancewhichis,bywhatdoorthepunish
right,orauthorityofpunishinginanycase,camein.Forbythatwhence
whichhasbeensaidbefore,nomanissupposedboundbycovenant,derived.
nottoresistviolenceandconsequentlyitcannotbeintended,that
hegaveanyrighttoanothertolayviolenthandsuponhisperson.In
themakingofacommonwealth,everymangivethawaytherightof
defendinganotherbutnotofdefendinghimself.Alsoheobligeth
himself,toassisthimthathaththesovereignty,inthepunishingof
anotherbutofhimselfnot.Buttocovenanttoassistthesovereign,
indoinghurttoanother,unlesshethatsocovenantethhavearight
todoithimself,isnottogivehimarighttopunish.Itismanifest
thereforethattherightwhichthecommonwealth(thatis,he,or
theythatrepresentit)hathtopunish,isnotgroundedonany

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concession,orgiftofthesubjects.ButIhavealsoshowedformerly,
thatbeforetheinstitutionofcommonwealth,everymanhadaright
toeverything,andtodowhatsoeverhethoughtnecessarytohis
ownpreservationsubduing,hurting,orkillinganymaninorder
thereunto.Andthisisthefoundationofthatrightofpunishing,
[162]whichisexercisedineverycommonwealth.Forthesubjectsdidnot
givethesovereignthatrightbutonlyinlayingdowntheirs,
strengthenedhimtousehisown,asheshouldthinkfit,forthe
preservationofthemall:sothatitwasnotgiven,butlefttohim,and
tohimonlyand(exceptingthelimitssethimbynaturallaw)as
entire,asintheconditionofmerenature,andofwarofeveryone
againsthisneighbour.
Private3.Fromthedefinitionofpunishment,Iinfer,first,that
injuries,andneitherprivaterevenges,norinjuriesofprivatemen,canproperly
revengesnobestyledpunishmentsbecausetheyproceednotfrompublic
punishments:authority.
Nordentalof4.Secondly,thattobeneglected,andunpreferredbythepublic
preferment:favour,isnotapunishmentbecausenonewevilistherebyonany
maninflictedheisonlyleftintheestatehewasinbefore.
Norpain5.Thirdly,thattheevilinflictedbypublicauthority,without
inflictedprecedentpubliccondemnation,isnottobestyledbythenameof
withoutpunishmentbutofanhostileactbecausethefactforwhichaman
publicispunished,oughtfirsttobejudgedbypublicauthority,tobea
hearing:transgressionofthelaw.
Norpain6.Fourthly,thattheevilinflictedbyusurpedpower,andjudges
inflictedbywithoutauthorityfromthesovereign,isnotpunishmentbutanact
usurpedofhostilitybecausetheactsofpowerusurped,havenotforauthor,
power:thepersoncondemnedandthereforearenotactsofpublic
authority.
Norpain7.Fifthly,thatallevilwhichisinflictedwithoutintention,or
inflictedpossibilityofdisposingthedelinquent,or(byhisexample)other
withoutmen,toobeythelaws,isnotpunishmentbutanactofhostility:
respecttothebecausewithoutsuchanend,nohurtdoneiscontainedunderthat
futuregood.name.
Naturalevil8.Sixthly,whereastocertainactions,therebeannexedby
consequences,nature,divershurtfulconsequencesaswhenamaninassaulting
noanother,ishimselfslain,orwoundedorwhenhefallethintosick
punishments.nessbythedoingofsomeunlawfulactsuchhurt,thoughinrespect
ofGod,whoistheauthorofnature,itmaybesaidtobeinflicted,
andthereforeapunishmentdivineyetitisnotcontainedinthe

nameofpunishmentinrespectofmen,becauseitisnotinflictedby
theauthorityofman.
9.Seventhly,iftheharminflictedbelessthanthebenefit,orHurt
contentmentthatnaturallyfolloweththecrimecommitted,thatinflicted,if
harmisnotwithinthedefinitionandisrathertheprice,orredemplessthanthe
tion,thanthepunishmentofacrime:becauseitisofthenatureofbenefitof
punishment,tohaveforend,thedisposingofmentoobeythelawtransgressing,
whichend(ifitbelessthanthebenefitofthetransgression)itisnot
attainethnot,butworkethacontraryeffect.punishment.
10.Eighthly,ifapunishmentbedeterminedandprescribedinWherethe
thelawitself,andafterthecrimecommitted,therebeagreaterpunishmentis
punishmentinflicted,theexcessisnotpunishment,butanactofannexedto
hostility.Forseeingtheaimofpunishmentisnotarevenge,butthelaw,a
terrorandtheterrorofagreatpunishmentunknown,istakenawayisnot
bythedeclarationofaless,theunexpectedadditionisnopartofthegreaterhurt
punishment.Butwherethereisnopunishmentatalldeterminedbypunishment,
thelaw,therewhatsoeverisinflicted,haththenatureofpunishbuthostility.
ment.Forhethatgoesabouttheviolationofalaw,whereinno[163]
penaltyisdetermined,expectethanindeterminate,thatistosay,an
arbitrarypunishment.
11.Ninthly,harminflictedforafactdonebeforetherewasalawHurtinflicted
thatforbadeit,isnotpunishment,butanactofhostility:forbeforeforafact
thelaw,thereisnotransgressionofthelaw:butpunishmentdonebefore
supposethafactjudged,tohavebeenatransgressionofthelawthelaw,no
thereforeharminflictedbeforethelawmade,isnotpunishment,butpunishment.
anactofhostility.
12.Tenthly,hurtinflictedontherepresentativeofthecommonThe
wealth,isnotpunishment,butanactofhostility:becauseitisoftherepresentative
natureofpunishment,tobeinflictedbypublicauthority,whichisofthe
theauthorityonlyoftherepresentativeitself.commonwealth
13.Lastly,harminflictedupononethatisadeclaredenemy,fallsunpunishable.
notunderthenameofpunishment:becauseseeingtheywereeitherHurtto
neversubjecttothelaw,andthereforecannottransgressitorrevolted
havingbeensubjecttoit,andprofessingtobenolongerso,bysubjectsis
consequencedenytheycantransgressit,alltheharmsthatcanbeofdonebyright
donethem,mustbetakenasactsofhostility.Butindeclaredhoswar,not
tility,allinflictionofevilislawful.Fromwhenceitfolloweth,thatif.bywayof
asubjectshallbyfact,orword,wittingly,anddeliberatelydenythepunishment
authorityoftherepresentativeofthecommonwealth,(whatsoever
penaltyhathbeenformerlyordainedfortreason,)hemaylawfully

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bemadetosufferwhatsoevertherepresentativewill:forindenying
subjection,hedeniessuchpunishmentasbythelawhathbeen
ordainedandthereforesuffersasanenemyofthecommonwealth
thatis,accordingtothewilloftherepresentative.Forthepunish
mentssetdowninthelaw,aretosubjects,nottoenemiessuchas
arethey,thathavingbeenbytheirownactssubjects,deliberately
revolting,denythesovereignpower.
14.Thefirst,andmostgeneraldistributionofpunishments,is
intodivine,andhuman.OftheformerIshallhaveoccasiontospeak,
inamoreconvenientplacehereafter.
15.Human,arethosepunishmentsthatbeinflictedbythecom
mandmentofmanandareeithercorporal,orpecuniary,orignominy,
orimprisonment,orexile,ormixedofthese.
Punishments16.Corporalpunishmentisthat,whichisinflictedonthebody
corporal.directly,andaccordingtotheintentionofhimthatinflictethit:such
asarestripes,orwounds,ordeprivationofsuchpleasuresofthe
body,aswerebeforelawfullyenjoyed.
Capital.17.Andofthese,somebecapital,somelessthancapital.Capital,
istheinflictionofdeathandthateithersimply,orwithtorment.
Lessthancapital,arestripes,wounds,chains,andanyothercor
poralpain,notinitsownnaturemortal.Forifupontheinflictionof
apunishmentdeathfollownotintheintentionoftheinflictor,the
punishmentisnottobeesteemedcapital,thoughtheharmprove
mortalbyanaccidentnottobeforeseeninwhichcasedeathisnot
[164]inflicted,buthastened.
18.Pecuniarypunishment,isthatwhichconsistethnotonlyinthe
deprivationofasumofmoney,butalsooflands,oranyothergoods
whichareusuallyboughtandsoldformoney.Andincasethelaw,
thatordainethsuchapunishment,bemadewithdesigntogather
money,fromsuchasshalltransgressthesame,itisnotproperlya
punishment,butthepriceofprivilege,andexemptionfromthelaw,
whichdothnotabsolutelyforbidthefact,butonlytothosethatare
notabletopaythemoney:exceptwherethelawisnatural,orpart
ofreligionforinthatcaseitisnotanexemptionfromthelaw,but
atransgressionofit.Aswherealawexactethapecuniarymulct,of
themthattakethenameofGodinvain,thepaymentofthemulct,
isnotthepriceofadispensationtoswear,butthepunishmentofthe
transgressionofalawindispensable.Inlikemannerifthelawim
poseasumofmoneytobepaid,tohimthathasbeeninjuredthisis

butasatisfactionforthehurtdonehimandextinguisheththe
accusationofthepartyinjured,notthecrimeoftheoffender.
19.Ignominy,istheinflictionofsuchevil,asismadedishonourIgnominy.
ableorthedeprivationofsuchgood,asismadehonourablebythe
commonwealth.Fortherebesomethingshonourablebynatureas
theeffectsofcourage,magnanimity,strength,wisdom,andother
abilitiesofbodyandmind:othersmadehonourablebythecommon
wealthasbadges,titles,offices,oranyothersingularmarkofthe
sovereign'sfavour.Theformer,(thoughtheymayfailbynature,or
accident,)cannotbetakenawaybyalawandthereforethelossof
themisnotpunishment.Butthelatter,maybetakenawaybythe
publicauthoritythatmadethemhonourable,andareproperlypun
ishments:sucharedegradingmencondemned,oftheirbadges,
titles,andofficesordeclaringthemincapableofthelikeintimeto
come.
20.Imprisonment,iswhenamanisbypublicauthoritydeprivedImprisonment.
oflibertyandmayhappenfromtwodiversendswhereofoneisthe
safecustodyofamanaccusedtheotheristheinflictingofpainon
amancondemned.Theformerisnotpunishmentbecausenoman
issupposedtobepunished,beforehebejudiciallyheard,and
declaredguilty.Andthereforewhatsoeverhurtamanismadeto
sufferbybonds,orrestraint,beforehiscausebeheard,overand
abovethatwhichisnecessarytoassurehiscustody,isagainstthelaw
ofnature.Butthelatterispunishment,becauseevil,andinflictedby
publicauthority,forsomewhatthathasbythesameauthoritybeen
judgedatransgressionofthelaw.Underthiswordimprisonment,I
comprehendallrestraintofmotion,causedbyanexternalobstacle,
beitahouse,whichiscalledbythegeneralnameofaprisonoran
island,aswhenmenaresaidtobeconfinedtoitoraplacewhere
menaresettowork,asinoldtimemenhavebeencondemnedto
quarries,andinthesetimestogalleysorbeitachain,oranyother
suchimpediment.
21.Exile,(banishment)iswhenamanisforacrime,condemnedExile.
todepartoutofthedominionofthecommonwealth,oroutofa[165]
certainpartthereof:andduringaprefixedtime,orforever,notto
returnintoit:andseemethnotinitsownnature,withoutother
circumstances,tobeapunishmentbutratheranescape,orapublic
commandmenttoavoidpunishmentbyflight.AndCicerosays,*
therewasneveranysuchpunishmentordainedinthecityofRome

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butcallsitarefugeofmenindanger.Forifamanbanished,be
neverthelesspermittedtoenjoyhisgoods,andtherevenueofhis
lands,themerechangeofairisnopunishmentnordoesittendto
thatbenefitofthecommonwealth,forwhichallpunishmentsare
ordained,(thatistosay,totheformingofmen'swillstotheobser
vationofthelaw)butmanytimestothedamageofthecommon
wealth.Forabanishedman,isalawfulenemyofthecommonwealth
thatbanishedhimasbeingnomoreamemberofthesame.Butif
hebewithaldeprivedofhislands,orgoods,thenthepunishment
liethnotintheexile,butistobereckonedamongstpunishments
pecuniary.
The22.Allpunishmentsofinnocentsubjects,betheygreatorlittle,
punishmentofareagainstthelawofnatureforpunishmentisonlyfortransgres
innocentsionofthelaw,andthereforetherecanbenopunishmentofthe
subjectsisinnocent.Itisthereforeaviolation,first,ofthatlawofnature,which
contrarytoforbiddethallmen,intheirrevenges,tolookatanythingbutsome
thelawoffuturegood:fortherecanarrivenogoodtothecommonwealth,by
nature.punishingtheinnocent.Secondly,ofthat,whichforbiddethingrati
tude:forseeingallsovereignpower,isoriginallygivenbythecon
sentofeveryoneofthesubjects,totheendtheyshouldaslongas
theyareobedient,beprotectedtherebythepunishmentofthe
innocent,isarenderingofevilforgood.Andthirdly,ofthelawthat
commandethequitythatistosay,anequaldistributionofjustice
whichinpunishingtheinnocentisnotoberved.
Buttheharm23.Buttheinflictionofwhatevilsoever,onaninnocentman,
donetothatisnotasubject,ifitbeforthebenefitofthecommonwealth,and
innocentsinwithoutviolationofanyformercovenant,isnobreachofthelawof
war,notso.nature.Forallmenthatarenotsubjects,areeitherenemies,orelse
thayhaveceasedfrombeingsobysomeprecedentcovenants.But
againstenemies,whomthecommonwealthjudgethcapabletodo
themhurt,itislawfulbytheoriginalrightofnaturetomakewar
whereintheswordjudgethnot,nordoththevictormakedistinction
ofnocent[guilty],andinnocent,astothetimepastnorhasother
respectofmercy,thanasitconducethtothegoodofhisownpeople.
NorthatAnduponthisgrounditis,thatalsoinsubjects,whodeliberately
whichisdonedenytheauthorityofthecommonwealthestablished,thevengeance
todeclaredislawfullyextended,notonlytothefathers,butalsotothethirdand
rebels.fourthgenerationnotyetinbeing,andconsequentlyinnocentofthe
fact,forwhichtheyareafflicted:becausethenatureofthisoffence,
consistethintherenouncingofsubjectionwhichisarelapseinto

theconditionofwar,commonlycalledrebellionandtheythatso
offend,suffernotassubjects,butasenemies.Forrebellion,isbut[166]
warrenewed.
24.REWARD,iseitherofgift,orbycontract.Whenbycontract,itRewardis
iscalledsalary,andwageswhichisbenefitdueforservicepereithersalary,
formed,orpromised.Whenofgift,itisbenefitproceedingfromtheorgrace.
graceofthemthatbestowit,toencourage,orenablementodothem
service.Andthereforewhenthesovereignofacommonwealth
appointethasalarytoanypublicoffice,hethatreceivethit,isbound
injusticetoperformhisofficeotherwise,heisboundonlyin
honour,toacknowledgment,andanendeavourofrequital.For
thoughmenhavenolawfulremedy,whentheybecommandedto
quittheirprivatebusiness,toservethepublic,withoutreward,or
salaryyettheyarenotboundthereto,bythelawofnature,norby
theinstitutionofthecommonwealth,unlesstheservicecannot
otherwisebedonebecauseitissupposedthesovereignmaymake
useofalltheirmeans,insomuchasthemostcommonsoldier,may
demandthewagesofhiswarfare,asadebt.
25.Thebenefitswhichasovereignbestowethonasubject,forBenefits
fearofsomepower,andabilityhehathtodohurttothecommonbestowedfor
wealth,arenotproperlyrewardsfortheyarenotsalariesbecausefear,arenot
thereisinthiscasenocontractsupposed,everymanbeingobligedrewards.
alreadynottodothecommonwealthdisservice:noraretheygraces
becausetheybeextortedbyfear,whichoughtnottobeincidentto
thesovereignpower:butarerathersacrifices,whichthesovereign
(consideredinhisnaturalperson,andnotinthepersonofthe
commonwealth)makes,fortheappeasingthediscontentofhimhe
thinksmorepotentthanhimselfandencouragenottoobedience,
butonthecontrary,tothecontinuance,andincreasingoffurther
extortion.
26.Andwhereassomesalariesarecertain,andproceedfromtheSalaries
publictreasureandothersuncertain,andcasual,proceedingfromcertainand
theexecutionoftheofficeforwhichthesalaryisordainedthelattercasual
isinsomecaseshurtfultothecommonwealthasinthecaseof
judicature.Forwherethebenefitofthejudges,andministersofa
courtofjustice,arisethfromthemultitudeofcausesthatare
broughttotheircognizance,theremustneedsfollowtwoincon
veniences:one,isthenourishingofsuitsforthemoresuits,the
greaterbenefit:andanotherthatdependsonthat,whichisconten
tionaboutjurisdictioneachcourtdrawingtoitself,asmanycauses

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asitcan.Butinofficesofexecutiontherearenotthoseinconven
iencesbecausetheiremploymentcannotbeincreasedbyanyen
deavouroftheirown.Andthusmuchshallsufficeforthenatureof
punishmentandrewardwhichare,asitwere,thenervesandten
dons,thatmovethelimbsandjointsofacommonwealth.
27.HithertoIhavesetforththenatureofman,(whoseprideand
otherpassionshavecompelledhimtosubmithimselftogovern
ment)togetherwiththegreatpowerofhisgovernor,whomI
comparedtoLeviathan,takingthatcomparisonoutofthetwolast
versesoftheoneandfortiethofJobwhereGodhavingsetforth
thegreatpowerofLeviathan,callethhimKingoftheProud.There
isnothing,saithhe,onearth,tobecomparedwithhim.Heismadesoas
[167]nottobeafraid.Heseetheveryhighthingbelowhimandiskingofall
thechildrenofpride.Butbecauseheismortal,andsubjecttodecay,
asallotherearthlycreaturesareandbecausethereisthatinheaven,
(thoughnotonearth)thatheshouldstandinfearof,andwhoselaws
heoughttoobeyIshallinthenextfollowingchaptersspeakofhis
diseases,andthecausesofhismortalityandofwhatlawsofnature
heisboundtoobey.
ChapterXXIX
OfThoseThingsThatWeaken,OrTendTotheDissolutionofaCommonwealth*
Dissolutionof1.Thoughnothingcanbeimmortal,whichmortalsmakeyet,if
commonwealthsmenhadtheuseofreasontheypretendto,theircommonwealths
proceedethmightbesecured,atleastfromperishingbyinternaldiseases.For
fromtheirbythenatureoftheirinstitution,theyaredesignedtolive,aslongas
imperfectmankind,orasthelawsofnature,orasjusticeitself,whichgives
institution.themlife.Thereforewhentheycometobedissolved,notbyexter
nalviolence,butintestinedisorder,thefaultisnotinmen,asthey
arethematterbutastheyarethemakers,andorderersofthem.For
men,astheybecomeatlastwearyofirregularjostling,andhewing
oneanother,anddesirewithalltheirhearts,toconformthemselves
intoonefirmandlastingedificesoforwant,bothoftheartof
makingfitlaws,tosquaretheiractionsby,andalsoofhumility,and
patience,tosuffertherudeandcumbersomepointsoftheirpresent

greatnesstobetakenoff,theycannotwithoutthehelpofaveryable
architect,becompiled,intoanyotherthanacrazybuilding,suchas
hardlylastingouttheirowntime,mustassuredlyfallupontheheads
oftheirposterity.
2.Amongsttheinfirmitiesthereforeofacommonwealth,Iwill
reckoninthefirstplace,thosethatarisefromanimperfectinsti
tution,andresemblethediseasesofanaturalbody,whichproceed
fromadefectuousprocreation.
3.Ofwhich,thisisone,thatamantoobtainakingdom,issomeWantof
timescontentwithlesspower,thantothepeace,anddefenceoftheabsolute
commonwealthisnecessarilyrequired.Fromwhenceitcomethtopass,power.
thatwhentheexerciseofthepowerlaidby,isforthepublicsafety
toberesumed,ithaththeresemblanceofanunjustactwhich
disposethgreatnumbersofmen(whenoccasionispresented)to
rebelinthesamemannerasthebodiesofchildren,gottenby
diseasedparents,aresubjecteithertountimelydeath,ortopurge
theillquality,derivedfromtheirvicious[vitiated]conception,by
breakingoutintobilesandscabs.Andwhenkingsdenythemselves
somesuchnecessarypower,itisnotalways(thoughsometimes)out
ofignoranceofwhatisnecessarytotheofficetheyundertakebut
manytimesoutofahopetorecoverthesameagainattheirpleasure:[168]
whereintheyreasonnotwellbecausesuchaswillholdthemtotheir
promises,shallbemaintainedagainstthembyforeigncommon
wealthswhoinordertothegoodoftheirownsubjectsletslipfew
occasionstoweakentheestateoftheirneighbours.SowasThomas
Becket,ArchbishopofCanterbury,supportedagainstHenrythe
Second,bythePopethesubjectionofecclesiasticstothecommon
wealth,havingbeendispensedwithbyWilliamtheConquerorathis
reception,whenhetookanoath,nottoinfringethelibertyofthe
church.Andsowerethebarons,whosepowerwasbyWilliamRufus
(tohavetheirhelpintransferringthesuccessionfromhiselder
brother,tohimself)increasedtoadegree,inconsistentwiththe
sovereignpower,maintainedintheirrebellionagainstkingJohn,by
theFrench.
4.Nordoesthishappeninmonarchyonly.Forwhereasthestyle
oftheancientRomancommonwealth,was,TheSenate,andPeopleof
Romeneithersenate,norpeoplepretendedtothewholepower
whichfirstcausedtheseditions,ofTiberiusGracchus,Caius
Gracchus,LuciusSaturninus,andothersandafterwardsthewars
betweenthesenateandthepeople,underMariusandSyllaand

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againunderPompeyandCaesar,totheextinctionoftheirdemo
cracy,andthesettingupofmonarchy.
5.ThepeopleofAthensboundthemselvesbutfromoneonly
actionwhichwas,thatnomanonpainofdeathshouldpropound
therenewingofthewarfortheislandofSalamisandyetthereby,if
Solonhadnotcausedtobegivenouthewasmad,*andafterwards
ingestureandhabitofamadman,andinverse,propoundedittothe
peoplethatflockedabouthim,theyhadhadanenemyperpetuallyin
readiness,evenatthegatesoftheircitysuchdamage,orshifts,are
allcommonwealthsforcedto,thathavetheirpowerneversolittle
limited.
Private6.*Inthesecondplace,Iobservethediseasesofacommon
judgmentofwealth,thatproceedfromthepoisonofseditiousdoctrines,whereof
goodandoneis,Thateveryprivatemanisjudgeofgoodandevilactions.Thisis
evil.trueintheconditionofmerenature,wheretherearenocivillaws
andalsoundercivilgovernment,insuchcasesasarenotdetermined
bythelaw.Butotherwise,itismanifest,thatthemeasureofgood
andevilactions,isthecivillawandthejudgethelegislator,whois
alwaystherepresentativeofthecommonwealth.Fromthisfalse
doctrine,menaredisposedtodebatewiththemselves,anddispute
thecommandsofthecommonwealthandafterwardstoobey,or
disobeythem,asintheirprivatejudgmentstheyshallthinkfit.
Wherebythecommonwealthisdistractedandweakened.
Erroneous7.Anotherdoctrinerepugnanttocivilsociety,is,thatwhatsoever
conscience.amandoesagainsthisconscience,issinanditdependethonthe
presumptionofmakinghimselfjudgeofgoodandevil.Foraman's
conscience,andhisjudgmentisthesamethingandasthe
judgment,soalsotheconsciencemaybeerroneous.Therefore,
[169]thoughhethatissubjecttonocivillaw,sinnethinallhedoesagainst
hisconscience,becausehehasnootherruletofollowbuthisown
reasonyetitisnotsowithhimthatlivesinacommonwealth
becausethelawisthepublicconscience,bywhichhehath
alreadyundertakentobeguided.Otherwiseinsuchdiversity,as
thereisofprivateconsciences,whicharebutprivateopinions,the
commonwealthmustneedsbedistracted,andnomandareto
obeythesovereignpower,furtherthanitshallseemgoodinhisown
eyes.
Pretenceof8.Ithathbeenalsocommonlytaught,thatfaithandsanctity,are
inspiration.nottobeattainedbystudyandreason,butbysupernaturalinspiration,
orinfusion.Whichgranted,Iseenotwhyanymanshouldrendera

reasonofhisfaithorwhyeveryChristianshouldnotbealsoa
prophetorwhyanymanshouldtakethelawofhiscountry,rather
thanhisowninspiration,fortheruleofhisaction.Andthuswefall
againinthefaultoftakinguponustojudgeofgoodandevilorto
makejudgesofit,suchprivatemenaspretendtobesupernaturally
inspired,tothedissolutionofallcivilgovernment.Faithcomesby
hearing,andhearingbythoseaccidents,whichguideusintothe
presenceofthemthatspeaktouswhichaccidentsareallcontrived
byGodAlmightyandyetarenotsupernatural,butonly,forthe
greatnumberofthemthatconcurtoeveryeffect,unobservable.
Faith,andsanctity,areindeednotveryfrequentbutyettheyare
notmiracles,butbroughttopassbyeducation,discipline,correc
tion,andothernaturalways,bywhichGodworkeththeminhis
elect,atsuchtimesashethinkethfit.Andthesethreeopinions,
pernicioustopeaceandgovernment,haveinthispartoftheworld,
proceededchieflyfromthetongues,andpensofunlearneddivines
whojoiningthewordsofHolyScripturetogether,otherwisethanis
agreeabletoreason,dowhattheycan,tomakementhink,that
sanctityandnaturalreason,cannotstandtogether.
9.Afourthopinion,repugnanttothenatureofacommonwealth,Subjecting
isthis,thathethathaththesovereignpowerissubjecttothecivillaws.*thesovereign
Itistrue,thatsovereignsareallsubjecttothelawsofnaturepowertocivil
becausesuchlawsbedivine,andcannotbyanyman,orcommonlaws.
wealthbeabrogated.Buttothoselawswhichthesovereignhimself,
thatis,whichthecommonwealthmaketh,heisnotsubject.Forto
besubjecttolaws,istobesubjecttothecommonwealth,thatisto
thesovereignrepresentative,thatistohimselfwhichisnotsubjec
tion,butfreedomfromthelaws.Whicherror,becauseitsetteththe
lawsabovethesovereign,settethalsoajudgeabovehim,anda
powertopunishhimwhichistomakeanewsovereignand
againforthesamereasonathird,topunishthesecondandso
continuallywithoutend,totheconfusion,anddissolutionofthe
commonwealth.
10.Afifthdoctrine,thattendethtothedissolutionofacommonAttributingof
wealth,is,thateveryprivatemanhasanabsoluteproprietyinhisgoodsabsolute
such,asexcludeththerightofthesovereign.Everymanhasindeedaproprietyto
proprietythatexcludestherightofeveryothersubject:andhehassubjects.
itonlyfromthesovereignpowerwithouttheprotectionwhereof,[170]
everyothermanshouldhaveequalrighttothesame.Butiftheright
ofthesovereignalsobeexcluded,hecannotperformtheofficethey

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haveputhimintowhichis,todefendthembothfromforeign
enemies,andfromtheinjuriesofoneanotherandconsequently
thereisnolongeracommonwealth.
11.Andiftheproprietyofsubjects,excludenottherightofthe
sovereignrepresentativetotheirgoodsmuchlesstotheirofficesof
judicature,orexecution,inwhichtheyrepresentthesovereignhim
self.
Dividingof12.Thereisasixthdoctrine,plainly,anddirectlyagainstthe
thesovereignessenceofacommonwealthand'tisthis,thatthesovereignpower
power.maybedivided.Forwhatisittodividethepowerofacommon
wealth,buttodissolveit?forpowersdividedmutuallydestroyeach
other.Andforthesedoctrines,menarechieflybeholdingtosome
ofthose,thatmakingprofessionofthelaws,endeavourtomake
themdependupontheirownlearning,andnotuponthelegislative
power.
Imitationof13.Andasfalsedoctrine,soalsooftentimestheexampleofdif
neighbourferentgovernmentinaneighbouringnation,disposethmentoal
nations.terationoftheformalreadysettled.SothepeopleoftheJewswere
stirreduptorejectGod,andtocallupontheprophetSamuel,fora
kingafterthemannerofthenations:soalsothelessercitiesof
Greece,werecontinuallydisturbed,withseditionsofthe
aristocratical,anddemocraticalfactionsonepartofalmostevery
commonwealth,desiringtoimitatetheLacedemonians*theother,
theAthenians.AndIdoubtnot,butmanymenhavebeencontented
toseethelatetroublesinEngland,outofanimitationoftheLow
Countriessupposingthereneedednomoretogrowrich,thanto
change,astheyhaddone,theformoftheirgovernment.Forthe
constitutionofman'snature,isofitselfsubjecttodesirenovelty:
whenthereforetheyareprovokedtothesame,bytheneighbour
hoodalsoofthosethathavebeenenrichedbyit,itisalmostimpos
sibleforthem,nottobecontentwiththosethatsolicitthemto
changeandlovethefirstbeginnings,(thoughtheybegrievedwith
thecontinuance)ofdisorderlikehotbloods,thathavinggottenthe
itch,tearthemselveswiththeirownnails,tilltheycanendurethe
smartnolonger.
Imitationof14.Andastorebellioninparticularagainstmonarchyoneofthe
theGreeksmostfrequentcausesofit,isthereadingofthebooksofpolicy,and
andRomans.historiesoftheancientGreeks,andRomansfromwhich,young
men,andallothersthatareunprovidedoftheantidoteofsolid
reason,receivingastrong,anddelightfulimpression,ofthegreat

exploitsofwar,achievedbytheconductorsoftheirarmies,receive
withalapleasingidea,ofalltheyhavedonebesidesandimagine
theirgreatprosperity,nottohaveproceededfromtheemulationof
particularmen,butfromthevirtueoftheirpopularformofgovern
ment:notconsideringthefrequentseditions,andcivilwars,pro
ducedbytheimperfectionoftheirpolicy.Fromthereading,Isay,
ofsuchbooks,menhaveundertakentokilltheirkings,becausethe
GreekandLatinwriters,intheirbooks,anddiscoursesofpolicy,[171]
makeitlawful,andlaudable,foranymansotodoprovided,before
hedoit,hecallhimtyrant.Fortheysaynotregicide,thatis,killing
aking,buttyrannicide,thatis,killingofatyrantislawful.Fromthe
samebooks,theythatliveunderamonarchconceiveanopinion,
thatthesubjectsinapopularcommonwealthenjoylibertybutthat
inamonarchytheyareallslaves.Isay,theythatliveundera
monarchyconceivesuchanopinionnottheythatliveundera
populargovernment:fortheyfindnosuchmatter.Insum,Icannot
imagine,howanythingcanbemoreprejudicialtoamonarchy,than
theallowingofsuchbookstobepubliclyread,withoutpresent
applyingsuchcorrectivesofdiscreetmasters,asarefittotakeaway
theirvenom:whichvenomIwillnotdoubttocomparetothebiting.
ofamaddog,whichisadiseasethephysicianscallhydrophobia,or
fearofwater.Forashethatissobitten,hasacontinualtormentof
thirst,andyetabhorrethwaterandisinsuchanestate,asifthe
poisonendeavouredtoconverthimintoadog:sowhenamonarchy
isoncebittentothequick,bythosedemocraticalwriters,that
continuallysnarlatthatestateitwantethnothingmore
thanastrongmonarch,whichneverthelessoutofacertain
tyrannophobia,orfearofbeingstronglygoverned,whentheyhave
him,theyabhor.
15.Astherehavebeendoctors,thatholdtherebethreesoulsin
amansotherebealsothatthinktheremaybemoresouls,(thatis,
moresovereigns,)thanone,inacommonwealthandsetupasu
premacyagainstthesovereigntycanonsagainstlawsandaghostly
authorityagainstthecivilworkingonmen'sminds,withwordsand
distinctions,thatofthemselvessignifynothing,butbewray(bytheir
obscurity)thattherewalketh(assomethinkinvisibly)anotherking
dom,asitwereakingdomoffairies,inthedark.Nowseeingitis
manifest,thatthecivilpower,andthepowerofthecommonwealth
isthesamethingandthatsupremacy,andthepowerofmaking
canons,andgrantingfaculties,impliethacommonwealthit

Page218

followeth,thatwhereoneissovereign,anothersupremewhereone
canmakelaws,andanothermakecanonstheremustneedsbetwo
commonwealths,ofoneandthesamesubjectswhichisakingdom
dividedinitself,andcannotstand.Fornotwithstandingtheinsig
nificantdistinctionoftemporal,andghostly,theyarestilltwoking
doms,andeverysubjectissubjecttotwomasters.Forseeingthe
ghostlypowerchallengeththerighttodeclarewhatissin,it
challengethbyconsequencetodeclarewhatislaw,(sinbeingnoth
ingbutthetransgressionofthelaw)andagain,thecivilpower
challengingtodeclarewhatislaw,everysubjectmustobeytwo
masters,whobothwillhavetheircommandsbeobservedaslaw
whichisimpossible.Or,ifitbebutonekingdom,eitherthecivil,
whichisthepowerofthecommonwealth,mustbesubordinateto
theghostly,andthenthereisnosovereigntybuttheghostlyorthe
ghostlymustbesubordinatetothetemporal,andthenthereisno
supremacybutthetemporal.Whenthereforethesetwopowersop
[172]poseoneanother,thecommonwealthcannotbutbeingreatdanger
ofcivilwaranddissolution.Forthecivilauthoritybeingmore
visible,andstandingintheclearerlightofnaturalreason,cannot
choosebutdrawtoitinalltimesaveryconsiderablepartofthe
people:andthespiritual,thoughitstandinthedarknessofSchool
distinctions,andhardwordsyetbecausethefearofdarkness,and
ghosts,isgreaterthanotherfears,cannotwantapartysufficientto
trouble,andsometimestodestroyacommonwealth.Andthisisa
diseasewhichnotunfitlymaybecomparedtotheepilepsy,orfalling
sickness(whichtheJewstooktobeonekindofpossessionbyspirits)
inthebodynatural.Forasinthisdisease,thereisanunnatural
spirit,orwindintheheadthatobstructeththerootsofthenerves,
andmovingthemviolently,takethawaythemotionwhichnaturally
theyshouldhavefromthepowerofthesoulinthebrain,and
therebycausethviolent,andirregularmotions(whichmencallcon
vulsions)inthepartsinsomuchashethatisseizedtherewith,
fallethdownsometimesintothewater,andsometimesintothefire,
asamandeprivedofhissensessoalsointhebodypolitic,whenthe
spiritualpower,moveththemembersofacommonwealth,bythe
terrorofpunishments,andhopeofrewards*(whicharethenerves
ofit,)otherwisethanbythecivilpower(whichisthesoulofthe
commonwealth)theyoughttobemovedandbystrange,andhard
wordssuffocatestheirunderstanding,itmustneedstherebydistract

thepeople,andeitheroverwhelmthecommonwealthwithop
pression,orcastitintothefireofacivilwar.
16.Sometimesalsointhemerelycivilgovernment,therebeMixed
morethanonesoulaswhenthepoweroflevyingmoney,(whichisgovernment.
thenutritivefaculty,)hasdependedonageneralassemblythe
powerofconductandcommand,(whichisthemotivefaculty,)on
onemanandthepowerofmakinglaws,(whichistherational
faculty,)ontheaccidentalconsent,notonlyofthosetwo,butalsoof
athird*thisendangereththecommonwealth,sometimesforwant
ofconsenttogoodlawsbutmostoftenforwantofsuchnourish
ment,asisnecessarytolife,andmotion.Foralthoughfewperceive,
thatsuchgovernment,isnotgovernment,butdivisionofthecom
monwealthintothreefactions,andcallitmixedmonarchyyetthe
truthis,thatitisnotoneindependentcommonwealth,butthree
independentfactionsnoronerepresentativeperson,butthree.In
thekingdomofGod,theremaybethreepersonsindependent,
withoutbreachofunityinGodthatreignethbutwheremenreign,
thatbesubjecttodiversityofopinions,itcannotbeso.Andthere
foreifthekingbearthepersonofthepeople,andthegeneral
assemblybearalsothepersonofthepeople,andanotherassembly
bearthepersonofapartofthepeople,theyarenotoneperson,nor
onesovereign,butthreepersons,andthreesovereigns.
17.Towhatdiseaseinthenaturalbodyofman,Imayexactly
comparethisirregularityofacommonwealth,Iknownot.ButIhave
seenaman,thathadanothermangrowingoutofhisside,witha
head,arms,breast,andstomach,ofhisownifhehadhadanother[173]
mangrowingoutofhisotherside,thecomparisonmightthenhave
beenexact.
18.Hitherto,Ihavenamedsuchdiseasesofacommonwealth,asWantof
areofthegreatest,andmostpresentdanger.Therebeother,notsomoney.
greatwhichneverthelessarenotunfittobeobserved.Atfirst,the
difficultyofraisingmoney,forthenecessaryusesofthecommon
wealthespeciallyintheapproachofwar.Thisdifficultyariseth
fromtheopinion,thateverysubjecthathaproprietyinhislandsand
goods,exclusiveofthesovereign'srighttotheuseofthesame.
Fromwhenceitcomethtopass,thatthesovereignpower,which
foreseeththenecessitiesanddangersofthecommonwealth,(finding
thepassageofmoneytothepublictreasuryobstructed,by,the
tenacityofthepeople,)whereasitoughttoextenditself,toencoun

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ter,andpreventsuchdangersintheirbeginnings,contracteth
itselfaslongasitcan,andwhenitcannotlonger,struggleswiththe
peoplebystratagemsoflaw,toobtainlittlesums,whichnot
sufficing,heisfainatlastviolentlytoopenthewayforpresent
supply,orperishandbeingputoftentotheseextremities,atlast
reduceththepeopletotheirduetemperorelsethecommonwealth
mustperish.Insomuchaswemaycomparethisdistemperveryaptly
toanaguewherein,thefleshypartsbeingcongealed,orbyvenom
ousmatterobstructed,theveinswhichbytheirnaturalcourse
emptythemselvesintotheheart,arenot(astheyoughttobe)
suppliedfromthearteries,wherebytheresucceedethatfirstacold
contraction,andtremblingofthelimbsandafterwardahot,and
strongendeavouroftheheart,toforceapassagefortheblood
andbeforeitcandothat,contentethitselfwiththesmallrefresh
mentsofsuchthingsascoolforatime,till(ifnaturebestrong
enough)itbreakatlastthecontumacyofthepartsobstructed,and
dissipateththevenomintosweator(ifnaturebetooweak)the
patientdieth.
Monopohes,19.Again,thereissometimesinacommonwealth,adisease,
andabusesofwhichresembleththepleurisyandthatis,whenthetreasureofthe
publicans.commonwealth,flowingoutofitsduecourse,isgatheredtogetherin
toomuchabundance,inone,orafewprivatemen,bymonopolies,
orbyfarmsofthepublicrevenuesinthesamemannerastheblood
inapleurisy,gettingintothemembraneofthebreast,breedeth
thereaninflammation,accompaniedwithafever,andpainful
stitches.
Popularmen.20.Also,thepopularityofapotentsubject,(unlessthecommon
wealthhaveverygoodcautionofhisfidelity,)isadangerousdisease
becausethepeople,(whichshouldreceivetheirmotionfromthe
authorityofthesovereign,)bytheflattery,andbythereputationof
anambitiousmanaredrawnawayfromtheirobediencetothelaws,
tofollowaman,ofwhosevirtues,anddesignstheyhavenoknow
ledge.Andthisiscommonlyofmoredangerinapopulargovern
ment,thaninamonarchybecauseanarmyisofsogreatforce,and
multitude,asitmayeasilybemadebelieve,theyarethepeople.By
[174]thismeansitwas,thatJuliusCaesar,whowassetupbythepeople
againstthesenate,havingwontohimselftheaffectionsofhisarmy,
madehimselfmaster,bothofsenateandpeople.Andthisproceed
ingofpopular,andambitiousmen,isplainrebellionandmaybe
resembledtotheeffectsofwitchcraft.

21.Anotherinfirmityofacommonwealth,istheimmoderateExcessive
greatnessofatown,whenitisabletofurnishoutofitsowncircuit,greatnessofa
thenumber,andexpenseofagreatarmy:asalsothegreatnumbertown,or
ofcorporationswhichareasitweremanylessercommonwealthsinmultitudeof
thebowelsofagreater,likewormsintheentrailsofanaturalman.corporations.
Towhichmaybeadded,thelibertyofdisputingagainstabsoluteLibertyof
power,bypretenderstopoliticalprudencewhichthoughbredfordisputing
themostpartinthelees[dregs]ofthepeople,yetanimatedbyfalseagainst
doctrines,areperpetuallymeddlingwiththefundamentallaws,tosovereign
themolestationofthecommonwealthlikethelittleworms,whichpower.
physicianscallascarides.
22.Wemayfurtheradd,theinsatiableappetite,or
,of
enlargingdominionwiththeincurablewoundstherebymanytimes
receivedfromtheenemyandthewens,ofununitedconquests,
whicharemanytimesaburthen,andwithlessdangerlost,than
keptasalsothelethargyofease,andconsumptionofriotandvain
expense.
23.Lastly,wheninawar(foreignorintestine,)theenemiesgetDissolution
afinalvictorysoas(theforcesofthecommonwealthkeepingtheofthe
fieldnolonger)thereisnofurtherprotectionofsubjectsintheircommonwealth.
loyaltythenisthecommonwealthDISSOLVED,andeverymanat
libertytoprotecthimselfbysuchcoursesashisowndiscretionshall
suggestuntohim.Forthesovereign,isthepublicsoul,givinglife
andmotiontothecommonwealthwhichexpiring,themembersare
governedbyitnomore,thanthecarcaseofaman,byhisdeparted
(thoughimmortal)soul.Forthoughtherightofasovereignmon
archcannotbeextinguishedbytheactofanotheryettheobligation
ofthemembersmay.Forhethatwantsprotection,mayseekit
anywhereandwhenhehathit,isobliged(withoutfraudulentpre
tenceofhavingsubmittedhimselfoutoffear,)toprotecthisprotec
tionaslongasheisable.Butwhenthepowerofanassemblyisonce
suppressed,therightofthesameperishethutterlybecausethe
assemblyitselfisextinctandconsequently,thereisnopossibility
forthesovereigntytoreenter.

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[175]ChapterXXX
OftheOfficeoftheSovereignRepresentative
The1.Theofficeofthesovereign,(beitamonarchoranassembly,)
procurationconsistethintheend,forwhichhewastrustedwiththesovereign
ofthegoodofpower,namelytheprocurationofthesafetyofthepeopletowhichhe
thepeople.isobligedbythelawofnature,andtorenderanaccountthereofto
God,theauthorofthatlaw,andtononebuthim.Butbysafetyhere,
isnotmeantabarepreservation,butalsoallothercontentmentsof
life,whicheverymanbylawfulindustry,withoutdanger,orhurtto
thecommonwealth,shallacquiretohimself.
By2.Andthisisintendedshouldbedone,notbycareappliedto
instruction&individuals,furtherthantheirprotectionfrominjuries,whenthey
laws.shallcomplainbutbyageneralprovidence,containedinpublic
instruction,bothofdoctrine,andexampleandinthemakingand
executingofgoodlaws,towhichindividualpersonsmayapplytheir
owncases.
Againstthe3.Andbecause,iftheessentialrightsofsovereignty(specified
dutyofabeforeintheeighteenthchapter)betakenaway,thecommonwealth
sovereigntoistherebydissolved,andeverymanreturnethintothecondition,
relinquishandcalamityofawarwitheveryotherman,(whichisthegreatest
anyessentialevilthatcanhappeninthislife)itistheofficeofthesovereign,to
rightofmaintainthoserightsentireandconsequentlyagainsthisduty,first,
sovereignty:totransfertoanother,ortolayfromhimselfanyofthem.Forhe
thatdeserteththemeans,deserteththeendsandhedeserteththe
means,thatbeingthesovereign,acknowledgethhimselfsubjectto
thecivillawsandrenounceththepowerofsupremejudicatureor
ofmakingwar,orpeacebyhisownauthorityorofjudgingofthe
necessitiesofthecommonwealthoroflevyingmoney,andsoldiers,
when,andasmuchasinhisownconscienceheshalljudgeneces
saryorofmakingofficers,andministersbothofwar,andpeaceor
ofappointingteachers,andexaminingwhatdoctrinesareconform
able,orcontrarytothedefence,peace,andgoodofthepeople.
OrnottoseeSecondly,itisagainsthisduty,toletthepeoplebeignorant,or
thepeoplemisinformedofthegrounds,andreasonsofthosehisessential
taughttherightsbecausetherebymenareeasytobeseduced,anddrawnto
groundsofresisthim,whenthecommonwealthshallrequiretheiruseand
them.exercise.

4.Andthegroundsoftheserights,havetheratherneedtobe
diligently,andtrulytaughtbecausetheycannotbemaintainedby
anycivillaw,orterroroflegalpunishment.Foracivillaw,thatshall
forbidrebellion,(andsuchisallresistancetotheessentialrightsof
thesovereignty,)isnot(asacivillaw)anyobligation,butbyvirtue[176]
onlyofthelawofnature,thatforbiddeththeviolationoffaith
whichnaturalobligationifmenknownot,theycannotknowthe
rightofanylawthesovereignmaketh.Andforthepunishment,
theytakeitbutforanactofhostilitywhichwhentheythinkthey
havestrengthenough,theywillendeavourbyactsofhostility,to
avoid.
5.AsIhaveheardsomesay,thatjusticeisbutaword,withoutObjectionof
substanceandthatwhatsoeveramancanbyforce,orart,acquiretothosethatsay
himself,(notonlyintheconditionofwar,butalsoinacommonthereareno
wealth,)ishisown,whichIhavealreadyshowedtobefalse:sothereprinciplesof
bealsothatmaintain,thattherearenogrounds,norprinciplesofreasonfor
reason,tosustainthoseessentialrights,whichmakesovereigntyabsolute
absolute.Foriftherewere,theywouldhavebeenfoundoutinsomesovereignty.
place,orotherwhereaswesee,therehasnothithertobeenany
commonwealth,wherethoserightshavebeenacknowledged,or
challenged.Whereintheyargueasill,asifthesavagepeopleof
America,shoulddenytherewereanygrounds,orprinciplesof
reason,sotobuildahouse,astolastaslongasthematerials,because
theyneveryetsawanysowellbuilt.Time,andindustry,produce
everydaynewknowledge.Andastheartofwellbuilding,isderived
fromprinciplesofreason,observedbyindustriousmen,thathad
longstudiedthenatureofmaterials,andthediverseffectsoffigure,
andproportion,longaftermankindbegan(thoughpoorly)tobuild:
so,longtimeaftermenhavebeguntoconstitutecommonwealths,
imperfect,andapttorelapseintodisorder,theremay,principlesof
reasonbefoundout,byindustriousmeditation,tomaketheircon
stitution(exceptingbyexternalviolence)everlasting.Andsuchare
thosewhichIhaveinthisdiscoursesetforth:whichwhetherthey
comenotintothesightofthosethathavepowertomakeuseof
them,orbeneglectedbythem,ornot,concernethmyparticular
interests,atthisday,verylittle.Butsupposingthattheseofmineare
notsuchprinciplesofreasonyetIamsuretheyareprinciplesfrom
authorityofScriptureasIshallmakeitappear,whenIshallcome
tospeakofthekingdomofGod,(administeredbyMoses,)overthe
Jews,hispeculiarpeoplebycovenant.

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Objection6.Buttheysayagain,thatthoughtheprinciplesberight,yet
fromthecommonpeoplearenotofcapacityenoughtobemadetounder
incapacityofstandthem.Ishouldbeglad,thattherichandpotentsubjectsofa
thevulgar.kingdom,orthosethatareaccountedthemostlearned,werenoless
incapablethanthey.Butallmenknow,thattheobstructionstothis
kindofdoctrine,proceednotsomuchfromthedifficultyofthe
matter,asfromtheinterestofthemthataretolearn.Potentmen,
digesthardlyanythingthatsettethupapowertobridletheir
affectionsandlearnedmen,anythingthatdiscovereththeirerrors,
andtherebylesseneththeirauthority:whereasthecommonpeople's
minds,unlesstheybetaintedwithdependenceonthepotent,or
scribbledoverwiththeopinionsoftheirdoctors,arelikeclean
paper,fittoreceivewhatsoeverbypublicauthorityshallbeim
[177]printedinthem.Shallwholenationsbebroughttoacquiesceinthe
greatmysteriesoftheChristianreligion,whichareabovereason,
andmillionsofmenbemadebelieve,thatthesamebodymaybein
innumerableplaces,atoneandthesametime,whichisagainst
reasonandshallnotmenbeable,bytheirteaching,andpreaching,
protectedbythelaw,tomakethatreceived,whichissoconsonantto
reason,thatanyunprejudicatedman,needsnomoretolearnit,than
tohearit?Iconcludetherefore,thatintheinstructionofthepeople
intheessentialrights(whicharethenatural,andfundamentallaws)
ofsovereignty,thereisnodifficulty,(whilstasovereignhashis
powerentire,)butwhatproceedsfromhisownfault,orthefaultof
thosewhomhetrustethintheadministrationofthecommonwealth
andconsequently,itishisduty,tocausethemsotobeinstructed
andnotonlyhisduty,buthisbenefitalso,andsecurity,against
thedangerthatmayarrivetohimselfinhisnaturalpersonfrom
rebellion.
Subjectsare7.And(todescendtoparticulars)thepeoplearetobetaught,
tobetaught,first,thattheyoughtnottobeinlovewithanyformofgovernment
nottoaffecttheyseeintheirneighbournations,morethanwiththeirown,nor
changeof(whatsoeverpresentprosperitytheybeholdinnationsthatare
government:otherwisegovernedthanthey,)todesirechange.Fortheprosperity
ofapeopleruledbyanaristocratical,ordemocraticalassembly,
comethnotfromaristocracy,norfromdemocracy,butfromthe
obedience,andconcordofthesubjects:nordothepeopleflourishin
amonarchy,becauseonemanhastherighttorulethem,butbecause
theyobeyhim.Takeawayinanykindofstate,theobedience,(and
consequentlytheconcordofthepeople,)andtheyshallnotonlynot

flourish,butinshorttimebedissolved.Andtheythatgoaboutby
disobedience,todonomorethanreformthecommonwealth,shall
findtheydotherebydestroyitlikethefoolishdaughtersofPeleus,
(inthefable)whichdesiringtorenewtheyouthoftheirdecrepit
father,didbythecounselofMedea,cuthiminpieces,andboilhim,
togetherwithstrangeherbs,butmadenotofhimanewman.*This
desireofchange,islikethebreachofthefirstofGod'scommand
ments:forthereGodsays,NonhabebisDeosalienosThoushaltnot
havetheGodsofothernationsandinanotherplaceconcerning
kings,thattheyareGods.*
8.Secondly,theyaretobetaught,thattheyoughtnottobeledNoradhere
withadmirationofthevirtueofanyoftheirfellowsubjects,how(againstthe
highsoeverhestand,orhowconspicuouslysoeverheshineinthesovereign)to
commonwealthnorofanyassembly,(exceptthesovereignassempopularmen:
bly,)soastodefertothemanyobedience,orhonour,appropriateto
thesovereignonly,whom(intheirparticularstations)theyrepre
sentnortoreceiveanyinfluencefromthem,butsuchasisconveyed
bythemfromthesovereignauthority.Forthatsovereign,cannotbe
imaginedtolovehispeopleasheought,thatisnotjealousofthem,
butsuffersthembytheflatteryofpopularmen,tobeseducedfrom
theirloyalty,astheyhaveoftenbeen,notonlysecretly,butopenly,
soastoproclaimmarriagewiththeminfacieecclesiaebypreachers
andbypublishingthesameintheopenstreets:whichmayfitly[178]
becomparedtotheviolationofthesecondofthetencom
mandments.
9.Thirdly,inconsequencetothis,theyoughttobeinformed,Norto
howgreatafaultitis,tospeakevilofthesovereignrepresentative,disputethe
(whetheroneman,oranassemblyofmen)ortoargueandsovereign
disputehispoweroranywaytousehisnameirreverently,wherebypower:
hemaybebroughtintocontemptwithhispeople,andtheirobedi
ence(inwhichthesafetyofthecommonwealthconsisteth)slack
ened.Whichdoctrinethethirdcommandmentbyresemblance
pointethto.
10.Fourthly,seeingpeoplecannotbetaughtthis,norwhen'tisAndtohave
taught,rememberit,norafteronegenerationpast,somuchasknowdayssetapart
inwhomthesovereignpowerisplaced,withoutsettingapartfromtolearntheir
theirordinarylabour,somecertaintimes,inwhichtheymayattendduty:
thosethatareappointedtoinstructthemitisnecessarythatsome
suchtimesbedetermined,whereintheymayassembletogether,and
(afterprayersandpraisesgiventoGod,thesovereignofsovereigns)

Page226

hearthosetheirdutiestoldthem,andthepositivelaws,suchas
generallyconcernthemall,readandexpounded,andbeputinmind
oftheauthoritythatmakeththemlaws.TothisendhadtheJews
everyseventhday,asabbath,inwhichthelawwasreadandex
poundedandinthesolemnitywhereoftheywereputinmind,that
theirkingwasGodthathavingcreatedtheworldinsixdays,he
restedtheseventhdayandbytheirrestingonitfromtheirlabour,
thatthatGodwastheirking,whichredeemedthemfromtheir
servile,andpainfullabourinEgypt,andgavethematime,afterthey
hadrejoicedinGod,totakejoyalsointhemselves,bylawfulrecre
ation.Sothatthefirsttableofthecommandments,isspentall,in
settingdownthesumofGod'sabsolutepowernotonlyasGod,but
askingbypact,(inpeculiar)oftheJewsandmaythereforegive
light,tothosethathavesovereignpowerconferredonthembythe
consentofmen,toseewhatdoctrinetheyoughttoteachtheir
subjects.
Andto11.Andbecausethefirstinstructionofchildren,dependethon
honourtheirthecareoftheirparentsitisnecessarythattheyshouldbeobedient
parents.tothem,whilsttheyareundertheirtuitionandnotonlyso,butthat
alsoafterwards(asgratituderequireth,)theyacknowledgethebene
fitoftheireducation,byexternalsignsofhonour.Towhichend
theyaretobetaught,thatoriginallythefatherofeverymanwasalso
hissovereignlord,withpoweroverhimoflifeanddeathandthat
thefathersoffamilies,whenbyinstitutingacommonwealth,they
resignedthatabsolutepower,yetitwasneverintended,theyshould
losethehonourdueuntothemfortheireducation.Fortorelinquish
suchright,wasnotnecessarytotheinstitutionofsovereignpower
norwouldtherebeanyreason,whyanymanshoulddesiretohave
children,ortakethecaretonourishandinstructthem,iftheywere
afterwardstohavenootherbenefitfromthem,thanfromother
men.Andthisaccordethwiththefifthcommandment.
[179]12.Again,everysovereignoughttocausejusticetobetaught,
Andtoavoidwhich(consistingintakingfromnomanwhatishis)isasmuchas
doingoftosay,tocausementobetaughtnottodeprivetheirneighbours,by
injury:violence,orfraud,ofanythingwhichbythesovereignauthorityis
theirs.Ofthingsheldinpropriety,thosethataredearesttoaman
arehisownlife,andlimbsandinthenextdegree,(inmostmen,)
thosethatconcernconjugalaffectionandafterthem,richesand
meansofliving.Thereforethepeoplearetobetaught,toabstain

fromviolencetooneanother'sperson,byprivaterevengesfrom
violationofconjugalhonourandfromforciblerapine,andfraudu
lentsurreptionofoneanother'sgoods.Forwhichpurposealsoitis
necessarytheybeshowedtheevilconsequencesoffalsejudgment,
bycorruptioneitherofjudgesorwitnesses,wherebythedistinction
ofproprietyistakenaway,andjusticebecomesofnoeffect:all
whichthingsareintimatedinthesixth,seventh,eighth,andninth
commandments.
13.Lastly,theyaretobetaught,thatnotonlytheunjustfacts,Andtodoall
butthedesignsandintentionstodothem,(thoughbyaccidentthissincerely
hindered,)areinjusticewhichconsistethinthepravity[depravity]fromthe
ofthewill,aswellasintheirregularityoftheact.Andthisistheheart.
intentionofthetenthcommandment,andthesumofthesecond
tablewhichisreducedalltothisonecommandmentofmutual
charity,thoushaltlovethyneighbourasthyselfasthesumofthefirst
tableisreducedtotheloveofGodwhomtheyhadthennewly
receivedastheirking.
14.Asforthemeans,andconduits,bywhichthepeoplemayTheuseof
receivethisinstruction,wearetosearch,bywhatmeanssomanyuniversities.
opinions,contrarytothepeaceofmankind,uponweakandfalse
principles,haveneverthelessbeensodeeplyrootedinthem.Imean
those,whichIhaveintheprecedentchapterspecified:asthatmen
shalljudgeofwhatislawfulandunlawful,notbythelawitself,but
bytheirownconsciencesthatistosay,bytheirownprivatejudg
ments:thatsubjectssininobeyingthecommandsofthecommon
wealth,unlesstheythemselveshavefirstjudgedthemtobelawful:
thattheirproprietyintheirrichesissuch,astoexcludethedo
minion,whichthecommonwealthhathoverthesame:thatitis
lawfulforsubjectstokillsuch,astheycalltyrants:thatthesovereign
powermaybedivided,andthelikewhichcometobeinstilledinto
thepeoplebythismeans.Theywhomnecessity,orcovetousness
keepethattentontheirtrades,andlabourandthey,ontheother
side,whomsuperfluity,orslothcarriethaftertheirsensual
pleasures,(whichtwosortsofmentakeupthegreatestpartof
mankind,)beingdivertedfromthedeepmeditation,whichthe
learningoftruth,notonlyinthematterofnaturaljustice,butalso
ofallothersciencesnecessarilyrequireth,receivethenotionsof
theirduty,chieflyfromdivinesinthepulpit,andpartlyfromsuch
oftheirneighboursorfamiliaracquaintance,ashavingthefacultyof

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discoursingreadily,andplausibly,seemwiserandbetterlearnedin
casesoflaw,andconscience,thanthemselves.Andthedivines,and
[180]suchothersasmakeshowoflearning,derivetheirknowledgefrom
theuniversities,andfromtheschoolsoflaw,orfromthebooks,
whichbymen,eminentinthoseschoolsanduniversities,havebeen
published.Itisthereforemanifest,thattheinstructionofthe
people,dependethwholly,ontherightteachingofyouthinthe
universities.Butarenot(maysomemansay)theuniversitiesof
Englandlearnedenoughalreadytodothat?orisityou,willunder
taketoteachtheuniversities?Hardquestions.Yettothefirst,I
doubtnottoanswerthattilltowardsthelatterendofHenrythe
Eighth,thepowerofthePope,wasalwaysupheldagainstthepower
ofthecommonwealth,principallybytheuniversitiesandthatthe
doctrinesmaintainedbysomanypreachers,againstthesovereign
poweroftheking,andbysomanylawyers,andothers,thathad
theireducationthere,isasufficientargument,thatthoughthe
universitieswerenotauthorsofthosefalsedoctrines,yettheyknew
nothowtoplantthetrue.Forinsuchacontradictionofopinions,it
ismostcertain,thattheyhavenotbeensufficientlyinstructedand
'tisnowonder,iftheyyetretainarelishofthatsubtleliquor,
wherewiththeywerefirstseasoned,againstthecivilauthority.But
tothelatterquestion,itisnotfit,norneedfulformetosayeither
aye,orno:foranymanthatseeswhatIamdoing,mayeasily
perceivewhatIthink.
15.Thesafetyofthepeople,requirethfurther,fromhim,or
themthathavethesovereignpower,thatjusticebeequallyadmin
isteredtoalldegreesofpeoplethatis,thataswelltherich,and
mighty,aspoorandobscurepersons,mayberightedoftheinjuries
donethemsoasthegreat,mayhavenogreaterhopeofimpunity,
whentheydoviolence,dishonour,oranyinjurytothemeanersort,
thanwhenoneofthese,doestheliketooneofthem:forinthis
consistethequitytowhich,asbeingapreceptofthelawofnature,
asovereignisasmuchsubject,asanyofthemeanestofhispeople.
Allbreachesofthelaw,areoffencesagainstthecommonwealth:but
therebesome,thatarealsoagainstprivatepersons.Thosethat
concernthecommonwealthonly,maywithoutbreachofequitybe
pardonedforeverymanmaypardonwhatisdoneagainsthimself,
accordingtohisowndiscretion.Butanoffenceagainstaprivate
man,cannotinequitybepardoned,withouttheconsentofhimthat
isinjuredorreasonablesatisfaction.

16.Theinequalityofsubjects,proceedethfromtheactsofsov
ereignpowerandthereforehasnomoreplaceinthepresenceofthe
sovereignthatistosay,inacourtofjustice,thantheinequality
betweenkings,andtheirsubjects,inthepresenceoftheKingof
kings.Thehonourofgreatpersons,istobevaluedfortheirbenefi
cence,andtheaidstheygivetomenofinferiorrank,ornotatall.
Andtheviolences,oppressions,andinjuriestheydo,arenotextenu
ated,butaggravatedbythegreatnessoftheirpersonsbecausethey
haveleastneedtocommitthem.Theconsequencesofthispartiality
towardsthegreat,proceedinthismanner.Impunitymakethinso
lenceinsolence,hatredandhatred,anendeavourtopulldownall
oppressingandcontumeliousgreatness,thoughwiththeruinofthe
commonwealth.
17.Toequaljustice,appertainethalsotheequalimpositionof[181]
taxestheequalitywhereofdependethnotontheequalityofriches,Equaltaxes.
butontheequalityofthedebt,thateverymanowethtothecom
monwealthforhisdefence.Itisnotenough,foramantolabourfor
themaintenanceofhislifebutalsotofight,(ifneedbe,)forthe
securingofhislabour.TheymusteitherdoastheJewsdidafter
theirreturnfromcaptivity,inreedifyingthetemple,buildwithone
hand,andholdtheswordintheotherorelsetheymusthireothers
tofightforthem.Fortheimpositions,thatarelaidonthepeopleby
thesovereignpower,arenothingelsebutthewages,duetothem
thatholdthepublicsword,todefendprivatemenintheexerciseof
theirseveraltrades,andcallings.Seeingthenthebenefitthatevery
onereceiveththereby,istheenjoymentoflife,whichisequallydear
topoor,andrichthedebtwhichapoormanoweththemthat
defendhislife,isthesamewhicharichmanowethforthedefence
ofhissavingthattherich,whohavetheserviceofthepoor,maybe
debtorsnotonlyfortheirownpersons,butformanymore.Which
considered,theequalityofimposition,consistethratherinthe
equalityofthatwhichisconsumed,thanoftherichesofthepersons
thatconsumethesame.Forwhatreasonisthere,thathewhich
labourethmuch,andsparingthefruitsofhislabour,consumeth
little,shouldbemorecharged,thanhethatlivingidly,gettethlittle,
andspendethallhegetsseeingtheonehathnomoreprotection
fromthecommonwealth,thantheother?Butwhentheimpositions,
arelaiduponthosethingswhichmenconsume,everymanpayeth
equallyforwhatheuseth:noristhecommonwealthdefraudedby
theluxuriouswasteofprivatemen.

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Public18.Andwhereasmanymen,byaccidentinevitable,becomeun
charity.abletomaintainthemselvesbytheirlabourtheyoughtnottobeleft
tothecharityofprivatepersonsbuttobeprovidedfor,(asfarforth
asthenecessitiesofnaturerequire,)bythelawsofthecommon
wealth.Forasitisuncharitablenessinanyman,toneglectthe
impotentsoitisinthesovereignofacommonwealth,toexpose
themtothehazardofsuchuncertaincharity.
Preventionof19.Butforsuchashavestrongbodies,thecaseisotherwise:they
idleness.aretobeforcedtoworkandtoavoidtheexcuseofnotfinding
employment,thereoughttobesuchlaws,asmayencourageall
mannerofartsasnavigation,agriculture,fishing,andallmannerof
manufacturethatrequireslabour.Themultitudeofpoor,andyet
strongpeoplestillincreasing,theyaretobetransplantedinto
countriesnotsufficientlyinhabited:wherenevertheless,theyarenot
toexterminatethosetheyfindtherebutconstrainthemtoinhabit
closertogether,andnottorangeagreatdealofground,tosnatch
whattheyfindbuttocourteachlittleplotwithartandlabour,to
givethemtheirsustenanceindueseason.Andwhenalltheworldis
overchargedwithinhabitants,thenthelastremedyofalliswar
whichprovidethforeveryman,byvictory,ordeath.
Goodlaws,20.Tothecareofthesovereign,belongeththemakingofgood
what.laws.Butwhatisagoodlaw?Byagoodlaw,Imeannotajustlaw:
[182]fornolawcanbeunjust.Thelawismadebythesovereignpower,
andallthatisdonebysuchpower,iswarranted,andownedbyevery
oneofthepeopleandthatwhicheverymanwillhaveso,noman
cansayisunjust.Itisinthelawsofacommonwealth,asinthelaws
ofgaming:whatsoeverthegamestersallagreeon,isinjusticetonone
ofthem.Agoodlawisthat,whichisneedful,forthegoodofthe
people,andwithalperspicuous.
Suchasare21.Fortheuseoflaws,(whicharebutrulesauthorized)isnotto
necessary.bindthepeoplefromallvoluntaryactionsbuttodirectandkeep
theminsuchamotion,asnottohurtthemselvesbytheirown
impetuousdesires,rashnessorindiscretionashedgesareset,notto
stoptravellers,buttokeepthemintheirway.Andthereforealaw
thatisnotneedful,havingnotthetrueendofalaw,isnotgood.A
lawmaybeconceivedtobegood,whenitisforthebenefitofthe
sovereignthoughitbenotnecessaryforthepeoplebutitisnotso.
Forthegoodofthesovereignandpeople,cannotbeseparated.Itis
aweaksovereign,thathasweaksubjectsandaweakpeople,whose
sovereignwantethpowertorulethemathiswill.Unnecessarylaws

arenotgoodlawsbuttrapsformoney:whichwheretherightof
sovereignpowerisacknowledgedaresuperfluousandwhereitis
notacknowledged,unsufficienttodefendthepeople.
22.Theperspicuity,consistethnotsomuchinthewordsoftheSuchasare
lawitself,asinadeclarationofthecauses,andmotives,forwhichitperspicuous.
wasmade.Thatisit,thatshowsusthemeaningofthelegislatorand
themeaningofthelegislatorknown,thelawismoreeasilyunder
stoodbyfew,thanmanywords.Forallwords,aresubjecttoambi
guityandthereforemultiplicationofwordsinthebodyofthelaw,
ismultiplicationofambiguity:besidesitseemstoimply,(bytoo
muchdiligence,)thatwhosoevercanevadethewords,iswithoutthe
compassofthelaw.Andthisisacauseofmanyunnecessarypro
cesses.ForwhenIconsiderhowshortwerethelawsofancient
timesandhowtheygrewbydegreesstilllongermethinksIseea
contentionbetweenthepenners,andpleadersofthelawtheformer
seekingtocircumscribethelatterandthelattertoevadetheir
circumscriptionsandthatthepleadershavegotthevictory.It
belongeththereforetotheofficeofalegislator,(suchasisinall
commonwealthsthesupremerepresentative,beitoneman,oran
assembly,)tomakethereasonperspicuous,whythelawwasmade
andthebodyofthelawitself,asshort,butinasproper,and
significantterms,asmaybe.
23.Itbelongethalsototheofficeofthesovereign,tomakearightPunishments.
applicationofpunishments,andrewards.Andseeingtheendof
punishingisnotrevenge,anddischargeofcholerbutcorrection,
eitheroftheoffender,orofothersbyhisexampletheseverest
punishmentsaretobeinflictedforthosecrimes,thatareofmost
dangertothepublicsuchasarethosewhichproceedfrommaliceto
thegovernmentestablishedthosethatspringfromcontemptof
justicethosethatprovokeindignationinthemultitudeandthose,
whichunpunished,seemauthorized,aswhentheyarecommitted[183]
bysons,servants,orfavouritesofmeninauthority:forindignation
carriethmen,notonlyagainsttheactors,andauthorsofinjustice
butagainstallpowerthatislikelytoprotectthemasinthecaseof
Tarquinwhenfortheinsolentactofoneofhissons,hewasdriven
outofRome,andthemonarchyitselfdissolved.Butcrimesof
infirmitysuchasarethosewhichproceedfromgreatprovocation,
fromgreatfear,greatneed,orfromignorancewhetherthefactbea
greatcrime,ornot,thereisplacemanytimesforlenity,without
prejudicetothecommonwealthandlenity,whenthereissuchplace

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forit,isrequiredbythelawofnature.Thepunishmentofthe
leadersandteachersinacommotionnotthepoorseducedpeople,
whentheyarepunished,canprofitthecommonwealthbytheir
example.Tobeseveretothepeople,istopunishthatignorance,
whichmayingreatpartbeimputedtothesovereign,whosefaultit
was,theywerenobetterinstructed.
Rewards.24.Inlikemanneritbelongethtotheoffice,anddutyofthe
sovereign,toapplyhisrewardsalwaysso,astheremayarisefrom
thembenefittothecommonwealth:whereinconsisteththeiruse,
andendandisthendone,whentheythathavewellservedthe
commonwealth,arewithaslittleexpenseofthecommontreasure,as
ispossible,sowellrecompensed,asotherstherebymaybeencour
aged,bothtoservethesameasfaithfullyastheycan,andtostudy
theartsbywhichtheymaybeenabledtodoitbetter.Tobuywith
money,orpreferment,fromapopularambitioussubject,tobe
quiet,anddesistfrommakingillimpressionsinthemindsofthe
people,hasnothingofthenatureofreward(whichisordainednot
fordisservice,butforservicepast)norasignofgratitude,butof
fear:nordoesittendtothebenefit,buttothedamageofthepublic.
Itisacontentionwithambition,likethatofHerculeswiththe
monsterHydra,whichhavingmanyheads,foreveryonethatwas
vanquished,theregrewupthree.Forinlikemanner,whenthe
stubbornnessofonepopularman,isovercomewithreward,there
arisemanymore(bytheexample)thatdothesamemischief,inhope
oflikebenefit:andasallsortsofmanufacture,soalsomalice
increasethbybeingvendible.Andthoughsometimesacivilwar,
maybedeferred,bysuchwaysasthat,yetthedangergrowsstillthe
greater,andthepublicruinmoreassured.Itisthereforeagainstthe
dutyofthesovereign,towhomthepublicsafetyiscommitted,to
rewardthosethataspiretogreatnessbydisturbingthepeaceoftheir
country,andnotrathertoopposethebeginningsofsuchmen,with
alittledanger,thanafteralongertimewithgreater.
Counsellors.25.Anotherbusinessofthesovereign,istochoosegoodcounsel
lorsImeansuch,whoseadviceheistotakeinthegovernmentof
thecommonwealth.Forthiswordcounsel,consilium,corrupted
fromconsidium,isofalargesignification,andcomprehendethall
assembliesofmenthatsittogether,notonlytodeliberatewhatisto
bedonehereafter,butalsotojudgeoffactspast,andoflawforthe
[184]present.Itakeithereinthefirstsenseonly:andinthissense,there
isnochoiceofcounsel,neitherinademocracy,noraristocracy

becausethepersonscounsellingaremembersofthepersoncoun
selled.Thechoiceofcounsellorsthereforeispropertomonarchyin
which,thesovereignthatendeavourethnottomakechoiceofthose,
thatineverykindarethemostable,dischargethnothisofficeashe
oughttodo.Themostablecounsellors,aretheythathaveleasthope
ofbenefitbygivingevilcounsel,andmostknowledgeofthosethings
thatconducetothepeace,anddefenceofthecommonwealth.Itisa
hardmattertoknowwhoexpectethbenefitfrompublictroubles
butthesignsthatguidetoajustsuspicion,isthesoothingofthe
peopleintheirunreasonable,orirremediablegrievances,bymen
whoseestatesarenotsufficienttodischargetheiraccustomedex
penses,andmayeasilybeobservedbyanyonewhomitconcernsto
knowit.Buttoknow,whohasmostknowledgeofthepublicaffairs,
isyetharderandtheythatknowthem,needthemagreatdealthe
less.Fortoknow,whoknowstherulesalmostofanyart,isagreat
degreeoftheknowledgeofthesameartbecausenomancanbe
assuredofthetruthofanother'srules,buthethatisfirsttaughtto
understandthem.Butthebestsignsofknowledgeofanyart,are,
muchconversinginit,andconstantgoodeffectsofit.Goodcounsel
comesnotbylot,norbyinheritanceandthereforethereisnomore
reasontoexpectgoodadvicefromtherich,ornoble,inmatterof
state,thanindelineatingthedimensionsofafortressunlesswe
shallthinkthereneedsnomethodinthestudyofthepolitics,(as
theredoesinthestudyofgeometry,)butonlytobelookerson
whichisnotso.Forthepoliticsistheharderstudyofthetwo.
WhereasinthesepartsofEurope,ithathbeentakenforarightof
certainpersons,tohaveplaceinthehighestcouncilofstateby
inheritanceitisderivedfromtheconquestsoftheancient
Germanswhereinmanyabsolutelordsjoiningtogethertoconquer
othernations,wouldnotenterintotheconfederacy,withoutsuch
privileges,asmightbemarksofdifferenceintimefollowing,be
tweentheirposterity,andtheposterityoftheirsubjectswhich
privilegesbeinginconsistentwiththesovereignpower,bythe
favourofthesovereign,theymayseemtokeepbutcontendingfor
themastheirright,theymustneedsbydegreesletthemgo,and
haveatlastnofurtherhonour,thanadherethnaturallytotheir
abilities.
26.Andhowablesoeverbethecounsellorsinanyaffair,the
benefitoftheircounselisgreater,whentheygiveeveryonehis
advice,andthereasonsofitapart,thanwhentheydoitinan

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assembly,bywayoforationsandwhentheyhavepremeditated,
thanwhentheyspeakonthesuddenbothbecausetheyhavemore
time,tosurveytheconsequencesofactionandarelesssubjecttobe
carriedawaytocontradiction,thoughenvy,emulation,orother
passionsarisingfromthedifferenceofopinion.
27.Thebestcounsel,inthosethingsthatconcernnotother
[185]nations,butonlytheease,andbenefitthesubjectsmayenjoy,by
lawsthatlookonlyinward,istobetakenfromthegeneralinfor
mations,andcomplaintsofthepeopleofeachprovince,whoarebest
acquaintedwiththeirownwants,andoughttherefore,whenthey
demandnothinginderogationoftheessentialrightsofsovereignty,
tobediligentlytakennoticeof.Forwithoutthoseessential
rights,(asIhaveoftenbeforesaid,)thecommonwealthcannotatall
subsist.
Commanders.28.Acommanderofanarmyinchief,ifhebenotpopular,shall
notbebeloved,norfearedasheoughttobebyhisarmyand
consequently,cannotperformthatofficewithgoodsuccess.He
mustthereforebeindustrious,valiant,affable,liberalandfortunate,
thathemaygainanopinionbothofsufficiency,andoflovinghis
soldiers.Thisispopularity,'andbreedsinthesoldiersbothdesire,
andcourage,torecommendthemselvestohisfavourandprotects
theseverityofthegeneral,inpunishing(whenneedis)themu
tinous,ornegligentsoldiers.Butthisloveofsoldiers,(ifcautionbe
notgivenofthecommander'sfidelity,)isadangerousthingto
sovereignpowerespeciallywhenitisinthehandsofanassembly
notpopular.Itbelongeththereforetothesafetyofthepeople,both
thattheybegoodconductors,andfaithfulsubjects,towhomthe
sovereigncommitshisarmies.
29.Butwhenthesovereignhimselfispopularthatis,rever
encedandbelovedofhispeople,thereisnodangeratallfromthe
popularityofasubject.Forsoldiersareneversogenerallyunjust,as
tosidewiththeircaptainthoughtheylovehim,againsttheirsover
eign,whentheylovenotonlyhisperson,butalsohiscause.And
thereforethose,whobyviolencehaveatanytimesuppressedthe
poweroftheirlawfulsovereign,beforetheycouldsettlethemselves
inhisplace,havebeenalwaysputtothetroubleofcontrivingtheir
titles,tosavethepeoplefromtheshameofreceivingthem.Tohave
aknownrighttosovereignpower,issopopularaquality,ashethat
hasitneedsnomore,forhisownpart,toturntheheartsofhis

subjectstohim,butthattheyseehimableabsolutelytogovernhis
ownfamily:nor,onthepartofhisenemies,butadisbandingoftheir
armies.Forthegreatestandmostactivepartofmankind,hasnever
hithertobeenwellcontentedwiththepresent.
30.Concerningtheofficesofonesovereigntoanother,whichare
comprehendedinthatlaw,whichiscommonlycalledthelawof
nations,Ineednotsayanythinginthisplacebecausethelawof
nations,andthelawofnature,isthesamething.Andeverysover
eignhaththesameright,inprocuringthesafetyofhispeople,that
anyparticularmancanhave,inprocuringhisownsafety.Andthe
samelaw,thatdictatethtomenthathavenocivilgovernment,what
theyoughttodo,andwhattoavoidinregardofoneanother,
dictateththesametocommonwealths,thatis,totheconsciencesof
sovereignprincesandsovereignassembliestherebeingnocourtof
naturaljustice,butintheconscienceonlywherenotman,butGod
reignethwhoselaws,(suchofthemasobligeallmankind,)inre
spectofGod,asheistheauthorofnature,arenaturalandinrespect[186]
ofthesameGod,asheisKingofkings,arelaws.Butofthekingdom
ofGod,asKingofkings,andasKingalsoofapeculiarpeople,I
shallspeakintherestofthisdiscourse.
ChapterXXXI
OftheKingdomofGodByNature
1.Thattheconditionofmerenature,thatistosay,ofabsoluteThescopeof
liberty,suchasistheirs,thatneitheraresovereigns,norsubjects,isthefollowing
anarchy,andtheconditionofwar:thattheprecepts,bywhichmenchapters.
areguidedtoavoidthatcondition,arethelawsofnature:thata
commonwealth,withoutsovereignpower,isbutawordwithout
substance,andcannotstand:thatsubjectsowetosovereigns,simple
obedience,inallthings,whereintheirobedienceisnotrepugnantto
thelawsofGod,Ihavesufficientlyproved,inthatwhichIhave
alreadywritten.Therewantsonly,fortheentireknowledgeofcivil
duty,toknowwhatarethoselawsofGod.Forwithoutthat,aman
knowsnot,whenheiscommandedanythingbythecivilpower,
whetheritbecontrarytothelawofGod,ornot:andso,eitherbytoo

Page236

muchcivilobedience,offendstheDivineMajesty,orthroughfear
ofoffendingGod,transgressesthecommandmentsofthecommon
wealth.Toavoidboththeserocks,itisnecessarytoknowwhatare
thelawsdivine.Andseeingtheknowledgeofalllaw,dependethon
theknowledgeofthesovereignpowerIshallsaysomethinginthat
whichfolloweth,oftheKINGDOMOFGOD.
Whoare2.Godisking,lettheearthrejoice,saiththepsalmist(97.1).And
subjectsintheagain,(Psalm99.1)Godiskingthoughthenationsbeangryandhe
kingdomofthatsittethonthecherubims,thoughtheearthbemoved.Whethermen
God.willornot,theymustbesubjectalwaystothedivinepower.By
denyingtheexistence,orprovidenceofGod,menmayshakeoff
theirease,butnottheiryoke.ButtocallthispowerofGod,which
extendethitselfnotonlytoman,butalsotobeasts,andplants,and
bodiesinanimate,bythenameofkingdom,isbutametaphoricaluse
oftheword.Forheonlyisproperlysaidtoreign,thatgovernshis
subjects,byhisword,andbypromiseofrewardstothosethatobey
it,andbythreateningthemwithpunishmentthatobeyitnot.
SubjectsthereforeinthekingdomofGod,arenotbodiesinanimate,
norcreaturesirrationalbecausetheyunderstandnopreceptsas
his:noratheistsnortheythatbelievenotthatGodhasanycareof
theactionsofmankindbecausetheyacknowledgenowordforhis,
norhavehopeofhisrewardsorfearofhisthreatenings.They
thereforethatbelievethereisaGodthatgoverneththeworld,and
[187]hathgivenprecepts,andpropoundedrewards,andpunishmentsto
mankind,areGod'ssubjectsalltherest,aretobeunderstoodas
enemies.
Athreefold3.Torulebywords,requiresthatsuchwordsbemanifestly
wordofGod,madeknownforelsetheyarenolaws:fortothenatureoflaws
reason,belongethasufficient,andclearpromulgation,suchasmaytake
revelation,awaytheexcuseofignorancewhichinthelawsofmenisbutofone
prophecy.onlykind,andthatis,proclamation,orpromulgationbythevoiceof
man.ButGoddeclarethhislawsthreewaysbythedictatesof
naturalreason,byrevelation,andbythevoiceofsomeman,towhom
bytheoperationofmiracles,heprocurethcreditwiththerest.From
hencetherearisethatriplewordofGod,rational,sensible,and
prophetic:towhichcorrespondethatriplehearingrightreason,sense
supernatural,andfaith.Asforsensesupernatural,whichconsisteth
inrevelation,orinspiration,therehavenotbeenanyuniversallaws
sogiven,becauseGodspeakethnotinthatmanner,buttoparticular
persons,andtodiversmendiversthings.

4.FromthedifferencebetweentheothertwokindsofGod'sAtwofold
word,rational,andprophetic,theremaybeattributedtoGod,akingdomof
twofoldkingdom,natural,andprophetic:natural,whereinheGod,natural
governethasmanyofmankindasacknowledgehisprovidence,byand
thenaturaldictatesofrightreasonandprophetic,whereinhavingprophetic.
chosenoutonepeculiarnation(theJews)forhissubjects,he
governedthem,andnonebutthem,notonlybynaturalreason,but
bypositivelaws,whichhegavethembythemouthsofhisholy
prophets.OfthenaturalkingdomofGodIintendtospeakinthis
chapter.
5.Therightofnature,wherebyGodreignethovermen,andTherightof
punisheththosethatbreakhislaws,istobederived,notfromhisGod's
creatingthem,asifherequiredobedienceasofgratitudeforhissovereigntyis
benefitsbutfromhisirresistiblepower.Ihaveformerlyshown,howderivedfrom
thesovereignrightarisethfrompact:toshowhowthesamerighthis
mayarisefromnature,requiresnomore,buttoshowinwhatcaseomnipotence.
itisnevertakenaway.Seeingallmenbynaturehadrighttoall
things,theyhadrighteveryonetoreignoveralltherest.But
becausethisrightcouldnotbeobtainedbyforce,itconcernedthe
safetyofeveryone,layingbythatright,tosetupmen(withsover
eignauthority)bycommonconsent,toruleanddefendthem:
whereasiftherehadbeenanymanofpowerirresistibletherehad
beennoreason,whyheshouldnotbythatpowerhaveruled,and
defendedbothhimself,andthem,accordingtohisowndiscretion.
Tothosethereforewhosepowerisirresistible,thedominionofall
menadherethnaturallybytheirexcellenceofpowerandconse
quentlyitisfromthatpower,thatthekingdomovermen,andthe
rightofafflictingmenathispleasure,belongethnaturallytoGod
AlmightynotasCreator,andgraciousbutasomnipotent.And
thoughpunishmentbedueforsinonly,becausebythatwordis
understoodafflictionforsinyettherightofafflicting,isnotalways
derivedfrommen'ssin,butfromGod'spower.[188]
6.Thisquestion,whyevilmenoftenprosper,andgoodmensufferSinnotthe
adversity,hasbeenmuchdisputedbytheancient,andisthesamecauseflail
withthisofours,bywhatrightGoddispenseththeprosperitiesandaffliction.
adversitiesofthislifeandisofthatdifficulty,asithathshakenthe
faith,notonlyofthevulgar,butofphilosophers,andwhichismore,
oftheSaints,concerningtheDivineProvidence.Howgood,saith
David,(Psalm73.1,2,3)istheGodofIsraeltothosethatareupright
inheartandyetmyfeetwerealmostgone,mytreadingshadwellnigh

Page238

sliptforIwasgrievedatthewicked,whenIsawtheungodlyinsuch
prosperity.AndJob,howearnestlydoesheexpostulatewithGod,for
themanyafflictionshesuffered,notwithstandinghisrighteousness?
ThisquestioninthecaseofJob,isdecidedbyGodhimself,notby
argumentsderivedfromJob'ssin,buthisownpower.Forwhereas
thefriendsofJobdrewtheirargumentsfromhisafflictiontohissin,
andhedefendedhimselfbytheconscienceofhisinnocence,God
himselftakethupthematter,andhavingjustifiedtheafflictionby
argumentsdrawnfromhispower,suchasthis,(Job38.4)Where
wastthou,whenIlaidthefoundationsoftheearth?andthelike,both
approvedJob'sinnocence,andreprovedtheerroneousdoctrineof
hisfriends.Conformabletothisdoctrineisthesentenceofour
Saviour,concerningthemanthatwasbornblind,inthesewords,
Neitherhaththismansinned,norhisfathersbutthattheworksofGod
mightbemademanifestinhim.Andthoughitbesaid,thatdeath
enteredintotheworldbysin,(bywhichismeant,thatifAdamhad
neversinned,hehadneverdied,thatis,neversufferedanysepar
ationofhissoulfromhisbody,)itfollowsnotthence,thatGod
couldnotjustlyhaveafflictedhim,thoughhehadnotsinned,aswell
asheafflictethotherlivingcreatures,thatcannotsin.*
Divinelaws.7.HavingspokenoftherightofGod'ssovereignty,asgrounded
onlyonnaturewearetoconsidernext,whataretheDivinelaws,or
dictatesofnaturalreasonwhichlawsconcerneitherthenatural
dutiesofonemantoanother,orthehonournaturallyduetoour
DivineSovereign.Thefirstarethesamelawsofnature,ofwhichI
havespokenalreadyinthefourteenthandfifteenthchaptersofthis
treatisenamely,equity,justice,mercy,humility,andtherestofthe
moralvirtues.Itremaineththereforethatweconsider,whatpre
ceptsaredictatedtomen,bytheirnaturalreasononly,withoutother
wordofGod,touchingthehonourandworshipoftheDivine
Majesty.
Honourand8.Honourconsistethintheinwardthought,andopinionofthe
worshipwhat.power,andgoodnessofanother:andthereforetohonourGod,isto
thinkashighlyofhispowerandgoodness,asispossible.Andofthat
opinion,theexternalsignsappearinginthewords,andactionsof
men,arecalledworshipwhichisonepartofthatwhichtheLatins
understandbythewordcultus.Forcultussignifiethproperly,and
constantly,thatlabourwhichamanbestowsonanything,witha
purposetomakebenefitbyit.Nowthosethingswhereofwemake
[189]benefit,areeithersubjecttous,andtheprofittheyyield,followeth

thelabourwebestowuponthem,asanaturaleffectortheyarenot
subjecttous,butanswerourlabour,accordingtotheirownwills.In
thefirstsensethelabourbestowedontheearth,iscalledcultureand
theeducationofchildren,acultureoftheirminds.Inthesecond
sense,wheremen'swillsaretobewroughttoourpurpose,notby
force,butbycomplaisance,itsignifiethasmuchascourting,thatis,
awinningoffavourbygoodofficesasbypraises,byacknowledging
theirpower,andbywhatsoeverispleasingtothemfromwhomwe
lookforanybenefit.Andthisisproperlyworship:inwhichsense
Publicola,isunderstoodforaworshipperofthepeopleandcultus
Dei,fortheworshipofGod.
9.Frominternalhonour,consistingintheopinionofpowerandSeveralsigns
goodness,arisethreepassionslove,whichhathreferencetogoodofhonour.
nessandhope,andfear,thatrelatetopower:andthreepartsof
externalworshippraise,magnifying,andblessing:thesubjectof
praise,beinggoodnessthesubjectofmagnifyingandblessing,
beingpower,andtheeffectthereoffelicity.Praise,andmagnifying
aresignifiedbothbywords,andactions:bywords,whenwesaya
manisgood,orgreat:byactions,whenwethankhimforhisbounty,
andobeyhispower.Theopinionofthehappinessofanother,can
onlybeexpressedbywords.
10.Therebesomesignsofhonour,(bothinattributesandacWorship
tions,)thatbenaturallysoasamongstattributes,good,just,liberal,naturaland
andthelikeandamongstactions,prayers,thanks,andobedience.arbitrary.
Othersaresobyinstitution,orcustomofmenandinsometimes
andplacesarehonourableinothers,dishonourableinothers,indif
ferent:suchasarethegesturesinsalutation,prayer,andthanksgiv
ing,indifferenttimesandplaces,differentlyused.Theformeris
naturalthelatterarbitraryworship.
11.Andofarbitraryworship,therebetwodifferences:forsomeWorship
timesitisacommanded,sometimesavoluntaryworship:comcommanded
manded,whenitissuchasherequireth,whoisworshipped:free,andfree.
whenitissuchastheworshipperthinksfit.Whenitiscommanded,
notthewords,orgesture,buttheobedienceistheworship.But
whenfree,theworshipconsistsintheopinionofthebeholders:for
iftothemthewords,oractionsbywhichweintendhonour,seem
ridiculous,andtendingtocontumelytheyarenoworshipbecause
nosignsofhonourandnosignsofhonour,becauseasignisnota
signtohimthatgivethit,buttohimtowhomitismadethatis,to
thespectator.

Page240

Worship12.Again,thereisapublic,andaprivateworship.Public,isthe
publicandworshipthatacommonwealthperformeth,asoneperson.Private,is
private.thatwhichaprivatepersonexhibiteth.Public,inrespectofthe
wholecommonwealth,isfreebutinrespectofparticularmen,itis
notso.Private,isinsecretfreebutinthesightofthemultitude,it
isneverwithoutsomerestraint,eitherfromthelaws,orfromthe
opinionofmenwhichiscontrarytothenatureofliberty.
Theendof13.Theendofworshipamongstmen,ispower.Forwhereaman
worship.seethanotherworshipped,hesupposethhimpowerful,andisthe
[190]readiertoobeyhimwhichmakeshispowergreater.ButGodhasno
ends:theworshipwedohim,proceedsfromourduty,andisdi
rectedaccordingtoourcapacity,bythoserulesofhonour,that
reasondictatethtobedonebytheweaktothemorepotentmen,in
hopeofbenefit,forfearofdamage,orinthankfulnessforgood
alreadyreceivedfromthem.
Attributesof14.ThatwemayknowwhatworshipofGodistaughtusby
divinethelightofnature,Iwillbeginwithhisattributes.Where,first,
honour.itismanifest,weoughttoattributetohimexistence:fornoman
canhavethewilltohonourthat,whichhethinksnottohaveany
being.
15.Secondly,thatthosephilosophers,whosaidtheworld,orthe
souloftheworldwasGod,spakeunworthilyofhimanddeniedhis
existence:forbyGod,isunderstoodthecauseoftheworldandto
saytheworldisGod,istosaythereisnocauseofit,thatis,noGod.
16.Thirdly,tosaytheworldwasnotcreated,buteternal,(seeing
thatwhichiseternalhasnocause,)istodenythereisaGod.
17.Fourthly,thattheywhoattributing(astheythink)easeto
God,takefromhimthecareofmankindtakefromhimhishonour:
forittakesawaymen'slove,andfearofhimwhichistherootof
honour.*
18.Fifthly,inthosethingsthatsignifygreatness,andpowerto
sayheisfinite,isnottohonourhim:foritisnotasignofthewillto
honourGod,toattributetohimlessthanwecanandfinite,isless
thanwecanbecausetofinite,itiseasytoaddmore.
19.Thereforetoattributefiguretohim,isnothonourforall
figureisfinite:
20.Nortosayweconceive,andimagine,orhaveanideaofhim,
inourmind:forwhatsoeverweconceiveisfinite:
21.Nortoattributetohimparts,ortotalitywhicharetheat
tributesonlyofthingsfinite:

22.Nortosayheisinthis,orthatplace:forwhatsoeverisin
place,isbounded,andfinite:
23.Northatheismoved,orresteth:forboththeseattributes
ascribetohimplace:
24.NorthattherebemoreGodsthanonebecauseitimplies
themallfinite:fortherecannotbemorethanoneinfinite:
25.Nortoascribetohim,(unlessmetaphorically,meaningnot
thepassionbuttheeffect,)passionsthatpartakeofgriefasrepent
ance,anger,mercy:orofwantasappetite,hope,desireorofany
passivefaculty:forpassion,ispowerlimitedbysomewhatelse.
26.AndthereforewhenweascribetoGodawill,itisnottobe
understood,asthatofman,forarationalappetitebutasthepower,
bywhichheeffectetheverything.
27.Likewisewhenweattributetohimsight,andotheractsof
senseasalsoknowledge,andunderstandingwhichinusisnothing
else,butatumultofthemind,raisedbyexternalthingsthatpress
theorganicalpartsofman'sbody:forthereisnosuchthinginGod
andbeingthingsthatdependonnaturalcauses,cannotbeattributed
tohim.
28.HethatwillattributetoGod,nothingbutwhatiswarranted[191]
bynaturalreason,musteitherusesuchnegativeattributes,asinfi
nite,eternal,incomprehensibleorsuperlatives,asmosthigh,most
great,andthelikeorindefinite,asgood,just,holy,creatorandin
suchsense,asifhemeantnottodeclarewhatheis,(forthatwereto
circumscribehimwithinthelimitsofourfancy,)buthowmuchwe
admirehim,andhowreadywewouldbetoobeyhimwhichisasign
ofhumility,andofawilltohonourhimasmuchaswecan:forthere
isbutonenametosignifyourconceptionofhisnature,andthatis,
IAM:andbutonenameofhisrelationtous,andthatis,Godin
whichiscontainedFather,King,andLord.
29.Concerningtheactionsofdivineworship,itisamostgeneralActionsthat
preceptofreason,thattheybesignsoftheintentiontohonourGodaresignsof
suchasare,first,prayers:fornotthecarvers,whentheymadedivine
images,werethoughttomakethemgodsbutthepeoplethatprayedhonour.
tothem.
30.Secondly,thanksgivingwhichdifferethfromprayerindivine
worship,nootherwise,thanthatprayersprecede,andthanks
succeedthebenefittheend,bothoftheoneandtheother,being
toacknowledgeGod,forauthorofallbenefits,aswellpast,as
future.

Page242

31.Thirdly,giftsthatistosay,sacrificesandoblations,(iftheybe
ofthebest,)aresignsofhonour:fortheyarethanksgivings.
32.Fourthly,nottoswearbyanybutGod,isnaturallyasignof
honour:foritisaconfessionthatGodonlyknoweththeheartand
thatnoman'swit,orstrengthcanprotectamanagainstGod's
vengeanceontheperjured.
33.Fifthly,itisapartofrationalworship,tospeakconsiderately
ofGodforitarguesafearofhim,andfear,isaconfessionofhis
power.Hencefolloweth,thatthenameofGodisnottobeused
rashly,andtonopurposeforthatisasmuch,asinvain:anditisto
nopurpose,unlessitbebywayofoath,andbyorderofthe
commonwealth,nomakejudgmentscertainorbetweencommon
wealths,toavoidwar.AndthatdisputingofGod'snatureis
contrarytohishonour:foritissupposed,thatinthisnatural
kingdomofGod,thereisnootherwaytoknowanything,butby
naturalreasonthatis,fromtheprinciplesofnaturalscience
whicharesofarfromteachingusanythingofGod'snature,as
theycannotteachusourownnature,northenatureofthe
smallestcreatureliving.Andtherefore,whenmenoutoftheprin
ciplesofnaturalreason,disputeoftheattributesofGod,theybut
dishonourhim:forintheattributeswhichwegivetoGod,weare
nottoconsiderthesignificationofphilosophicaltruthbutthe
significationofpiousintention,todohimthegreatesthonourweare
able.Fromthewantofwhichconsideration,haveproceededthe
volumesofdisputationaboutthenatureofGod,thattendnotto
hishonour,buttothehonourofourownwits,andlearningand
arenothingelsebutinconsiderate,andvainabusesofhissacred
name.
34.Sixthly,inprayers,thanksgivings,offerings,andsacrifices,itis
adictateofnaturalreason,thattheybeeveryoneinhiskindthe
[192]best,andmostsignificantofhonour.Asforexample,thatprayers,
andthanksgiving,bemadeinwordsandphrases,notsudden,nor
light,norplebeianbutbeautiful,andwellcomposedforelsewedo
notGodasmuchhonouraswecan.Andthereforetheheathensdid
absurdly,toworshipimagesforgods:buttheirdoingitinverse,and
withmusic,bothofvoiceandinstruments,wasreasonable.Alsothat
thebeaststheyofferedinsacrifice,andthegiftstheyoffered,and
theiractionsinworshipping,werefullofsubmission,andcom
memorativeofbenefitsreceived,wasaccordingtoreason,aspro
ceedingfromanintentiontohonourhim.

35.Seventhly,reasondirectethnotonlytoworshipGodinse
cretbutalso,andespecially,inpublic,andinthesightofmen:for
withoutthat,(thatwhichinhonourismostacceptable)theprocur
ingotherstohonourhim,islost.
36.Lastly,obediencetohislaws(thatis,inthiscasetothelaws
ofnature,)isthegreatestworshipofall.Forasobedienceismore
acceptabletoGodthansacrificesoalsotosetlightbyhiscom
mandments,isthegreatestofallcontumelies.Andthesearethelaws
ofthatdivineworship,whichnaturalreasondictatethtoprivate
men.
37. Butseeingacommonwealthisbutoneperson,itoughtalso
toexhibittoGodbutoneworshipwhichthenitdoth,whenit
commandethittobeexhibitedbyprivatemen,publicly.Andthisis
publicworshipthepropertywhereof,istobeuniform:forthose
actionsthataredonedifferently,bydifferentmen,cannotbesaidto
beapublicworship.Andtherefore,wheremanysortsofworshipbe
allowed,proceedingfromthedifferentreligionsofprivatemen,it
cannotbesaidthereisanypublicworship,northatthecommon
wealthisofanyreligionatall.

Public
worship
conststethin
uniformity.

38.Andbecausewords(andconsequentlytheattributesofGod)Allattributes
havetheirsignificationbyagreement,andconstitutionofmen,those
dependonthe
attributesaretobeheldsignificativeofhonour,thatmenintendlawscivil.
shallsobeandwhatsoevermaybedonebythewillsofparticular
men,wherethereisnolawbutreason,maybedonebythewillof
thecommonwealth,bylawscivil.Andbecauseacommonwealth
hathnowill,normakesnolaws,butthosethataremadebythewill
ofhim,orthemthathavethesovereignpoweritfolloweth,that
thoseattributeswhichthesovereignordaineth,intheworshipof
God,forsignsofhonour,oughttobetakenandusedforsuch,by
privatemenintheirpublicworship.
39.Butbecausenotallactionsaresignsbyconstitutionbutnotall
somearenaturallysignsofhonour,othersofcontumely,theselatter
actions.
(whicharethosethatmenareashamedtodointhesightofthem
theyreverence)cannotbemadebyhumanpowerapartofDivine
worshipnortheformer(suchasaredecent,modest,humblebehav
iour)everbeseparatedfromit.Butwhereastherebeaninfinite
numberofactions,andgestures,ofanindifferentnaturesuchof
themasthecommonwealthshallordaintobepubliclyanduniver
sallyinuse,assignsofhonour,andpartofGod'sworship,aretobe
takenandusedforsuchbythesubjects.Andthatwhichissaidinthe
[193]

Page244

Scripture,ItisbettertoobeyGodthanman,hathplaceintheking
domofGodbypact,andnotbynature.
Natural
40.HavingthusbrieflyspokenofthenaturalkingdomofGod,
punishments.andhisnaturallaws,Iwilladdonlytothischapterashortdeclar
ationofhisnaturalpunishments.Thereisnoactionofmaninthis
life,thatisnotthebeginningofsolongachainofconsequences,as
nohuman'sprovidenceishighenough,togiveamanaprospectto
theend.Andinthischain,therearelinkedtogetherbothpleasing
andunpleasingeventsinsuchmanner,ashethatwilldoanything
forhispleasure,mustengagehimselftosufferallthepainsannexed
toitandthesepains,arethenaturalpunishmentsofthoseactions,
whicharethebeginningofmoreharmthangood.Andherebyit
comestopass,thatintemperanceisnaturallypunishedwithdis
easesrashness,withmischancesinjustice,withtheviolenceof
enemiespride,withruincowardice,withoppressionnegligent
governmentofprinces,withrebellionandrebellion,withslaughter.
Forseeingpunishmentsareconsequenttothebreachoflawsnatu
ralpunishmentsmustbenaturallyconsequenttothebreachofthe
lawsofnatureandthereforefollowthemastheirnatural,notarbi
traryeffects.
The
41.Andthusfarconcerningtheconstitution,nature,andrightof
conclusionofsovereignsandconcerningthedutyofsubjects,derivedfromthe
thesecond
principlesofnaturalreason.Andnow,consideringhowdifferent
part.thisdoctrineis,fromthepracticeofthegreatestpartoftheworld,
especiallyofthesewesternparts,thathavereceivedtheirmoral
learningfromRome,andAthensandhowmuchdepthofmoral
philosophyisrequired,inthemthathavetheadministrationofthe
sovereignpowerIamatthepointofbelievingthismylabour,as
useless,asthecommonwealthofPlatoforhealsoisofopinionthat
itisimpossibleforthedisordersofstate,andchangeofgovernments
bycivilwar,evertobetakenaway,tillsovereignsbephilosophers.
ButwhenIconsideragain,thatthescienceofnaturaljustice,isthe
onlysciencenecessaryforsovereigns,andtheirprincipalministers
andthattheyneednotbechargedwiththesciencesmathematical,
(asbyPlatotheyare,)farther,thanbygoodlawstoencouragemen
tothestudyofthemandthatneitherPlato,noranyotherphilo
sopherhitherto,hathputintoorder,andsufficiently,orprobably
provedallthetheoremsofmoraldoctrine,thatmenmaylearn
thereby,bothhowtogovern,andhowtoobeyIrecoversomehope,
thatonetimeorother,thiswritingofmine,mayfallintothehands

ofasovereign,whowillconsiderithimself,(foritisshort,andI
thinkclear,*)withoutthehelpofanyinterested,orenviousinter
preterandbytheexerciseofentiresovereignty,inprotectingthe
publicteachingofit,convertthistruthofspeculation,intothe
utilityofpractice.

Page247

Part3*[195]
OfAChristianCommonwealth
ChapterXXXII
OfthePrinciplesofChristianPolitics
1.Ihavederivedthefightsofsovereignpower,andthedutyofThewordof
subjectshitherto,fromtheprinciplesofnatureonlysuchasexperiGoddelivered
encehasfoundtrue,orconsent(concerningtheuseofwords)hasbyprophetsis
madesothatistosay,fromthenatureofmen,knowntousbythemain
experience,andfromdefinitions(ofsuchwordsasareessentialtoallChristian
politicalreasoning)universallyagreedon.ButinthatIamnexttopolitics.
handle,whichisthenatureandrightsofaCHRISTIANCOMMON
WEALTH,whereoftheredependethmuchuponsupernaturalrevel
ationsofthewillofGodthegroundofmydiscoursemustbe,not
onlythenaturalwordofGod,butalsotheprophetical.
2.Nevertheless,wearenottorenounceoursenses,andexperiYetisnot
encenor(thatwhichistheundoubtedwordofGod)ournaturalnatural
reason.Fortheyarethetalentswhichhehathputintoourhandstoreasontobe
negotiate,tillthecomingagainofourblessedSaviourandthereforerenounced.
nottobefoldedupinthenapkinofanimplicitfaith,butemployed
inthepurchaseofjustice,peace,andtruereligion.Forthoughthere
bemanythingsinGod'swordabovereasonthatistosay,which
cannotbynaturalreasonbeeitherdemonstrated,orconfutedyet
thereisnothingcontrarytoitbutwhenitseemethso,thefaultis
eitherinourunskilfulinterpretation,orerroneousratiocination.
3.Therefore,whenanythingthereinwrittenistoohardforour
examination,wearebiddentocaptivateourunderstandingtothe
wordsandnottolabourinsiftingoutaphilosophicaltruthbylogic,
ofsuchmysteriesasarenotcomprehensible,norfallunderanyrule
ofnaturalscience.ForitisWiththemysteriesofourreligion,aswith
wholesomepillsforthesickwhichswallowedwhole,havethe
virtuetocurebutchewed,areforthemostpartcastupagain
withouteffect.

[196]4.Butbythecaptivityofourunderstanding,isnotmeanta
Whatitistosubmissionoftheintellectualfacultytotheopinionofanyother
captivatethemanbutofthewilltoobedience,whereobedienceisdue.Forsense,
understanding.memory,understanding,reason,andopinionarenotinourpower
tochangebutalways,andnecessarilysuch,asthethingswesee,
hear,andconsidersuggestuntousandthereforearenoteffectsof
ourwill,butourwillofthem.Wethencaptivateourunderstanding
andreason,whenweforbearcontradictionwhenwesospeak,as(by
lawfulauthority)wearecommandedandwhenweliveaccordingly
whichinsum,istrust,andfaithreposedinhimthatspeaketh,
thoughthemindbeincapableofanynotionatallfromthewords
spoken.
HowGod5.WhenGodspeakethtoman,itmustbeeitherimmediatelyor
speakethtobymediationofanotherman,towhomhehadformerlyspokenby
men.himselfimmediately.HowGodspeakethtoamanimmediately,
maybeunderstoodbythosewellenough,towhomhehathso
spokenbuthowthesameshouldbeunderstoodbyanother,ishard,
ifnotimpossibletoknow.Forifamanpretend*tome,thatGod
hathspokentohimsupernaturallyandimmediately,andImake
doubtofit,Icannoteasilyperceivewhatargumenthecanproduce,
toobligemetobelieveit.Itistrue,thatifhebemysovereign,he
mayobligemetoobedience,so,asnotbyactorwordtodeclareI
believehimnotbutnottothinkanyotherwisethanmyreason
persuadesme.Butifonethathathnotsuchauthorityoverme,
shouldpretendthesame,thereisnothingthatexactetheitherbelief,
orobedience.
6.FortosaythatGodhathspokentohimintheHolyScripture,
isnottosayGodhathspokentohimimmediately,butbymediation
oftheprophets,oroftheapostles,orofthechurch,insuchmanner
ashespeakstoallotherChristianmen.Tosayhehathspokento
himinadream,isnomorethantosayhedreamedthatGodspake
tohim*whichisnotofforcetowinbelieffromanyman,that
knowsdreamsareforthemostpartnatural,andmayproceedfrom
formerthoughtsandsuchdreamsasthat,fromselfconceit,and
foolisharrogance,andfalseopinionofaman'sowngodliness,or
othervirtue,bywhichhethinkshehathmeritedthefavourof
extraordinaryrevelation.Tosayhehathseenavision,orhearda
voice,istosay,thathehathdreamedbetweensleepingandwaking:
forinsuchmanneramandothmanytimesnaturallytakehisdream
foravision,asnothavingwellobservedhisownslumbering.Tosay

Page249

hespeaksbysupernaturalinspiration,istosayhefindsanardent
desiretospeak,orsomestrongopinionofhimself,forwhichhe
canallegenonaturalandsufficientreason.SothatthoughGod
Almightycanspeaktoamanbydreams,visions,voice,andin
spirationyetheobligesnomantobelievehehathsodonetohim
thatpretendsitwho(beingaman)mayerr,and(whichismore)
maylie.
7.Howthencanhe,towhomGodhathneverrevealedhiswillBywhat
immediately(savingbythewayofnaturalreason)knowwhenheismarks
toobey,ornottoobeyhisword,deliveredbyhim,thatsaysheisaprophetsare
prophet?Offourhundredprophets,ofwhomthekingofIsraelknown.
askedcounsel,concerningthewarhemadeagainstRamothGilead,[197]
(1Kings22)onlyMicaiahwasatrueone.Theprophetthatwassent
toprophesyagainstthealtarsetupbyJeroboam,(1Kings13)
thoughatrueprophet,andthatbytwomiraclesdoneinhispresence
appearstobeaprophetsentfromGod,wasyetdeceivedbyanother
oldprophet,thatpersuadedhimasfromthemouthofGod,toeat
anddrinkwithhim.Ifoneprophetdeceiveanother,whatcertainty
isthereofknowingthewillofGod,byotherwaythanthatof
reason?TowhichIansweroutoftheHolyScripture,thattherebe
twomarks,bywhichtogether,notasunder,atrueprophetistobe
known.Oneisthedoingofmiraclestheotheristhenotteaching
anyotherreligionthanthatwhichisalreadyestablished.Asunder(I
say)neitheroftheseissufficient.Ifaprophetriseamongstyou,ora
dreamerofdreams,andshallpretendthedoingofamiracle,andthe
miraclecometopassifhesay,LetusfollowstrangeGods,whichthou
hastnotknown,thoushaltnothearkentohim,&c.Butthatprophetand
dreamerofdreamsshallbeputtodeath,becausehehathspokentoyouto
revoltfromtheLordyourGod.(Deut.13.15.)Inwhichwordstwo
thingsaretobeobservedfirst,thatGodwillnothavemiraclesalone
serveforarguments,toapprovetheprophet'scallingbut(asitisin
thethirdverse)foranexperimentoftheconstancyofouradherence
tohimself.FortheworksoftheEgyptiansorcerers,thoughnotso
greatasthoseofMoses,yetweregreatmiracles.Secondly,thathow
greatsoeverthemiraclebe,yetifittendtostiruprevoltagainstthe
king,orhimthatgovernethbytheking'sauthority,hethatdoth
suchmiracle,isnottobeconsideredotherwisethanassenttomake
trialoftheirallegiance.Forthesewords,revoltfromtheLordyour
God,areinthisplaceequivalenttorevoltflorayourking.Forthey
hadmadeGodtheirkingbypactatthefootofMountSinaiwho

ruledthembyMosesonlyforheonlyspakewithGod,andfrom
timetotimedeclaredGod'scommandmentstothepeople.Inlike
manner,afterourSaviourChristhadmadehisdisciplesacknow
ledgehimfortheMessiah,(thatistosay,forGod'sanointed,whom
thenationoftheJewsdailyexpectedfortheirking,butrefused
whenhecame,)heomittednottoadvertisethemofthedangerof
miracles.Thereshallarise,saithhe,falseChrists,andfalseprophets,
andshalldogreatwondersandmiracles,eventotheseducing(ifitwere
possible)oftheveryelect.(Matt.24.24.)Bywhichitappears,that
falseprophetsmayhavethepowerofmiraclesyetarewenottotake
theirdoctrineforGod'sword.St.PaulsaysfurthertotheGalatians,
(Gal.1.8)thatifhimself,oranangelfromheavenpreachanothergospel
tothem,thanhehadpreached,lethimbeaccursed.Thatgospelwas,
thatChristwasKingsothatallpreachingagainstthepowerofthe
kingreceived,inconsequencetothesewords,isbySt.Paulac
cursed.Forhisspeechisaddressedtothose,whobyhispreaching
hadalreadyreceivedJesusfortheChrist,thatistosay,forKingof
theJews.
Themarksof8.Andasmiracles,withoutpreachingthatdoctrinewhichGod
aprophetinhathestablishedsopreachingthetruedoctrine,withoutthedoing
theoldlaw,ofmiracles,isanunsufficientargumentofimmediaterevelation.
miraclesandForifamanthatteachethnotfalsedoctrine,shouldpretendto
doctrinebeaprophetwithoutshowinganymiracle,heisneverthemore
[198]toberegardedforhispretence,asisevidentbyDeut.18.21,22,If
conformablethousayinthyheart,Howshallweknowthattheword(oftheprophet)
tothelaw.isnotthatwhichtheLordhathspoken?whentheprophetshallhave
spokeninthenameoftheLord,thatwhichshallnotcometopass,that
isthewordwhichtheLordhathnotspoken,buttheprophethasspoken
itoutoftheprideofhisownheart,fearhimnot.Butamanmay
hereagainask,whentheprophethathforetoldathing,howshall
weknowwhetheritwillcometopassornot?Forhemayforetellit
asathingtoarriveafteracertainlongtime,longerthanthetime
ofman'slifeorindefinitely,thatitwillcometopassonetime
orother:inwhichcasethismarkofaprophetisunusefuland
thereforethemiraclesthatobligeustobelieveaprophet,oughtto
beconfirmedbyanimmediate,oranotlongdeferredevent.Sothat
itismanifest,thattheteachingofthereligionwhichGodhath
established,andtheshowingofapresentmiracle,joinedtogether,
weretheonlymarkswherebytheScripturewouldhaveatrue
prophet,thatistosay,immediaterevelation,tobeacknowledged

Page251

neitherofthembeingsinglysufficienttoobligeanyothermanto
regardwhathesaith.
9.Seeingthereforemiraclesnowcease,wehavenosignleft,Miracles
wherebytoacknowledgethepretendedrevelations,orinspirationsceasing,
ofanyprivatemannorobligationtogiveeartoanydoctrine,fartherprophets
thanitisconformabletotheHolyScriptures,whichsincethetimecease,andthe
ofourSaviour,supplytheplace,andsufficientlyrecompensetheScripture
wantofallotherprophecyandfromwhich,bywiseandlearnedsuppliestheir
interpretation,andcarefulratiocination,allrulesandpreceptsplace.
necessarytotheknowledgeofourdutybothtoGodandman,
withoutenthusiasm,orsupernaturalinspiration,mayeasilybede
duced.AndthisScriptureisit,outofwhichIamtotakethe
principlesofmydiscourse,concerningtherightsofthosethatare
thesupremegovernorsonearth,ofChristiancommonwealthsand
ofthedutyofChristiansubjectstowardstheirsovereigns.Andto
thatend,Ishallspeakinthenextchapter,ofthebooks,writers,
scope,andauthorityoftheBible.
ChapterXXXIII[199]
OftheNumber,Antiquity,Scope,Authority,andInterpretersoftheBooksofHolyScripture
1.BytheBooksofHolySCRIPTURE,areunderstoodthose,whichOfthebooks
oughttobethecanon,thatistosay,therulesofChristianlife.AndofHoly
becauseallrulesoflife,whichmenareinconscienceboundtoScripture.
observe,arelawsthequestionoftheScripture,isthequestionof
whatislawthroughoutallChristendom,bothnaturalandcivil.For
thoughitbenotdeterminedinScripture,whatlawseveryChristian
kingshallconstituteinhisowndominionsyetitisdeterminedwhat
lawsheshallnotconstitute.SeeingthereforeIhavealreadyproved,
thatsovereignsintheirowndominionsarethesolelegislatorsthose
booksonlyarecanonical,thatis,law,ineverynation,whichare
establishedforsuchbythesovereignauthority.Itistrue,thatGod
isthesovereignofallsovereignsandtherefore,whenhespeaksto
anysubject,heoughttobeobeyed,whatsoeveranyearthlypoten
tatecommandtothecontrary.Butthequestionisnotofobedience
toGod,butofwhenandwhatGodhathsaidwhichtosubjectsthat
havenosupernaturalrevelation,cannotbeknown,butbythatnatu

ralreason,whichguideththem,fortheobtainingofpeaceand
justice,toobeytheauthorityoftheirseveralcommonwealthsthatis
tosay,oftheirlawfulsovereigns.Accordingtothisobligation,Ican
acknowledgenootherbooksoftheOldTestament,tobeHoly
Scripture,butthosewhichhavebeencommandedtobeacknow
ledgedforsuch,bytheauthorityoftheChurchofEngland.What
bookstheseare,issufficientlyknown,withoutacatalogueofthem
hereandtheyarethesamethatareacknowledgedbySt.Jerome,*
whoholdeththerest,namely,theWisdomofSolomon,Ecclesiasticus,
Judith,Tobias,thefirstandthesecondofMaccabees,(thoughhehad
seenthefirstinHebrew)andthethirdandfourthofEsdras,for
Apocrypha.Ofthecanonical,Josephus,*alearnedJew,thatwrotein
thetimeoftheemperorDomitian,reckonethtwentytwo,making
thenumberagreewiththeHebrewalphabet.St.Jeromedoesthe
same,thoughtheyreckonthemindifferentmanner.ForJosephus
numbersfiveBooksofMoses,thirteenofProphets,thatwritthe
historyoftheirowntimes(whichhowitagreeswiththeprophets'
writingscontainedintheBibleweshallseehereafter),andfourof
hymnsandmoralprecepts.ButSt.Jeromereckonsfivebooksof
Moses,eightofProphets,andnineofotherHolyWrit,whichhecalls
ofHagiographa.TheSeptuagint,whowereseventylearnedmenof
theJews,sentforbyPtolemykingofEgypt,totranslatetheJewish
law,outoftheHebrewintotheGreek,haveleftusnootherforHoly
[200]ScriptureintheGreektongue,butthesamethatarereceivedinthe
ChurchofEngland.
2.AsfortheBooksoftheNewTestament,theyareequally
acknowledgedforcanonbyallChristianchurches,andbyallsectsof
Christians,thatadmitanybooksatallforcanonical.
Their3.WhoweretheoriginalwritersoftheseveralBooksofHoly
antiquity.Scripture,hasnotbeenmadeevidentbyanysufficienttestimonyof
otherhistory,(whichistheonlyproofofmatteroffact)norcanbe
byanyargumentsofnaturalreason:forreasonservesonlytocon
vincethetruth(notoffact,but)ofconsequence.Thelighttherefore
thatmustguideusinthisquestion,mustbethatwhichisheldout
untousfromthebooksthemselves:andthislight,thoughitshowus
notthewriterOfeverybook,yetitisnotunusefultogiveus
knowledgeofthetime,whereintheywerewritten.
4.Andfirst,forthePentateuch,itisnotargumentenoughthat
theywerewrittenbyMoses,becausetheyarecalledthefiveBooks
ofMosesnomorethanthesetitles,theBookofJoshua,theBookof

Page253

Judges,theBookofRuth,andtheBooksoftheKings,arearguments
sufficienttoprove,thattheywerewrittenbyJoshua,bytheJudges,
byRuth,andbytheKings.Forintitlesofbooks,thesubjectis
marked,asoftenasthewriter.ThehistoryofLivy,denotesthe
writerbutthehistoryofAlexander,isdenominatedfromtheThe
subject.WereadinthelastchapterofDeuteronomy,verse6,Pentateuch
concerningthesepulchreofMoses,thatnomanknowethofhisnotwritten
sepulchretothisday,thatis,tothedaywhereinthosewordswerebyMoses.
written.Itisthereforemanifest,thatthosewordswerewrittenafter
hisinterment.Foritwereastrangeinterpretation,tosayMoses
spakeofhisownsepulchre(thoughbyprophecy),thatitwasnot
foundtothatday,whereinhewasyetliving.Butitmayperhapsbe
alleged,thatthelastchapteronly,notthewholePentateuch,was
writtenbysomeotherman,buttherestnot:letustherefore
considerthatwhichwefindinthebookofGenesis,(12.6)And
AbrahampassedthroughthelandtotheplaceofSichem,untotheplain
ofMoreh,andtheCanaanitewastheninthelandwhichmustneeds
bethewordsofonethatwrotewhentheCanaanitewasnotinthe
landandconsequently,notofMoses,whodiedbeforehecameinto
it.LikewiseNumbers21.14,thewritercitethanothermoreancient
book,entitled,TheBookoftheWarsoftheLord,whereinwere
registeredtheactsofMoses,attheRedSea,andatthebrookof
Arnon.Itisthereforesufficientlyevident,thatthefiveBooksof
Moseswerewrittenafterhistime,thoughhowlongafteritbenotso
manifest.
5.ButthoughMosesdidnotcompilethosebooksentirely,and
intheformwehavethemyethewroteallthatwhichheistheresaid
tohavewritten:asforexample,theVolumeoftheLaw,whichis
contained,asitseemeth,intheeleventhofDeuteronomy,and
thefollowingchapterstothetwentyseventhwhichwasalsocom
mandedtobewrittenonstones,intheirentryintothelandof
Canaan.AndthisdidMoseshimselfwrite,(Deut.31.9)and
delivertothepriestsandeldersofIsrael,tobereadeveryseventh[201]
yeartoallIsrael,attheirassemblingintheFeastofTabernacles.
AndthisisthatlawwhichGodcommanded,thattheirkings
(whentheyshouldhaveestablishedthatformofgovernment)
shouldtakeacopyoffromthepriestsandLevitesandwhich
MosescommandedthepriestsandLevitestolayinthesideofthe
ark,(Deut.31.26)andthesamewhichhavingbeenlost,waslong
timeafterfoundagainbyHilkiah,andsenttokingJosias(2Kings

22.8)whocausingittobereadtothepeople,(2Kings23.1,2,3)
renewedthecovenantbetweenGodandthem.
Thebookof6.ThatthebookofJoshuawasalsowrittenlongafterthetimeof
JoshuaJoshua,maybegatheredoutofmanyplacesofthebookitself.
writtenafterJoshuahadsetuptwelvestonesinthemidstofJordan,foramonu
histime.mentoftheirpassageofwhichthewritersaiththus,Theyarethere
untothisday(Josh,49)foruntothisday,isaphrasethatsignifieth
atimepast,beyondthememoryofman.Inlikemanner,uponthe
sayingoftheLord,thathehadrolledofffromthepeoplethe
reproachofEgypt,thewritersaith,TheplaceiscalledGilgaluntothis
day(Josh.5.9)whichtohavesaidinthetimeofJoshuahadbeen
improper.SoalsothenameofthevalleyofAchor,fromthetrouble
thatAchanraisedinthecamp,thewritersaith,remainethuntothis
day(Josh.7.26)whichmustneedsbethereforelongafterthetime
ofJoshua.ArgumentsofthiskindtherebemanyotherasJosh.8.
29,13.13,14.14,15.63.
Thebooksof7.ThesameismanifestbylikeargumentsofthebookofJudges,
Judgesandchap.1.21,26,6.24,10.4,15.19,17.6,andRuth1.1but
RuthwrittenespeciallyJudg.18.30,whereitissaid,thatJonathanandhissons
longafterthewereprieststothetribeofDan,untilthedayofthecaptivityofthe
captivity.land.
Thelikeof8.ThatthebooksofSamuelwerealsowrittenafterhisowntime,
thebooksoftherearethelikearguments,1Sam.5.5,7.13,1527.6,and30.25,
Samuel.where,afterDavidhadadjudgedequalpartofthespoils,tothem
thatguardedtheammunition,withthemthatfought,thewriter
saith,HemadeitastatuteandanordinancetoIsraeltothisday.Again,
whenDavid(displeased,thattheLordhadslainUzzah,forputting
outhishandtosustaintheark,)calledtheplacePerezUzzah,the
writersaith,(2Sam.6.4)itiscalledsotothisday:thetimetherefore
ofthewritingofthatbook,mustbelongafterthetimeofthefact
thatis,longafterthetimeofDavid.
Thebooksof9.AsforthetwobooksoftheKings,andthetwobooksofthe
theKings.Chronicles,besidestheplaceswhichmentionsuchmonuments,as
andthethewritersaith,remainedtillhisowndayssuchasareIKings9.13,
Chronicles.9.21,10.12,12.19.2Kings2.22,8.22,10.27,14.7,16.6,17.23,
17.34,17.41,and1Chron.4.41,5.26:itisargumentsufficientthey
werewrittenafterthecaptivityinBabylon,thatthehistoryofthem
iscontinuedfillthattime.Forthefactsregisteredarealwaysmore
ancientthantheregisterandmuchmoreancientthansuchbooksas
makementionof,andquotetheregisterasthesebooksdoindivers

Page255

places,referringthereadertotheChroniclesoftheKingsofJudah,
totheChroniclesoftheKingsofIsrael,totheBooksoftheprophet
Samuel,oftheprophetNathan,oftheprophetAhijahtotheVision
ofJehdo,tothebooksoftheprophetServeiah,andoftheprophet
Addo.
10.ThebooksofEzraandNehemiahwerewrittencertainlyafter[202]
theirreturnfromcaptivitybecausetheirreturn,thereedificationEzraand
ofthewallsandhousesofJerusalem,therenovationofthecovenant,Nehemiah.
andordinationoftheirpolicy,arethereincontained.
11.ThehistoryofQueenEstherisofthetimeofthecaptivityEsther.
andthereforethewritermusthavebeenofthesametime,or
afterit.
12.ThebookofJobhathnomarkinitofthetimewhereinitwasJob.
writtenandthoughitappearsufficiently(Ezekiel14.14,andJames
5.11)thathewasnofeignedpersonyetthebookitselfseemethnot
tobeahistory,butatreatiseconcerningaquestioninancienttime
muchdisputed,whywickedmenhaveoftenprosperedinthisworld,and
goodmenhavebeenafflictedandthisisthemoreprobable,because
fromthebeginning,tothethirdverseofthethirdchapter,where
thecomplaintofJobbeginneth,theHebrewis(asSt.Jerometesti
fies)inproseandfromthencetothesixthverseofthelastchapter,
inhexameterversesandtherestofthatchapteragaininprose.So
thatthedisputeisallinverseandtheproseisadded,butasa
prefaceinthebeginning,andanepilogueintheend.Butverseisno
usualstyleofsuch,aseitherarethemselvesingreatpain,asJobor
ofsuchascometocomfortthem,ashisfriendsbutinphilosophy,
especiallymoralphilosophy,inancienttimefrequent.
13.ThePsalmswerewrittenthemostpartbyDavid,fortheuseThePsalter.
ofthechoir.TotheseareaddedsomesongsofMoses,andother
holymenandsomeofthemafterthereturnfromthecaptivity,as
the137thandthe126th,wherebyitismanifestthatthePsalterwas
compiled,andputintotheformitnowhath,afterthereturnofthe
JewsfromBabylon.
14.TheProverbs,beingacollectionofwiseandgodlysayings,The
partlyofSolomon,partlyofAgur,thesonofJaketh,andpartlyofProverbs.
themotherofkingLemuel,cannotprobablybethoughttohave
beencollectedbySolomon,ratherthanbyAgur,orthemotherof
Lemuelandthat,thoughthesentencesbetheirs,yetthecollection
orcompilingthemintothisonebook,wastheworkofsomeother
godlyman,thatlivedafterthemall.

Ecclesiastes15.ThebooksofEcclesiastesandtheCanticles[SongofSolomon]
andthehavenothingthatwasnotSolomon's,exceptitbethetitles,or
Canticles.inscriptions.ForTheWordsofthePreacher,thesonofDavid,kingin
Jerusalemand,TheSongofSongs,whichisSolomon's,seemtohave
beenmadefordistinction'ssake,then,whentheBooksofScripture
weregatheredintoonebodyofthelawtotheend,thatnotthe
doctrineonly,buttheauthorsalsomightbeextant.
The16.Oftheprophets,themostancient,areZephaniah,Jonah,
Prophets.Amos,Hosea,Isaiah,andMicah,wholivedinthetimeofAmaziah,
andAzariah,otherwiseOzias,kingsofJudah.ButthebookofJonah
isnotproperlyaregisterofhisprophecy,(forthatiscontainedin
thesefewwords,FortydaysandNinevehshallbedestroyed,)buta
historyornarrationofhisfrowardnessanddisputingGod'scom
mandmentssothatthereissmallprobabilityheshouldbethe
author,seeingheisthesubjectofit.ButthebookofAmosishis
prophecy.
[203]17.Jeremiah,Obadiah,Nahum,andHabakkukprophesiedin
thetimeofJosiah.
18.Ezekiel,Daniel,Haggai,andZechariah,inthecaptivity.
19.WhenJoelandMalachiprophesied,isnotevidentbytheir
writings.Butconsideringtheinscriptions,ortitlesoftheirbooks,it
ismanifestenough,thatthewholeScriptureoftheOldTestament,
wassetforthintheformwehaveit,afterthereturnoftheJewsfrom
theircaptivityinBabylon,andbeforethetimeofPtolomaeus
Philadelphus,*thatcausedittobetranslatedintoGreekbyseventy
men,whichweresenthimoutofJudeaforthatpurpose.Andifthe
booksofApocrypha(whicharerecommendedtousbytheChurch,
thoughnotforcanonical,yetforprofitablebooksforourinstruc
tion)mayinthispointbecredited,theScripturewassetforthinthe
formwehaveitin,byEsdrasasmayappearbythatwhichhe
himselfsaith,inthesecondbook,(chapter14.verse21,22,&c.)
wherespeakingtoGod,hesaiththus,Thylawisburntthereforeno
manknoweththethingswhichthouhastdone,ortheworksthatareto
begin.ButifIhavefoundgracebeforethee,senddowntheholyspirit
intome,andIshallwriteallthathathbeendoneintheworld,sincethe
beginning,whichwerewritteninthylaw,thatmenmayfindthypath,
andthattheywhichwillliveinthelatterday,maylive.Andverse45:
Anditcametopasswhenthefortydayswerefulfilled,thatthehighest
spake,saying,Thefirstthatthouhastwritten,publishopenly,thatthe
worthyandunworthymayreaditbutkeeptheseventylast,thatthou

Page257

mayestdeliverthemonlytosuchasbewiseamongthepeople.Andthus
muchconcerningthetimeofthewritingofthebooksoftheOld
Testament.
20.ThewritersoftheNewTestamentlivedallinlessthananTheNew
ageafterChrist'sascension,andhadallofthemseenourSaviour,orTestament.
beenhisdisciples,exceptSt.Paul,andSt.Lukeandconsequently
whatsoeverwaswrittenbythem,isasancientasthetimeofthe
apostles.ButthetimewhereinthebooksoftheNewTestament
werereceived,andacknowledgedbythechurchtobeoftheirwrit
ing,isnotaltogethersoancient.For,asthebooksoftheOld
Testamentarederivedtous,fromnoothertimethanthatofEsdras,
whobythedirectionofGod'sspiritretrievedthem,whentheywere
lost:thoseoftheNewTestament,ofwhichthecopieswerenot
many,norcouldeasilybeallinanyoneprivateman'shand,cannot
bederivedfromahighertime,thanthatwhereinthegovernorsof
thechurchcollected,approved,andrecommendedthemtous,as
thewritingsofthoseapostlesanddisciples,underwhosenamesthey
go.Thefirstenumerationofallthebooks,bothoftheOldandNew
Testament,isinthecanonsoftheapostles,supposedtobecollected
byClement,thefirst(afterSt.Peter)*bishopofRome.Butbecause
thatisbutsupposed,andbymanyquestioned,theCouncilof
Laodiceaisthefirstweknow,thatrecommendedtheBibletothe
thenChristianchurches,forthewritingsoftheprophetsandapos
tles:andthisCouncilwasheldinthe364thyearafterChrist.After
whichtime,thoughambitionhadsofarprevailedonsomedoctors
ofthechurch,asnomoretoesteememperors,thoughChristian,for[204]
theshepherdsofthepeople,butforsheepandemperorsnotChris
tian,forwolvesandendeavouredtopasstheirdoctrine,notfor
counsel,andinformation,aspreachersbutforlaws,asabsolute
governorsandthoughtsuchfraudsastendedtomakethepeople
themoreobedienttoChristiandoctrine,tobepiousyetIam
persuadedtheydidnotthereforefalsifytheScriptures,thoughthe
copiesofthebooksoftheNewTestament,wereinthehandsonlyof
theecclesiasticsbecauseiftheyhadhadanintentionsotodo,they
wouldsurelyhavemadethemmorefavourabletotheirpowerover
Christianprinces,andcivilsovereignty,thantheyare.Iseenot
thereforeanyreasontodoubt,butthattheOld,andNewTesta
ment,aswehavethemnow,arethetrueregistersofthosethings,
whichweredoneandsaidbytheprophets,andapostles.Andso
perhapsaresomeofthosebookswhicharecalledapocrypha,andif

leftoutofthecanon,notforinconformityofdoctrinewiththerest,
butonlybecausetheyarenotfoundintheHebrew.Forafterthe
conquestofAsiabyAlexandertheGreat,therewerefewlearned
Jews,thatwerenotperfectintheGreektongue.Fortheseventy
interpretersthatconvertedtheBibleintoGreek,wereallofthem
HebrewsandwehaveextanttheworksofPhilo*andJosephus,
bothJews,writtenbythemeloquentlyinGreek.Butitisnotthe
writer,buttheauthorityofthechurch,thatmakeththebookca
Theirscope.nonical.Andalthoughthesebookswerewrittenbydiversmen,yet
itismanifestthewriterswereallenduedwithoneandthesame
spirit,inthattheyconspiretooneandthesameend,whichissetting
forthoftherightsoftheKingdomofGod,theFather,Son,and
HolyGhost.ForthebookofGenesis,deriveththegenealogyof
God'speople,fromthecreationoftheworld,tothegoinginto
Egypt:theotherfourbooksofMoses,containtheelectionofGod
fortheirking,andthelawswhichheprescribedfortheirgovern
ment:thebooksofJoshua,Judges,Ruth,andSamuel,tothetimeof
Saul,describetheactsofGod'speople,tillthetimetheycastoff
God'syoke,andcalledforaking,afterthemanneroftheirneigh
bournations.TherestofthehistoryoftheOldTestamentderives
thesuccessionofthelineofDavid,tothecaptivity,outofwhichline
wastospringtherestoreroftheKingdomofGod,evenourblessed
SaviourGodtheSon,whosecomingwasforetoldinthebooksofthe
prophets,afterwhomtheEvangelistswrotehislife,andactions,and
hisclaimtothekingdom,whilsthelivedonearth:andlastly,the
Acts,andEpistlesoftheApostles,declarethecomingofGodthe
HolyGhost,andtheauthorityheleftwiththemandtheirsuc
cessors,forthedirectionoftheJews,andfortheinvitationofthe
Gentiles.Insum,thehistoriesandthepropheciesoftheOldTesta
ment,andthegospelsandepistlesoftheNewTestament,havehad
oneandthesamescope,toconvertmentotheobedienceofGodI.,
inMoses,andthePriestsII.,inthemanChristandIII.,inthe
Apostlesandthesuccessorstoapostolicalpower.Forthesethreeat
severaltimesdidrepresentthepersonofGod:Moses,andhis
[205]successorstheHighPriests,andKingsofJudah,intheOldTesta
ment:Christhimself,inthetimehelivedonearth:andtheApostles,
andtheirsuccessors,fromthedayofPentecost(whentheHoly
Ghostdescendedonthem)tothisday.
21.Itisaquestionmuchdisputedbetweenthediverssectsof
Christianreligion,fromwhencetheScripturesderivetheirauthority

Page259

whichquestionisalsopropoundedsometimesinotherterms,as,Thequestion
howweknowthemtobethewordofGod,or,whywebelievethemtobeofthe
so:andthedifficultyofresolvingit,arisethchieflyfromtheimauthorityof
propernessofthewordswhereinthequestionitselfiscouched.FortheScriptures
itisbelievedonallhands,thatthefirstandoriginalauthorofthemstated.
isGodandconsequentlythequestiondisputed,isnotthat.Again,
itismanifest,thatnonecanknowtheyareGod'sword,(thoughall
trueChristiansbelieveit,)butthosetowhomGodhimselfhath
revealeditsupernaturallyandthereforethequestionisnotrightly
moved,ofourknowledgeofit.Lastly,whenthequestionispro
poundedofourbeliefbecausesomearemovedtobelieveforone,
andothersforotherreasons,therecanberenderednoonegeneral
answerforthemall.Thequestiontrulystatedis,bywhatauthority
theyaremadelaw.
22.Asfarastheydiffernotfromlawsofnature,thereisnoTheir
doubt,buttheyarethelawofGod,andcarrytheirauthoritywithauthorityand
them,legibletoallmenthathavetheuseofnaturalreason:butthisinterpretation.
isnootherauthority,thanthatofallothermoraldoctrineconsonant
toreasonthedictateswhereofarelaws,notmade,buteternal.
23.IftheybemadelawbyGodhimself,theyareofthenatureof
writtenlaw,whicharelawstothemonlytowhomGodhathso
sufficientlypublishedthem,asnomancanexcusehimself,bysay
ing,heknewnottheywerehis.
24.Hetherefore,towhomGodhathnotsupernaturallyrevealed
thattheyarehis,northatthosethatpublishedthem,weresentby
him,isnotobligedtoobeythem,byanyauthority,buthis,whose
commandshavealreadytheforceoflawsthatistosay,byanyother
authority,thanthatofthecommonwealth,residinginthesovereign,
whoonlyhasthelegislativepower.Again,ifitbenotthelegislative
authorityofthecommonwealth,thatgiveththemtheforceoflaws,
itmustbesomeotherauthorityderivedfromGod,eitherprivate,or
public:ifprivate,itobligesonlyhim,towhominparticularGod
hathbeenpleasedtorevealit.Forifeverymanshouldbeobliged,to
takeforGod'slaw,whatparticularmen,onpretenceofprivate
inspiration,orrevelation,shouldobtrudeuponhim,(insucha
numberofmen,thatoutofprideandignorance,taketheirown
dreams,andextravagantfancies,andmadness,fortestimoniesof
God'sspiritoroutofambition,pretendtosuchdivinetestimonies,
falsely,andcontrarytotheirownconsciences,)itwereimpossible
thatanydivinelawshouldbeacknowledged.Ifpublic,itisthe

authorityofthecommonwealth,orofthechurch.Butthechurch,ifit
beoneperson,isthesamethingwithacommonwealthofChris
[206]tianscalledacommonwealth,becauseitconsistethofmenunitedin
oneperson,theirsovereignandachurch,becauseitconsistethin
Christianmen,unitedinoneChristiansovereign.Butifthechurch
benotoneperson,thenithathnoauthorityatallitcanneither
command,nordoanyactionatallnoriscapableofhavingany
power,orrighttoanythingnorhasanywill,reason,norvoicefor
allthesequalitiesarepersonal.NowifthewholenumberofChris
tiansbenotcontainedinonecommonwealth,theyarenotone
personnoristhereanuniversalchurchthathathanyauthorityover
themandthereforetheScripturesarenotmadelaws,bytheuniver
salchurch:orifitbeonecommonwealth,thenallChristianmon
archs,andstatesareprivatepersons,andsubjecttobejudged,
deposed,andpunishedbyanuniversalsovereignofallChristen
dom.SothatthequestionoftheauthorityoftheScriptures,is
reducedtothis,whetherChristiankings,andthesovereignassembliesin
Christiancommonwealths,beabsoluteintheirownterritories,immedi
atelyunderGodorsubjecttooneVicarofChrist,constitutedoverthe
universalchurchtobejudged,condemned,deposed,andputtodeath,as
heshallthinkexpedient,ornecessaryforthecommongood.
25.Whichquestioncannotberesolved,withoutamoreparticu
larconsiderationoftheKingdomofGodfromwhencealso,weare
tojudgeoftheauthorityofinterpretingtheScripture.For,whoso
everhathalawfulpoweroveranywriting,tomakeitlaw,haththe
poweralsotoapprove,ordisapprovetheinterpretationofthesame.
[207]ChapterXXXIV
OftheSignificationofSpirit,Angel,andInspirationintheBooksofHolyScripture
Bodyand1.Seeingthefoundationofalltrueratiocination,istheconstant
spirithowsignificationofwordswhichinthedoctrinefollowing,dependeth
takeninthenot(asinnaturalscience)onthewillofthewriter,nor(asin
Scripture.commonconversation)onvulgaruse,butonthesensetheycarryin
theScriptureitisnecessary,beforeIproceedanyfurther,todeter
mine,outoftheBible,themeaningofsuchwords,asbytheir
ambiguity,mayrenderwhatIamtoinferuponthem,obscure,or

Page261

disputable.IwillbeginwiththewordsBODYandSPIRIT,whichin
thelanguageoftheSchoolsaretermed,substances,corporeal,and
incorporeal.
2.Thewordbody,*inthemostgeneralacceptation,signifieth
thatwhichfilleth,oroccupiethsomecertainroom,orimagined
placeanddependethnotontheimagination,butisarealpartof
thatwecalltheuniverse.Fortheuniverse,*beingtheaggregateofall
bodies,thereisnorealpartthereofthatisnotalsobodynorany
thingproperlyabody,thatisnotalsopartof(thataggregateofall
bodies)theuniverse.Thesamealso,becausebodiesaresubjectto
change,thatistosay,tovarietyofappearancetothesenseofliving
creatures,iscalledsubstance,thatistosay,subject,tovariousacci
dentsassometimestobemovedsometimestostandstillandto
seemtooursensessometimeshot,sometimescold,sometimesof
onecolour,smell,taste,orsound,sometimesofanother.Andthis
diversityofseeming,(producedbythediversityoftheoperationof
bodiesontheorgansofoursense)weattributetoalterationsofthe
bodiesthatoperate,andcallthemaccidentsofthosebodies.And
accordingtothisacceptationoftheword,substanceandbodysignify
thesamethingandthereforesubstanceincorporealarewords,which
whentheyarejoinedtogether,destroyoneanother,asifaman
shouldsay,anincorporealbody.
3.Butinthesenseofcommonpeople,notalltheuniverseis
calledbody,butonlysuchpartsthereofastheycandiscernbythe
senseoffeeling,toresisttheirforce,orbythesenseoftheireyes,to
hinderthemfromafartherprospect.Thereforeinthecommon
languageofmen,air,andarialsubstances,usenottobetakenfor
bodies,but(asoftenasmenaresensibleoftheireffects)arecalled
wind,orbreath,or(becausethesamearecalledintheLatinspiritus)
spiritsaswhentheycallthatarialsubstance,whichinthebodyof
anylivingcreature,givesitlifeandmotion,vitalandanimalspirits.
Butforthoseidolsofthebrain,whichrepresentbodiestous,where
theyarenot,asinalookingglass,inadream,ortoadistempered
brainwaking,theyare(astheapostlesaithgenerallyofallidols*)[208]
nothingnothingatall,Isay,therewheretheyseemtobeandinthe
brainitself,nothingbuttumult,proceedingeitherfromtheactionof
theobjects,orfromthedisorderlyagitationoftheorgansofour
sense.Andmen,thatareotherwiseemployed,thantosearchinto
theircauses,knownotofthemselves,whattocallthemandmay
thereforeeasilybepersuaded,bythosewhoseknowledgetheymuch

reverence,sometocallthembodies,andthinkthemmadeofair
compactedbyapowersupernatural,becausethesightjudgesthem
corporealandsometocallthemspirits,becausethesenseoftouch
discernethnothingintheplacewheretheyappear,toresisttheir
fingers:sothatthepropersignificationofspiritincommonspeech,
iseitherasubtle,fluid,andinvisiblebody,oraghost,orotheridol
orphantasmoftheimagination.Butformetaphoricalsignifications,
therebemany:forsometimesitistakenfordispositionorinclina
tionofthemindaswhenforthedispositiontocontrolthesayings
ofothermen,wesay,aspiritofcontradictionforadispositionto
uncleanness,anuncleanspiritforperverseness,afrowardspiritfor
sullenness,adumbspirit,andforinclinationtogodliness,andGod's
service,theSpiritofGod:sometimesforanyeminentability,or
extraordinarypassion,ordiseaseofthemind,aswhengreatwisdom
iscalledthespiritofwisdomandmadmenaresaidtobepossessedwith
aspirit.
4.OthersignificationofspiritIfindnowhereanyandwhere
noneofthesecansatisfythesenseofthatwordinScripture,the
placefallethnotunderhumanunderstandingandourfaiththerein
consistethnotinouropinion,butinoursubmissionasinallplaces
whereGodissaidtobeaSpiritorwherebytheSpiritofGod,is
meantGodhimself.ForthenatureofGodisincomprehensible*
thatistosay,weunderstandnothingofwhatheis,butonlythathe
isandthereforetheattributeswegivehim,arenottotellone
another,whatheis,nortosignifyouropinionofhisnature,butour
desiretohonourhimwithsuchnamesasweconceivemosthonour
ableamongstourselves.
Thespiritof5.Gen.1.2.TheSpiritofGodmoveduponthefaceofthewaters.
GodtakeninHereifbytheSpiritofGodbemeantGodhimself,thenismotion
theScriptureattributedtoGod,andconsequentlyplace,whichareintelligible
sometimesforonlyofbodies,andnotofsubstancesincorporealandsotheplaceis
awind,oraboveourunderstanding,thatcanconceivenothingmovedthat
breath..changesnotplace,orthathasnotdimensionandwhatsoeverhas
dimension,isbody.Butthemeaningofthosewordsisbestunder
stoodbythelikeplace,(Gen.8.1)where,whentheearthwas
coveredwithwaters,asinthebeginning,Godintendingtoabate
them,andagaintodiscoverthedryland,useththelikewords,Iwill
bringmySpiritupontheearth,andthewatersshallbediminished:in
whichplace,bySpiritisunderstoodawind,(thatisanairorspirit

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moved,)whichmightbecalled,asintheformerplace,theSpiritof
God,becauseitwasGod'swork.
6.Gen.41.38,PharaohcalleththeWisdomofJoseph,theSpirit[209]
ofGod.ForJosephhavingadvisedhimtolookoutawiseandSecondly,for
discreetman,andtosethimoverthelandofEgypt,hesaiththus,extraordinary
Canwefindsuchamanasthisis,inwhomistheSpiritofGod?Andgiftsofthe
Exod.28.3,Thoushaltspeak(saithGod)toallthewisehearted,whomunderstanding.
Ihavefilledwiththespiritofwisdom,tomakeAarongarments,to
consecratehim.Whereextraordinaryunderstanding,thoughbutin
makinggarments,asbeingthegiftofGod,iscalledtheSpiritofGod.
Thesameisfoundagain,Exod.31.3,4,5,6,and35.31.AndIsaiah
11.2,3,theprophetspeakingoftheMessiah,saith,theSpiritofthe
Lordshallabideuponhim,thespiritofwisdomandunderstanding,the
spiritofcounsel,andfortitude,andthespiritofthefearoftheLord.
Wheremanifestlyismeant,notsomanyghosts,butsomanyemi
nentgracesthatGodwouldgivehim.
7.InthebookofJudges,anextraordinaryzealandcourageintheThirdly,for
defenceofGod'speople,iscalledtheSpiritofGodaswhenitextraordinary
excitedOthniel,Gideon,Jephtha,andSampsontodeliverthemaffections.
fromservitude,Judges3.10,6.34,11.29,13.25,14.6,19.Andof
Saul,uponthenewsoftheinsolenceoftheAmmonitestowards
themenofJabeshGilead,itissaid,(1Sam.11.6)thattheSpiritof
GodcameuponSaul,andhisanger,(or,asitisintheLatin,hisfury),
waskindledgreatly.Whereitisnotprobablewasmeantaghost,but
anextraordinaryzealtopunishthecrueltyoftheAmmonites.In
likemannerbytheSpiritofGod,thatcameuponSaul,whenhewas
amongsttheprophetsthatpraisedGodinsongs,andmusic,(1Sam.
19.20),istobeunderstood,notaghost,butanunexpectedand
suddenzealtojoinwiththemintheirdevotion.
8.ThefalseprophetZedekiahsaithtoMicaiah(1Kings22.24),Fourthly,for
whichwaywenttheSpiritoftheLordfrommetospeaktothee?Whichthegiftof
cannotbeunderstoodofaghostforMicaiahdeclaredbeforethepredictionby
kingsofIsraelandJudah,theeventofthebattle,asfromavision,dreamsand
andnotasfromaspiritspeakinginhim.visions.
9.Inthesamemanneritappeareth,inthebooksoftheProphets,
thatthoughtheyspakebythespiritofGod,thatistosay,bya
specialgraceofpredictionyettheirknowledgeofthefuture,was
notbyaghostwithinthem,butbysomesupernaturaldreamor
vision.

Fifthly,for10.Gen.2.7,itissaid,Godmademanofthedustoftheearth,and
life.breathedintohisnostrils(spiraculumvitae)thebreathoflife,andman
wasmadealivingsoul.TherethebreathoflifeinspiredbyGod,
signifiesnomore,butthatGodgavehimlifeand(Job27.3)aslong
astheSpiritofGodisinmynostrils,isnomorethantosay,aslongas
Ilive.SoinEzek.1.20,thespiritoflifewasinthewheels,isequivalent
to,thewheelswerealive.And,(Ezek.2.30)theSpiritenteredintome,
andsetmeonmyfeet,thatis,Irecoveredmyvitalstrengthnotthatany
ghostorincorporealsubstanceenteredinto,andpossessedhisbody.
Sixthly,fora11.Intheeleventhchap.ofNumbers,verse17,Iwilltake(saith
subordinationGod)oftheSpirit,whichisuponthee,andwillputituponthem,and
toauthority.theyshallbeartheburthenofthepeoplewiththeethatis,uponthe
[210]seventyelders:whereupontwooftheseventyaresaidtoprophesyin
thecampofwhomsomecomplained,andJoshuadesiredMosesto
forbidthemwhichMoseswouldnotdo.Wherebyitappearsthat
Joshuaknewnotthattheyhadreceivedauthoritysotodo,and
prophesiedaccordingtothemindofMoses,thatistosay,byaspirit,
orauthoritysubordinatetohisown.
12.Inthelikesenseweread,(Deut.34.9)thatJoshuawasfullof
thespiritofwisdom,becauseMoseshadlaidhishandsuponhim:thatis,
becausehewasordainedbyMoses,toprosecutetheworkhehad
himselfbegun,(namely,thebringingofGod'speopleintothe
promisedland),butpreventedbydeath,couldnotfinish.
13.Inthelikesenseitissaid,(Rom.8.9)Ifanymanhavenotthe
SpiritofChrist,heisnoneofhis:notmeaningtherebytheghostof
Christ,butasubmissiontohisdoctrine.Asalso,(1John4.2)Hereby
youshallknowtheSpiritofGodeveryspiritthatconfesseththatJesus
Christiscomeintheflesh,isofGodbywhichismeantthespiritof
unfeignedChristianity,orsubmissiontothatmainarticleofChristian
faith,thatJesusistheChristwhichcannotbeinterpretedofaghost.
14.Likewisethesewords,(Luke4.1)AndJesusfullofthe
HolyGhost,(thatis,asitisexpressed,Matt.4.1,andMark1.12,of
theHolySpirit,)maybeunderstood,forzealtodotheworkfor
whichhewassentbyGodtheFather:buttointerpretitofaghost,
istosay,thatGodhimself(forsoourSaviourwas,)wasfilledwith
Godwhichisveryunproper,andinsignificant.Howwecame
totranslatespirits,bythewordghosts,*whichsignifiethnothing,
neitherinheaven,norearth,buttheimaginaryinhabitantsofman's
brain,Iexaminenot:butthisIsay,thewordspiritinthetext
signifiethnosuchthingbuteitherproperlyarealsubstance,or

Page265

metaphorically,someextraordinaryabilityoraffectionofthemind,
orofthebody.
15.ThedisciplesofChrist,seeinghimwalkinguponthesea,Seventhly,
(Matt.14.26,andMark6.49)supposedhimtobeaSpirit,meaningforarial
therebyanarialbody,andnotaphantasm:foritissaid,theyallsawbodies.
himwhichcannotbeunderstoodofthedelusionsofthebrain,
(whicharenotcommontomanyatonce,asvisiblebodiesarebut
singular,becauseofthedifferencesoffancies),butofbodiesonly.In
likemanner,wherehewastakenforaspirit,bythesameapostles,
(Luke24.3,7)soalso(Acts12.15)whenSt.Peterwasdeliveredout
ofprison,anditwouldnotbebelievedbutwhenthemaidsaidhe
wasatthedoor,theysaiditwashisangelbywhichmustbemeant
acorporealsubstance,orwemustsay,thedisciplesthemselvesdid
followthecommonopinionbothofJewsandGentiles,thatsuch
apparitionswerenotimaginary,butrealandsuchasneedednotthe
fancyofmanfortheirexistence:thesetheJewscalledspirits,and
angels,goodorbadastheGreekscalledthesamebythenameof
demons.Andsomesuchapparitionsmaybereal,andsubstantial
thatistosay,subtlebodies,whichGodcanformbythesamepower,[211]
bywhichheformedallthings,andmakeuseof,asofministers,and
messengers(thatistosay,angels)todeclarehiswill,andexecutethe
samewhenhepleaseth,inextraordinaryandsupernaturalmanner.
Butwhenhehathsoformedthemtheyaresubstances,enduedwith
dimensions,andtakeuproom,andcanbemovedfromplaceto
place,whichispeculiartobodiesandthereforearenotghosts
incorporeal,thatistosay,ghoststhatareinnoplacethatistosay,
thatarenowherethatistosay,thatseemingtobesomewhat,are
nothing.Butifcorporealbetakeninthemostvulgarmanner,for
suchsubstancesasareperceptiblebyourexternalsensesthenis
substanceincorporeal,athingnotimaginary,butrealnamely,a
thinsubstanceinvisible,butthathaththesamedimensionsthatare
ingrosserbodies.
16.BythenameofANGEL,issignifiedgenerally,amessengerandAngel,what.
mostoften,amessengerofGod:andbyamessengerofGod,is
signified,anythingthatmakesknownhisextraordinarypresence
thatistosay,theextraordinarymanifestationofhispower,es
peciallybyadream,orvision.
17.Concerningthecreationofangels,thereisnothingdelivered
intheScriptures.Thattheyarespirits,isoftenrepeated:butbythe
nameofspirit,issignifiedbothinScripture,andvulgarly,both

amongstJewsandGentiles,sometimesthinbodiesastheair,the
wind,thespiritsvital,andanimal,oflivingcreaturesandsome
timestheimagesthatriseinthefancyindreams,andvisionswhich
arenotrealsubstances,norlastanylongerthanthedream,orvision
theyappearinwhichapparitions,thoughnorealsubstances,but
accidentsofthebrainyetwhenGodraiseththemsupernaturally,to
signifyhiswill,theyarenotimproperlytermedGod'smessengers,
thatistosay,hisangels.
18.AndastheGentilesdidvulgarlyconceivetheimageryofthe
brain,forthingsreallysubsistentwithoutthem,andnotdependent
onthefancyandoutofthemframedtheiropinionsofdemons,good
andevilwhichbecausetheyseemedtosubsistreally,theycalled
substancesandbecausetheycouldnotfeelthemwiththeirhands,
incorporeal:soalsotheJewsuponthesameground,withoutany
thingintheOldTestamentthatconstrainedthemthereunto,had
generallyanopinion,(exceptthesectoftheSadducees,)thatthose
apparitions(whichitpleasedGodsometimestoproduceinthe
fancyofmen,forhisownservice,andthereforecalledthemhis
angels)weresubstances,notdependentonthefancy,butpermanent
creaturesofGodwhereofthosewhichtheythoughtweregoodto
them,theyesteemedtheangelsofGod,andthosetheythought
wouldhurtthem,theycalledevilangels,orevilspiritssuchaswas
thespiritofPython,andthespiritsofmadmen,oflunaticsand
epileptics:fortheyesteemedsuchasweretroubledwithsuch
diseases,demoniacs.
19.ButifweconsidertheplacesoftheOldTestamentwhere
angelsarementioned,weshallfind,thatinmostofthem,therecan
[212]nothingelsebeunderstoodbythewordangel,butsomeimageraised
(supernaturally)inthefancy,tosignifythepresenceofGodinthe
executionofsomesupernaturalworkandthereforeintherest,
wheretheirnatureisnotexpressed,itmaybeunderstoodinthe
samemanner.
20.Forweread,(Gen.16)thatthesameapparitioniscalled,not
onlyanangel,butGodwherethatwhich(verse7)iscalledtheangel
oftheLord,inthetenthverse,saithtoAgar,Iwillmultiplythyseed
exceedinglythatis,speakethinthepersonofGod.Neitherwasthis
apparitionafancyfigured,butavoice.Bywhichitismanifest,that
angelsignifieththere,nothingbutGodhimself,thatcausedAgar
supernaturally*toapprehendavoicefromheavenorrather,
nothingelsebutavoicesupernatural,testifyingGod'sspecialpres

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encethere.WhythereforemaynottheangelsthatappearedtoLot,
andarecalled(Gen.19.12)menandtowhom,thoughtheywere
two,Lotspeaketh(verse18)asbuttoone,andthatone,asGod,(for
thewordsare,Lotsaiduntothem,OhnotsomyLord)beunderstood
ofimagesofmen,supernaturallyformedinthefancyaswellas
beforebyangelwasunderstoodafanciedvoice?Whentheangel
calledtoAbrahamoutofheaven,tostayhishand(Gen.22.11)from
slayingIsaac,therewasnoapparition,butavoicewhichneverthe
lesswascalledproperlyenoughamessengerorangelofGod,be
causeitdeclaredGod'swillsupernaturally,andsavesthelabourof
supposinganypermanentghosts.TheangelswhichJacobsawon
theladderofHeaven,(Gen.28.12)wereavisionofhissleep
thereforeonlyfancy,andadreamyetbeingsupernatural,andsigns
ofGod'sspecialpresence,thoseapparitionsarenotimproperly
calledangels.Thesameistobeunderstood,(Gen.31.II)where
Jacobsaiththus,TheAngeloftheLordappearedtomeinmysleep.For
anapparitionmadetoamaninhissleep,isthatwhichallmencall
adream,whethersuchdreambenatural,orsupernatural:andthat
whichthereJacobcallethanangel,wasGodhimselfforthesame
angelsaith(verse13)IamtheGodofBethel.
21.Also(Exod.14.19)theangelthatwentbeforethearmyof
IsraeltotheRedSea,andthencamebehindit,is(verse19)theLord
himselfandheappeared,notintheformofabeautifulman,butin
form(byday)ofapillarofcloud,and(bynight)informofapillarof
fireandyetthispillarwasalltheapparition,andangelpromisedto
Moses,(Exod.14.9)forthearmy'sguide:forthiscloudypillar,is
said,tohavedescended,andstoodatthedooroftheTabernacle,
andtohavetalkedwithMoses.
22.Thereyouseemotion,andspeech,whicharecommonly
attributedtoangels,attributedtoacloud,becausethecloudserved
asasignofGod'spresenceandwasnolessanangel,thanifithad
hadtheformofaman,orchildofneversogreatbeautyor
withwings,asusuallytheyarepainted,forthefalseinstructionof
commonpeople.Foritisnottheshapebuttheiruse,thatmakes
themangels.ButtheiruseistobesignificationsofGod'spresence
insupernaturaloperationsaswhenMoses(Exod.33.14)had[213]
desiredGodtogoalongwiththecamp,(ashehaddonealways
beforethemakingofthegoldencalf,)Goddidnotanswer,Iwillgo,
norIwillsendanangelinmysteadbutthus,Mypresenceshallgo
withthee.

23.TomentionalltheplacesoftheOldTestamentwherethe
nameofangelisfound,wouldbetoolong.Thereforetocompre
hendthemallatonce,Isay,thereisnotextinthatpartoftheOld
Testament,whichtheChurchofEnglandholdethforcanonical,
fromwhichwecanconclude,thereis,orhathbeencreated,any
permanentthing(understoodbythenameofspiritorangel,)that
hathnotquantityandthatmaynotbe,bytheunderstandingdiv
idedthatistosay,consideredbypartssoasonepartmaybeinone
place,andthenextpartinthenextplacetoitand,insum,whichis
not(takingbodyforthat,whichissomewhat,orsomewhere)cor
porealbutineveryplace,thesensewillbeartheinterpretationof
angel,formessengerasJohnBaptistiscalledanangel,andChrist
theAngeloftheCovenantandas(accordingtothesameanalogy)
thedove,andthefierytongues,inthattheyweresignsofGod's
specialpresence,mightalsobecalledangels.Thoughwefindin
Danieltwonamesofangels,Gabriel,andMichaelyetitisclearout
ofthetextitself,(Dan.12.1)thatbyMichaelismeantChrist,notas
anangel,butasaprince:andthatGabriel(asthelikeapparitions
madetootherholymenintheirsleep)wasnothingbutasupernatu
ralphantasm,bywhichitseemedtoDaniel,inhisdream,thattwo
saintsbeingintalk,oneofthemsaidtotheother,Gabriel,Letus
makethismanunderstandhisvision:forGodneedethnot,todistin
guishhiscelestialservantsbynames,whichareusefulonlytothe
shortmemoriesofmortals.NorintheNewTestamentisthereany
place,outofwhichitcanbeproved,thatangels(exceptwhenthey
areputforsuchmenasGodhathmadethemessengers,andminis
tersofhisword,orworks)arethingspermanent,andwithalincor
poreal.Thattheyarepermanent,maybegatheredfromthewordsof
ourSaviourhimself,(Matt.25.41)wherehesaith,itshallbesaidto
thewickedinthelastday,Goyecursedintoeverlastingfireprepared
fortheDevilandhisangels:whichplaceismanifestfortheperma
nenceofevilangels,(unlesswemightthinkthenameofDeviland
hisangelsmaybeunderstoodoftheChurch'sadversariesandtheir
ministers)butthenitisrepugnanttotheirimmaterialitybecause
everlastingfireisnopunishmenttoimpatible*substances,suchas
areallthingsincorporeal.Angelsthereforearenotthenceprovedto
beincorporeal.InlikemannerwhereSt.Paulsays,(1Cor.6.3)
Knowyenotthatweshalljudgetheangels?and(2Pet.2.4)ForifGod
sparednottheangelsthatsinned,butcastthemdownintohell.And

Page269

(Jude1.6)Andtheangelsthatkeptnottheirfirstestate,butleft
theirownhabitation,hehathreservedineverlastingchainsunderdark
nessuntothejudgmentofthelastdaythoughitprovethepermanence
ofangelicalnature,itconfirmethalsotheirmateriality.And(Matt.
22.30)Intheresurrectionmendoneithermarry,norgiveinmarriage,[214]
butareastheangelsofGodinheaven:butintheresurrectionmen
shallbepermanent,andnotincorporealsothereforealsoarethe
angels.
24.Therebediversotherplacesoutofwhichmaybedrawnthe
likeconclusion.Tomenthatunderstandthesignificationofthese
words,substance,andincorporealasincorporealistaken,notfor
subtlebody,butfornotbodytheyimplyacontradiction:insomuch
astosay,anangelorspiritis(inthatsense)anincorporealsub
stance,istosayineffect,thereisnoangelnorspiritatall.Con
sideringthereforethesignificationofthewordangelintheOld
Testament,andthenatureofdreamsandvisionsthathappento
menbytheordinarywayofnatureIwasinclinedtothisopinion,
thatangelswerenothingbutsupernaturalapparitionsofthefancy,
raisedbythespecialandextraordinaryoperationofGod,therebyto
makehispresenceandcommandmentsknowntomankind,and
chieflytohisownpeople.ButthemanyplacesoftheNewTesta
ment,andourSaviour'sownwords,andinsuchtexts,whereinisno
suspicionofcorruptionoftheScripture,haveextortedfrommy
feeblereason,anacknowledgment,andbelief,thattherebealso
angelssubstantial,andpermanent.Buttobelievetheybeinno
place,thatistosay,nowhere,thatistosay,nothing,asthey(though
indirectly)say,thatwillhavethemincorporeal,cannotbyScripture
beevinced.
25.Onthesignificationofthewordspirit,dependeththatoftheInspiration,
wordINSPIRATIONwhichmusteitherbetakenproperlyandthenitwhat.
isnothingbuttheblowingintoamansomethinandsubtleair,or
wind,insuchmannerasamanfillethabladderwithhisbreathor
ifspiritsbenotcorporeal,buthavetheirexistenceonlyinthefancy,
thenitisnothingbuttheblowinginofaphantasmwhichisim
propertosay,andimpossibleforphantasmsarenot,butonlyseem
tobe,somewhat.ThatwordthereforeisusedintheScripture
metaphoricallyonly:as(Gen.2.7)whereitissaidthatGodinspired
intomanthebreathoflife,nomoreismeant,thanthatGodgave
untohimvitalmotion.ForwearenottothinkthatGodmadefirst

alivingbreath,andthenblewitintoAdamafterhewasmade,
whetherthatbreathwerereal,orseemingbutonlyasitis(Acts17.
25)thathegavehimlife,andbreaththatis,madehimaliving
creature.Andwhereitissaid,(2Tim.3.16)allScriptureisgivenby
inspirationfromGod,speakingthereoftheScriptureoftheOld
Testament,itisaneasymetaphor,tosignify,thatGodinclinedthe
spiritormindofthosewriters,towritethatwhichshouldbeuseful,
inteaching,reproving,correcting,andinstructingmenintheway
ofrighteousliving.ButwhereSt.Peter.(2Pet.1.21)saith,that
Prophecycamenotinoldtimebythewillofman,buttheholymenof
GodspakeastheyweremovedbytheHolySpirit,bytheHolySpirit,
ismeantthevoiceofGodinadreamorvisionsupernatural,which
isnotinspiration.NorwhenourSaviourbreathingonhisdisciples,
said,ReceivetheHolySpirit,wasthatbreaththeSpirit,butasignof
[215]thespiritualgraceshegaveuntothem.Andthoughitbesaidof
many,andofourSaviourhimself,thathewasfulloftheHoly
Spirityetthatfullnessisnottobeunderstoodforinfusionofthe
substanceofGod,butforaccumulationofhisgifts,suchasarethe
giftofsanctityoflife,oftongues,andthelike,whetherattained
supernaturally,orbystudyandindustryforinallcasestheyarethe
giftsofGod.SolikewisewhereGodsays(Joel2.28)Iwillpourout
mySpirituponallflesh,andyoursonsandyourdaughtersshallproph
esy,youroldmenshalldreamdreams,andyouryoungmenshallsee
visions,wearenottounderstanditinthepropersense,asifhisSpirit
werelikewater,subjecttoeffusionorinfusionbutasifGodhad
promisedtogivethempropheticaldreams,andvisions.Forthe
properuseofthewordinfused,inspeakingofthegracesofGod,is
anabuseofitforthosegracesarevirtues,notbodiestobecarried
hitherandthither,andtobepouredintomenasintobarrels.
26.Inthesamemanner,totakeinspirationinthepropersense,or
tosaythatgoodspiritsenteredintomentomakethemprophesy,or
evilspiritsintothosethatbecamephrenetic,lunatic,orepileptic,is
nottotakethewordinthesenseoftheScripturefortheSpiritthere
istakenforthepowerofGod,workingbycausestousunknown.As
also(Acts2.2)thewind,thatistheresaidtofillthehousewherein
theapostleswereassembledonthedayofPentecost,isnottobe
understoodfortheHolySpirit,whichistheDeityitselfbutforan
externalsignofGod'sspecialworkingontheirhearts,toeffectin
themtheinternalgraces,andholyvirtueshethoughtrequisitefor
theperformanceoftheirapostleship.

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ChapterXXXV[216]
OftheSignificationinScriptureofKingdomofGod,ofHoly,Sacred,andSacrament
1.TheKingdomofGodinthewritingsofdivines,andspeciallyinThekingdom
sermons,andtreatisesofdevotion,istakenmostcommonlyforofGodtaken
eternalfelicity,afterthislife,inthehighestheaven,whichtheyalsobydivines
calltheKingdomofGloryandsometimes(fortheearnestofthatmetaphorically,
felicity)sanctification,whichtheytermtheKingdomofGracebutbutinthe
neverforthemonarchy,thatistosay,thesovereignpowerofGodScriptures.
overanysubjectsacquiredbytheirownconsent,whichistheproperproperly.
significationofkingdom.
2.Tothecontrary,IfindtheKINGDOMOFGOD,tosignifyinmost
placesofScripture,akingdomproperlysonamed,constitutedbythe
votesofthepeopleofIsraelinpeculiarmannerwhereintheychose
Godfortheirkingbycovenantmadewithhim,uponGod'sprom
isingthemthepossessionofthelandofCanaanandbutseldom
metaphoricallyandthenitistakenfordominionoversin(andonly
intheNewTestament)becausesuchadominionasthat,every
subjectshallhaveinthekingdomofGod,andwithoutprejudiceto
thesovereign.
3.Fromtheverycreation,Godnotonlyreignedoverallmen
naturallybyhismightbutalsohadpeculiarsubjects,whomhe
commandedbyavoice,asonemanspeakethtoanother.Inwhich
mannerhereignedoverAdam,andgavehimcommandmentto
abstainfromthetreeofcognizanceofgoodandevilwhichwhenhe
obeyednot,buttastingthereof,tookuponhimtobeasGod,judging
betweengoodandevil,notbyhiscreator'scommandment,butby
hisownsense,hispunishmentwasaprivationoftheestateofeternal
life,whereinGodhadatfirstcreatedhim:andafterwardsGod
punishedhisposterityfortheirvices,allbuteightpersons,withan
universaldelugeandintheseeightdidconsistthethenkingdomof
God.
4.AfterthisitpleasedGodtospeaktoAbraham,and(Gen.17.Theoriginal
7,8)tomakeacovenantwithhiminthesewords,Iwillestablishmyofthe
covenantbetweenme,andthee,andthyseedaftertheeintheirgenerkingdomof
ations,foraneverlastingcovenant,tobeaGodtothee,andtothyseedGod.
aftertheeandIwillgiveuntothee,andtothyseedafterthee,theland

whereinthouartastranger,allthelandofCanaanforaneverlasting
possession.InthiscovenantAbrahampromisethforhimselfandhis
posteritytoobeyasGod,theLordthatspaketohim:andGodonhis
partpromisethtoAbrahamthelandofCanaanforaneverlasting
[217]possession.Andforamemorial,andatokenofthiscovenant,he
ordaineth(verse11)thesacramentofcircumcision.Thisisitwhichis
calledtheoldcovenantortestamentandcontainethacontractbe
tweenGodandAbrahambywhichAbrahamobligethhimself,and
hisposterity,inapeculiarmannertobesubjecttoGod'spositive
lawfortothelawmoralhewasobligedbefore,asbyanoathof
allegiance.AndthoughthenameofKingbenotyetgiventoGod,
norofkingdomtoAbrahamandhisseedyetthethingisthesame
namely,aninstitutionbypact,ofGod'speculiarsovereigntyover
theseedofAbrahamwhichintherenewingofthesamecovenantby
Moses,atMountSinai,isexpresslycalledapeculiarkingdomofGod
overtheJews:anditisofAbraham(notofMoses)St.Paulsaith
(Rom.4.11)thatheisthefatherofthefaithfulthatis,ofthosethat
areloyal,anddonotviolatetheirallegiancesworntoGod,thenby
circumcision,andafterwardsinthenewcovenantbybaptism.
Thatthe5.Thiscovenant,atthefootofMountSinai,wasrenewedby
kingdomofMoses,(Exod.19.5)wheretheLordcommandethMosestospeakto
Godisthepeopleinthismanner,Ifyouwillobeymyvoiceindeed,andkeep
properlymycovenant,thenyeshallbeapeculiarpeopletome,foralltheearthis
hiscivilmineandyeshallbeuntomeasacerdotalkingdom,andanholynation.
sovereigntyForapeculiarpeople,thevulgarLatinhathpeculiumdecunctis
overapopulis:theEnglishtranslationmadeinthebeginningofthereignof
peculiarKingJames,hathapeculiartreasureuntomeaboveallnationsandthe
peoplebyGenevaFrench,themostpreciousjewelofallnations.Butthetruest
pact.translationisthefirst,becauseitisconfirmedbySt.Paulhimself
(Tit.2.14)wherehesaith,alludingtothatplace,thatourblessed
Saviourgavehimselfforus,thathemightpurifyustohimself,apeculiar
(thatis,anextraordinary)people:forthewordisintheGreek

:
andasthissignifiethordinary,quotidian,or(asintheLord'sPrayer)
ofdailyusesotheothersignifieththatwhichisoverplus,andstored
up,andenjoyedinaspecialmannerwhichtheLatinscallpeculium:
andthismeaningoftheplaceisconfirmedbythereasonGod
renderethofit,whichfollowethimmediately,inthatheaddeth,For
alltheearthismine,asifheshouldsay,Allthenationsoftheworldare
minebutitisnotsothatyouaremine,butinaspecialmanner.for

Page273

theyareallmine,byreasonofmypowerbutyoushallbemine,by
yourownconsent,andcovenantwhichisanadditiontohisordi
narytitle,toallnations.
6.Thesameisagainconfirmedinexpresswordsinthesametext,
Yeshallbetomeasacerdotalkingdom,andanholynation.Thevulgar
Latinhathit,regnumsacerdotale,towhichagreeththetranslationof
thatplace(1Pet.2.9)Sacerdotiumregale,aregalpriesthoodasalso
theinstitutionitself,bywhichnomanmightenterintotheSanctum
Sanctorum,thatistosay,nomanmightenquireGod'swillimmedi
atelyofGodhimself,butonlythehighpriest.TheEnglishtrans
lationbeforementioned,followingthatofGeneva,has,akingdomof
priestswhichiseithermeantofthesuccessionofonehighpriest[218]
afteranother,orelseitaccordethnotwithSt.Peter,norwiththe
exerciseofthehighpriesthood:fortherewasneveranybutthe
highpriestonly,thatwastoinformthepeopleofGod'swillnor
anyconvocationofpriestseverallowedtoenterintotheSanctum
Sanctorum.
7.Again,thetitleofaholynationconfirmsthesame:forholy
signifies,thatwhichisGod'sbyspecial,notbygeneralright.Allthe
earth(asissaidinthetext)isGod'sbutalltheearthisnotcalled
holy,butthatonlywhichissetapartforhisespecialservice,aswas
thenationoftheJews.Itisthereforemanifestenoughbythisone
place,thatbythekingdomofGod,isproperlymeantacommon
wealth,instituted(bytheconsentofthosewhichweretobesubject
thereto)fortheircivilgovernment,andtheregulatingoftheirbe
haviour,notonlytowardsGodtheirking,butalsotowardsone
anotherinpointofjustice,andtowardsothernationsbothinpeace
andwarwhichproperlywasakingdom,whereinGodwasking,and
thehighpriestwastobe(afterthedeathofMoses)hissoleviceroy
orlieutenant.
8.Buttherebemanyotherplacesthatclearlyprovethesame.
Asfirst(1Samuel8.7)whentheEldersofIsrael(grievedwith
thecorruptionofthesonsofSamuel)demandedaking,Samuel
displeasedtherewith,prayeduntotheLordandtheLord
answeringsaiduntohim,Hearkenuntothevoiceofthepeople,forthey
havenotrejectedthee,buttheyhaverejectedme,thatIshouldnot
reignoverthem.Outofwhichitisevident,thatGodhimselfwas
thentheirkingandSamueldidnotcommandthepeople,but
onlydeliveredtothemthatwhichGodfromtimetotimeappointed
him.

9.Again,(1Sam.12.12)whereSamuelsaithtothepeople,When
yesawthatNahash,kingofthechildrenofAmmon,cameagainstyou,
yesaiduntome,Nay,butakingshallreignoverus,whentheLordyour
Godwasyourking.ItismanifestthatGodwastheirking,and
governedthecivilstateoftheircommonwealth.
10.AndaftertheIsraeliteshadrejectedGod,theprophetsdid
foretellhisrestitutionas(Isaiah24.23)Thenthemoonshallbe
confounded,andthesunashamed,whentheLordofhostsshallreignin
MountZion,andinJerusalemwherehespeakethexpresslyofhis
reigninZionandJerusalemthatis,onearth.And(Micah4.7)And
theLordshallreignovertheminMountZion:thisMountZionisin
Jerusalemupontheearth.And(Ezek.20.33)AsIlive,saiththeLord
God,surelywithamightyhand,andastretchedoutarm,andwithfury
pouredout,Iwillruleoveryouand(verse37)Iwillcauseyoutopass
undertherod,andIwillbringyouintothebondofthecovenantthatis,
Iwillreignoveryou,andmakeyoutostandtothatcovenantwhich
youmadewithmebyMoses,andbrakeinyourrebellionagainstme
inthedaysofSamuel,andinyourelectionofanotherking.
11.AndintheNewTestament,theangelGabrielsaithofour
Saviour(Luke1.32,33)Heshallbegreat,andbecalledtheSonofthe
mostHigh,andtheLordshallgiveuntohimthethroneofhisfather
[219]DavidandheshallreignoverthehouseofJacobforeverandofhis
kingdomthereshallbenoend.Thisisalsoakingdomuponearthfor
theclaimwhereof,asanenemytoCaesar,hewasputtodeaththe
titleofhiscross,was,JesusofNazareth,KingoftheJewshewas
crownedinscornwithacrownofthornsandfortheproclaimingof
him,itissaidofthedisciples(Acts17.7)Thattheydidallofthem
contrarytothedecreesofCaesar,sayingtherewasanotherking,one
Jesus.ThekingdomthereforeofGod,isareal,notametaphorical
kingdomandsotaken,notonlyintheOldTestament,buttheNew
whenwesay,Forthineisthekingdom,thepower,andglory,itistobe
understoodofGod'skingdom,byforceofourcovenant,notbythe
rightofGod'spowerforsuchakingdomGodalwayshathsothat
itweresuperfluoustosayinourprayer,Thykingdomcome,unlessit
bemeantoftherestorationofthatkingdomofGodbyChrist,which
byrevoltoftheIsraeliteshadbeeninterruptedintheelectionof
Saul.Norhaditbeenpropertosay,Thekingdomofheavenisathand
ortopray,Thykingdomcome,ifithadstillcontinued.
12.Therebesomanyotherplacesthatconfirmthisinterpret
ation,thatitwereawonderthereisnogreaternoticetakenofit,but

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thatitgivestoomuchlighttoChristiankingstoseetheirrightof
ecclesiasticalgovernment.Thistheyhaveobserved,thatinsteadof
asacerdotalkingdom,translate,akingdomofpriests:fortheymayas
welltranslatearoyalpriesthood,(asitisinSt.Peter)intoapriesthood
ofkings.Andwhereas,forapeculiarpeople,theyputapreciousjewel,
ortreasure,amanmightaswellcallthespecialregiment,or
companyofageneral,thegeneral'spreciousjewel,orhistreasure.
13.Inshort,thekingdomofGodisacivilkingdomwhich
consisted,first,intheobligationofthepeopleofIsraeltothoselaws,
whichMosesshouldbringuntothemfromMountSinaiandwhich
afterwardsthehighpriestforthetimebeing,shoulddelivertothem
frombeforethecherubimsinthesanctumsanctorumandwhich
kingdomhavingbeencastoff,intheelectionofSaul,theprophets
foretold,shouldberestoredbyChristandtherestorationwhereof
wedailyprayfor,whenwesayintheLord'sPrayer,Thykingdom
comeandtherightwhereofweacknowledge,whenweadd,Forthine
isthekingdom,thepower,andglory,foreverandever,Amenandthe
proclaimingwhereof,wasthepreachingoftheapostlesandto
whichmenareprepared,bytheteachersoftheGospeltoembrace
whichGospel,(thatistosay,topromiseobediencetoGod'sgovern
ment)is,tobeinthekingdomofgrace,becauseGodhathgratisgiven
tosuchthepowertobethesubjects(thatis,children)ofGod
hereafter,whenChristshallcomeinmajestytojudgetheworld,and
actuallytogovernhisownpeople,whichiscalledthekingdomof
glory.IfthekingdomofGod(calledalsothekingdomofheaven,
fromthegloriousnessandadmirableheightofthatthrone)werenot
akingdomwhichGodbyhislieutenants,orvicars,whodeliverhis[220]
commandmentstothepeople,didexerciseonearththerewould
nothavebeensomuchcontention,andwar,aboutwhoitis,by
whomGodspeakethtousneitherwouldmanypriestshave
troubledthemselveswithspiritualjurisdiction,noranykinghave
denieditthem.
14.OutofthisliteralinterpretationofthekingdomofGod,Holy,what.
arisethalsothetrueinterpretationofthewordHOLY.Foritisa
word,whichinGod'skingdomanswerethtothat,whichmenin
theirkingdomsusetocallpublic,ortheking's.
15.Thekingofanycountryisthepublicperson,orrepresenta
tiveofallhisownsubjects.AndGodthekingofIsraelwastheHoly
OneofIsrael.Thenationwhichissubjecttooneearthlysovereign,
isthenationofthatsovereign,thatis,ofthepublicperson.Sothe

Jews,whowereGod'snation,werecalled(Exod.19.6)aholynation.
Forbyholy,isalwaysunderstoodeitherGodhimself,orthatwhich
isGod'sinproprietyasbypublic,isalwaysmeant,eitherthe
personofthecommonwealthitself,orsomethingthatissothe
commonwealth's,asnoprivatepersoncanclaimanypropriety
therein.
16.ThereforetheSabbath(God'sday)isaholydaythetemple
(God'shouse)aholyhousesacrifices,tithes,andofferings(God's
tribute)holydutiespriests,prophets,andanointedkings,under
Christ(God'sministers)holymenthecelestialministeringspirits
(God'smessengers)holyangelsandthelike:andwheresoeverthe
worldholyistakenproperly,thereisstillsomethingsignifiedof
propriety,gottenbyconsent.InsayingHallowedbethyname,wedo
butpraytoGodforgracetokeepthefirstcommandment,ofhaving
nootherGodsbuthim.MankindisGod'snationinpropriety:butthe
Jewsonlywereaholynation.Why,butbecausetheybecamehis
proprietybycovenant?
17.Andthewordprofane,isusuallytakenintheScripturefor
thesamewithcommonandconsequentlytheircontraries,holyand
proper,inthekingdomofGod,mustbethesamealso.But
figuratively,thosemenalsoarecalledholy,thatledsuchgodlylives,
asiftheyhadforsakenallworldlydesigns,andwhollydevotedand
giventhemselvestoGod.Inthepropersense,thatwhichismade
holybyGod'sappropriatingorseparatingittohisownuse,issaid
tobesanctifiedbyGod,astheseventhdayinthefourthcommand
mentandastheelectintheNewTestamentweresaidtobesancti
fied,whentheywereenduedwiththespiritofgodliness.Andthat
whichismadeholybythededicationofmen,andgiventoGod,so
Sacred,what.astobeusedonlyinhispublicservice,iscalledalsosACRED,andsaid
tobeconsecrated,astemples,andotherhousesofpublicprayer,and
theirutensils,priests,andministers,victims,offerings,andthe
externalmatterofsacraments.
Degreesof18.Ofholinesstherebedegrees:forofthosethingsthatareset
sanctity.apartfortheserviceofGod,theremaybesomesetapartagain,for
anearerandmoreespecialservice.ThewholenationoftheIsrael
iteswereapeopleholytoGodyetthetribeofLeviwasamongstthe
[221]IsraelitesaholytribeandamongsttheLevites,thepriestswereyet
moreholyandamongstthepriests,thehighpriestwasthemost
holy.SothelandofJudeawastheHolyLandbuttheholycity
whereinGodwastobeworshipped,wasmoreholyandagainthe

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Templemoreholythanthecity,andthesanctumsanctorummore
holythantherestoftheTemple.
19.ASACRAMENT,isaseparationofsomevisiblethingfromSacrament.
commonuseandaconsecrationofittoGod'sservice,forasign,
eitherofouradmissionintothekingdomofGod,tobeofthe
numberofhispeculiarpeople,orforacommemorationofthesame.
IntheOldTestament,thesignofadmissionwascircumcisioninthe
NewTestament,baptism.ThecommemorationofitintheOld
Testament,wastheeating(atacertaintime,whichwasanniversary)
ofthePaschalLambbywhichtheywereputinmindofthenight
whereintheyweredeliveredoutoftheirbondageinEgyptandin
theNewTestament,thecelebratingoftheLord'sSupperbywhich,
weareputinmindofourdeliverancefromthebondageofsin,by
ourblessedSaviour'sdeathuponthecross.Thesacramentsof
admission,arebutoncetobeused,becausethereneedsbutone
admissionbutbecausewehaveneedofbeingoftenputinmindof
ourdeliverance,andofourallegiance,thesacramentsofcommemor
ation*haveneedtobereiterated.Andthesearetheprincipalsacra
ments,andasitwerethesolemnoathswemakeofourallegiance.
Therebealsootherconsecrations,thatmaybecalledsacraments,as
thewordimpliethonlyconsecrationtoGod'sservicebutasit
impliesanoath,orpromiseofallegiancetoGod,therewerenoother
intheOldTestament,butcircumcision,andthepassovernorare
thereanyotherintheNewTestament,butbaptismandtheLord's
Supper.
ChapterXXXVI[222]
OftheWordofGod,andofProphets
1.WhenthereismentionofthewordofGod,orofman,itdothnotWord,what.
signifyapartofspeech,suchasgrammarianscallanoun,oraverb,
oranysimplevoice,withoutacontexturewithotherwordsto
makeitsignificativebutaperfectspeechordiscourse,whereby
thespeakeraffirmeth,denieth,commandeth,promiseth,threateneth,
wisheth,orinterrogateth.Inwhichsenseitisnotvocabulum,that
signifiesawordbutsermo,(inGreek
)thatis,somespeech,
discourse,orsaying.

Thewords2.Again,ifwesaythewordofGod,orofman,itmaybeunder
spokenbystoodsometimesofthespeaker,(asthewordsthatGodhathspoken)
God,andorthatamanhathspoken:inwhichsense,whenwesay,theGospel
concerningofSt.Matthew,weunderstandSt.Matthewtobethewriterofit:
God,bothareandsometimesofthesubject:inwhichsense,whenwereadinthe
calledGod'sBible,thewordsofthedaysofthekingsofIsrael,orJudah,itismeant,
wordinthattheactsthatweredoneinthosedays,werethesubjectofthose
Scripture.wordsandintheGreek,which(intheScripture)retainethmany
Hebraisms,bythewordofGodisoftentimesmeant,notthatwhich
isspokenbyGod,butconcerningGod,andhisgovernmentthat
istosay,thedoctrineofreligion:insomuch,asitisallone,to
say
,andtheologiawhichis,thatdoctrinewhichwe
usuallycalldivinity,asismanifestbytheplacesfollowing,(Acts13.
46)ThenPaulandBarnabaswaxedbold,andsaid,itwasnecessarythat
thewordofGodshouldfirsthavebeenspokentoyou,butseeingyouput
itfromyou,andjudgeyourselvesunworthyofeverlastinglife,lo,weturn
totheGentiles.ThatwhichisherecalledthewordofGod,wasthe
doctrineofChristianreligionasitappearsevidentlybythatwhich
goesbefore.And(Acts5.20)whereitissaidtotheapostlesbyan
angel,GostandandspeakintheTemple,allthewordsofthislifebythe
wordsofthislife,ismeant,thedoctrineoftheGospelasisevident
bywhattheydidintheTemple,andisexpressedinthelastverseof
thesamechapter,DailyintheTemple,andineveryhousetheyceased
nottoteachandpreachChristJesus:inwhichplaceitismanifest,that
JesusChristwasthesubjectofthiswordoflifeor(whichisallone)
thesubjectofthewordsofthislifeeternal,thatourSaviouroffered
them.So(Acts15.7)thewordofGod,iscalledthewordofthe
Gospel,becauseitcontaineththedoctrineofthekingdomofChrist
andthesameword(Rom.10.8,9)iscalledthewordoffaiththatis,
asisthereexpressed,thedoctrineofChristcome,andraisedfrom
[223]thedead.Also(Matt.13.19)Whenanyoneheareththewordofthe
kingdomthatis,thedoctrineofthekingdomtaughtbyChrist.
Again,thesameword,issaid(Acts12.24)togrowandtobemulti
pliedwhichtounderstandoftheevangelicaldoctrineiseasy,butof
thevoice,orspeechofGod,hardandstrange.Inthesamesense(1
Tim.4.1)thedoctrineofdevils,signifiethnotthewordsofanydevil,
butthedoctrineofheathenmenconcerningdemons,andthose
phantasmswhichtheyworshippedasgods.
3.ConsideringthesetwosignificationsoftheWORDOFGOD,asit
istakeninScripture,itismanifestinthislattersense(whereitis

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takenforthedoctrineofChristianreligion,)thatthewholeScrip
tureisthewordofGod:butintheformersensenotso.Forexample,
thoughthesewords,IamtheLordthyGod,&c.totheendofthe
TenCommandments,werespokenbyGodtoMosesyetthepref
ace,Godspakethesewordsandsaid,istobeunderstoodforthewords
ofhimthatwrotetheholyhistory.ThewordofGod,asitistakenforTheword
thatwhichhehathspoken,isunderstoodsometimesproperly,someofGod
timesmetaphorically.Properly,asthewords,hehathspokentohismetaphorically
prophets:metaphorically,forhiswisdom,power,andeternaldecree,used,first,for
inmakingtheworldinwhichsense,thosefiats,Lettherebelight,thedecrees
Lettherebeafirmament,Letusmakeman,&c.(Gen.1)arethewordandpowerof
ofGod.Andinthesamesenseitissaid(John1.3)AllthingswereGod
madebyit,andwithoutitwasnothingmadethatwasmade:and(Heb.
1.3)Heupholdethallthingsbythewordofhispowerthatis,bythe
powerofhiswordthatis,byhispower:and(Heb.11.3)Theworlds
wereflamedbythewordofGodandmanyotherplacestothesame
sense:asalsoamongsttheLatins,thenameoffate,whichsignifieth
properlythewordspoken,istakeninthesamesense.
4.Secondly,fortheeffectofhiswordthatistosay,forthethingSecondly,for
itself,whichbyhiswordisaffirmed,commanded,threatened,ortheeffectof
promisedas(Psalm105.19)whereJosephissaidtohavebeenkepthisword
inprison,tillhiswordwascomethatis,tillthatwascometopass
whichhehadforetoldtoPharaoh'sbutler(Gen.40.13),concerning
hisbeingrestoredtohisoffice:fortherebyhiswordwascome,is
meant,thethingitselfwascometopass.Soalso(1Kings18.36)
ElijahsaithtoGod,Ihavedoneallthesethywords,insteadofIhave
doneallthesethingsatthyword,orcommandmentand(Jer.17.15)
WhereisthewordoftheLord,isputfor,Whereistheevilhethreatened.
And(Ezek.12.28)Thereshallnoneofmywordsbeprolongedany
more:bywordsareunderstoodthosethings,whichGodpromisedto
hispeople.AndintheNewTestament(Matt.24.35)heavenand
earthshallpassaway,butmywordsshallnotpassawaythatis,there
isnothingthatIhavepromisedorforetold,thatshallnotcometo
pass.Andinthissenseitis,thatSt.JohntheEvangelist,and,I
think,St.Johnonly,callethourSaviourhimselfasinthefleshthe
wordofGod,as(John1.14)thewordwasmadefleshthatistosay,the
word,orpromisethatChristshouldcomeintotheworldwhointhe
beginningwaswithGodthatistosay,itwasinthepurposeofGod
theFather,tosendGodtheSonintotheworld,toenlightenmenin[224]
thewayofeternallifebutitwasnottillthenputinexecution,and

actuallyincarnatesothatourSaviouristherecalledtheword,not
becausehewasthepromise,butthethingpromised.Theythat
takingoccasionfromthisplace,docommonlycallhimtheverbof
God,dobutrenderthetextmoreobscure.Theymightaswellterm
himthenounofGod:forasbynoun,soalsobyverb,menunder
standnothingbutapartofspeech,avoice,asound,thatneither
affirms,nordenies,norcommands,norpromiseth,norisanysub
stancecorporeal,orspiritualandthereforeitcannotbesaidtobe
eitherGod,ormanwhereasourSaviourisboth.Andthisword,
whichSt.JohninhisgospelsaithwaswithGod,is(inhisfirst
Epistle,verse1)calledthewordoflifeand(verse2)theeternallife,
whichwaswiththeFather.Sothathecanbeinnoothersensecalled
theword,thaninthat,whereinheiscalledeternallifethatis,hethat
hathprocureduseternallife,byhiscomingintheflesh.Soalso
(Apocalypse19.13)theapostlespeakingofChrist,clothedina
garmentdippedinblood,saithhisnameisthewordofGodwhich
istobeunderstood,asifhehadsaidhisnamehadbeen,Hethatwas
comeaccordingtothepurposeofGodfromthebeginning,andaccording
tohiswordandpromisesdeliveredbytheprophets.Sothatthereis
nothinghereoftheincarnationofaword,butoftheincarnationof
GodtheSon,thereforecalledtheword,becausehisincarnationwas
theperformanceofthepromiseinlikemannerastheHolyGhostis
called(Acts1.4Luke24.49)thepromise.
Thirdly,for5.TherearealsoplacesoftheScripture,where,bythewordof
thewordsofGod,issignifiedsuchwordsasareconsonanttoreason,andequity,
reasonandthoughspokensometimesneitherbyprophet,norbyaholyman.
equity.ForPharaohNechowasanidolateryethiswordstothegoodking
Josiah,inwhichheadvisedhimbymessengers,nottoopposehimin
hismarchagainstCharchemish,aresaidtohaveproceededfromthe
mouthofGodandthatJosiahnothearkeningtothem,wasslainin
thebattleasistoberead(2Chron.35.21,22,23).Itistrue,thatas
thesamehistoryisrelatedinthefirstbookofEsdras,notPharaoh,
butJeremiah,spakethesewordstoJosiah,fromthemouthofthe
Lord.ButwearetogivecredittothecanonicalScripture,whatso
everbewrittenintheApocrypha.
6.ThewordofGod,isthenalsotobetakenforthedictatesof
reason,andequity,whenthesameissaidintheScripturestobe
writteninman'sheartasPsalm36.31Jer.31.33Deut.30.11,14,
andmanyotherlikeplaces.

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7.ThenameofPROPHET,signifiethinScripturesometimesproDivers
locutorthatis,hethatspeakethfromGodtoman,orfrommantoacceptionsof
God:andsometimespredictor,oraforetellerofthingstocome:andtheword
sometimesonethatspeakethincoherently,asmenthataredisprophet.
tracted.ItismostfrequentlyusedinthesenseofspeakingfromGod
tothepeople.SoMoses,Samuel,Elijah,Isaiah,Jeremiah,and
otherswereprophets.Andinthissensethehighpriestwasaprophet,
forheonlywentintothesanctumsanctorum,toenquireofGodand[225]
wastodeclarehisanswertothepeople.Andthereforewhen
Caiaphassaid,itwasexpedientthatonemanshoulddieforthe
people,St.Johnsaith(chapter11.51)thatHespakenotthisof
himselfbutbeinghighpriestthatyear,heprophesiedthatoneman
shoulddieforthenation.AlsotheythatinChristiancongregations
taughtthepeople,(1Cor.14.3)aresaidtoprophesy.Inthelike
senseitis,thatGodsaithtoMoses(Exod.4.16)concerningAaron,
Heshallbethyspokesmantothepeopleandheshallbetotheeamouth,
andthoushaltbetohiminsteadofGod:thatwhichhereisspokesman,
is(Exod.7.1)interpretedprophetSee(saithGod)Ihavemadethee
aGodtoPharaoh,andAaronthybrothershallbethyprophet.Inthe
senseofspeakingfrommantoGod,Abrahamiscalledaprophet
(Gen.20.7)whereGodinadreamspeakethtoAbimelechinthis
manner,Nowthereforerestorethemanhiswife,forheisaprophet,and
shallprayfortheewherebymaybealsogathered,thatthenameof
prophetmaybegiven,notunproperlytothemthatinChristian
churches,haveacallingtosaypublicprayersforthecongregation.
Inthesamesense,theprophetsthatcamedownfromthehighplace
(orhillofGod)withapsaltery,andatabret,andapipe,andaharp
(1Sam.10.5,6)and(verse10)Saulamongstthem,aresaidto
prophesy,inthattheypraisedGodinthatmannerpublicly.Inthe
likesense,isMiriam(Exod.15.20)calledaprophetess.Soisitalso
tobetaken(1Cor.11.4,5)whereSt.Paulsaith,Everymanthat
prayethorprophesiethwithhisheadcovered,&c.,andeverywoman
thatprayethorprophesiethwithherheaduncovered:forprophecyin
thatplace,signifiethnomore,butpraisingGodinpsalms,andholy
songswhichwomenmightdointhechurch,thoughitwerenot
lawfulforthemtospeaktothecongregation.Andinthissignifica
tionitis,thatthepoetsoftheheathen,thatcomposedhymnsand
othersortsofpoemsinthehonouroftheirgods,werecalledvates
(prophets)asiswellenoughknownbyallthatareversedinthe

booksoftheGentiles,andasisevident(Tit.1.12),whereSt.Paul
saithoftheCretans,thataprophetoftheirownsaid,theywereliars
notthatSt.Paulheldtheirpoetsforprophets,butacknowledgeth
thatthewordprophetwascommonlyusedtosignifythemthat
celebratedthehonourofGodinverse.
Prediction8.Whenbyprophecyismeantprediction,orforetellingoffuture
offuturecontingentsnotonlytheywereprophets,whowereGod'sspokes
contingents,men,andforetoldthosethingstoothers,whichGodhadforetoldto
notalwaysthembutalsoallthoseimpostors,thatpretend,byhelpoffamiliar
prophecy.spirits,orbysuperstitiousdivinationofeventspast,fromfalse
causes,toforetellthelikeeventsintimetocome:ofwhich(asIhave
declaredalreadyinthetwelfthchapterofthisdiscourse)therebe
manykinds,whogainintheopinionofthecommonsortofmen,a
greaterreputationofprophecy,byonecasualeventthatmaybebut
wrestedtotheirpurpose,thancanbelostagainbyneversomany
failings.Prophecyisnotanart,nor(whenitistakenforprediction)
aconstantvocationbutanextraordinary,andtemporaryemploy
[226]mentfromGod,mostoftenofgoodmen,butsometimesalsoofthe
wicked.ThewomanofEndor,whoissaidtohavehadafamiliar
spirit,andtherebytohaveraisedaphantasmofSamuel,andfore
toldSaulhisdeath,wasnotthereforeaprophetessforneitherhad
sheanyscience,wherebyshecouldraisesuchaphantasmnordoes
itappearthatGodcommandedtheraisingofitbutonlyguidedthat
imposturetobeameansofSaul'sterroranddiscouragementandby
consequent,ofthediscomfiture,bywhichhefell.Andforincoher
entspeech,itwasamongsttheGentilestakenforonesortofproph
ecy,becausetheprophetsoftheiroracles,intoxicatedwithaspirit,
orvapourfromthecaveofthePythianoracleatDelphi,wereforthe
timereallymad,andspakelikemadmenofwhoseloosewordsa
sensemightbemadetofitanyevent,insuchsort,asallbodiesare
saidtobemadeofmateriaprima.InScriptureIfinditalsosotaken
(1Sam.18.10)inthesewords,AndtheevilspiritcameuponSaul,and
heprophesiedinthemidstofthehouse.
Themanner9.*AndalthoughtherebesomanysignificationsinScriptureof
howGodthewordprophetyetisthatthemostfrequent,inwhichitistaken
hathspokenforhim,towhomGodspeakethimmediately,thatwhichthe
totheprophetistosayfromhim,tosomeotherman,ortothepeople.And
prophets.hereuponaquestionmaybeasked,inwhatmannerGodspeakethto
suchaprophet.Canit(maysomesay)beproperlysaid,thatGod
hathvoiceandlanguage,whenitcannotbeproperlysaid,hehatha

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tongue,orotherorgans,asaman?TheprophetDavidargueththus,
(Psalm94.9)Shallhethatmadetheeye,notsee?orhethatmadethe
ear,nothear?Butthismaybespoken,notasusually,tosignify
God'snature,buttosignifyourintentiontohonourhim.Fortosee,
andhear,arehonourableattributes,andmaybegiventoGod,to
declare(asfarasourcapacitycanconceive)hisalmightypower.But
ifitweretobetakeninthestrict,andpropersense,onemightargue
fromhismakingofallotherpartsofman'sbody,thathehadalsothe
sameuseofthemwhichwehavewhichwouldbemanyofthemso
uncomely,asitwouldbethegreatestcontumelyintheworldto
ascribethemtohim.ThereforewearetointerpretGod'sspeaking
tomenimmediately,forthatway(whatsoeveritbe)bywhichGod
makesthemunderstandhiswill.Andthewayswherebyhedoth
this,aremanyandtobesoughtonlyintheHolyScripture:Where
thoughmanytimesitbesaid,thatGodspaketothis,andthat
person,withoutdeclaringinwhatmanneryettherebeagainmany
places,thatdeliveralsothesignsbywhichtheyweretoacknowledge
hispresence,andcommandmentandbythesemaybeunderstood,
howhespaketomanyoftherest.
10.InwhatmannerGodspaketoAdam,andEve,andCain,andTothe
Noah,isnotexpressednorhowhespaketoAbraham,tillsuchtimeextraordinary
ashecameoutofhisowncountrytoSicheminthelandofCanaanprophetsof
andthen(Gen.12.7)Godissaidtohaveappearedtohim.SotheretheOld
isoneway,wherebyGodmadehispresencemanifestthatis,byanTestamenthe
apparition,orvision.Andagain,(Gen.15.1)thewordoftheLordcamespakeby
toAbrahaminavisionthatistosay,somewhat,asasignofGod'sdreams,or
presence,appearedasGod'smessenger,tospeaktohim.Again,thevisions.
LordappearedtoAbraham(Gen.18.1)byanapparitionofthree[227]
angelsandtoAbimelech(Gen.20.3)inadream:toLot(Gen.19.1)
byanapparitionoftwoangels:andtoHagar(Gen.21.17)bythe
apparitionofoneangel:andtoAbrahamagain(Gen.22.11)by
theapparitionofavoicefromheaven:and(Gen.26.24)toIsaacin
thenight(thatis,inhissleep,orbydream):andtoJacob(Gen.18.
12)inadreamthatistosay(asarethewordsofthetext)Jacob
dreamedthathesawaladder,&c.And(Gen.32.1)inavisionof
angels:andtoMoses(Exod.3.2)intheapparitionofaflameoffire
outofthemidstofabush:andafterthetimeofMoses,(wherethe
mannerhowGodspakeimmediatelytomanintheOldTestament,
isexpressed)hespakealwaysbyavision,orbyadreamasto
Gideon,Samuel,Eliah,Elisha,Isaiah,Ezekiel,andtherestofthe

prophetsandoftenintheNewTestament,astoJoseph,toSt.
Peter,toSt.Paul,andtoSt.JohntheEvangelistintheApocalypse.
11.OnlytoMoseshespakeinamoreextraordinarymannerin
MountSinai,andintheTabernacleandtothehighpriestinthe
Tabernacle,andinthesanctumsanctorumoftheTemple.ButMo
ses,andafterhimthehighpriestswereprophetsofamoreeminent
placeanddegreeinGod'sfavourandGodhimselfinexpresswords
declareth,thattootherprophetshespakeindreamsandvisions,but
tohisservantMoses,insuchmannerasamanspeakethtohis
friend.Thewordsarethese(Numb.12.6,7,8)Iftherebeaprophet
amongyou,ItheLordwillmakemyselfknowntohiminavision,and
willspeakuntohiminadream.MyservantMosesisnotso,whois
faithfulinallmyhousewithhimIwillspeakmouthtomouth,even
apparently,notindarkspeechesandthesimilitudeoftheLordshallhe
behold.And(Exod.33.11)TheLordspaketoMosesfacetoface,asa
manspeakethtohisfriend.AndyetthisspeakingofGodtoMoses,
wasbymediationofanangel,orangels,asappearsexpressly,Acts7.
35and53,andGal.3.19,andwasthereforeavision,thoughamore
clearvisionthanwasgiventootherprophets.Andconformable
hereunto,whereGodsaith(Deut.13.1)Ifthereariseamongstyoua
prophet,ordreamerofdreams,thelatterwordisbuttheinterpretation
oftheformer.And(Joel2.28)Yoursonsandyourdaughtersshall
prophesyyouroldmenshalldreamdreams,andyouryoungmenshall
seevisions:whereagain,thewordprophesyisexpoundedbydream,
andvision.Andinthesamemanneritwas,thatGodspaketo
Solomon,promisinghimwisdom,riches,andhonourforthetext
saith,(1Kings3.15)AndSolomonawoke,andbeholditwasadream:
sothatgenerallytheprophetsextraordinaryintheOldTestament
tooknoticeofthewordofGodnootherwise,thanfromtheir
dreams,orvisionsthatistosay,fromtheimaginationswhichthey
hadintheirsleep,orinanextasy:whichimaginationsineverytrue
prophetweresupernaturalbutinfalseprophetswereeithernatural
orfeigned.
12.Thesameprophetswereneverthelesssaidtospeakbythe
[228]spiritas(Zech.7.12)wheretheprophetspeakingoftheJews,saith,
Theymadetheftheartshardasadamant,lesttheyshouldhearthelaw,
andthewordswhichtheLordofHostshathsentinhisSpiritbythe
formerprophets.Bywhichitismanifest,thatspeakingbythespirit,
orinspiration,wasnotaparticularmannerofGod'sspeaking,differ

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entfromvision,whentheythatweresaidtospeakbytheSpirit,
wereextraordinaryprophets,suchasforeverynewmessage,wereto
haveapeculiarcommission,or(whichisallone)anewdream,or
vision.
13.Ofprophets,thatweresobyaperpetualcallingintheOldToprophets
Testament,someweresupreme,andsomesubordinate:supremewereofperpetual
firstMosesandafterhimthehighpriests,everyoneforhistime,ascalling,and
longasthepriesthoodwasroyalandafterthepeopleoftheJewshadsupreme,God
rejectedGod,thatheshouldnomorereignoverthem,thosekingsspakein
whichsubmittedthemselvestoGod'sgovernment,werealsohistheOld
chiefprophetsandthehighpriest'sofficebecameministerial.AndTestament
whenGodwastobeconsulted,theyputontheholyvestments,andfromthe
enquiredoftheLord,asthekingcommandedthem,andweremercyseat,
deprivedoftheiroffice,whenthekingthoughtfit.ForkingSaulinamanner
(1Sam.13.9)commandedtheburntofferingtobebrought,and(1notexpressed.
Sam.14.18)hecommandstheprieststobringthearknearhimandinthe
(verse19)againtoletitalone,becausehesawanadvantageuponhisScripture.
enemies.AndinthesamechapterSaulaskethcounselofGod.In
likemannerkingDavid,afterhisbeinganointed,thoughbeforehe
hadpossessionofthekingdom,issaidtoenquireoftheLord(1Sam.
23.2)whetherheshouldfightagainstthePhilistinesatKeilahand
(verse10)Davidcommandeththepriesttobringhimtheephod,to
enquirewhetherheshouldstayinKeilah,ornot.AndkingSolomon
(1Kings2.27)tookthepriesthoodfromAbiathar,andgaveit(verse
35)toZadok.ThereforeMoses,andthehighpriests,andthepious
kings,whoenquiredofGodonallextraordinaryoccasions,how
theyweretocarrythemselves,orwhateventtheyweretohave,were
allsovereignprophets.ButinwhatmannerGodspakeuntothem,is
notmanifest.TosaythatwhenMoseswentuptoGodinMount
Sinai,itwasadream,orvision,suchasotherprophetshad,is
contrarytothatdistinctionwhichGodmadebetweenMoses,and
otherprophets(Numb.12.6,7,8).TosayGodspakeorappearedas
heisinhisownnature,istodenyhisinfiniteness,invisibility,
incomprehensibility.Tosayhespakebyinspiration,orinfusionof
theHolySpirit,astheHolySpiritsignifieththeDeity,istomake
MosesequalwithChrist,inwhomonlytheGodhead(asSt.Paul
speaketh,Col.2.9)dwellethbodily.Andlastly,tosayhespakeby
theHolySpirit,asitsignifieththegraces,orgiftsoftheHolySpirit,
istoattributenothingtohimsupernatural.ForGoddisposethmen

topiety,justice,mercy,truth,faith,andallmannerofvirtue,both
moralandintellectual,bydoctrine,example,andbyseveral
occasions,naturalandordinary.
14.AndasthesewayscannotbeappliedtoGodinhisspeaking
toMoses,atMountSinaisoalso,theycannotbeappliedtohim,in
[229]hisspeakingtothehighpriests,fromthemercyseat.Thereforein
whatmannerGodspaketothosesovereignprophetsoftheOld
Testament,whoseofficeitwastoenquireofhim,asitisnotde
clared,soalsoitisnotintelligible,otherwisethanbyavoice.*Inthe
timeoftheNewTestament,therewasnosovereignprophet,but
ourSaviourwhowasbothGodthatspake,andtheprophetto
whomhespake.
Toprophets15.Tosubordinateprophetsofperpetualcalling,Ifindnotany
ofperpetualplacethatprovethGodspaketothemsupernaturallybutonlyin
calling,butsuchmanner,asnaturallyheinclinethmentopiety,tobelief,to
subordinate,righteousness,andtoothervirtuesallotherChristianmen.Which
Godspakebyway,thoughitconsistinconstitution,instruction,education,and
thespirit.theoccasionsandinvitementsmenhavetoChristianvirtuesyetit
istrulyattributedtotheoperationoftheSpiritofGod,orHoly
Spirit(whichweinourlanguagecalltheHolyGhost):forthereis
nogoodinclination,thatisnotoftheoperationofGod.Butthese
operationsarenotalwayssupernatural.Whenthereforeaprophetis
saidtospeakinthespirit,orbythespiritofGod,wearetounder
standnomore,butthathespeaksaccordingtoGod'swill,declared
bythesupremeprophet.Forthemostcommonacceptationofthe
wordspirit,isinthesignificationofaman'sintention,mind,or
disposition.
16.InthetimeofMoses,therewereseventymenbesideshim
self,thatprophesiedinthecampoftheIsraelites.Inwhatmanner
Godspaketothem,isdeclaredinNumbers,chap.11,verse25.The
Lordcamedowninacloud,andspakeuntoMoses,andtookofthespirit
thatwasuponhim,andgaveittotheseventyelders.Anditcametopass,
whenthespiritresteduponthem,theyprophesiedanddidnotcease.By
whichitismanifest,first,thattheirprophesyingtothepeoplewas
subservient,andsubordinatetotheprophesyingofMosesforthat
GodtookofthespiritofMoses,toputuponthemsothatthey
prophesiedasMoseswouldhavethem:otherwisetheyhadnotbeen
sufferedtoprophesyatall.Fortherewas(verse27)acomplaint
madeagainstthemtoMosesandJoshuawouldhavehadMosesto
forbidthemwhichhedidnot,butsaidtoJoshua,benotjealousinmy

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behalfSecondly,thatthespiritofGodinthatplace,signifieth
nothingbutthemindanddispositiontoobey,andassistMosesin
theadministrationofthegovernment.Forifitweremeanttheyhad
thesubstantialspiritofGodthatis,thedivinenature,inspiredinto
them,thentheyhaditinnolessmannerthanChristhimself,in
whomonlythespiritofGoddweltbodily.Itismeantthereforeof
thegiftandgraceofGod,thatguidedthemtocooperatewith
Mosesfromwhomtheirspiritwasderived.Anditappeareth(verse
16)that,theyweresuchasMoseshimselfshouldappointforelders
andofficersofthepeople:forthewordsare,Gatheruntomeseventy
men,whomthouknowesttobeeldersandofficersofthepeople:where,
thouknowest,isthesamewiththouappointest,orhastappointedtobe
such.Forwearetoldbefore(Exod.18.24)thatMosesfollowingthe
counselofJethrohisfatherinlaw,didappointjudges,andofficers
overthepeople,suchasfearedGodandofthesewerethosesev
enty,whomGod,byputtinguponthemMoses'spirit,inclinedto[230]
aidMosesintheadministrationofthekingdom:andinthissense
thespiritofGodissaid(1Sam.16.13,14)presentlyuponthe
anointingofDavid,tohavecomeuponDavid,andleftSaulGod
givinghisgracestohimhechosetogovernhispeople,andtaking
themawayfromhim,herejected.Sothatbythespiritismeant
inclinationtoGod'sserviceandnotanysupernaturalrevelation.
17.GodspakealsomanytimesbytheeventoflotswhichwereGod
orderedbysuchashehadputinauthorityoverhispeople.Sowesometimes
readthatGodmanifestedbythelotswhichSaulcausedtobedrawnalsospakeby
(1Sam.14.43)thefaultthatJonathanhadcommitted,ineatingalots.
honeycomb,contrarytotheoathtakenbythepeople.And(Josh.
18.10)GoddividedthelandofCanaanamongsttheIsraelites,by
thelotsthatJoshuadidcastbeforetheLordinShiloh.Inthesame
manneritseemethtobe,thatGoddiscovered(Josh.7.16,&c.)the
crimeofAchan.AndthesearethewayswherebyGoddeclaredhis
willintheOldTestament.
18.AllwhichwaysheusedalsointheNewTestament.Tothe
VirginMary,byavisionofanangel:toJosephinadream:again,to
PaulinthewaytoDamascusinavisionofourSaviour:andtoPeter
inthevisionofasheetletdownfromheaven,withdiverssortsof
fleshofclean,anduncleanbeastsandinprison,byvisionofan
angel:andtoalltheapostles,andwritersoftheNewTestament,by
thegracesofhisspiritandtotheapostlesagain(atthechoosingof
MatthiasintheplaceofJudasIscarot)bylot.

Everyman19.Seeingthenallprophecysupposethvision,ordream,(which
oughttotwo,whentheybenatural,arethesame,)orsomeespecialgiftof
examinetheGod,sorarelyobservedinmankind,astobeadmiredwhereob
probabilityofservedandseeingaswellsuchgifts,asthemostextraordinary
apretendeddreams,andvisions,mayproceedfromGod,notonlybyhissuper
prophet'scalling.natural,andimmediate,butalsobyhisnaturaloperation,andby
calling.mediationofsecondcausesthereisneedofreasonandjudgmentto
discernbetweennatural,andsupernaturalgifts,andbetweennatu
ral,andsupernaturalvisionsordreams.Andconsequentlymenhad
needtobeverycircumspect,andwary,inobeyingthevoiceofman,
thatpretendinghimselftobeaprophet,requiresustoobeyGodin
thatway,whichheinGod'snametellethustobethewayto
happiness.Forhethatpretendstoteachmenthewayofsogreat
felicity,pretendstogovernthemthatistosay,toruleandreign
overthemwhichisathing,thatallmennaturallydesire,andis
thereforeworthytobesuspectedofambitionandimpostureand
consequently,oughttobeexamined,andtriedbyeveryman,before
heyieldthemobedienceunlesshehaveyieldeditthemalready,in
theinstitutionofacommonwealthaswhentheprophetisthecivil
sovereign,orbythecivilsovereignauthorized.Andifthisexamin
ationofprophets,andspirits,werenotallowedtoeveryoneofthe
people,ithadbeentonopurpose,tosetoutthemarks,bywhich
everymanmightbeabletodistinguishbetweenthose,whomthey
ought,andthosewhomtheyoughtnottofollow.Seeingtherefore
[231]suchmarksaresetout(Deut.13.1,&c.)toknowaprophetbyand
(1John4.1,&c.)toknowaspiritby:andseeingthereissomuch
prophesyingintheOldTestamentandsomuchpreachinginthe
NewTestamentagainstprophetsandsomuchgreateranumber
ordinarilyoffalseprophets,thanoftrueeveryoneistobewareof
obeyingtheirdirections,attheirownperil.Andfirst,thatthere
weremanymorefalsethantrueprophets,appearsbythis,thatwhen
Ahab(1Kings12)consultedfourhundredprophets,theywereall
falseimpostors,butonlyoneMicaiah.Andalittlebeforethetimeof
thecaptivity,theprophetsweregenerallyliars.Theprophets(saith
theLord,byJeremiah,chapter14.14)prophesyliesinmyname.Isent
themnot,neitherhaveIcommandedthem,norspakeuntothemthey
prophesytoyouafalsevision,athingofnoughtandthedeceitoftheir
heart.InsomuchasGodcommandedthepeoplebythemouthofthe
prophetJeremiah(chapter23.16)nottoobeythem.Thussaiththe
Lordofhosts,hearkennotuntothewordsoftheprophets,thatprophesy

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toyou.Theymakeyouvain,theyspeakavisionoftheirownheart,and
notoutofthemouthoftheLord.
20.SeeingthentherewasinthetimeoftheOldTestament,suchAllprophecy
quarrelsamongstthevisionaryprophets,onecontestingwithbutofthe
another,andasking,whendepartedtheSpiritfromme,togotosovereign
thee?asbetweenMicaiah,andtherestofthefourhundredandprophet,isto
suchgivingofthelietooneanother,(asinJer.14.14)andsuchbeexamined
controversiesintheNewTestamentatthisday,amongstthespirbyevery
itualprophets:everymanthenwas,andnowisboundtomakeusesubject.
ofhisnaturalreason,toapplytoallprophecythoseruleswhichGod
hathgivenus,todiscernthetruefromfalse.Ofwhichrules,inthe
OldTestament,onewas,conformabledoctrinetothatwhichMoses
thesovereignprophethadtaughtthemandtheotherthemiracu
louspowerofforetellingwhatGodwouldbringtopass,asIhave
alreadyshowedoutofDeut.13.1,&c.AndintheNewTestament
therewasbutoneonlymarkandthatwasthepreachingofthis
doctrine,thatJesusistheChrist,*thatis,kingoftheJews,promised
intheOldTestament.Whosoeverdeniedthatarticle,hewasafalse
prophet,whatsoevermiracleshemightseemtoworkandhethat
taughtitwasatrueprophet.ForSt.John(1John4.2,&c.)speaking
expresslyofthemeanstoexaminespirits,whethertheybeofGod,
ornotafterhehadtoldthemthattherewouldarisefalseprophets,
saiththus,HerebyknowyetheSpiritofGod.Everyspiritthat
confesseththatJesusChristiscomeintheflesh,isofGodthatis,is
approvedandallowedasaprophetofGod:notthatheisagodly
man,oroneoftheelect,forthis,thatheconfesseth,professeth,or
preachethJesustobetheChristbutforthatheisaprophetavowed.
ForGodsometimesspeakethbyprophets,whosepersonshehath
notacceptedashedidbyBalaamandasheforetoldSaulofhis
death,bytheWitchofEndor.Againinthenextverse,Everyspirit
thatconfessethnotthatJesusChristiscomeintheflesh,isnotofChrist.
AndthisisthespiritofAntiChrist.Sothattheruleisperfectonboth[232]
sidesthatheisatrueprophet,whichpreacheththeMessiahalready
come,inthepersonofJesusandheafalseonethatdeniethhim
come,andlookethforhiminsomefutureimpostor,thatshalltake
uponhimthathonourfalsely,whomtheapostlethereproperly
callethAntiChrist.Everymanthereforeoughttoconsiderwhois
thesovereignprophetthatistosay,whoitis,thatisGod'svice
gerentonearthandhathnextunderGod,theauthorityofgovern
ingChristianmenandtoobserveforarule,thatdoctrine,whichin

thenameofGod,hehathcommandedtobetaughtandtherebyto
examineandtryoutthetruthofthosedoctrines,whichpretended
prophetswithmiracle,orwithout,shallatanytimeadvance:andif
theyfinditcontrarytothatrule,todoastheydid,thatcameto
Moses,andcomplainedthatthereweresomethatprophesiedinthe
camp,whoseauthoritysotodotheydoubtedofandleavetothe
sovereign,astheydidtoMoses,touphold,ortoforbidthem,ashe
shouldseecauseandifhedisavowthem,thennomoretoobeytheir
voiceorifheapprovethem,thentoobeythem,asmentowhom
Godhathgivenapartofthespiritoftheirsovereign.Forwhen
Christianmen,takenottheirChristiansovereign,forGod's
prophettheymusteithertaketheirowndreams,fortheprophecy
theymeantobegovernedby,andthetumouroftheirownheartsfor
theSpiritofGodortheymustsufferthemselvestobeledbysome
strangeprinceorbysomeoftheirfellowsubjects,thatcanbewitch
them,byslanderofthegovernment,intorebellion,withoutother
miracletoconfirmtheircalling,thansometimesanextraordinary
successandimpunityandbythismeansdestroyingalllaws,both
divine,andhuman,reduceallorder,government,andsociety,tothe
firstchaosofviolence,andcivilwar.
[233]ChapterXXXVII
OfMiracles,andTheirUse
Amiracleis1.BymiraclesaresignifiedtheadmirableworksofGod:andthere
aworkthatforetheyarealsocalledwonders.Andbecausetheyareforthemost
causethpart,done,forasignificationofhiscommandment,insuchoc
admiration.casions,aswithoutthem,menareapttodoubt,(followingtheir
privatenaturalreasoning,)whathehathcommanded,andwhatnot,
theyarecommonlyinholyScripture,calledsigns,inthesamesense,
astheyarecalledbytheLatins,ostenta,andportenta,fromshowing,
andforesignifyingthat,whichtheAlmightyisabouttobringto
Andmustpass.
thereforebe2.Tounderstandthereforewhatisamiracle,wemustfirst
rare,andunderstandwhatworkstheyare,whichmenwonderat,andcall
whereofthereadmirable.Andtherebebuttwothingswhichmakemenwonderat
isnonaturalanyevent:theoneis,ifitbestrange,thatistosay,such,asthelike
auseknown.ofithathnever,orveryrarelybeenproduced:theotheris,ifwhen

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itisproduced,wecannotimagineittohavebeendonebynatural
means,butonlybytheimmediatehandofGod.Butwhenwesee
somepossible,naturalcauseofit,howrarelysoeverthelikehasbeen
doneorifthelikehavebeenoftendone,howimpossiblesoeveritbe
toimagineanaturalmeansthereof,wenomorewonder,noresteem
itforamiracle.
3.Therefore,ifahorse,orcowshouldspeak,itwereamiracle
becauseboththethingisstrange,andthenaturalcausedifficultto
imagine:soalsowereit,toseeastrangedeviationofnature,inthe
productionofsomenewshapeofalivingcreature.Butwhenaman,
orotheranimal,engendershislike,thoughweknownomorehow
thisisdone,thantheotheryetbecause'tisusual,itisnomiracle.
Inlikemanner,ifamanbemetamorphosedintoastone,orintoa
pillar,itisamiraclebecausestrange:butifapieceofwoodbeso
changedbecauseweseeitoften,itisnomiracle:andyetweknow
nomore,bywhatoperationofGod,theoneisbroughttopass,than
theother.
4.Thefirstrainbowthatwasseenintheworld,wasamiracle,
becausethefirstandconsequentlystrangeandservedforasign
fromGod,placedinheaven,toassurehispeople,thereshouldbeno
moreanyuniversaldestructionoftheworldbywater.Butatthis
day,becausetheyarefrequent,theyarenotmiracles,neitherto
themthatknowtheirnaturalcauses,nortothemwhoknowthem
not.Again,therebemanyrareworksproducedbytheartofman:
yetwhenweknowtheyaresodonebecausetherebyweknowalso
themeanshowtheyaredone,wecountthemnotformiracles,
becausenotwroughtbytheimmediatehandofGod,butbyme[234]
diationofhumanindustry.
5.Furthermore,seeingadmirationandwonder,consequenttoThatwhich
theknowledgeandexperience,wherewithmenareendued,someseemetha
more,somelessitfolloweth,thatthesamething,maybeamiraclemiracleto
toone,andnottoanother.Andthenceitis,thatignorant,andoneman,
superstitiousmenmakegreatwondersofthoseworks,whichothermayseem
men,knowingtoproceedfromnature,(whichisnottheimmediate,otherwiseto
buttheordinaryworkofGod,)admirenotatall:aswheneclipsesofanother.
thesunandmoonhavebeentakenforsupernaturalworks,bythe
commonpeoplewhennevertheless,therewereothers,whocould
fromtheirnaturalcauses,haveforetoldtheveryhourtheyshould
arrive:or,aswhenaman,byconfederacyandsecretintelligence,
gettingknowledgeoftheprivateactionsofanignorant,unwary

man,therebytellshim,whathehasdoneinformertimeitseemsto
himamiraculousthingbutamongstwise,andcautelousmen,such
miraclesasthose,cannoteasilybedone.
Theendof6.Again,itbelongethtothenatureofamiracle,thatitbe
miracles.wroughtfortheprocuringofcredittoGod'smessengers,ministers,
andprophets,thattherebymenmayknow,theyarecalled,sent,and
employedbyGod,andtherebybethebetterinclinedtoobeythem.
Andtherefore,thoughthecreationoftheworld,andafterthatthe
destructionofalllivingcreaturesintheuniversaldeluge,were
admirableworksyetbecausetheywerenotdonetoprocurecredit
toanyprophet,orotherministerofGod,theyusenottobecalled
miracles.Forhowadmirablesoeveranyworkbe,theadmiration
consistethnotinthatitcouldbedone,becausemennaturallybe
lievetheAlmightycandoallthings,butbecausehedoesitatthe
prayer,orwordofaman.ButtheworksofGodinEgypt,bythe
handofMoses,wereproperlymiraclesbecausetheyweredone
withintentiontomakethepeopleofIsraelbelieve,thatMosescame
untothem,notoutofanydesignofhisowninterest,butassent
fromGod.ThereforeafterGodhadcommandedhimtodeliverthe
IsraelitesfromtheEgyptianbondage,whenhesaid(Exod.4.1)They
willnotbelieveme,butwillsay,theLordhathnotappeareduntome,
Godgavehimpower,toturntherodhehadinhishandintoa
serpent,andagaintoreturnitintoarodandbyputtinghishand
intohisbosom,tomakeitleprousandagainbypullingitout,to
makeitwhole,tomakethechildrenofIsraelbelieve(asitisverse5)
thattheGodoftheirfathershadappeareduntohim:andifthatwere
notenough,hegavehimpowertoturntheirwatersintoblood.And
whenhehaddonethesemiraclesbeforethepeople,itissaid(verse
41)thattheybelievedhim.Nevertheless,forfearofPharaoh,they
durstnotyetobeyhim.Thereforetheotherworkswhichweredone
toplaguePharaoh,andtheEgyptians,tendedalltomakethe
IsraelitesbelieveinMoses,andwereproperlymiracles.Inlike
mannerifweconsiderallthemiraclesdonebythehandofMoses,
andalltherestoftheprophets,tillthecaptivityandthoseofour
Saviour,andhisapostlesafterwardsweshallfind,theirendwas
alwaystobegetorconfirmbelief,thattheycamenotoftheirown
[235]motion,butweresentbyGod.WemayfurtherobserveinScrip
ture,thattheendofmiracles,wastobegetbelief,notuniversallyin
allmen,electandreprobatebutintheelectonlythatistosay,in
suchasGodhaddeterminedshouldbecomehissubjects.Forthose

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miraculousplaguesofEgypt,hadnotfortheirend,theconversion
ofPharaohforGodhadtoldMosesbefore,thathewouldharden
theheartofPharaoh,thatheshouldnotletthepeoplego:andwhen
heletthemgoatlast,notthemiraclespersuadedhim,butthe
plaguesforcedhimtoit.SoalsoofourSaviour,itiswritten(Matt.
13.58),thathewroughtnotmanymiraclesinhisowncountry,
becauseoftheirunbeliefand(inMark6.5)insteadof,Hewrought
notmany,itis,Hecouldworknone.Itwasnotbecausehewanted
powerwhichtosay,wereblasphemyagainstGodnorthattheend
ofmiracleswasnottoconvertincredulousmentoChristforthe
endofallthemiraclesofMoses,oftheprophets,ofourSaviour,and
ofhisapostleswastoaddmentothechurchbutitwas,becausethe
endoftheirmiracles,wastoaddtothechurch(notallmen,but)
suchasshouldbesavedthatistosay,suchasGodhadelected.
SeeingthereforeourSaviourwassentfromhisFather,hecouldnot
usehispowerintheconversionofthose,whomhisFatherhad
rejected.TheythatexpoundingthisplaceofSt.Mark,say,thatthis
word,Hecouldnot,isputfor,Hewouldnot,doitwithoutexample
intheGreektongue,(wherewouldnot,isputsometimesforcould
not,inthingsinanimate,thathavenowillbutcouldnot,forwould
not,never,)andtherebylayastumblingblockbeforeweakChris
tiansasifChristcoulddonomiracles,butamongstthecredulous.
7.FromthatwhichIhaveheresetdown,ofthenatureanduseThe
ofamiracle,wemaydefineitthus:AMIRACLEisaworkofGod,definitionof
(besideshisoperationbythewayofnature,ordainedinthecreation,)amiracle.
doneforthemakingmanifesttohiselect,themissionofanextraordinary
ministerfortheirsalvation.
8.Andfromthisdefinition,wemayinferfirst,thatinallmira
cles,theworkdone,isnottheeffectofanyvirtueintheprophet
becauseitistheeffectoftheimmediatehandofGodthatistosay,
Godhathdoneit,withoutusingtheprophettherein,asasubordi
natecause.
9.Secondly,thatnodevil,angel,orothercreatedspirit,candoa
miracle.Foritmusteitherbebyvirtueofsomenaturalscience,or
byincantation,thatis,byvirtueofwords.Foriftheenchanters
doitbytheirownpowerindependent,thereissomepowerthat
proceedethnotfromGodwhichallmendeny:andiftheydoitby
powergiventhem,thenistheworknotfromtheimmediatehandof
God,butnatural,andconsequentlynomiracle.
10.TherebesometextsofScripture,thatseemtoattributethe

powerofworkingwonders(equaltosomeofthoseimmediatemir
acles,wroughtbyGodhimself)tocertainartsofmagic,andincan
tation.Asforexample,whenwereadthataftertherodofMoses
[236]beingcastonthegroundbecameaserpent,(Exod.7.11)themagi
ciansofEgyptdidthelikebytheirenchantmentsandthatafterMoses
hadturnedthewatersoftheEgyptianstreams,rivers,ponds,and
poolsofwaterintoblood,(Exod.7.22)themagiciansdidsolikewise,
withtheirenchantmentsandthatafterMoseshadbythepowerof
Godbroughtfrogsupontheland,(Exod.8.7)themagiciansalsodid
sowiththeirenchantments,andbroughtupfrogsuponthelandofEgypt
willnotamanbeapttoattributemiraclestoenchantmentsthatis
tosay,totheefficacyofthesoundofwordsandthinkthesamevery
wellprovedoutofthis,andothersuchplaces?Andyetthereisno
placeofScripture,thattellethuswhatanenchantmentis.Ifthere
foreenchantmentbenot,asmanythinkit,aworkingofstrange
effectsbyspells,andwordsbutimposture,anddelusion,wrought
byordinarymeansandsofarfromsupernatural,astheimpostors
neednotthestudysomuchasofnaturalcauses,buttheordinary
ignorance,stupidity,andsuperstitionofmankind,todothemthose
textsthatseemtocountenancethepowerofmagic,witchcraft,and
enchantment,mustneedshaveanothersense,thanatfirstsightthey
seemtobear.
11.Foritisevidentenough,thatwordshavenoeffect,buton
thosethatunderstandthemandthentheyhavenoother,butto
signifytheintentions,orpassionsofthemthatspeakandthereby
producehope,fear,orotherpassions,orconceptionsinthehearer.
Thereforewhenarodseemethaserpent,orthewatersblood,orany
othermiracleseemethdonebyenchantmentifitbenottothe
edificationofGod'speople,nottherod,northewater,noranyother
thingisenchantedthatistosay,wroughtuponbythewords,but
thespectator.Sothatallthemiracleconsistethinthis,thatthe
enchanterhasdeceivedamanwhichisnomiracle,butaveryeasy
mattertodo.
Thatmenare12.Forsuchistheignoranceandaptitudetoerrorgenerallyof
apttobeallmen,butespeciallyofthemthathavenotmuchknowledgeof
deceivedbynaturalcauses,andofthenature,andinterestsofmenasbyin
falsemiracles.numerableandeasytrickstobeabused.Whatopinionofmiraculous
power,beforeitwasknowntherewasascienceofthecourseofthe
stars,mightamanhavegained,thatshouldhavetoldthepeople,

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thishourordaythesunshouldbedarkened?Ajugglerbythe
handlingofhisgoblets,andothertrinkets,ifitwerenotnowordi
narilypractised,wouldbethoughttodohiswondersbythepower
atleastofthedevil.Amanthathathpractisedtospeakbydrawing
inofhisbreath,(whichkindofmeninancienttimewerecalled
ventriloqui,)andsomaketheweaknessofhisvoiceseemtoproceed,
notfromtheweakimpulsionoftheorgansofspeech,butfrom
distanceofplace,isabletomakeverymanymenbelieveitisavoice
fromHeaven,whatsoeverhepleasetotellthem.Andforacrafty
man,thathathenquiredintothesecrets,andfamiliarconfessions
thatonemanordinarilymakethtoanotherofhisactionsandadven
turespast,totellthemhimagainisnohardmatterandyettherebe
many,thatbysuchmeansasthat,obtainthereputationofbeing
conjurers.Butitistoolongabusiness,toreckonuptheseveralsorts[237]
ofthosemen,whichtheGreekscalled
,thatisto
say,workersofthingswonderful:andyetthesedoalltheydo,by
theirownsingledexterity.Butifwelookupontheimpostures
wroughtbyconfederacy,thereisnothinghowimpossiblesoeverto
bedone,thatisimpossibletobebelieved.Fortwomenconspiring,
onetoseemlame,theothertocurehimwithacharm,willdeceive
many:butmanyconspiring,onetoseemlame,anothersotocure
him,andalltheresttobearwitness,willdeceivemanymore.
13.Inthisaptitudeofmankind,togivetoohastybelieftopreCautions
tendedmiracles,therecanbenobetter,norIthinkanyotheragainstthe
caution,thanthatwhichGodhathprescribed,firstbyMoses,(asIimpostureof
havesaidbeforeintheprecedentchapter,)inthebeginningofthemiracles.
thirteenthandendoftheeighteenthofDeuteronomythatwetake
notanyforprophets,thatteachanyotherreligion,thanthatwhich
God'slieutenant,(whichatthattimewasMoses,)hathestablished
norany,(thoughheteachthesamereligion,)whosepredictionwe
donotseecometopass.Mosesthereforeinhistime,andAaron,and
hissuccessorsintheirtimes,andthesovereigngovernorofGod's
people,nextunderGodhimself,thatistosay,theheadofthe
Churchinalltimes,aretobeconsulted,whatdoctrinehehath
established,beforewegivecredittoapretendedmiracle,or
prophet.Andwhenthatisdone,thethingtheypretendtobea
miracle,wemustbothseeitdone,anduseallmeanspossibleto
consider,whetheritbereallydoneandnotonlyso,butwhetherit
besuch,asnomancandothelikebyhisnaturalpower,butthatit

requirestheimmediatehandofGod.*Andinthisalsowemusthave
recoursetoGod'slieutenant,towhominalldoubtfulcases,wehave
submittedourprivatejudgments.Forexampleifamanpretend,
aftercertainwordsspokenoverapieceofbread,thatpresentlyGod
hathmadeitnotbread,butagod,oraman,orboth,andneverthe
lessitlookethstillaslikebreadaseveritdidthereisnoreasonfor
anymantothinkitreallydonenorconsequentlytofearhim,tillhe
enquireofGod,byhisvicar,orlieutenant,whetheritbedone,or
not.Ifhesaynot,thenfolloweththatwhichMosessaith(Deut.18.
22)hehathspokenitpresumptuously,thoushaltnotfearhim.Ifhesay,
'tisdone,thenheisnottocontradictit.Soalsoifweseenot,but
onlyheartellofamiracle,wearetoconsultthelawfulChurchthat
istosay,thelawfulheadthereof,howfarwearetogivecredittothe
relatorsofit.Andthisischieflythecaseofmen,thatinthesedays
liveunderChristiansovereigns.Forinthesetimes,Idonotknow
oneman,thateversawanysuchwondrouswork,donebythe
charm,orattheword,orprayerofaman,thatamanenduedbut
withamediocrityofreason,wouldthinksupernatural:andthe
questionisnomore,whetherwhatweseedone,beamiracle
whetherthemiraclewehear,orreadof,werearealwork,andnot
theactofatongue,orpenbutinplainterms,whetherthereportbe
true,oralie.Inwhichquestionwearenoteveryone,tomakeour
ownprivatereason,orconscience,butthepublicreason,thatis,the
reasonofGod'ssupremelieutenant,judgeandindeedwehave
[238]madehimjudgealready,ifwehavegivenhimasovereignpower,to
doallthatisnecessaryforourpeaceanddefence.Aprivateman
hasalwaystheliberty,(becausethoughtisfree,)tobelieve,or
notbelieveinhisheart,thoseactsthathavebeengivenoutfor
miracles,accordingasheshallsee,whatbenefitcanaccruebymen's
belief,tothosethatpretend,orcountenancethem,andthereby
conjecture,whethertheybemiracles,orlies.Butwhenitcomesto
confessionofthatfaith,theprivatereasonmustsubmittothe
publicthatistosay,toGod'slieutenant.Butwhoisthislieutenant
ofGod,andheadoftheChurch,shallbeconsideredinitsproper
placehereafter.

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ChapterXXXVIII
OftheSignificationinScriptureofEternalLife,Hell,Salvation,theWorldtoCome,andRedemption
1.*Themaintenanceofcivilsociety,dependingonjusticeand
justiceonthepoweroflifeanddeath,andotherlessrewardsand
punishments,residinginthemthathavethesovereigntyofthe
commonwealthitisimpossibleacommonwealthshouldstand,
whereanyotherthanthesovereign,hathapowerofgivinggreater
rewardsthanlife,andofinflictinggreaterpunishmentsthandeath.
Nowseeingeternallifeisagreaterrewardthanthelifepresentand
eternaltormentagreaterpunishmentthanthedeathofnatureitisa
thingworthytobewellconsidered,ofallmenthatdesire(byobey
ingauthority)toavoidthecalamitiesofconfusion,andcivilwar,
whatismeantinHolyScripture,bylifeeternal,andtormenteternal
andforwhatoffences,andagainstwhomcommitted,menaretobe
eternallytormentedandforwhatactions,theyaretoobtaineternal
life.
2.AndfirstwefindthatAdamwascreatedinsuchaconditionofTheplace
life,ashadhenotbrokenthecommandmentofGod,hehadenjoyedofAdam's
itintheparadiseofEdeneverlastingly.Fortherewasthetreeoflifeeternity,ifhe
whereofhewassolongallowedtoeat,asheshouldforbeartoeatofhadnot
thetreeofknowledgeofgoodandevilwhichwasnotallowedhim.sinned,had
Andthereforeassoonashehadeatenofit,Godthrusthimoutofbeenthe
Paradise,(Gen.3.22)lestheshouldputforthhishand,andtakealsoofterrestrial
thetreeoflife,andliveforever.Bywhichitseemethtome,(withParadise.
submissionneverthelessbothinthis,andinallquestionswhereof
thedeterminationdependethontheScriptures,totheinterpreta
tionoftheBibleauthorizedbythecommonwealth,whosesubjectI
am,)thatAdamifhehadnotsinned,hadhadaneternallifeonearth:
andthatmortalityentereduponhimself,andhisposterity,byhis
firstsin.NotthatactualdeaththenenteredforAdamthencould
neverhavehadchildrenwhereashelivedlongafter,andsawa
numerousposterityerehedied.Butwhereitissaid,Inthedaythat
thoueatestthereof,thoushaltsurelydie,itmustneedsbemeantofhis
mortality,andcertitudeofdeath.Seeingtheneternallifewaslostby

Adam'sforfeiture,incommittingsin,hethatshouldcancelthat
[239]forfeiturewastorecoverthereby,thatlifeagain.NowJesusChrist
hathsatisfiedforthesinsofallthatbelieveinhimandtherefore
recoveredtoallbelievers,thatETERNALLIFE,whichwaslostbythe
sinofAdam.Andinthissenseitis,thatthecomparisonofSt.Paul
holdeth,(Rom.5.18,19)Asbytheoffenceofone,judgmentcameupon
allmentocondemnation,evensobytherighteousnessofone,thefreegift
cameuponallmentojustificationoflife.Whichisagain(1Cor.15.21,
22)moreperspicuouslydeliveredinthesewords,Forsincebyman
camedeath,bymancamealsotheresurrectionofthedead.Forasin
Adamalldie,evensoinChristshallallbemadealive.
Texts3.Concerningtheplacewherein*menshallenjoythateternal
concerninglife,whichChristhathobtainedforthem,thetextsnextbefore
theplaceofallegedseemtomakeitonearth.ForifasinAdam,alldie,thatis,
lifeeternal,haveforfeitedparadiseandeternallifeonearth,evensoinChristall
forbelievers.shahbemadealivethenallmenshallbemadetoliveonearthfor
elsethecomparisonwerenotproper.Hereuntoseemethtoagree
thatofthepsalmist(Psalm133.3)uponZionGodcommandedthe
blessing,evenlifeforevermore:forZion,isinJerusalem,uponearth:
asalsothatofSt.John(Rev.2.7)TohimthatovercomethIwillgive
toeatofthetreeoflife,whichisinthemidstoftheparadiseofGod.This
wasthetreeofAdam'seternallifebuthislifewastohavebeenon
earth.ThesameseemethtobeconfirmedagainbySt.John(Rev.21.
2),wherehesaith,IJohnsawtheholycity,newJerusalem,coming
downfromGodoutofheaven,preparedasabrideadornedforher
husband:andagain(verse10)tothesameeffect:asifheshouldsay,
thenewJerusalem,theparadiseofGod,atthecomingagainof
Christ,shouldcomedowntoGod'speoplefromheaven,andnot
theygouptoitfromearth.Andthisdiffersnothingfromthat,
whichthetwomeninwhiteclothing(thatis,thetwoangels)saidto
theapostles,thatwerelookinguponChristascending(Acts.1.11)
ThissameJesus,whoistakenupfromyouintoheaven,shallsocome,as
youhaveseenhimgoupintoheaven.Whichsoundethasiftheyhad
said,heshouldcomedowntogovernthemunderhisFather,eter
nallyhereandnottakethemuptogoverntheminheavenandis
conformabletotherestorationofthekingdomofGod,instituted
underMoseswhichwasapoliticalgovernmentoftheJewsonearth.
Again,thatsayingofourSaviour(Matt.22.30)thatintheresurrec
tiontheyneithermarry,noraregiveninmarriage,butareastheangels
ofGodinheaven,isadescriptionofaneternallife,resemblingthat

Page299

whichwelostinAdaminthepointofmarriage.ForseeingAdam,
andEve,iftheyhadnotsinned,hadlivedoneartheternally,intheir
individualpersonsitismanifest,theyshouldnotcontinuallyhave
procreatedtheirkind.Forifimmortalsshouldhavegenerated,as
mankinddothnowtheearthinasmalltime,wouldnothavebeen
abletoaffordthemplacetostandon.TheJewsthataskedour
Saviourthequestion,whosewifethewomanthathadmarriedmany
brothersshouldbe,intheresurrection,knewnotwhatwerethe
consequencesoflifeeternal:andthereforeourSaviourputsthemin
mindofthisconsequenceofimmortalitythatthereshallbeno
generation,andconsequentlynomarriage,nomorethanthereis
marriage,orgenerationamongtheangels.Thecomparisonbetween
thateternallifewhichAdamlost,andourSaviourbyhisvictory
overdeathhathrecovered,holdethalsointhis,thatasAdam[240]
losteternallifebyhissin,andyetlivedafteritforatime,sothe
faithfulChristianhathrecoveredeternallifebyChrist'spassion,
thoughhedieanaturaldeath,andremaindeadforatimenamely,
tilltheresurrection.Forasdeathisreckonedfromthecondemna
tionofAdam,notfromtheexecutionsolifeisreckonedfromthe
absolution,notfromtheresurrectionofthemthatareelectedin
Christ.
4.Thattheplacewhereinmenaretoliveeternally,aftertheAscension
resurrection,istheheavens,meaningbyheaven,thosepartsoftheintoheaven.
world,whicharethemostremotefromearth,aswherethestars
are,orabovethestars,inanotherhigherheaven,calledcoelum
empyreum,*(whereofthereisnomentioninScripture,norground
inreason)isnoteasilytobedrawnfromanytextthatIcanfind.By
theKingdomofHeaven,ismeantthekingdomoftheKingthat
dwellethinheavenandhiskingdomwasthepeopleofIsrael,whom
heruledonearthbytheprophetshislieutenants,firstMoses,and
afterhimEleazar,andthesovereignpriests,tillinthedaysof
Samueltheyrebelled,andwouldhaveamortalmanfortheirking,
afterthemannerofothernations.AndwhenourSaviourChrist,by
thepreachingofhisministers,shallhavepersuadedtheJewsto
return,andcalledtheGentilestohisobedience,thenshalltherebe
anewkingdomofheavenbecauseourkingshallthenbeGod,
whosethroneisheavenwithoutanynecessityevidentinthe
Scripture,thatmanshallascendtohishappinessanyhigherthan
God'sfootstooltheearth.Onthecontrary,wefindwritten(John3.
13)thatnomanhathascendedintoheaven,buthethatcamedownfrom

heaven,eventhesonofman,thatisinheaven.WhereIobservebythe
way,thatthesewordsarenot,asthosewhichgoimmediatelybefore,
thewordsofourSaviour,butofSt.JohnhimselfforChristwas
thennotinheaven,butupontheearth.ThelikeissaidofDavid
(Acts2.34)whereSt.Peter,toprovetheascensionofChrist,using
thewordsofthePsalmist(Psalm16.10),Thouwiltnotleavemysoul
inhell,norsurerthineholyonetoseecorruption,saith,theywere
spoken(notofDavidbut)ofChristandtoproveit,addeththis
reason,ForDavidisnotascendedintoheaven.Buttothisamanmay
easilyanswer,andsay,thatthoughtheirbodieswerenottoascend
tillthegeneraldayofjudgment,yettheirsoulswereinheavenas
soonastheyweredepartedfromtheirbodieswhichalsoseemethto
beconfirmedbythewordsofourSaviour(Luke20.37,38)who
provingtheresurrectionoutofthewordsofMoses,saiththus,That
thedeadareraised,evenMosesshewed,atthebush,whenhecalleththe
Lord,theGodofAbraham,andtheGodofIsaac,andtheGodofJacob.
ForheisnotaGodofthedead,butofthelivingfortheyalllivetohim.
Butifthesewordsbetobeunderstoodonlyoftheimmortalityofthe
soul,theyprovenotatallthatwhichourSaviourintendedtoprove,
whichwastheresurrectionofthebody,*thatistosay,theimmor
talityoftheman.ThereforeourSaviourmeaneth,thatthosepatri
archswereimmortalnotbyapropertyconsequenttotheessence
andnatureofmankindbutbythewillofGod,thatwaspleasedof
hismeregrace,tobestoweternallifeuponthefaithful.Andthough
[241]atthattimethepatriarchsandmanyotherfaithfulmenweredead,
yetasitisinthetext,theylivedtoGodthatis,theywerewrittenin
theBookofLifewiththemthatwereabsolvedoftheirsins,and
ordainedtolifeeternalattheresurrection.Thatthesoulofmanis
initsownnatureeternal,andalivingcreatureindependentonthe
bodyorthatanymeremanisimmortal,otherwisethanbythe
resurrectioninthelastday,(exceptEnochandElias,)isadoctrine
notapparentinScripture.Thewholeofthefourteenthchapterof
Job,whichisthespeechnotofhisfriends,butofhimself,isa
complaintofthismortalityofnatureandyetnocontradictionofthe
immortalityattheresurrection.Thereishopeofatree(saithheverse
7)ifitbecastdown.Thoughtherootthereofwaxold,andthestock
thereofdieintheground,yetwhenitscenteththewateritwillbud,and
bringforthboughslikeaplant.Butmandieth,andwastethaway,yea,
mangivethuptheghost,andwhereishe?And(verse12)Manlieth
down,andrisethnot,tilltheheavensbenomore.Butwhenisit,that

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theheavensshallbenomore?St.Petertellsus,thatitisatthe
generalresurrection.Forinhis2ndEpistle,chap.3,verse7,he
saith,thattheheavensandtheearththatarenow,arereserveduntofire
againstthedayofjudgment,andperditionofungodlymen,and(verse
12)lookingfor,andhastingtothecomingofGod,whereintheheavens
shallbeonfireandshallbedissolved,andtheelementsshallmeltwith
ferventheat.Nevertheless,weaccordingtothepromiselookfornew
heavens,andanewearth,whereindwellethrighteousness.Therefore
whereJobsaith,manrisethnottilltheheavensbenomoreitisallone,
asifhehadsaid,theimmortallife(andsoulandlifeintheScripture,
dousuallysignifythesamething)beginnethnotinman,tillthe
resurrection,anddayofjudgmentandhathforcause,nothis
specificalnature,andgenerationbutthepromise.ForSt.Peter
says,Welookfornewheavensandanewearth,(notfromnature)but
frompromise.
5.Lastly,seeingithathbeenalreadyprovedoutofdiversevident
placesofScripture,inchap.35ofthisbook,thatthekingdomof
Godisacivilcommonwealth,whereGodhimselfissovereign,by
virtuefirstoftheold,andsinceofthenewcovenant,whereinhe
reignethbyhisvicar,orlieutenantthesameplacesdothereforealso
prove,thatafterthecomingagainofourSaviourinhismajesty,and
glory,toreignactually,andeternally,thekingdomofGodistobe
onearth.Butbecausethisdoctrine(thoughprovedoutofplacesof
Scripturenotfew,norobscure)willappeartomostmenanovelty
Idobutpropounditmaintainingnothinginthis,oranyother
paradoxofreligionbutattendingtheendofthatdisputeofthe
sword,concerningtheauthority,(notyetamongstmycountrymen
decided,)bywhichallsortsofdoctrinearetobeapproved,or
rejectedandwhosecommands,bothinspeechandwriting,(what
soeverbetheopinionsofprivatemen)mustbyallmen,thatmean
tobeprotectedbytheirlaws,beobeyed.Forthepointsofdoctrine[242]
concerningthekingdomofGod,havesogreatinfluenceontheTheplace
kingdomofman,asnottobedetermined,butbythem,thatunderafter
Godhavethesovereignpower.judgmentof
6.AsthekingdomofGod,andeternallife,soalsoGod'senthosewho
emies,andtheirtormentsafterjudgment,appearbytheScripture,wereneverin
tohavetheirplaceonearth.Thenameoftheplace,whereallmenthekingdom
remaintilltheresurrection,thatwereeitherbuffed,orswallowedupofGod,or
oftheearth,isusuallycalledinScripture,bywordsthatsignifyhavingbeen
undergroundwhichtheLatinsreadgenerallyinfernus,andinferi,in,arecastout..

andtheGreek
,thatistosay,aplacewheremencannotsee
andcontainethaswellthegrave,asanyotherdeeperplace.Butfor
theplaceofthedamnedaftertheresurrection,itisnotdetermined,
neitherintheOld,norNewTestament,byanynoteofsituationbut
onlybythecompany:asthatitshallbe,wheresuchwickedmen
were,asGodinformertimes,inextraordinaryandmiraculous
manner,haddestroyedfromoffthefaceoftheearth:asforexample,
Tartarus.thattheyareinInferno,inTartarus,orinthebottomlesspitbecause
Korah,Dathan,andAbiram,wereswallowedupaliveintotheearth.
NotthatthewritersoftheScripturewouldhaveusbelieve,there
couldbeintheglobeoftheearth,whichisnotonlyfinite,butalso
(comparedtotheheightofthestars)ofnoconsiderablemagnitude,
apitwithoutabottomthatis,aholeofinfinitedepth,suchasthe
Greeksintheirdemonology(thatistosay,intheirdoctrineconcern
ingdemons,)andafterthemtheRomanscalledTartarusofwhich
Virgil(Aen.VI.578,579)says,
Bispatetinpraecepstantum,tenditquesubumbras,
QuantusadaetheriumcoelisuspectusOlympum:*

forthatisathingtheproportionofearthtoheavencannotbear:but
thatweshouldbelievethemthere,indefinitely,wherethosemen
are,onwhomGodinflictedthatexemplarypunishment.
The7.Again,becausethosemightymenoftheearth,thatlivedinthe
congregationtimeofNoah,beforetheflood,(whichtheGreekscallheroes,and
ofgiants.theScripturegiants,andbothsaywerebegottenbycopulationofthe
childrenofGod,withthechildrenofmen,)werefortheirwicked
lifedestroyedbythegeneraldelugetheplaceofthedamned,is
thereforealsosometimesmarkedout,bythecompanyofthose
deceasedgiantsasProverbs21.16,Themanthatwanderethoutofthe
wayofunderstanding,shallremaininthecongregationofthegiants,and
Job26.5,Beholdthegiantsgroanunderwater,andtheythatdwellwith
them.Heretheplaceofthedamned,isunderthewater.AndIsaiah
14.9,Hellistroubledhowtomeetthee(thatis,theKingofBabylon)
andwilldisplacethegiantsforthee:andhereagaintheplaceofthe
damned,(ifthesensebeliteral,)istobeunderwater.
Lakeoffire.8.Thirdly,becausethecitiesofSodom,andGomorrah,bythe
extraordinarywrathofGod,wereconsumedfortheirwickedness
withfireandbrimstone,andtogetherwiththemthecountryabout
madeastinkingbituminouslake:theplaceofthedamnedissome

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timesexpressedbyfire,andafierylake:asintheApocalypse,21.8.
Butthetimorous,incredulous,andabominable,andmurderers,and
whoremongers,andsorcerers,andidolaters,andallliars,shallhavetheir[243]
partinthelakethatburnethwithfire,andbrimstonewhichisthesecond
death.Sothatitismanifest,thathellfire,whichishereexpressedby
metaphor,fromtherealfireofSodom,signifiethnotanycertain
kind,orplaceoftormentbutistobetakenindefinitely,fordestruc
tion,asitisinRev.20.14,whereitissaid,thatdeathandhellwere
castintothelakeoffirethatistosay,wereabolished,anddestroyed
asifaftertheseconddeath,thereshallbenomoredying,norno
moregoingintohellthatis,nomoregoingtoHades(fromwhich
wordperhapsourwordHellisderived,)whichisthesamewithno
moredying.
9.Fourthly,fromtheplagueofdarknessinflictedontheEgypUtter
tians,ofwhichitiswritten(Exod.10.23)Theysawnotoneanother,darkness.
neitherroseanymanfromhisplaceforthreedaysbutallthechildrenof
Israelhadlightintheirdwellingstheplaceofthewickedafterjudg
ment,iscalledutterdarkness,or(asitisintheoriginal)darkness
without.Andsoitisexpressed(Matt.22.13)wherethekingcom
mandedhisservants,tobindhandandfootthemanthathadnotonhis
weddinggarment,andtocasthimout,
,
intoexternaldarkness,ordarknesswithout:whichthoughtranslated
utterdarkness,doesnotsignifyhowgreat,butwherethatdarknessis
tobenamely,withoutthehabitationofGod'select.
10.Lastly,whereastherewasaplacenearJerusalem,calledtheGehenna,
ValleyoftheChildrenofHinnoninapartwhereof,calledTophet,theandTophet.
Jewshadcommittedmostgrievousidolatry,sacrificingtheirchil
drentotheidolMolochandwhereinalsoGodhadafflictedhis
enemieswithmostgrievouspunishmentsandwhereinJosiahhad
burnedthepriestsofMolochupontheirownaltars,asappearethat
largeinthe2ndofKings,chap.23,theplaceservedafterwardsto
receivethefilth,andgarbagewhichwascarriedthither,outofthe
cityandthereusedtobefiresmadefromtimetotime,topurifythe
air,andtakeawaythestenchofcarrion.Fromthisabominableplace,
theJewsusedeveraftertocalltheplaceofthedamned,bythename
ofGehenna,orValleyofHinnon.AndthisGehenna,isthatword,
whichisusuallynowtranslatedHELLandfromthefiresfromtime
totimethereburning,wehavethenotionofeverlastingand
unquenchablefire.

Oftheliteral11.Seeingnowthereisnone,thatsointerpretstheScripture,as
senseofthethatafterthedayofjudgment,thewickedarealleternallytobe
ScripturepunishedintheValleyofHinnonorthattheyshallsoriseagain,as
concerningtobeeverafterundergroundorunderwaterorthatafterthe
hell.resurrection,theyshallnomoreseeoneanother,norstirfromone
placetoanother:itfolloweth,methinks,verynecessarily,thatthat
whichisthussaidconcerninghellfire,isspokenmetaphorically
andthatthereforethereisapropersensetobeenquiredafter,(for
ofallmetaphorsthereissomerealground,thatmaybeexpressedin
properwords,)bothoftheplaceofhell,andthenatureofhellish
torments,andtormenters.
[244]12.Andfirstforthetormenters,wehavetheirnatureandprop
Satan,Devil,erties,exactlyandproperlydeliveredbythenamesof,theEnemy,or
notproperSatantheAccuser,orDiabolustheDestroyer,orAbaddon.Which
names,butsignificantnames,Satan,Devil,Abaddon,setnotforthtousany
appellatives.individualperson,aspropernamesusetodobutonlyanoffice,or
qualityandarethereforeappellativeswhichoughtnottohavebeen
leftuntranslated,astheyare,intheLatin,andmodernBibles
becausetherebytheyseemtobepropernamesofdemonsandmen
arethemoreeasilyseducedtobelievethedoctrineofdevilswhich
atthattimewasthereligionoftheGentiles,andcontrarytothatof
MosesandofChrist.
13.AndbecausebytheEnemy,theAccuser,andDestroyer,is
meanttheenemyofthemthatshallbeinthekingdomofGod
thereforeifthekingdomofGodaftertheresurrection,beuponthe
earth,(asintheformerchapterIhaveshownbyScriptureitseems
tobe,)theEnemy,andhiskingdommustbeonearthalso.Forso
alsowasit,inthetimebeforetheJewshaddeposedGod.ForGod's
kingdomwasinPalestineandthenationsroundabout,werethe
kingdomsoftheEnemyandconsequentlybySatan,ismeantany
earthlyenemyoftheChurch.
Tormentsof14.Thetormentsofhell,areexpressedsometimes,byweeping,
hell.andgnashingofteeth,asMatt.8.12.Sometimes,bythewormof
conscienceasIsaiah66.24,andMark9.44,46,48:sometimes,by
fire,asintheplacenowquoted,wherethewormdiethnot,andthefire
isnotquenched,andmanyplacesbeside:sometimesbyshameand
contempt,asDan.12.2.Andmanyofthemthatsleepinthedustofthe
earth,shallawakesometoeverlastinglifeandsometoshame,and
everlastingcontempt.Allwhichplacesdesignmetaphoricallyagrief,
anddiscontentofmind,fromthesightofthateternalfelicityin

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others,whichtheythemselvesthroughtheirownincredulity,and
disobediencehavelost.Andbecausesuchfelicityinothers,isnot
sensiblebutbycomparisonwiththeirownactualmiseriesit
followeththattheyaretosuffersuchbodilypains,andcalamities,
asareincidenttothose,whonotonlyliveunderevilandcruel
governors,buthavealsoforenemy,theeternalkingofthesaints,
GodAlmighty.Andamongstthesebodilypains,istobereckoned
alsotoeveryoneofthewickedaseconddeath.Forthoughthe
Scripturebeclearforanuniversalresurrectionyetwedonotread,
thattoanyofthereprobateispromisedaneternallife.Forwhereas
St.Paul(1Cor.15.42,43)tothequestionconcerningwhatbodies
menshallrisewithagain,saith,thatThebodyissownincorruption,
andisraisedinincorruptionitissownindishonour,itisraisedinglory
itissowninweakness,itisraisedinpower.Gloryandpowercannotbe
appliedtothebodiesofthewicked:norcanthenameofseconddeath,
beappliedtothosethatcanneverdiebutonce:andalthoughin
metaphoricalspeech,acalamitouslifeeverlasting,maybecalledan
everlastingdeath,yetitcannotwellbeunderstoodofaseconddeath.
Thefirepreparedforthewicked,isaneverlastingfire:thatistosay,[245]
theestatewhereinnomancanbewithouttorture,bothofbodyand
mind,aftertheresurrection,shallendureaslongastheworld
standsandinthatsensethefireshallbeunquenchable,andthe
tormentseverlasting:butitcannotthencebeinferred,thathewho
shallbecastintothatfire,orbetormentedwiththosetorments,shall
endure,andresistthemsoastobeeternallyburnt,andtortured,and
yetneverbedestroyed,nordie.Andthoughtherebemanyplaces
thataffirmeverlastingfire,andtorments(intowhichmenmaybe
castsuccessivelyoneafteranotheraslongastheworldlasts*)yetI
findnonethataffirmthereshallbeaneternallifethereinofany
individualpersonbuttothecontrary,aneverlastingdeath,whichis
theseconddeath:(Rev.20.13,14)Forafterdeath,andthegraveshall
havedeliveredupthedeadwhichwereinthem,andeverymanbejudged
accordingtohisworksdeathandthegraveshallalsobecastintothe
lakeoffire.Thisistheseconddeath.Wherebyitisevident,thatthere
istobeaseconddeathofeveryonethatshallbecondemnedatthe
dayofjudgment,afterwhichheshalldienomore.
15.Thejoysoflifeeternal,areinScripturecomprehendedallThejoysof
underthenameofSALVATION,orbeingsaved.Tobesaved,istolifeeternal,
besecured,eitherrespectively,againstspecialevils,orabsolutely,and
againstallevils,comprehendingwant,sickness,anddeathitself.salvation,
thesamething.

Andbecausemanwascreatedinaconditionimmortal,notsubject
tocorruption,andconsequentlytonothingthattendethtothe
dissolutionofhisnatureandfellfromthathappinessbythesinof
Adamitfolloweth,thattobesavedfromsin,istobesavedfromall
theevil,andcalamitiesthatsinhathbroughtuponus.Andtherefore
SalvationintheholyScripture,remissionofsin,andsalvationfromdeathand
fromsin,andmisery,isthesamething,asitappearsbythewordsofourSaviour,
frommisery,whohavingcuredamansickofthepalsy,bysaying,(Matt.9.2)Son
allone.beofgoodcheer,thysinsbeforgiventheeandknowingthattheScribes
tookforblasphemy,thatamanshouldpretendtoforgivesins,asked
them(verse5)whetheritwereeasiertosay,Thysinsbeforgiventhee,
or,Ariseandwalksignifyingthereby,thatitwasallone,astothe
savingofthesick,tosay,Thysinsareforgiven,andAriseandwalk
andthatheusedthatformofspeech,onlytoshewhehadpowerto
forgivesins.Anditisbesidesevidentinreason,thatsincedeathand
misery,werethepunishmentsofsin,thedischargeofsinmustalso
beadischargeofdeathandmiserythatistosay,salvationabsolute,
suchasthefaithfularetoenjoyafterthedayofjudgment,bythe
power,andfavourofJesusChrist,whoforthatcauseiscalledour
SAVIOUR.
16.Concerningparticularsalvations,suchasareunderstood,(1
Sam.14.39)astheLordliveththatsavethIsrael,thatis,fromtheir
temporaryenemies,and(2Sam.22.4)ThouartmySaviour,thou
savestmefromviolenceand,(2Kings13.5)GodgavetheIsraelitesa
Saviour,andsotheyweredeliveredfromthehandoftheAssyrians,and
[246]thelike,Ineedsaynothingtherebeingneitherdifficulty,nor
interesttocorrupttheinterpretationoftextsofthatkind.
Theplaceof17.Butconcerningthegeneralsalvation,becauseitmustbein
eternalthekingdomofheaven,thereisgreatdifficultyconcerningthe
salvation.place.Ononeside,bykingdom(whichisanestateordainedbymen
fortheirperpetualsecurityagainstenemiesandwant)itseemeth
thatthissalvationshouldbeonearth.Forbysalvationissetforth
untous,agloriousreignofourking,byconquestnotasafetyby
escape:andthereforetherewherewelookforsalvation,wemust
lookalsofortriumphandbeforetriumph,forvictoryandbefore
victory,forbattlewhichcannotwellbesupposed,shallbein
heaven.Buthowgoodsoeverthisreasonmaybe,Iwillnottrustto
it,withoutveryevidentplacesofScripture.Thestateofsalvationis
describedatlarge,Isaiah33.20,21,22,23,24:
18.LookuponZion,thecityofoursolemnitiesthineeyesshallsee

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Jerusalemaquiethabitation,atabernaclethatshallnotbetakendown
notoneofthestakesthereofshalleverberemoved,neithershallanyof
thecordsthereofbebroken.
19.ButtherethegloriousLordwillbeuntousaplaceofbroadrivers,
andstreamswhereinshallgonogalleywithoars,neithershallgallant
shippassthereby.
20.FortheLordisourJudge,theLordisourlawgiver,theLordis
ourking,hewillsaveus.
21.Thytacklingsareloosedtheycouldnotwellstrengthentheir
masttheycouldnotspreadthesail:thenisthepreyofagreatspoil
dividedthelametaketheprey:
22.Andtheinhabitantshallnotsay,Iamsickthepeoplethatshall
dwellthereinshallbeforgiventheiriniquity.
23.Inwhichwordswehavetheplacefromwhencesalvationisto
proceed,Jerusalem,aquiethabitationtheeternityofit,atabernacle
thatshallnotbetakendown,&c.TheSaviourofit,theLord,their
judge,theirlawgiver,theirking,hewillsaveusthesalvation,theLord
shallbetothemasabroadmoatofswirlwaters,&c.Theconditionof
theirenemies,theirtacklingsareloose,theirmastsweak,thelameshall
takethespoilofthem.Theconditionofthesaved,theinhabitantshall
notsay,Iamsick:andlastly,allthisiscomprehendedinforgiveness
ofsin,thepeoplethatdwellthereinshallbeforgiventheiriniquity.By
whichitisevident,thatsalvationshallbeonearth,then,whenGod
shallreign,(atthecomingagainofChrist)inJerusalemandfrom
JerusalemshallproceedthesalvationoftheGentilesthatshallbe
receivedintoGod'skingdom:asisalsomoreexpresslydeclaredby
thesameprophet,(Isaiah65.20,21),Andthey(thatis,theGentiles
whohadanyJewinbondage)shallbringallyourbrethren,foran
offeringtotheLord,outofallnations,uponhorses,andinchariots,and
inlitters,anduponmules,anduponswiftbeasts,tomyholymountain,
Jerusalem,saiththeLord,asthechildrenofIsraelbringonofferingina
cleanvesselintothehouseoftheLord.AndIwillalsotakeofthemfor
priestsandforLevites,saiththeLord.Wherebyitismanifest,thatthe
chiefseatofGod'skingdom(whichistheplace,fromwhencethe
salvationofusthatwereGentilesshallproceed)shallbeJerusalem:[247]
andthesameisalsoconfirmedbyourSaviour,inhisdiscoursewith
thewomanofSamaria,concerningtheplaceofGod'sworshipto
whomhesaith(John4.22)thattheSamaritansworshippedthey
knewnotwhat,buttheJewsworshippedwhattheyknew,forsal
vationisoftheJews(exJudaeis,thatis,beginsattheJews):asifhe

shouldsay,youworshipGod,butknownotbywhomhewillsave
you,aswedo,thatknowitshallbebyoneofthetribeofJudah,a
Jew,notaSamaritan.Andthereforealsothewomannotimperti
nentlyansweredhimagain,WeknowtheMessiasshallcome.Sothat
whichourSavioursaith,SalvationisfromtheJews,isthesamethat
Paulsays(Rom.1.16,17)TheGospelisthepowerofGodtosalvation
toeveryonethatbelieveth:totheJewfirst,andalsototheGreek.For
thereinistherighteousnessofGodrevealedfromfaithtofaithfromthe
faithoftheJewtothefaithoftheGentile.Inthelikesensethe
prophetJoeldescribingthedayofJudgment,(chap.2.30,31)that
Godwouldshewwondersinheaven,andinearth,blood,andfire,and
pillarsofsmoke.Thesunshallbeturnedtodarkness,andthemooninto
blood,beforethegreatandterribledayoftheLordcome:headdeth,
(verse32)anditshallcometopass,thatwhosoevershallcalluponthe
nameoftheLord,shallbesaved.ForinMountZion,andinJerusalem
shallbesalvation.AndObadiah(verse17)saiththesame,Upon
MountZionshallbedeliveranceandthereshallbeholiness,andthe
houseofJacobshallpossesstheirpossessions,thatis,thepossessionsof
theheathen,whichpossessions,heexpressethmoreparticularlyinthe
followingverses,bythemountofEsau,theLandofthePhilistines,the
fieldsofEphraim,ofSamaria,Gilead,andthecitiesofthesouth,and
concludeswiththesewords,thekingdomshallbetheLord's.Allthese
placesareforsalvation,andthekingdomofGod(afterthedayof
judgment)uponearth.Ontheotherside,Ihavenotfoundanytext
thatcanprobablybedrawn,toproveanyascensionofthesaintsinto
heaventhatistosay,intoanycoelumempyreum,orotheraetherial
regionsavingthatitiscalledthekingdomofHeaven:whichname
itmayhave,becauseGod,thatwaskingoftheJews,governedthem
byhiscommands,senttoMosesbyangelsfromheavenandafter
therevolt,senthisSonfromheaventoreducethemtotheirobedi
enceandshallsendhimthenceagain,toruleboththem,andall
otherfaithfulmen,fromthedayofjudgment,everlastingly:orfrom
that,thatthethroneofthisourgreatkingisinheavenwhereasthe
earthisbuthisfootstool.ButthatthesubjectsofGodshouldhave
anyplaceashighashisthrone,orhigherthanhisfootstool,it
seemethnotsuitabletothedignityofaking,norcanIfindany
evidenttextforitinHolyScripture.
Theworldto24.FromthisthathathbeensaidofthekingdomofGod,andof
come.salvation,itisnothardtointerpretwhatismeantbytheWOULDTO
COME.TherearethreeworldsmentionedinScripture,theoldworld,

Page309

thepresentworld,andtheworldtocome.Ofthefirst,St.Peterspeaks,
(2Pet.2.5)IfGodsparednottheoldworld,butsavedNoahtheeighth
person,apreacherofrighteousness,bringingthefloodupontheworldof
theungodly,&c.Sothefirstworld,wasfromAdamtothegeneral[248]
flood.Ofthepresentworld,ourSaviourspeaks(John18.36)My
kingdomisnotofthisworld.Forhecameonlytoteachmentheway
ofsalvation,andtorenewthekingdomofhisFather,byhisdoc
trine.Oftheworldtocome,St.Peterspeaks(2Pet.3.13)Neverthe
lessweaccordingtohispromiselookfornewheavens,andanewearth.
ThisisthatWORLD,whereinChristcomingdownfromheavenin
theclouds,withgreatpower,andglory,shallsendhisangels,and
shallgathertogetherhiselect,fromthefourwinds,andfromthe
uttermostpartsoftheearth,andthenceforthreignoverthem,
(underhisFather)everlastingly.
25.Salvationofasinner,supposethaprecedentREDEMPTIONforRedemption.
hethatisonceguiltyofsin,isobnoxioustothepenaltyofthesame
andmustpay(orsomeotherforhim)suchransom,ashethatis
offended,andhashiminhispower,shallrequire.Andseeingthe
personoffended,isAlmightyGod,inwhosepowerareallthings
suchransomistobepaidbeforesalvationcanbeacquired,asGod
hathbeenpleasedtorequire.Bythisransom,isnotintendeda
satisfactionforsin,equivalenttotheoffencewhichnosinnerfor
himself,norrighteousmancaneverbeabletomakeforanother:the
damageamandoestoanother,hemaymakeamendsforbyrestitu
tion,orrecompensebutsincannotbetakenawaybyrecompense
forthatweretomakethelibertytosin,athingvendible.Butsins
maybepardonedtotherepentant,eithergratis,oruponsuchpen
alty,asGodispleasedtoaccept.ThatwhichGodusuallyaccepted
intheOldTestament,wassomesacrifice,oroblation.Toforgivesin
isnotanactofinjustice,thoughthepunishmenthavebeenthreat
ened.Evenamongstmen,thoughthepromiseofgood,bindthe
promisersyetthreats,thatistosay,promisesofevil,bindthemnot
muchlessshalltheybindGod,whoisinfinitelymoremercifulthan
men.OurSaviourChristthereforetoredeemus,didnotinthatsense
satisfyforthesinsofmen,asthathisdeath,ofitsownvirtue,could
makeitunjustinGodtopunishsinnerswitheternaldeathbutdid
makethatsacrifice,andoblationofhimself,athisfirstcoming,
whichGodwaspleasedtorequire,forthesalvationathissecond
coming,ofsuchasinthemeantimeshouldrepent,andbelieve
inhim.Andthoughthisactofourredemption,benotalwaysin

Scripturecalledasacrifice,andoblation,butsometimesapriceyet
bypricewearenottounderstandanything,bythevaluewhereof,he
couldclaimrighttoapardonforus,fromhisoffendedFatherbut
thatpricewhichGodtheFatherwaspleasedinmercytodemand.
[247]*ChapterXXXIX
OftheSignificationinScriptureoftheWordChurch
Churchthe1.ThewordChurch,(Ecclesia)signifiethinthebooksofHoly
Lord'shouse.Scripturediversthings.Sometimes(thoughnotoften)itistakenfor
God'shouse,thatistosay,foratemple,whereinChristiansas
sembledtoperformholydutiespublicly,as(1Cor.14.34)Letyour
womenkeepsilenceintheChurches:butthisismetaphoricallyput,for
thecongregationthereassembledandhathbeensinceusedforthe
edificeitself,todistinguishbetweenthetemplesofChristians,and
idolaters.TheTempleofJerusalemwasGod'shouse,andthehouse
ofprayerandsoisanyedificededicatedbyChristianstothe
worshipofChrist,Christ'shouse:andthereforetheGreekfatherscall
it
,theLord'shouse:andthence,inourlanguageitcameto
becalledkirk,andchurch.
Ecclesia,2.Church(whennottakenforahouse)signifieththesamethat
properlyecclesiasignifiedintheGreciancommonwealthsthatistosay,a
what.congregation,oranassemblyofcitizens,calledforth,tohearthe
magistratespeakuntothemandwhichinthecommonwealthof
Romewascalledconcio,ashethatspakewascalledecclesiastes,and
concionator.Andwhentheywerecalledforthbylawfulauthority,
(Acts19.39)itwasEcclesialegitima,alawfulChurch,

.Butwhentheywereexcitedbytumultuous,and
seditiousclamour,thenitwasaconfusedChurch,

.
3.Itistakenalsosometimesforthementhathaverighttobeof
thecongregation,thoughnotactuallyassembledthatistosay,for
thewholemultitudeofChristianmen,howfarsoevertheybe
dispersed:as(Acts8.3)whereitissaid,thatSaulmadehavocofthe
Church:andinthissenseisChristsaidtobetheheadoftheChurch.
AndsometimesforacertainpartofChristians,as(Col.4.15)Salute
theChurchthatisinhishouse.Sometimesalsofortheelectonlyas

Page311

(Eph.5.27)AgloriousChurch,withoutspot,orwrinkle,holy,and
withoutblemishwhichismeantoftheChurchtriumphant,orChurch
tocome.Sometimes,foracongregationassembledofprofessorsof
Christianity,whethertheirprofessionbetrue,orcounterfeit,asitis
understood,(Matt.18.17)whereitissaid,TellittotheChurchand
ifheneglecttoheartheChurch,lethimbetotheeasaGentile,or
publican.
4.AndinthislastsenseonlyitisthattheChurchcanbetakenforInwhatsense
onepersonthatistosay,thatitcanbesaidtohavepowertowill,tothechurchis
pronounce,tocommand,tobeobeyed,tomakelaws,ortodoanyoneperson.
otheractionwhatsoever.Forwithoutauthorityfromalawfulcon
gregation,whatsoeveractbedoneinaconcourseofpeople,itisthe
particularactofeveryoneofthosethatwerepresent,andgavetheir[248]
aidtotheperformanceofitandnottheactofthemallingross,as
ofonebodymuchlesstheactofthemthatwereabsent,orthat
beingpresent,werenotwillingitshouldbedone.Accordingtothis
sense,IdefineaCHURCHtobe,acompanyofmenprofessingChristianChurch
religion,unitedinthepersonofonesovereign,atwhosecommandtheydefined.
oughttoassemble,andwithoutwhoseauthoritytheyoughtnottoas
semble.Andbecauseinallcommonwealths,thatassembly,whichis
withoutwarrantfromthecivilsovereign,isunlawfulthatChurch
also,whichisassembledinanycommonwealth,thathathforbidden
themtoassemble,isanunlawfulassembly.
5.Itfollowethalso,thatthereisonearth,nosuchuniversalAChristian
Church,asallChristiansareboundtoobeybecausethereisnocommonwealth
poweronearth,towhichallothercommonwealthsaresubject:thereandachurch
areChristians,inthedominionsofseveralprincesandstatesbutallone.
everyoneofthemissubjecttothatcommonwealth,whereofheis
himselfamemberandconsequently,cannotbesubjecttothecom
mandsofanyotherperson.AndthereforeaChurch,suchaoneas
iscapabletocommand,tojudge,absolve,condemn,ordoanyother
act,isthesamethingwithacivilcommonwealth,consistingof
Christianmenandiscalledacivilstate,forthatthesubjectsofitare
menandaChurch,forthatthesubjectsthereofareChristians.Tem
poralandspiritualgovernment,arebuttwowordsbroughtintothe
world,tomakemenseedouble,andmistaketheirlawfulsovereign.It
istrue,thatthebodiesofthefaithful,aftertheresurrection,shallbe
notonlyspiritual,buteternalbutinthislifetheyaregross,and
corruptible.Thereisthereforenoothergovernmentinthislife,
neitherofstate,norreligion,buttemporalnorteachingofany

doctrine,lawfultoanysubject,whichthegovernorbothofthestate,
andofthereligion,forbiddethtobetaught.Andthatgovernormust
beoneorelsetheremustneedsfollowfactionandcivilwarinthe
commonwealth,betweentheChurchandStatebetweenspiritualists
andtemporalistsbetweentheswordofjustice,andtheshieldoffaith:
and(whichismore)ineveryChristianman'sownbreast,between
theChristian,andtheman.ThedoctorsoftheChurch,arecalled
pastorssoalsoarecivilsovereigns.Butifpastorsbenotsubordinate
onetoanother,soasthattheremaybeonechiefpastor,menwillbe
taughtcontrarydoctrines,whereofbothmaybe,andonemustbe
false.Whothatonechiefpastoris,accordingtothelawofnature,
hathbeenalreadyshownnamely,thatitisthecivilsovereign:and
towhomtheScripturehathassignedthatoffice,weshallseeinthe
chaptersfollowing.
[249]ChapterXL
OftheRightsoftheKingdomofGod,inAbraham,Moses,theHighPriests,AndtheKingsofJudah*
Thesovereign1.Thefatherofthefaithful,andfirstinthekingdomofGodby
rightofcovenant,wasAbraham.Forwithhimwasthecovenantfirstmade
Abraham.whereinheobligedhimself,andhisseedafterhim,toacknowledge
andobeythecommandsofGodnotonlysuch,ashecouldtake
noticeof,(asmorallaws)bythelightofnaturebutalsosuch,asGod
shouldinspecialmannerdelivertohimbydreamsandvisions.For
astothemorallaw,theywerealreadyobliged,andneedednothave
beencontractedwithal,bypromiseofthelandofCanaan.Norwas
thereanycontract,thatcouldaddto,orstrengthentheobligation,by
whichboththey,andallmenelsewereboundnaturallytoobeyGod
Almighty:andthereforethecovenantwhichAbrahammadewith
God,wastotakeforthecommandmentofGod,thatwhichinthe
nameofGodwascommandedhim,inadream,orvisionandto
deliverittohisfamily,andcausethemtoobservethesame.
2.InthiscontractofGodwithAbraham,wemayobservethree
pointsofimportantconsequenceinthegovernmentofGod'speo
ple.First,thatatthemakingofthiscovenant,Godspakeonlyto
Abrahamandthereforecontractednotwithanyofhisfamily,or
seed,otherwisethanastheirwills(whichmaketheessenceofall

Page313

covenants)werebeforethecontractinvolvedinthewillofAbraham
whowasthereforesupposedtohavehadalawfulpower,tomake
themperformallthathecovenantedforthem.According
whereunto(Gen.18.18,19)Godsaith,Allthenationsoftheearth
shallbeblessedinhim,forIknowhimthathewillcommandhischildren
andhishouseholdafterhim,andtheyshallkeepthewayoftheLord.
Fromwhencemaybeconcludedthisfirstpoint,thattheytowhom
Godhathnotspokenimmediately,aretoreceivethepositive
commandmentsofGod,fromtheirsovereignasthefamilyandseed
ofAbrahamdidfromAbrahamtheirfather,andLord,andcivilAbrahamhad
sovereign.Andconsequentlyineverycommonwealth,theywhothesolepower
havenosupernaturalrevelationtothecontrary,oughttoobeytheofordering
lawsoftheirownsovereign,intheexternalactsandprofessionofthereligionof
religion.Asfortheinwardthought,andbeliefofmen,whichhumanhisown
governorscantakenonoticeof(forGodonlyknoweththeheart)people.
theyarenotvoluntary,northeeffectofthelaws,butofthe
unrevealedwillandofthepowerofGodandconsequentlyfallnot[250]
underobligation.
3.Fromwhenceproceedethanotherpoint,thatitwasnotunlawNopretence
fulforAbraham,whenanyofhissubjectsshouldpretendprivateofprivate
vision,orspirit,orotherrevelationfromGod,forthecountenanspiritagainst
cingofanydoctrinewhichAbrahamshouldforbid,orwhentheythereligionof
followed,oradheredtoanysuchpretender,topunishthemandAbraham.
consequentlythatitislawfulnowforthesovereigntopunishany
manthatshallopposehisprivatespiritagainstthelaws:forhehath
thesameplaceinthecommonwealth,thatAbrahamhadinhisown
family.
4.Therearisethalsofromthesame,athirdpointthatasnoneAbrahamsole
butAbrahaminhisfamily,sononebutthesovereigninaChristianjudgeand
commonwealth,cantakenoticewhatis,orwhatisnotthewordofinterpreterof
God.ForGodspakeonlytoAbrahamanditwasheonly,thatwaswhatGod
abletoknowwhatGodsaid,andtointerpretthesametohisfamily:spake.
andthereforealso,theythathavetheplaceofAbrahaminacom
monwealth,aretheonlyinterpretersofwhatGodhathspoken.
5.ThesamecovenantwasrenewedwithIsaacandafterwardsTheauthority
withJacobbutafterwardsnomore,tilltheIsraeliteswerefreedofMoses,
fromtheEgyptians,andarrivedatthefootofMountSinai:andthenwhereon
itwasrenewedbyMoses(asIhavesaidbefore,chap.35)insuchgrounded.
manner,astheybecamefromthattimeforwardthepeculiarking
domofGodwhoselieutenantwasMoses,forhisowntime:andthe

successiontothatofficewassettleduponAaron,andhisheirsafter
him,tobetoGodasacerdotalkingdomforever.
6.Bythisconstitution,akingdomisacquiredtoGod.Butseeing
MoseshadnoauthoritytogoverntheIsraelites,asasuccessortothe
rightofAbraham,becausehecouldnotclaimitbyinheritanceit
appearethnotasyet,thatthepeoplewereobligedtotakehimfor
God'slieutenant,longerthantheybelievedthatGodspakeunto
him.Andthereforehisauthority(notwithstandingthecovenantthey
madewithGod)dependedyetmerelyupontheopiniontheyhadof
hissanctity,andoftherealityofhisconferenceswithGod,andthe
verityofhismiracleswhichopinioncomingtochange,theywereno
moreobligedtotakeanythingforthelawofGod,whichhepro
poundedtotheminGod'sname.Wearethereforetoconsider,what
othergroundtherewas,oftheirobligationtoobeyhim.Foritcould
notbethecommandmentofGodthatcouldobligethembecause
Godspakenottothemimmediately,butbythemediationofMoses
himself:andourSavioursaithofhimself,(John5.31)IfIbearwitness
ofmyself,mywitnessisnottruemuchlessifMosesbearwitnessof
himself,(especiallyinaclaimofkinglypoweroverGod'speople)
oughthistestimonytobereceived.Hisauthoritytherefore,asthe
authorityofallotherprinces,mustbegroundedontheconsentofthe
people,andtheirpromisetoobeyhim.Andsoitwas:forthepeople
[251](Exod.20.18)whentheysawthethunderings,andthelightnings,andthe
noiseofthetrumpet,andthemountainsmoking,removed,andstoodafar
off.AndtheysaiduntoMoses,speakthouwithus,andwewillhear,but
letnotGodspeakwithuslestwedie.Herewastheirpromiseof
obedienceandbythisitwastheyobligedthemselvestoobeywhat
soeverheshoulddeliveruntothemforthecommandmentofGod.
Moseswas7.Andnotwithstandingthecovenantconstitutedasacerdotal
(underGod)kingdom,thatistosay,akingdomhereditarytoAaronyetthatisto
sovereignofbeunderstoodofthesuccession,afterMosesshouldbedead.For
theJewsallwhosoeverordereth,andestablisheththepolicy,asfirstfounderof
hisowntime,Aaronacommonwealth(beitmonarchy,aristocracy,ordemocracy)must
thoughneedshavesovereignpoweroverthepeopleallthewhileheisdoing
hadtheofit.AndthatMoseshadthatpowerallhisowntime,isevidently
priesthood.affirmedintheScripture.First,inthetextlastbeforecited,because
thepeoplepromisedobedience,nottoAaron,buttohim.Secondly,
(Exod.24.1,2)AndGodsaiduntoMoses,ComeupuntotheLord,thou
andAaron,NadabandAbihu,andseventyoftheEldersofIsrael.And
MosesaloneshallcomeneartheLord,buttheyshallnotcomenigh,

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neithershallthepeoplegoupwithhim.Bywhichitisplain,that
Moses,whowasalonecalleduptoGod,(andnotAaron,northe
otherpriests,northeseventyelders,northepeoplewhowere
forbiddentocomeup)wasalonehe,thatrepresentedtotheIsrael
itesthepersonofGodthatistosay,wastheirsolesovereignunder
God.Andthoughafterwardsitbesaid(verse9)ThenwentupMoses
andAaron,NadabandAbihu,andseventyoftheeldersofIsrael,and
theysawtheGodofIsrael,andtherewasunderhisfeet,asitwerea
pavedworkofasapphirestone,&c.yetthiswasnottillafterMoses
hadbeenwithGodbefore,andhadbroughttothepeoplethewords
whichGodhadsaidtohim.Heonlywentforthebusinessofthe
peopletheothers,asthenoblesofhisretinue,wereadmittedfor
honourtothatspecialgrace,whichwasnotallowedtothepeople
whichwas(asintheverseafterappeareth)toseeGodandlive,God
laidnothishanduponthem,theysawGodanddideatanddrink(that
is,didlive),butdidnotcarryanycommandmentfromhimtothe
people.Again,itiseverywheresaid,theLordspakeuntoMoses,asin
allotheroccasionsofgovernment,soalsointheorderingofthe
ceremoniesofreligion,containedinchapters25,26,27,28,29,30,
and31ofExodus,andthroughoutLeviticus:toAaronseldom.The
calfthatAaronmade,Mosesthrewintothefire.Lastly,thequestion
oftheauthorityofAaron,byoccasionofhisandMiriam'smutiny
againstMoses,was(Numb.12)judgedbyGodhimselfforMoses.
SoalsointhequestionbetweenMosesandthepeople,whohadthe
fightofgoverningthepeople,whenKorah,Dathan,andAbiram,
andtwohundredandfiftyprincesoftheassemblygatheredthem
selvestogether(Numb.16.3)againstMoses,andagainstAaron,and
saiduntothem,yetaketoomuchuponyou,seeingallthecongregation
areholy,everyoneofthem,andtheLordisamongstthem,whyliftyou
upyourselvesabovethecongregationoftheLord?Godcausedtheearth
toswallowKorah,Dathan,andAbiram,withtheirwivesandchil
drenalive,andconsumedthosetwohundredandfiftyprinceswith[252]
fire.ThereforeneitherAaron,northepeople,noranyaristocracyof
thechiefprincesofthepeople,butMosesalonehadnextunderGod
thesovereigntyovertheIsraelites:andthatnotonlyincausesof
civilpolicy,butalsoofreligion:forMosesonlyspakewithGod,and
thereforeonlycouldtellthepeople,whatitwasthatGodrequired
attheirhands.Nomanuponpainofdeathmightbesopresump
tuousastoapproachthemountainwhereGodtalkedwithMoses.
Thoushaltsetbounds(saiththeLord,Exod.19.12)tothepeopleround

about,andsay,Takeheedtoyourselvesthatyougonotupintothe
Mount,ortouchtheborderofitwhosoevertoucheththeMountshall
surelybeputtodeath.Andagain(verse21)Godown,chargethepeople,
lesttheybreakthroughuntotheLordtogaze.Outofwhichwemay
conclude,thatwhosoeverinaChristiancommonwealthholdeththe
placeofMoses,isthesolemessengerofGod,andinterpreterofhis
commandments.Andaccordinghereunto,nomanoughtinthe
interpretationoftheScripturetoproceedfurtherthanthebounds
whicharesetbytheirseveralsovereigns.FortheScriptures,since
Godnowspeakethinthem,aretheMountSinaithebounds
whereofarethelawsofthemthatrepresentGod'spersononearth.
Tolookuponthem,andthereintobeholdthewondrousworksof
God,andlearntofearhimisallowedbuttointerpretthemthatis,
topryintowhatGodsaithtohimwhomheappointethtogovern
underhim,andmakethemselvesjudgeswhetherhegovernasGod
commandethhim,ornot,istotransgresstheboundsGodhathset
us,andtogazeuponGodirreverently.
Allspirits8.TherewasnoprophetinthetimeofMoses,norpretenderto
werethespiritofGod,butsuchasMoseshadapproved,andauthorized.
subordinatetoFortherewereinhistimebutseventymen,thataresaidtoprophesy
thespiritofbythespiritofGod,andthesewereallofMoseshiselection
Moses.concerningwhomGodsaidtoMoses,(Numb.11.16)Gathertome
seventyoftheeldersofIsrael,whomthouknowesttobetheeldersofthe
people.TotheseGodimpartedhisspiritbutitwasnotadifferent
spiritfromthatofMosesforitissaid(verse25)Godcamedownin
acloud,andtookofthespiritthatwasuponMoses,andgaveittothe
seventyelders.ButasIhaveshownbefore(chap.36)byspirit,is
understoodthemindsothatthesenseoftheplaceisnootherthan
this,thatGodenduedthemwithamindconformable,andsubordi
natetothatofMoses,thattheymightprophesy,thatistosay,speak
tothepeopleinGod'sname,insuchmanner,astosetforward(as
ministersofMoses,andbyhisauthority)suchdoctrineaswas
agreeabletoMoseshisdoctrine.Fortheywerebutministersand
whentwoofthemprophesiedinthecamp,itwasthoughtanewand
unlawfulthingandasitisinverses27and28ofthesamechapter,
theywereaccusedofit,andJoshuaadvisedMosestoforbidthem,as
notknowingthatitwasbyMoseshisspiritthattheyprophesied.By
whichitismanifest,thatnosubjectoughttopretendtoprophesy,or
[253]tothespirit,inoppositiontothedoctrineestablishedbyhim,whom
GodhathsetintheplaceofMoses.

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9.Aaronbeingdead,andafterhimalsoMoses,thekingdom,asAfter
beingasacerdotalkingdom,descendedbyvirtueofthecovenant,toMosesthe
Aaron'sson,Eleazarthehighpriest:andGoddeclaredhim(nextsovereignty
underhimself)forsovereign,atthesametimethatheappointedwasinthe
JoshuafortheGeneraloftheirarmy.ForthusGodsaithexpresslyhighpriest.
(Numb.27.21)concerningJoshuaHeshallstandbeforeEleazarthe
priest,whoshallaskcounselforhim,beforetheLord,athiswordshall
theygoout,andathiswordtheyshallcomein,bothhe,andallthe
childrenofIsraelwithhim:thereforethesupremepowerofmaking
warandpeace,wasinthepriest.Thesupremepowerofjudicature
belongedalsotothehighpriest:forthebookofthelawwasintheir
keepingandthepriestsandLevitesonly,werethesubordinate
judgesincausescivil,asappearsinDeut.17.8,9,10.Andforthe
mannerofGod'sworship,therewasneverdoubtmade,butthatthe
highpriesttillthetimeofSaul,hadthesupremeauthority.There
forethecivilandecclesiasticalpowerwerebothjoinedtogetherin
oneandthesameperson,thehighpriestandoughttobeso,in
whosoevergovernethbydivinerightthatis,byauthorityimmedi
atefromGod.
10.AfterthedeathofJoshua,tillthetimeofSaul,thetimeOfthe
betweenisnotedfrequentlyintheBookofJudgesbythis,thattheresovereign
wasinthosedaysnokinginIsraelandsometimeswiththisaddition,power
thateverymandidthatwhichwasrightinhisowneyes.Bywhichistobetweenthe
beunderstood,thatwhereitissaid,therewasnoking,ismeant,theretimeof
wasnosovereignpowerinIsrael.Andsoitwas,ifweconsidertheact,Joshuaandof
andexerciseofsuchpower.ForafterthedeathofJoshuaandSaul.
Eleazar,therearoseanothergeneration(Judges2.10,11)thatknewnot
theLord,northeworkswhichhehaddoneforIsrael,butdidevilinthe
sightoftheLord,andservedBaalim.AndtheJewshadthatquality
whichSt.Paulnoteth,tolookforasign,notonlybeforetheywould
submitthemselvestothegovernmentofMoses,butalsoafterthey
hadobligedthemselvesbytheirsubmission.Whereassigns,and
miracleshadforendtoprocurefaith,nottokeepmenfromviolating
it,whentheyhaveoncegivenitfortothatmenareobligedbythe
lawofnature.Butifweconsidernottheexercise,buttherightof
governing,thesovereignpowerwasstillinthehighpriest.There
forewhatsoeverobediencewasyieldedtoanyoftheJudges(who
weremenchosenbyGodextraordinarily,tosavehisrebellious
subjectsoutofthehandsoftheenemy,)itcannotbedrawninto
argumentagainsttherightthehighpriesthadtothesovereign

power,inallmatters,bothofpolicyandreligion.Andneitherthe
Judges,norSamuelhimselfhadanordinary,butanextraordinary
callingtothegovernmentandwereobeyedbytheIsraelites,notout
ofduty,butoutofreverencetotheirfavourwithGod,appearingin
theirwisdom,courage,orfelicity.Hithertothereforetherightof
regulatingboththepolicy,andthereligion,wereinseparable.
[254]11.TotheJudges,succeededkings:andwhereasbefore,allau
Oftherightsthority,bothinreligion,andpolicy,wasinthehighpriestsonow
ofthekingsitwasallintheking.Forthesovereigntyoverthepeople,whichwas
ofIsrael.before,notonlybyvirtueofthedivinepower,butalsobyaparticular
pactoftheIsraelitesinGod,andnextunderhim,inthehighpriest,
ashisvicegerentonearth,wascastoffbythepeople,withthe
consentofGodhimself.ForwhentheysaidtoSamuel(1Sam.8.5)
Makeusakingtojudgeus,likeallthenations,theysignifiedthatthey
wouldnomorebegovernedbythecommandsthatshouldbelaid
uponthembythepriest,inthenameofGodbutbyonethatshould
commandtheminthesamemannerthatallothernationswere
commandedandconsequentlyindeposingthehighpriestofroyal
authority,theydeposedthatpeculiargovernmentofGod.Andyet
Godconsentedtoit,sayingtoSamuel(verse7)Hearkenuntothevoice
ofthepeople,inallthattheyshallsayuntotheefortheyhavenotrejected
thee,buttheyhaverejectedme,thatIshouldnotreignoverthem.Having
thereforerejectedGod,inwhoserightthepriestsgoverned,there
wasnoauthoritylefttothepriests,butsuchasthekingwaspleased
toallowthemwhichwasmore,orless,accordingasthekingswere
good,orevil.Andforthegovernmentofcivilaffairs,itismanifest,
itwasallinthehandsoftheking.Forinthesamechapter,(verse20),
theysaytheywillbelikeallthenationsthattheirkingshallbetheir
judge,andgobeforethem,andfighttheirbattlesthatis,heshallhave
thewholeauthority,bothinpeaceandwar.Inwhichiscontained
alsotheorderingofreligion:fortherewasnootherwordofGodin
thattime,bywhichtoregulatereligion,butthelawofMoses,which
wastheircivillaw.Besides,weread(1Kings2.27)thatSolomon
thrustoutAbiatharfrombeingpriestbeforetheLord:hehadtherefore
authorityoverthehighpriest,asoveranyothersubjectwhichisa
greatmarkofsupremacyinreligion.Andwereadalso,(1Kings8)
thathededicatedtheTemplethatheblessedthepeopleandthathe
himselfinpersonmadethatexcellentprayer,usedintheconsecra
tionofallchurches,andhousesofprayerwhichisanothergreat
markofsupremacyinreligion.Again,weread(2Kings22)thatwhen

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therewasquestionconcerningtheBookoftheLawfoundinthe
Temple,thesamewasnotdecidedbythehighpriest,butJosiahsent
bothhimandotherstoenquireconcerningit,ofHuldah,theproph
etesswhichisanothermarkofsupremacyinreligion.Lastly,we
read(1Chron.26.30)thatDavidmadeHashabiahandhisbrethren,
Hebronites,officersofIsraelamongthemwestward,inallthebusiness
oftheLord,andintheserviceoftheking.Likewise(verse32)thathe
madeotherHebronites,rulersovertheReubenites,theGadites,andthe
halftribeofManasseh(theseweretherestofIsraelthatdweltbeyond
Jordan)foreverymatterpertainingtoGod,andaffairsoftheking.Isnot
thisfullpower,bothtemporalandspiritual,astheycallit,thatwould
divideit?ToconcludefromthefirstinstitutionofGod'skingdom,
tothecaptivity,thesupremacyofreligion,wasinthesamehandwith
thatofthecivilsovereigntyandthepriest'sofficeaftertheelection[255]
ofSaul,wasnotmagisterial,butministerial.
12.Notwithstandingthegovernmentbothinpolicyandreligion,Thepractice
werejoined,firstinthehighpriests,andafterwardsinthekings,soofsupremacy
farforthasconcernedtherightyetitappearethbythesameholyinreligion
history,thatthepeopleunderstooditnotbuttherebeingamongstwasnot,in
themagreatpart,andprobablythegreatestpart,thatnolongerthanthetimeof
theysawgreatmiracles,or(whatisequivalenttoamiracle)greatthekings,
abilities,orgreatfelicityintheenterprisesoftheirgovernors,gaveaccordingto
sufficientcredit,eithertothefameofMoses,ortothecolloquiestheright
betweenGodandtheprieststheytookoccasion,asoftastheirthereof.
governorsdispleasedthem,byblamingsometimesthepolicy,some
timesthereligion,tochangethegovernment,orrevoltfromtheir
obedienceattheirpleasure:andfromthenceproceededfromtimeto
timetheciviltroubles,divisions,andcalamitiesofthenation.Asfor
example,afterthedeathofEleazarandJoshua,thenextgeneration
whichhadnotseenthewondersofGod,butwerelefttotheirown
weakreason,notknowingthemselvesobligedbythecovenantofa
sacerdotalkingdom,regardednomorethecommandmentofthe
priest,noranylawofMoses,butdideverymanthatwhichwasright
inhisowneyesandobeyedincivilaffairs,suchmen,asfromtime
totimetheythoughtabletodeliverthemfromtheneighbour
nationsthatoppressedthemandconsultednotwithGod(asthey
oughttodo)butwithsuchmen,orwomen,astheyguessedtobe
prophetsbytheirpredictionsofthingstocomeandthoughthey
hadanidolintheirchapel,yetiftheyhadaLevitefortheirchaplain,
theymadeaccounttheyworshippedtheGodofIsrael.

13.Andafterwardswhentheydemandedaking,aftertheman
nerofthenationsyetitwasnotwithadesigntodepartfromthe
worshipofGodtheirkingbutdespairingofthejusticeofthesons
ofSamuel,theywouldhaveakingtojudgethemincivilactionsbut
notthattheywouldallowtheirkingtochangethereligionwhich
theythoughtwasrecommendedtothembyMoses.Sothatthey
alwayskeptinstoreapretext,eitherofjustice,orreligion,todis
chargethemselvesoftheirobedience,whensoevertheyhadhopeto
prevail.Samuelwasdispleasedwiththepeople,forthattheydesired
aking,(forGodwastheirkingalready,andSamuelhadbutan
authorityunderhim)yetdidSamuel,whenSaulobservednothis
counsel,indestroyingAgagasGodhadcommanded,anointanother
king,namely,David,totakethesuccessionfromhisheirs.
Rehoboamwasnoidolaterbutwhenthepeoplethoughthiman
oppressor,thatcivilpretencecarriedfromhimtentribestoJero
boamanidolater.Andgenerallythroughthewholehistoryofthe
kings,aswellofJudah,asofIsrael,therewereprophetsthatalways
controlledthekings,fortransgressingthereligionandsometimes
alsoforerrorsofstateasJehosaphatwasreproved(2Chron.19.2)
[256]bytheprophetJehu,foraidingthekingofIsraelagainsttheSyrians
andHezekiah,byIsaiah,forshewinghistreasurestotheambassa
dorsofBabylon.Byallwhichitappeareth,thatthoughthepower
bothofstateandreligionwereinthekingsyetnoneofthemwere
uncontrolledintheuseofit,butsuchasweregraciousfortheirown
naturalabilities,orfelicities.Sothatfromthepracticeofthose
times,therecannoargumentbedrawn,thattherightofsupremacy
inreligionwasnotinthekings,unlessweplaceitintheprophets
andconclude,thatbecauseHezekiahprayingtotheLordbeforethe
cherubims,wasnotansweredfromthence,northen,butafterwards
bytheprophetIsaiah,thereforeIsaiahwassupremeheadof
thechurchorbecauseJosiahconsultedHuldahtheprophetess,
concerningtheBookoftheLaw,thatthereforeneitherhe,nor
thehighpriest,butHuldahtheprophetesshadthesupremeauthor
ityinmatterofreligionwhichIthinkisnottheopinionofany
doctor.
Afterthe14.Duringthecaptivity,theJewshadnocommonwealthatall.
captivity,theAndaftertheirreturn,thoughtheyrenewedtheircovenantwith
JewshadnoGod,yettherewasnopromisemadeofobedience,neitherto
settledEsdras,nortoanyother:andpresentlyaftertheybecamesubjectsto
commonwealth.theGreeks(fromwhosecustoms,anddemonology,andfromthe

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doctrineoftheCabalists,theirreligionbecamemuchcorrupted):in
suchsortasnothingcanbegatheredfromtheirconfusion,bothin
stateandreligion,concerningthesupremacyineither.Andthere
foresofarforthasconcerneththeOldTestament,wemayconclude,
thatwhosoeverhadthesovereigntyofthecommonwealthamongst
theJews,thesamehadalsothesupremeauthorityinmatterof
God'sexternalworship,andrepresentedGod'spersonthatis,the
personofGodtheFatherthoughhewerenotcalledbythenameof
Father,tillsuchtimeashesentintotheworldhissonJesusChrist,
toredeemmankindfromtheirsins,andbringthemintohiseverlast
ingkingdom,tobesavedforevermore.Ofwhichwearetospeakin
thechapterfollowing.
ChapterXLI[261]*
OftheOfficeofOurBlessedSaviour*
1.WefindinHolyScripturethreepartsoftheofficeoftheMesThreeparts
siah:thefirstofaRedeemer,orSaviour:thesecondofapastor,oftheoffice
counsellor,orteacher,thatis,ofaprophetsentfromGod,toconvertofChrist.
suchasGodhathelectedtosalvation:thethirdofaking,aneternal
king,butunderhisFather,asMosesandthehighpriestswerein
theirseveraltimes.Andtothesethreepartsarecorrespondentthree
times.Forourredemptionhewroughtitathisfirstcoming,bythe
sacrifice,whereinheoffereduphimselfforoursinsuponthecross:
ourconversionhewroughtpartlytheninhisownpersonandpartly
workethnowbyhisministersandwillcontinuetoworktillhis
comingagain.Andafterhiscomingagain,shallbeginthathis
gloriousreignoverhiselect,whichistolasteternally.
2.TotheofficeofaRedeemer,thatis,ofonethatpayeththeHisofficeas
ransomofsin,(whichransomisdeath,)itappertaineth,thathewasaRedeemer.
sacrificed,andtherebybareuponhisownhead,andcarriedaway
fromusouriniquities,insuchsortasGodhadrequired.Notthatthe
deathofoneman,thoughwithoutsin,cansatisfyfortheoffencesof
allmen,intherigourofjustice,butinthemercyofGod,that
ordainedsuchsacrificesforsin,ashewaspleasedinhismercyto
accept.Intheoldlaw(aswemayread,Levit.16)theLordrequired,
thatthereshouldeveryyearonce,bemadeanatonementforthesins
ofallIsrael,bothpriestsandothersforthedoingwhereof,Aaron

alonewastosacrificeforhimselfandthepriestsayoungbullockand
fortherestofthepeople,hewastoreceivefromthemtwoyoung
goats,ofwhichhewastosacrificeonebutasfortheother,whichwas
thescapegoat,hewastolayhishandsontheheadthereof,andbya
confessionoftheiniquitiesofthepeople,tolaythemallonthathead,
andthenbysomeopportuneman,tocausethegoattobeledintothe
wilderness,andtheretoescape,andcarryawaywithhimthein
iquitiesofthepeople.Asthesacrificeoftheonegoatwasasufficient
(becauseanacceptable)pricefortheransomofallIsraelsothedeath
oftheMessiah,isasufficientprice,forthesinsofallmankind,
becausetherewasnomorerequired.OurSaviourChrist'ssufferings
seemtobeherefigured,asclearly,asintheoblationofIsaac,orin
anyothertypeofhimintheOldTestament:hewasboththe
sacrificedgoat,andthescapegoathewasoppressed,andhewas
afflicted(Isaiah53.7)heopenednothismouthheisbroughtasalamb
[262]totheslaughter,andasasheepisdumbbeforetheshearer,soheopened
nothismouth:hereheisthesacrificedgoat.Hehathborneourgriefs
(verse4),andcarriedoursorrows:andagain,(verse6),theLordhath
laiduponhimtheiniquitiesofusall:andsoheisthescapegoat.Hewas
cutofffromthelandoftheliving(verse8)forthetransgressionofmy
people:thereagainheisthesacrificedgoat.Andagain,(verse11)he
shallbeartheirsins:heisthescapegoat.ThusisthelambofGod
equivalenttoboththosegoatssacrificed,inthathediedandescap
ing,inhisresurrectionbeingraisedopportunelybyhisFather,and
removedfromthehabitationofmeninhisascension.
Christ's3.Forasmuchtherefore,ashethatredeemeth,hathnotitletothe
kingdomnotthingredeemed,beforetheredemption,andransompaidandthis
ofthisworld.ransomwasthedeathoftheRedeemeritismanifest,thatour
Saviour(asman)wasnotkingofthosethatheredeemed,beforehe
suffereddeaththatis,duringthattimeheconversedbodilyonthe
earth.Isay,hewasnotthenkinginpresent,byvirtueofthepact,
whichthefaithfulmakewithhiminbaptism.Nevertheless,bythe
renewingoftheirpactwithGodinbaptism,theywereobligedto
obeyhimforking,(underhisFather)whensoeverheshouldbe
pleasedtotakethekingdomuponhim.Accordingwhereunto,our
Saviourhimselfexpresslysaith,(John18.36)Mykingdomisnotof
thisworld.NowseeingtheScripturemakethmentionbutoftwo
worldssincethefloodthisthatisnow,andshallremainuntotheday
ofjudgment,(whichisthereforealsocalled,thelastday)andthat
whichshallbeafterthedayofjudgment,whenthereshallbeanew

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heaven,andanewearththekingdomofChristisnottobegintillthe
generalresurrection.AndthatisitwhichourSavioursaith,(Matt.
16.27)TheSonofmanshallcomeinthegloryofhisFather,withhis
angelsandthenheshallrewardeverymanaccordingtohisworks.To
rewardeverymanaccordingtohisworks,istoexecutetheofficeof
akingandthisisnottobetillhecomeinthegloryofhisFather,with
hisangels.WhenourSavioursaith,(Matt.23.2)TheScribesand
PhariseessitinMoses'seatallthereforewhatsoevertheybidyoudo,that
observeanddohedeclaredplainly,thatheascribedkinglypower,for
thattime,nottohimself,buttothem.Andsohedothalso,wherehe
saith(Luke12.14)Whomademeajudgeordivideroveryou?And
(John12.47)Icamenottojudgetheworld,buttosavetheworld.And
yetourSaviourcameintothisworldthathemightbeaking,anda
judgeintheworldtocome:forhewastheMessiah,thatis,the
Christ,thatis,theanointedpriest,andthesovereignprophetof
Godthatistosay,hewastohaveallthepowerthatwasinMoses
theprophet,inthehighprieststhatsucceededMoses,andinthe
kingsthatsucceededthepriests.AndSt.Johnsaysexpressly(chap.
5,verse22)theFatherjudgethnoman,buthathcommittedalljudgment
totheSon.Andthisisnotrepugnanttothatotherplace,Icamenot
tojudgetheworld:forthisisspokenoftheworldpresent,theother[263]
oftheworldtocomeasalsowhereitissaid,thatatthesecond
comingofChrist,(Matt.19.28)Yethathavefollowedmeinthe
regeneration,whentheSonofManshallsitinthethroneofhisglory,ye
shallalsositontwelvethrones,judgingthetwelvetribesofIsrael,itis
manifesthiskingdomwasnotbegunwhenhesaidit.*
4.IfthenChristwhilsthewasonearth,hadnokingdominthisTheendof
world,towhatendwashisfirstcoming?ItwastorestoreuntoGod,Christ's
byanewcovenant,thekingdom,whichbeinghisbytheoldcovcomingwas
enant,hadbeencutoffbytherebellionoftheIsraelitesinthetorenewthe
electionofSaul.Whichtodo,hewastopreachuntothem,thathecovenantof
wastheMessiah,thatis,thekingpromisedtothembytheprophetsthekingdom
andtoofferhimselfinsacrificeforthesinsofthemthatshouldbyofGod,and
faithsubmitthemselvestheretoandincasethenationgenerallytopersuade
shouldrefusehim,tocalltohisobediencesuchasshouldbelieveintheelectto
himamongsttheGentiles.Sothattherearetwopartsofourembraceit,
Saviour'sofficeduringhisabodeupontheearth:onetoproclaimwhichwas
himselftheChristandanotherbyteaching,andbyworkingofthesecond
miracles,topersuade,andpreparementoliveso,astobeworthyofpartofhis
theimmortalitybelieversweretoenjoy,atsuchtimeasheshouldoffice.

comeinmajesty,totakepossessionofhisFather'skingdom.And
thereforeitis,thatthetimeofhispreaching,isoftenbyhimself
calledtheregenerationwhichisnotproperlyakingdom,andthereby
awarranttodenyobediencetothemagistratesthatthenwere(for
hecommandedtoobeythosethatsattheninMoses'chair,andtopay
tributetoCaesar)butonlyanearnestofthekingdomofGodthat
wastocome,tothosetowhomGodhadgiventhegracetobehis
disciples,andtobelieveinhimforwhichcausethegodlyaresaidto
bealreadyinthekingdomofgrace,asnaturalizedinthatheavenly
kingdom.
The5.Hithertothereforethereisnothingdone,ortaughtbyChrist,
preachingofthattendethtothediminutionofthecivilrightoftheJews,orof
ChristnotCaesar.Forastouchingthecommonwealthwhichthenwasamongst
contrarytotheJews,boththeythatbareruleamongstthem,andtheythatwere
thethenlawgoverned,didallexpecttheMessiah,andkingdomofGodwhich
oftheJews,theycouldnothavedone,iftheirlawshadforbiddenhim(whenhe
norofcame)tomanifest,anddeclarehimself.Seeingthereforehedid
Caesar.nothing,butbypreaching,andmiraclesgoabouttoprovehimselfto
bethatMessiah,hedidthereinnothingagainsttheirlaws.The
kingdomheclaimedwastobeinanotherworld:hetaughtallmento
obeyinthemeantimethemthatsatinMoses'seat:heallowedthem
togiveCaesarhistribute,andrefusedtotakeuponhimselftobea
judge.Howthencouldhiswords,oractionsbeseditious,ortendto
theoverthrowoftheirthencivilgovernment?ButGodhaving
determinedhissacrifice,forthereductionofhiselecttotheirformer
covenantedobedience,forthemeans,wherebyhewouldbringthe
[264]sametoeffect,madeuseoftheirmalice,andingratitude.Norwasit
contrarytothelawsofCaesar.ForthoughPilatehimself(togratify
theJews)deliveredhimtobecrucifiedyetbeforehedidso,he
pronouncedopenly,thathefoundnofaultinhim:andputfortitle
ofhiscondemnation,notastheJewsrequired,thathepretendedtobe
kingbutsimply,thathewaskingoftheJewsandnotwithstanding
theirclamour,refusedtoalteritsaying,WhatIhavewritten,Ihave
written.
Thethird6.Asforthethirdpartofhisoffice,whichwastobeking,Ihave
partofhisalreadyshewnthathiskingdomwasnottobegintilltheresurrec
officewastotion.Butthenheshallbeking,notonlyasGod,inwhichsensehe
beking,iskingalready,andevershallbe,ofalltheearth,invirtueofhis
underhisomnipotencebutalsopeculiarlyofhisownelect,byvirtueofthe
Father,oftheelect.pacttheymakewithhimintheirbaptism.Andthereforeitis,that

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ourSavioursaith(Matt.19.28)thathisapostlesshouldsitupon
twelvethrones,judgingthetwelvetribesofIsrael,WhentheSonof
Manshallsitinthethroneofhisglory:wherebyhesignifiedthathe
shouldreigntheninhishumannatureand(Matt.16.27)TheSon
ofManshallcomeinthegloryofhisFather,withhisangels,andthen
heshallrewardeverymanaccordingtohisworks.Thesamewemay
read,Mark13.26,and14.62,andmoreexpresslyforthetime,Luke
22.29,30,Iappointuntoyouakingdom,asmyFatherhathappointed
tome,thatyoumayeatanddrinkatmytableinmykingdom,andsiton
thronesjudgingthetwelvetribesofIsrael.Bywhichitismanifest,that
thekingdomofChristappointedtohimbyhisFather,isnottobe
beforetheSonofManshallcomeinglory,andmakehisapostles
judgesofthetwelvetribesofIsrael.Butamanmayhereask,seeing
thereisnomarriageinthekingdomofheaven,whethermenshall
theneat,anddrinkwhateatingthereforeismeantinthisplace?
ThisisexpoundedbyourSaviour(John6.27)wherehesaith,
Labournotforthemeatwhichperisheth,butforthatmeatwhich
endurethuntoeverlastinglife,whichtheSonofManshallgiveyou.So
thatbyeatingatChrist'stable,ismeanttheeatingofthetreeoflife
thatistosay,theenjoyingofimmortality,inthekingdomoftheSon
ofMan.Bywhichplaces,andmanymore,itisevident,thatour
Saviour'skingdomistobeexercisedbyhiminhishumannature.
7.Again,heistobekingthen,nootherwisethanassubordinate,Christ's
orvicegerentofGodtheFather,asMoseswasinthewildernessauthorityin
andasthehighpriestswerebeforethereignofSaulandasthethekingdom
kingswereafterit.ForitisoneofthepropheciesconcerningChrist,ofGod,
thatheshouldbelike(inoffice)toMoses:Iwillraisethemupasubordinateto
prophet,saiththeLord(Deut.18.18)fromamongsttheirbrethrenlikethatofhis
untothee,andwillputmywordsintohismouth,andthissimilitudeFather.
withMoses,isalsoapparentintheactionsofourSaviourhimself,
whilsthewasconversantonearth.ForasMoseschosetwelve
princesofthetribes,togovernunderhimsodidourSaviourchoose
twelveapostles,whoshallsitontwelvethrones,andjudgethe
twelvetribesofIsrael.AndasMosesauthorizedseventyelders,to[265]
receivetheSpiritofGod,andtoprophesytothepeople,thatis,(as
Ihavesaidbefore,)tospeakuntotheminthenameofGodsoour
Saviouralsoordainedseventydisciples,topreachhiskingdom,and
salvationtoallnations.Andaswhenacomplaintwasmadeto
Moses,againstthoseoftheseventythatprophesiedinthecampof
Israel,hejustifiedtheminit,asbeingsubservientthereintohis

governmentsoalsoourSaviour,whenSt.Johncomplainedtohim
ofacertainmanthatcastourdevilsinhisname,justifiedhim
therein,saying,(Luke9.50)Forbidhimnot,forhethatisnotagainst
us,isonourpart.
8.Again,ourSaviourresembledMosesintheinstitutionof
sacraments,bothofadmissionintothekingdomofGod,andofcom
memorationofhisdeliveranceofhiselectfromtheirmiserable
condition.AsthechildrenofIsraelhadforsacramentoftheirrecep
tionintothekingdomofGod,beforethetimeofMoses,theriteof
circumcision,whichritehavingbeenomittedinthewilderness,was
againrestoredassoonastheycameintotheLandofPromisesoalso
theJews,beforethecomingofourSaviour,hadariteofbaptizing,
thatis,ofwashingwithwaterallthosethatbeingGentiles,em
bracedtheGodofIsrael.ThisriteSt.JohntheBaptistusedinthe
receptionofallthemthatgavetheirnamestotheChrist,whomhe
preachedtobealreadycomeintotheworldandourSaviourinsti
tutedthesameforasacramenttobetakenbyallthatbelievedin
him.Fromwhatcausetheriteofbaptismfirstproceeded,isnot
expressedformallyintheScripturebutitmaybeprobablythought
tobeanimitationofthelawofMoses,concerningleprosywherein
theleprousmanwascommandedtobekeptoutofthecampofIsrael
foracertaintimeafterwhichtimebeingjudgedbythepriesttobe
clean,hewasadmittedintothecampafterasolemnwashing.And
thismaythereforebeatypeofthewashinginbaptismwhereinsuch
menasarecleansedoftheleprosyofsinbyfaith,arereceivedinto
theChurchwiththesolemnityofbaptism.Thereisanotherconjec
turedrawnfromtheceremoniesoftheGentiles,inacertaincase
thatrarelyhappensandthatis,whenamanthatwasthoughtdead,
chancedtorecover,othermenmadescrupletoconversewithhim,
astheywoulddotoconversewithaghost,unlesshewerereceived
againintothenumberofmen,bywashing,aschildrennewborn
werewashedfromtheuncleannessoftheirnativity,whichwasa
kindofnewbirth.ThisceremonyoftheGreeks,inthetimethat
JudeawasunderthedominionofAlexander,andtheGreekshis
successors,mayprobablyenoughhavecreptintothereligionofthe
Jews.ButseeingitisnotlikelyourSaviourwouldcountenancea
heathenrite,itismostlikelyitproceededfromthelegalceremony
ofwashingafterleprosy.Andfortheothersacramentofeatingthe
[266]Paschallamb,itismanifestlyimitatedinthesacramentoftheLord's
Supper,inwhichthebreakingofthebread,andthepouringoutof

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thewine,dokeepinmemoryourdeliverancefromthemiseryofsin,
byChrist'spassion,astheeatingofthePaschallamb,keptin
memorythedeliveranceoftheJewsoutofthebondageofEgypt.
SeeingthereforetheauthorityofMoseswasbutsubordinate,andhe
butalieutenantofGoditfolloweth,thatChrist,whoseauthority,as
man,wastobelikethatofMoses,wasnomorebutsubordinateto
theauthorityofhisFather.Thesameismoreexpresslysignified,by
thatthatheteachethustopray,OurFather,letthykingdomcome
and,Forthineisthekingdom,thepowerandthegloryandbythatit
issaid,thatHeshallcomeinthegloryofhisFatherandbythatwhich
St.Paulsaith,(1Cor.24)thencomeththeend,whenheshallhave
deliveredupthekingdomtoGod,eventheFatherandbymanyother
mostexpressplaces.
9.OurSaviourtherefore,bothinteaching,andreigning,Oneandthe
representeth(asMosesdid)thepersonofGodwhichGodfromsameGodis
thattimeforward,butnotbefore,iscalledtheFatherandbeingstilltheperson
oneandthesamesubstance,isonepersonasrepresentedbyMoses,represented
andanotherpersonasrepresentedbyhissontheChrist.ForbyMosesand
beingarelativetoarepresenter,itisconsequenttopluralityofperson
representers,thattherebeapluralityofpersons,thoughofoneandChrist.
thesamesubstance.
ChapterXLII[267]
OfPowerEcclesiastical
1.FortheunderstandingofPOWERECCLESIASTICAL,what,andin
whomitis,wearetodistinguishthetimefromtheascensionofour
Saviour,intotwopartsonebeforetheconversionofkings,andmen
enduedwithsovereigncivilpowertheotheraftertheirconversion.
Foritwaslongaftertheascension,beforeanyking,orcivilsover
eignembraced,andpubliclyallowedtheteachingofChristian
religion.
2.Andforthetimebetween,itismanifest,thatthepowerecOftheholy
clesiastical,wasintheapostlesandaftertheminsuchaswerebyspiritthatfell
themordainedtopreachthegospel,andtoconvertmentoChristionthe
anity,andtodirectthemthatwereconvertedinthewayofsalvationapostles.
andafterthese,thepowerwasdeliveredagaintoothersbythese
ordained,andthiswasdonebyimpositionofhandsuponsuchas

wereordainedbywhichwassignifiedthegivingoftheHolySpirit,
orSpiritofGod,tothosewhomtheyordainedministersofGod,to
advancehiskingdom.Sothatimpositionofhandswasnothingelse
butthesealoftheircommissiontopreachChrist,andteachhis
doctrineandthegivingoftheHolyGhostbythatceremonyof
impositionofhands,wasanimitationofthatwhichMosesdid.For
MosesusedthesameceremonytohisministerJoshua,asweread
(Deut.34.9)AndJoshuathesonofNunwasfullofthespiritofwisdom
forMoseshadlaidhishandsuponhim.OurSaviourthereforebetween
hisresurrection,andascension,gavehisspirittotheapostlesfirst,
bybreathingonthem,andsaying(John20.22)ReceiveyetheHoly
Spiritandafterhisascension(Acts.2,3)bysendingdownupon
them,amightywind,andcloventonguesoffireandnotbyimposition
ofhandsasneitherdidGodlayhishandsonMoses:andhis
apostlesafterward,transmittedthesamespiritbyimpositionof
hands,asMosesdidtoJoshua.Sothatitismanifesthereby,in
whomthepowerecclesiasticalcontinuallyremained,inthosefirst
times,wheretherewasnotanyChristiancommonwealthnamely,
inthemthatreceivedthesamefromtheapostles,bysuccessive
layingonofhands.
Ofthe3.HerewehavethepersonofGodbornnowthethirdtime.For
Trinity.asMoses,andthehighpriests,wereGod'srepresentativeinthe
OldTestamentandourSaviourhimselfasman,duringhisabode
onearth:sotheHolyGhost,thatistosaytheapostles,andtheir
successors,intheofficeofpreachingandteaching,thathadreceived
[268]theholySpirit,haverepresentedhimeversince.Butaperson,(asI
haveshownbefore,chap.13)ishethatisrepresented,asoftenashe
isrepresentedandthereforeGod,whohasbeenrepresented(that
is,personated)thrice,mayproperlyenoughbesaidtobethree
personsthoughneitherthewordPerson,norTrinity,beascribedto
himintheBible.St.John,indeed(1John5.7)saith,Therebethree
thatbearwitnessinheaven,theFather,theWord,andtheHolySpirit
andthesethreeareOne.Butthisdisagreethnot,butaccordethfitly
withthreepersonsinthepropersignificationofpersonswhichis,
thatwhichisrepresentedbyanother.ForsoGodtheFather,as
representedbyMoses,isonepersonandasrepresentedbyhisSon,
anotherpersonandasrepresentedbytheapostles,andbythe
doctorsthattaughtbyauthorityfromthemderived,isathirdper
sonandyeteverypersonhere,isthepersonofoneandthesame
God.Butamanmayhereask,whatitwaswhereofthesethreebear

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witness.St.Johnthereforetellsus(verse11)thattheybearwitness,
thatGodhathgivenuseternallifeinhisSon.Again,ifitshouldbe
asked,whereinthattestimonyappeareth,theansweriseasyforhe
hathtestifiedthesamebythemiracleshewrought,firstbyMoses
secondly,byhisSonhimselfandlastlybyhisapostles,thathad
receivedtheHolySpiritallwhichintheirtimesrepresentedthe
personofGodandeitherprophesiedorpreachedJesusChrist.And
asfortheapostles,itwasthecharacteroftheapostleship,inthe
twelvefirstandgreatapostles,tobearwitnessofhisresurrectionas
appearethexpressly(Acts1.21,22),whereSt.Peter,whenanew
apostlewastobechosenintheplaceofJudasIscariot,useththese
words,Ofthesemenwhichhavecompaniedwithusallthetimethatthe
LordJesuswentinandoutamongstus,beginningatthebaptismofJohn,
untothatsamedaythathewastakenupfromus,mustonebeordained
tobeawitnesswithusofhisresurrection:whichwordsinterpretthe
bearingofwitness,mentionedbySt.John.Thereisinthesameplace
mentionedanotherTrinityofwitnessesinearth.For(1John5.8)he
saith,therearethreethatbearwitnessinearth,theSpirit,andthewater,
andtheblood,andthesethreeagreeinone:thatistosay,thegracesof
God'sspirit,andthetwosacraments,baptism,andtheLord'ssup
per,whichallagreeinonetestimony,toassuretheconsciencesof
believers,ofeternallifeofwhichtestimonyhesaith(verse10)He
thatbelievethontheSonofmanhaththewitnessinhimselfInthis
Trinityonearth,theunityisnotofthethingforthespirit,the
water,andtheblood,arenotthesamesubstance,thoughtheygive
thesametestimony:butintheTrinityofheaven,thepersonsarethe
personsofoneandthesameGod,thoughrepresentedinthree
differenttimesandoccasions.Toconclude,thedoctrineofthe
Trinity,asfarascanbegathereddirectlyfromtheScripture,isin
substancethisthatGodwhoisalwaysoneandthesame,was
thepersonrepresentedbyMosesthepersonrepresentedbyhis[269]
Sonincarnateandthepersonrepresentedbytheapostles.As
representedbytheapostles,theHolySpiritbywhichtheyspake,
isGodasrepresentedbyhisSon(thatwasGodandman),the
SonisthatGodasrepresentedbyMoses,andthehighpriests,
theFather,thatistosay,theFatherofourLordJesusChrist,
isthatGod:fromwhencewemaygatherthereasonwhy
thosenamesFather,Son,andHolySpirit,inthesignification
oftheGodhead,areneverusedintheOldTestament:fortheyare
persons,thatis,theyhavetheirnamesfromrepresentingwhich

couldnotbe,tilldiversmenhadrepresentedGod'spersoninruling,
orindirectingunderhim.
4.Thusweseehowthepowerecclesiasticalwasleftbyour
Saviourtotheapostlesandhowtheywere(totheendtheymight
thebetterexercisethatpower,)enduedwiththeHolySpirit,which
isthereforecalledsometimesintheNewTestamentparacletus
whichsignifiethanassister,oronecalledtoforhelp,thoughitbe
commonlytranslatedacomforter.Letusnowconsiderthepower
itself,whatitwas,andoverwhom.
Thepower5.CardinalBellarmine,*inhisthirdgeneralcontroversy,hath
ecclesiasticalhandledagreatmanyquestionsconcerningtheecclesiasticalpower
isbuttheofthepopeofRomeandbeginswiththis,whetheritoughttobe
powertomonarchical,aristocratical,ordemocratical:allwhichsortsofpower
teach.aresovereign,andcoercive.Ifnowitshouldappear,thatthereisno
coercivepowerleftthembyourSaviourbutonlyapowertopro
claimthekingdomofChrist,andtopersuadementosubmitthem
selvesthereuntoandbypreceptsandgoodcounsel,toteachthem
thathavesubmitted,whattheyaretodo,thattheymaybereceived
intothekingdomofGodwhenitcomesandthattheapostles,and
otherministersoftheGospel,areourschoolmasters,andnotour
commanders,andtheirpreceptsnotlaws,butwholesomecounsels:
thenwereallthatdisputeinvain.
Anargument6.Ihaveshownalready(inthelastchapter,)thatthekingdom
thereof,fromofChristisnotofthisworld:thereforeneithercanhisministers
thepowerof(unlesstheybekings,)requireobedienceinhisname.Forifthe
Christsupremekinghavenothisregalpowerinthisworldbywhat
himself.authoritycanobedienceberequiredtohisofficers?AsmyFathersent
me,(sosaithourSaviour)(John20.21)Isendyou.ButourSaviour
wassenttopersuadetheJewstoreturnto,andtoinvitethe
Gentiles,toreceivethekingdomofhisFather,andnottoreign
inmajesty,nonot,ashisFather'slieutenant,tillthedayof
judgment.
Fromthe7.Thetimebetweentheascensionandthegeneralresurrection,
nameofiscalled,notareigning,butaregenerationthatis,apreparationof
regeneration.menforthesecondandgloriouscomingofChrist,atthedayof
judgmentasappearethbythewordsofourSaviour,(Matt.19.28).
Youthathavefollowedmeintheregeneration,whentheSonofman
[270]shallsitinthethroneofhisglory,youshallalsositupontwelvethrones
andofSt.Paul(Eph.6.15)Havingyourfeetshodwiththepreparation
ofthegospelofpeace.

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8.AndiscomparedbyourSaviour,tofishingthatis,towinningFromthe
mentoobedience,notbycoercion,andpunishing,butbypersuacomparisonof
sion:andthereforehesaidnottohisapostles,hewouldmakethemit,with
somanyNimrods,huntersofmenbutfishersofmen.Itiscomparedfishing,
alsotoleaventosowingofseed,andtothemultiplicationofagrainleaven,seed.
ofmustardseedbyallwhichcompulsionisexcludedandconse
quentlytherecaninthattimebenoactualreigning.Theworkof
Christ'sministers,isevangelizationthatis,aproclamationof
Christ,andapreparationforhissecondcomingastheevangeliza
tionofJohntheBaptist,wasapreparationtohisfirstcoming.
9.Again,theofficeofChrist'sministersinthisworld,istomakeFromthe
menbelieve,andhavefaithinChrist:butfaithhathnorelationto,natureof
nordependenceatalluponcompulsion,orcommandmentbutonlyfaith.
uponcertainty,orprobabilityofargumentsdrawnfromreason,or
fromsomethingmenbelievealready.Thereforetheministersof
Christinthisworld,havenopowerbythattitle,topunishanyman
fornotbelieving,orforcontradictingwhattheysaytheyhaveIsay
nopowerbythattitleofChrist'sministers,topunishsuch:butif
theyhavesovereigncivilpower,bypoliticinstitution,thentheymay
indeedlawfullypunishanycontradictiontotheirlawswhatsoever:
andSt.Paul,ofhimselfandotherthethenpreachersofthegospel,
saithinexpresswords(2Cor.1.24),Wehavenodominionoveryour
faith,butarehelpersofyourjoy.
10.Anotherargument,thattheministersofChristinthisFromthe
presentworldhavenorightofcommanding,maybedrawnfromtheauthority
lawfulauthoritywhichChristhathlefttoallprinces,aswellChrisChristhath
tiansasinfidels.St.Paulsaith(Col.3.20)Childrenobeyyourparentslefttocivil
inallthingsforthisiswellpleasingtotheLord:and(verse22)princes.
Servants,obeyinallthingsyourmastersaccordingtothefleshnotwith
eyeservice,asmenpleasers,butinsinglenessofheart,asfearingthe
Lordthisisspokentothemwhosemasterswereinfidelsandyet
theyarebiddentoobeytheminallthings.Andagain,concerning
obediencetoprinces(Rom.13thefirstsixverses)exhortingtobe
subjecttothehigherpowers,hesaith,thatallpowerisordainedofGod
andthatweoughttobesubjecttothem,notonlyforfearofincurring
theirwrath,butalsoforconsciencesake.AndSt.Peter(1Pet.2.13,14,
15),Submityourselvestoeveryordinanceofman,fortheLord'ssake,
whetheritbetotheking,assupreme,oruntogovernors,astothemthat
besentbyhimforthepunishmentofevildoers,andforthepraiseofthem
thatdowellforsoisthewillofGod.AndagainSt.Paul(Titus3.1),

Putmeninmindtobesubjecttoprincipalitiesandpowers,andtoobey
magistrates.Theseprinces,andpowers,whereofSt.Peter,andSt.
Paulherespeak,wereallinfidels:muchmorethereforeweareto
[271]obeythoseChristians,whomGodhathordainedtohavesovereign
poweroverus.Howthencanwebeobligedtoobeyanyministerof
Christ,ifheshouldcommandustodoanythingcontrarytothe
commandoftheking,orothersovereignrepresentantofthecom
monwealth,whereofwearemembers,andbywhomwelooktobe
protected?Itisthereforemanifest,thatChristhathnotlefttohis
ministersinthisworld,unlesstheybealsoenduedwithcivilauth
ority,anyauthoritytocommandothermen.
What11.Butwhat(maysomeobject)ifaking,orasenate,orother
ChristianssovereignpersonforbidustobelieveinChrist?TothisIanswer,
maydotothatsuchforbiddingisofnoeffectbecausebelief,andunbelief
avoidneverfollowmen'scommands.FaithisagiftofGod,whichmancan
persecution.neithergive,nortakeawaybypromiseofrewards,ormenacesof
torture.Andifitbefurtherasked,whatifwebecommandedbyour
lawfulprincetosaywithourtongue,whatwebelievenotmustwe
obeysuchcommand?Professionwiththetongueisbutanexternal
thing,andnomorethananyothergesturewherebywesignifyour
obedienceandwhereinaChristian,holdingfirmlyinhisheartthe
faithofChrist,haththesamelibertywhichtheprophetElisha
allowedtoNaamantheSyrian.Naamanwasconvertedinhisheart
totheGodofIsraelforhesaith(2Kings5.17,18)Thyservantwill
henceforthofferneitherburntofferingnorsacrificeuntoothergods,but
untotheLord.InthisthingtheLordpardonthyservant,thatwhenmy
mastergoethintothehouseofRimmontoworshipthere,andheleaneth
onmyhand,andIbowmyselfinthehouseofRimrnonwhenIbowdown
myselfinthehouseofRimmon,theLordpardonthyservantinthisthing.
Thistheprophetapproved,andbidhimGoinpeace.HereNaaman
believedinhisheartbutbybowingbeforetheidolRimmon,he
deniedthetrueGodineffect,asmuchasifhehaddoneitwithhis
lips.ButthenwhatshallweanswertoourSaviour'ssaying,(Matt.
10.33)Whosoeverdeniethmebeforemen,Iwilldenyhimbeforemy
Fatherwhichisinheaven?Thiswemaysay,thatwhatsoevera
subject,asNaamanwas,iscompelledtodoinobediencetohis
sovereign,anddothitnotinordertohisownmind,butinorderto
thelawsofhiscountry,thatactionisnothis,buthissovereign'snor
isithethatinthiscasedeniethChristbeforemen,buthisgovernor,
andthelawofhiscountry.Ifanymanshallaccusethisdoctrine,as

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repugnanttotrue,andunfeignedChristianityIaskhim,incase
thereshouldbeasubjectinanyChristiancommonwealth,that
shouldbeinwardlyinhisheartoftheMahomedanreligion,whether
ifhissovereigncommandhimtobepresentatthedivineserviceof
theChristianchurch,andthatonpainofdeath,hethinkthat
Mahomedanobligedinconsciencetosufferdeathforthatcause,
ratherthanobeythatcommandofhislawfulprince.Ifhesay,he
oughtrathertosufferdeath,thenheauthorizethallprivatemen,to
disobeytheirprincesinmaintenanceoftheirreligion,trueorfalse:
ifhesay,heoughttobeobedient,thenheallowethtohimself,that[272]
whichhedeniethtoanother,contrarytothewordsofourSaviour,
(Luke6.31)Whatsoeveryouwouldthatmenshoulddountoyou,that
doyeuntothemandcontrarytothelawofnature,(whichisthe
indubitableeverlastinglawofGod)Donottoanother,thatwhichthou
wouldestnotheshoulddountothee.
12.ButwhatthenshallwesayofallthosemartyrswereadofinOfmartyrs.
thehistoryoftheChurch,thattheyhaveneedlesslycastawaytheir
lives?Foranswerhereunto,wearetodistinguishthepersonsthat
havebeenforthatcauseputtodeathwhereofsomehavereceiveda
callingtopreach,andprofessthekingdomofChristopenlyothers
havehadnosuchcalling,normorehasbeenrequiredofthemthan
theirownfaith.Theformersort,iftheyhavebeenputtodeath,for
bearingwitnesstothispoint,thatJesusChristisrisenfromthe
dead,weretruemartyrsforamartyris,(togivethetruedefinition
oftheword)awitnessoftheresurrectionofJesustheMessiah
whichnonecanbebutthosethatconversedwithhimonearth,and
sawhimafterhewasrisen:forawitnessmusthaveseenwhathe
testifieth,orelsehistestimonyisnotgood.Andthatnonebutsuch,
canproperlybecalledmartyrsofChrist,ismanifestoutofthewords
ofSt.Peter,(Acts1.21,22)Whereforeofthesemenwhichhave
companiedwithusallthetimethattheLordJesuswentinandout
amongstus,beginningfromthebaptismofJohnuntothatsamedayhe
wastakenupfromus,mustonebeordainedtobeamartyr(thatisa
witness)withusofhisresurrection:wherewemayobserve,thathe
whichistobeawitnessofthetruthoftheresurrectionofChrist,
thatistosay,ofthetruthofthisfundamentalarticleofChristian
religion,thatJesuswastheChrist,mustbesomedisciplethat
conversedwithhim,andsawhimbefore,andafterhisresurrection
andconsequentlymustbeoneofhisoriginaldisciples:whereasthey
whichwerenotso,canwitnessnomorebutthattheirantecessors

saidit,andarethereforebutwitnessesofothermen'stestimony
andarebutsecondmartyrs,ormartyrsofChrist'switnesses.
13.He,thattomaintaineverydoctrinewhichhehimself
drawethoutofthehistoryofourSaviour'slife,andoftheActs,or
Epistlesoftheapostlesorwhichhebelievethupontheauthorityof
aprivateman,willopposethelawsandauthorityofthecivilstate,
isveryfarfrombeingamartyrofChrist,oramartyrofhismartyrs.
Itisonearticleonly,whichtodiefor,meritethsohonourablea
nameandthatarticleisthis,thatJesusistheChristthatistosay,He
thathathredeemedus,andshallcomeagaintogiveussalvation,and
eternallifeinhisgloriouskingdom.Todieforeverytenetthat
serveththeambition,orprofitoftheclergy,isnotrequirednorisit
thedeathofthewitness,butthetestimonyitselfthatmakesthe
martyr:forthewordsignifiethnothingelse,butthemanthat
bearethwitness,whetherhebeputtodeathforhistestimony,or
not.
[273]14.Alsohethatisnotsenttopreachthisfundamentalarticle,but
takethituponhimofhisprivateauthority,thoughhebeawitness,
andconsequentlyamartyr,eitherprimaryofChrist,orsecondaryof
hisapostles,disciples,ortheirsuccessorsyetishenotobligedto
sufferdeathforthatcausebecausebeingnotcalledthereto,'tisnot
requiredathishandsnoroughthetocomplain,ifheloseththe
rewardheexpectethfromthosethatneversethimonwork.None
thereforecanbeamartyr,neitherofthefirst,norseconddegree,
thathavenotawarranttopreachChristcomeinthefleshthatisto
say,none,butsuchasaresenttotheconversionofinfidels.Forno
manisawitnesstohimthatalreadybelieveth,andthereforeneeds
nowitnessbuttothemthatdeny,ordoubt,orhavenotheardit.
Christsenthisapostles,andhisseventydisciples,withauthorityto
preachhesentnotallthatbelieved:andhesentthemtounbe
lieversIsendyou(saithhe)assheepamongstwolvesnotassheepto
othersheep.
Argument15.Lastly,thepointsoftheircommission,astheyareexpressly
fromthesetdowninthegospel,containnoneofthemanyauthorityoverthe
pointsoftheircongregation.
commission.16.Wehavefirst(Matt.10.6,7)thatthetwelveapostleswere
TopreachsenttothelostsheepofthehouseofIsrael,andcommandedtopreach,
thatthekingdomofGodwasathand.Nowpreachingintheoriginal,
isthatact,whichacrier,herald,orotherofficerusethtodopublicly
inproclaimingofaking.Butacrierhathnotrighttocommandany

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man.And(Luke10.2)theseventydisciplesaresentout,as
Labourers,notasLordsoftheharvestandarebidden(verse9)tosay,
ThekingdomofGodiscomenighuntoyouandbykingdomhereis
meant,notthekingdomofgrace,butthekingdomofgloryforthey
arebidden(verses11,12)tOdenounceittothosecitieswhichshall
notreceivethem,asathreatening,thatitshallbemoretolerablein
thatdayforSodom,thanforsuchacity.And(Matt.20.28)our
Saviourtellethhisdisciples,thatsoughtpriorityofplace,their
officewastominister,evenastheSonofMancame,nottobeminis
teredunto,buttominister.Preachersthereforehavenotmagisterial,
butministerialpower:Benotcalledmasters,saithourSaviour,
(Matt.23.10)foroneisyourmaster,evenChrist.
17.Anotherpointoftheircommission,is,toTeachallnationsasAndteach
itisinSt.Matt.28.19,orasinSt.Mark16.15Gointoalltheworld,
andpreachthegospeltoeverycreature.Teachingtherefore,and
preachingisthesamething.Fortheythatproclaimthecomingofa
king,mustwithalmakeknownbywhatrighthecometh,ifthey
meanmenshallsubmitthemselvesuntohim:asSt.Pauldidtothe
JewsofThessalonica,when(Acts17.2,3)threeSabbathdayshe
reasonedwiththemoutoftheScriptures,opening,andallegingthat
Christmustneedshavesuffered,andrisenagainfromthedead,andthat
thisJesusisChrist.ButtoteachoutoftheOldTestamentthatJesus
wasChrist,(thatistosay,king,)andrisenfromthedead,isnotto
say,thatmenarebound,aftertheybelieveit,toobeythosethattell
themso,againstthelaws,andcommandsoftheirsovereignsbut
thattheyshalldowisely,toexpectthecomingofChristhereafter,in[274]
patience,andfaith,withobediencetotheirpresentmagistrates.
18.Anotherpointoftheircommission,istobaptize,inthenameTobaptize
oftheFather,andoftheSon,andoftheHolyGhost.Whatisbaptism?
Dippingintowater.Butwhatisittodipamanintothewaterinthe
nameofanything?Themeaningofthesewordsofbaptismisthis.
Hethatisbaptized,isdippedorwashed,asasignofbecominganew
man,andaloyalsubjecttothatGod,whosepersonwasrepresented
inoldtimebyMoses,andthehighpriests,whenhereignedover
theJewsandtoJesusChrist,hisSon,God,andMan,thathath
redeemedus,andshallinhishumannaturerepresenthisFather's
personinhiseternalkingdomaftertheresurrectionandtoac
knowledgethedoctrineoftheapostles,who,assistedbythespiritof
theFather,andoftheSon,wereleftforguidestobringusintothat
kingdom,tobetheonly,andassuredwaythereunto.This,beingour

promiseinbaptismandtheauthorityofearthlysovereignsbeing
nottobeputdowntillthedayofjudgment(forthatisexpressly
affirmedbySt.Paul(1Cor.15.22,23,24)wherehesaith,Asin
Adamalldie,soinChristallshallbemadealive.Buteverymaninhis
ownorder,Christthefirstfruits,afterwardtheythatareChrist's,athis
comingthencomeththeend,whenheshallhavedeliveredupthe
kingdomtoGod,eventheFather,whenheshallhaveputdownallrule,
andallauthorityandpower)itismanifest,thatwedonotinbaptism
constituteoverusanotherauthority,bywhichourexternalactions
aretobegovernedinthislifebutpromisetotakethedoctrineofthe
apostlesforourdirectioninthewaytolifeeternal.
Andto19.Thepowerofremission,andretentionofsins,calledalsothe
forgive,andpowerofloosing,andbinding,andsometimesthekeysofthekingdom
retainsins.ofheaven,isaconsequenceoftheauthoritytobaptize,orrefuseto
baptize.Forbaptismisthesacramentofallegiance,ofthemthatare
tobereceivedintothekingdomofGodthatistosay,intoeternal
lifethatistosay,toremissionofsin:foraseternallifewaslostby
thecommitting,soitisrecoveredbytheremittingofmen'ssins.
Theendofbaptismisremissionofsins:andthereforeSt.Peter,
whentheythatwereconvertedbyhissermononthedayofPente
cost,askedwhattheyweretodo,advisedthem(Acts2.38)torepent,
andbebaptizedinthenameofJesus,fortheremissionofsins.And
thereforeseeingtobaptizeistodeclarethereceptionofmeninto
God'skingdomandtorefusetobaptizeistodeclaretheirexclusion
itfolloweth,thatthepowertodeclarethemcastout,orretainedin
it,wasgiventothesameapostles,andtheirsubstitutes,andsuc
cessors.AndthereforeafterourSaviourhadbreatheduponthem,
saying(John20.22)ReceivetheHolyGhost,headdethinthenext
verse,Whosesoeversinsyeremit,theyareremitteduntothemand
whosesoeversinsyeretain,theyareretained.Bywhichwords,isnot
grantedanauthoritytoforgive,orretainsins,simplyandabsolutely,
[275]asGodforgivethorretaineththem,whoknoweththeheartofman,
andtruthofhispenitenceandconversionbutconditionally,tothe
penitent:andthisforgiveness,orabsolution,incasetheabsolved
havebutafeignedrepentance,istherebywithoutotheract,or
sentenceoftheabsolved,madevoid,andhathnoeffectatallto
salvation,butonthecontrarytotheaggravationofhissin.There
foretheapostles,andtheirsuccessors,aretofollowbuttheoutward
marksofrepentancewhichappearing,theyhavenoauthorityto
denyabsolutionandiftheyappearnot,theyhavenoauthorityto

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absolve.Thesamealsoistobeobservedinbaptism:fortoacon
vertedJew,orGentile,theapostleshadnotthepowertodeny
baptismnortograntittotheunpenitent.Butseeingnomanisable
todiscernthetruthofanotherman'srepentance,furtherthanby
externalmarks,takenfromhiswordsandactions,whicharesubject
tohypocrisyanotherquestionwillarise,whoitisthatisconstituted
judgeofthosemarks?AndthisquestionisdecidedbyourSaviour
himselfIfthybrother(saithhe,Matt.18,15,16,17)shalltrespass
againstthee,goandtellhimhisfaultbetweenthee,andhimaloneifhe
shallhearthee,thouhastgainedthybrother.Butifhewillnothearthee,
thentakewiththeeoneortwomore.Andifheshallneglecttohearthem,
tellituntotheChurchbutifheneglecttoheartheChurch,lethimbe
untotheeasanheathenman,andapublican.Bywhichitismanifest,
thatthejudgmentconcerningthetruthofrepentance,belongednot
toanyoneman,buttotheChurch,thatis,totheassemblyofthe
faithful,ortothemthathaveauthoritytobetheirrepresentant.But
besidesthejudgment,thereisnecessaryalsothepronouncingof
sentence:andthisbelongedalwaystotheapostle,orsomepastorof
theChurch,asprolocutorandofthisourSaviourspeakethinthe
8thverse,Whatsoeveryeshallbindonearth,shallbeboundinheaven
andwhatsoeveryeshalllooseonearth,shallbeloosedinheaven.And
conformablehereuntowasthepracticeofSt.Paul,(1Cor.5.3,4,5)
wherehesaith,ForIverily,asabsentinbody,butpresentinspirit,have
determinedalready,asthoughIwerepresent,concerninghimthathath
sodonethisdeedinthenameofourLordJesusChrist,whenyeare
gatheredtogether,andmyspirit,withthepowerofourLordJesus
Christ,todeliversuchaonetoSatanthatistosay,tocasthimoutof
theChurch,asamanwhosesinsarenotforgiven.St.Paulhere
pronounceththesentencebuttheassemblywasfirsttohearthe
cause,(forSt.Paulwasabsent)andbyconsequencetocondemn
him.Butinthesamechapter(verses11,12)thejudgmentinsucha
caseismoreexpresslyattributedtotheassembly:ButnowIhave
writtenuntoyou,nottokeepcompany,ifanymanthatiscalleda
brotherbeafornicator,&c.withsuchaone,nonottoeat.Forwhat
haveItodotojudgethemthatarewithout?Donotyejudgethemthat
arewithin?Thesentencethereforebywhichamanwasputoutof
theChurch,waspronouncedbytheapostle,orpastorbutthe
judgmentconcerningthemeritofthecause,wasintheChurchthat
istosay,(asthetimeswerebeforetheconversionofkings,andmen
thathadsovereignauthorityinthecommonwealth,)theassemblyof

[276]theChristiansdwellinginthesamecity:asinCorinth,inthe
assemblyoftheChristiansofCorinth.
Ofexcom20.Thispartofthepowerofthekeys,bywhichmenwerethrust
munication.outfromthekingdomofGod,isthatwhichiscalledexcommunica
tionandtoexcommunicate,isintheoriginal,

,tocastoutofthesynagoguethatis,outoftheplaceofdivine
serviceaworddrawnfromthecustomoftheJews,tocastoutof
theirsynagoguessuchastheythoughtinmanners,ordoctrine,
contagious,asleperswerebythelawofMosesseparatedfromthe
congregationofIsrael,tillsuchtimeastheyshouldbebythepriest
pronouncedclean.
Theuseof21.Theuseandeffectofexcommunication,whilstitwasnotyet
Excommunicationstrengthenedwiththecivilpower,wasnomore,thanthatthey,who
withoutcivilwerenotexcommunicate,weretoavoidthecompanyofthemthat
power.were.Itwasnotenoughtoreputethemasheathen,thatneverhad
beenChristiansforwithsuchtheymighteatanddrinkwhichwith
excommunicatepersonstheymightnotdoasappearethbythe
wordsofSt.Paul,(1Cor.5.9,10,&c.)wherehetelleththem,hehad
formerlyforbiddenthemtocompanywithfornicatorsbut(because
thatcouldnotbewithoutgoingoutoftheworld,)herestrainethit
tosuchfornicators,andotherwiseviciouspersons,aswereofthe
brethrenwithsuchaone(hesaith)theyoughtnottokeepcompany,
nonottoeat.AndthisisnomorethanourSavioursaith(Matt.18.
17)Lethimbetotheeasaheathen,andasapublican.Forpublicans
(whichsignifiethfarmers,andreceiversoftherevenueofthecom
monwealth)weresohated,anddetestedbytheJewsthatweretopay
it,asthatpublicanandsinnerweretakenamongstthemforthesame
thing:insomuch,aswhenourSaviouracceptedtheinvitationof
Zacchaeusapublicanthoughitweretoconverthim,yetitwas
objectedtohimasacrime.Andtherefore,whenourSaviour,to
heathen,addedpublican,hedidforbidthemtoeatwithaman
excommunicate.
22.Asforkeepingthemoutoftheirsynagogues,orplaces
ofassembly,theyhadnopowertodoit,butthatoftheownerof
theplace,whetherhewereChristian,orheathen.Andbecause
allplacesarebyright,inthedominionofthecommonwealthaswell
hethatwasexcommunicated,ashethatneverwasbaptized,
mightenterintothembycommissionfromthecivilmagistrate
asPaulbeforehisconversionenteredintotheirsynagoguesat
Damascus,(Acts9.2)toapprehendChristians,menandwomen,

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andtocarrythemboundtoJerusalem,bycommissionfromthe
highpriest.
23.Bywhichitappears,thatuponaChristian,thatshouldbeOfnoeffect
comeanapostate,inaplacewherethecivilpowerdidpersecute,oruponan
notassisttheChurch,theeffectofexcommunicationhadnothinginapostate
it,neitherofdamageinthisworld,norofterror:notofterror,
becauseoftheirunbeliefnorofdamage,becausetheyreturned
therebyintotheCavouroftheworldandintheworldtocome,were
tobeinnoworseestate,thantheywhichneverhadbelieved.The
damageredoundedrathertotheChurch,byprovocationofthem[277]
theycastout,toafreerexecutionoftheirmalice.
24.Excommunicationthereforehaditseffectonlyuponthose,Butuponthe
thatbelievedthatJesusChristwastocomeagaininglory,toreignfaithfulonly.
over,andtojudgeboththequick,andthedead,andshouldthere
forerefuseentranceintohiskingdom,tothosewhosesinswere
retainedthatis,tothosethatwereexcommunicatedbytheChurch.
AndthenceitisthatSt.Paulcallethexcommunication,adeliveryof
theexcommunicatepersontoSatan.Forwithoutthekingdomof
Christ,allotherkingdomsafterjudgment,arecomprehendedinthe
kingdomofSatan.Thisisitthatthefaithfulstoodinfearof,aslong
astheystoodexcommunicate,thatistosay,inanestatewherein
theirsinswerenotforgiven.Wherebywemayunderstand,that
excommunicationinthetimethatChristianreligionwasnotauth
orizedbythecivilpower,wasusedonlyforacorrectionofmanners,
notoferrorsinopinion:foritisapunishment,whereofnonecould
besensiblebutsuchasbelieved,andexpectedthecomingagainof
ourSaviourtojudgetheworldandtheywhosobelieved,neededno
otheropinion,butonlyuprightnessoflife,tobesaved.
25.Thereliethexcommunicationforinjusticeas(Matt.18)IfForwhat
thybrotheroffendthee,tellithimprivatelythenwithwitnessesfaultlieth
lastly,telltheChurchandthenifheobeynot,Lethimbetotheeasexcommuni
anheathenmanandapublican.Andthereliethexcommunicationforcation.
ascandalouslife,as(1Cor.5.11)Ifanymanthatiscalledabrother,
beafornicator,orcovetous,oranidolater,oradrunkard,oranextor
tioner,withsuchaoneyearenottoeat.Buttoexcommunicateaman
thatheldthisfoundation,thatJesuswastheChrist,fordifferenceof
opinioninotherpoints,bywhichthatfoundationwasnotdestroyed,
thereappearethnoauthorityintheScripture,norexampleinthe
apostles.ThereisindeedinSt.Paul(Titus3.10)atextthatseemeth
tobetothecontrary.Amanthatisanheretic,afterthefirstandsecond

admonition,reject.Foranheretic,ishe,thatbeingamemberofthe
Church,teachethneverthelesssomeprivateopinion,whichthe
Churchhasforbidden:andsuchaone,St.PauladvisethTitus,after
thefirst,andsecondadmonition,toreject.Buttoreject(inthisplace)
isnottoexcommunicatethemanbuttogiveoveradmonishinghim,to
lethimalone,tosetbydisputingwithhim,asonethatistobeconvinced
onlybyhimself.Thesameapostlesaith(2Tim.2.23)Foolishand
unlearnedquestionsavoid:thewordavoidinthisplace,andrejectin
theformer,isthesameintheoriginal,
:butfoolish
questionsmaybesetbywithoutexcommunication.Andagain,(Titus
3.9)Avoidfoolishquestions,wheretheoriginal
(setthem
by)isequivalenttotheformerwordreject.Thereisnootherplace
thatcansomuchascolourablybedrawn,tocountenancethecasting
outoftheChurchfaithfulmen,suchasbelievedthefoundation,only
forasingularsuperstructureoftheirown,proceedingperhapsfrom
agoodandpiousconscience.Butonthecontrary,allsuchplacesas
[278]commandavoidingsuchdisputes,arewrittenforalessontopastors,
(suchasTimothyandTituswere)nottomakenewarticlesoffaith,
bydeterminingeverysmallcontroversy,whichobligementoa
needlessburthenofconscience,orprovokethemtobreaktheunion
oftheChurch.Whichlessontheapostlesthemselvesobservedwell.
St.Peter,andSt.Paul,thoughtheircontroversyweregreat,(aswe
mayreadinGal.2.11)yettheydidnotcastoneanotheroutofthe
Church.Nevertheless,duringtheapostles'times,therewereother
pastorsthatobserveditnotasDiotrephes(3John,9,&c.)whocast
outoftheChurch,suchasSt.Johnhimselfthoughtfittobereceived
intoit,outofapridehetookinpreeminencesoearlyitwas,that
vainglory,andambitionhadfoundentranceintotheChurchof
Christ.
Ofpersons26.Thatamanbeliabletoexcommunication,therebemany
liabletoconditionsrequisiteasfirst,thathebeamemberofsome
excommunicommonalty,thatistosay,ofsomelawfulassembly,thatistosay,of
cation.someChristianChurch,thathathpowertojudgeofthecausefor
whichheistobeexcommunicated.Forwherethereisnocom
munity,therecanbenoexcommunicationnorwherethereisno
powertojudge,cantherebeanypowertogivesentence.
27.Fromhenceitfolloweth,thatoneChurchcannotbeexcom
municatedbyanother:foreithertheyhaveequalpowertoex
communicateeachother,inwhichcaseexcommunicationisnot
discipline,noranactofauthority,butschism,anddissolutionof

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charityoroneissosubordinatetotheother,asthattheybothhave
butonevoice,andthentheybebutoneChurchandthepart
excommunicated,isnomoreaChurch,butadissolutenumberof
individualpersons.
28.Andbecausethesentenceofexcommunication,importethan
advice,nottokeepcompanynorsomuchastoeatwithhimthatis
excommunicate,ifasovereignprince,orassemblybeexcommuni
cate,thesentenceisofnoeffect.Forallsubjectsareboundtobe
inthecompanyandpresenceoftheirownsovereign(whenhe
requirethit)bythelawofnaturenorcantheylawfullyeitherexpel
himfromanyplaceofhisowndominion,whetherprofaneorholy
norgooutofhisdominion,withouthisleavemuchless(ifhecall
themtothathonour,)refusetoeatwithhim.Andastootherprinces
andstates,becausetheyarenotpartsofoneandthesamecongrega
tion,theyneednotanyothersentencetokeepthemfromkeeping
companywiththestateexcommunicate:fortheveryinstitution,as
itunitethmanymenintoonecommunitysoitdissociatethone
communityfromanother:sothatexcommunicationisnotneedful
forkeepingkingsandstatesasundernorhasanyfurthereffectthan
isinthenatureofpolicyitselfunlessitbetoinstigateprincestowar
upononeanother.
29.NoristheexcommunicationofaChristiansubject,that
obeyeththelawsofhisownsovereign,whetherChristian,orhea
then,ofanyeffect.ForifhebelievethatJesusistheChrist,hehath
theSpiritofGod,(1John4.1)andGoddwellethinhim,andheinGod[279]
(1John4.15).ButhethathaththespiritofGodhethatdwellethin
GodheinwhomGoddwelleth,canreceivenoharmbytheexcom
municationofmen.Therefore,hethatbelievethJesustobethe
Christ,isfreefromallthedangersthreatenedtopersonsexcom
municate.Hethatbelievethitnot,isnoChristian.Thereforeatrue
andunfeignedChristianisnotliabletoexcommunication:norhe
alsothatisaprofessedChristian,tillhishypocrisyappearin
hismanners,thatis,tillhisbehaviourbecontrarytothelawofhis
sovereign,whichistheruleofmanners,andwhichChristandhis
apostleshavecommandedustobesubjectto.FortheChurchcannot
judgeofmannersbutbyexternalactions,whichactionscanneverbe
unlawful,butwhentheyareagainstthelawofthecommonwealth.
30.Ifaman'sfather,ormother,ormaster,beexcommunicate,
yetarenotthechildrenforbiddentokeepthemcompany,nortoeat
withthemforthatwere(forthemostpart)toobligethemnottoeat

atall,forwantofmeanstogetfoodandtoauthorizethemto
disobeytheirparents,andmasters,contrarytothepreceptofthe
apostles.
31.Insum,thepowerofexcommunicationcannotbeextended
furtherthantotheendforwhichtheapostlesandpastorsofthe
ChurchhavetheircommissionfromourSaviourwhichisnotto
rulebycommandandcoercion,butbyteachinganddirectionof
meninthewayofsalvationintheworldtocome.Andasamaster
inanyscience,mayabandonhisscholar,whenheobstinately
neglecteththepracticeofhisrulesbutnotaccusehimofinjustice,
becausehewasneverboundtoobeyhim:soateacherofChristian
doctrinemayabandonhisdisciplesthatobstinatelycontinueinan
unchristianlifebuthecannotsay,theydohimwrong,becausethey
arenotobligedtoobeyhim:fortoateacherthatshallsocomplain,
maybeappliedtheanswerofGodtoSamuelinthelikeplace,(1
Sam.8.7)Theyhavenotrejectedthee,butme.Excommunication
thereforewhenitwanteththeassistanceofthecivilpower,asit
doth,whenaChristianstate,orprinceisexcommunicatebya
foreignauthority,iswithouteffectandconsequentlyoughttobe
withoutterror.ThenameofFulmenexcommunicationis(thatis,the
thunderboltofexcommunication)proceededfromanimaginationof
theBishopofRome,whichfirstusedit,thathewaskingofkings,as
theheathenmadeJupiterkingofthegodsandassignedhimintheir
poems,andpictures,athunderbolt,wherewithtosubdue,andpun
ishthegiants,thatshoulddaretodenyhispower:whichimagin
ationwasgroundedontwoerrorsone,thatthekingdomofChrist
isofthisworld,contrarytoourSaviour'sownwords,(John18.36)
Mykingdomisnotofthisworldtheother,thatheisChrist'svicar,
notonlyoverhisownsubjects,butoveralltheChristiansofthe
worldwhereofthereisnogroundinScripture,andthecontrary
[280]shallbeprovedinitsdueplace.
Ofthe32.St.PaulcomingtoThessalonica,wherewasaSynagogueof
interpretertheJews,(Acts17.2,3)ashismannerwas,wentinuntothem,andthree
oftheSabbathdaysreasonedwiththemoutoftheScriptures,openingand
Scriptures,alleging,thatChristmustneedshavesufferedandrisenagainfromthe
beforecivildeadandthatthisJesuswhomhepreachedwastheChrist.TheScrip
sovereignsturesherementionedweretheScripturesoftheJews,thatis,the
becameOldTestament.Themen,towhomhewastoprovethatJesuswas
Christians.theChrist,andrisenagainfromthedead,werealsoJews,anddid
believealready,thattheywerethewordofGod.Hereupon(asitis

Page343

inverse4)someofthembelieved,and(asitisinverse5)some
believednot.Whatwasthereason,whentheyallbelievedtheScrip
ture,thattheydidnotallbelievealikebutthatsomeapproved,
othersdisapprovedtheinterpretationofSt.Paulthatcitedthem
andeveryoneinterpretedthemtohimself?ItwasthisSt.Paulcame
tothemwithoutanylegalcommission,andinthemannerofonethat
wouldnotcommand,butpersuadewhichhemustneedsdo,either
bymiracles,asMosesdidtotheIsraelitesinEgypt,thattheymight
seehisauthorityinGod'sworksorbyreasoningfromthealready
receivedScripture,thattheymightseethetruthofhisdoctrinein
God'sword.Butwhosoeverpersuadethbyreasoningfromprin
cipleswritten,makethhimtowhomhespeakethjudge,bothofthe
meaningofthoseprinciples,andalsooftheforceofhisinferences
uponthem.IftheseJewsofThessalonicawerenot,whoelsewasthe
judgeofwhatSt.PaulallegedoutofScripture?IfSt.Paul,what
neededhetoquoteanyplacestoprovehisdoctrine?Ithadbeen
enoughtohavesaid,IfinditsoinScripture,thatistosay,inyour
laws,ofwhichIaminterpreter,assentbyChrist.Theinterpreter
thereforeoftheScripture,towhoseinterpretationtheJewsof
Thessalonicawereboundtostand,couldbenone:everyonemight
believe,ornotbelieve,accordingastheallegationseemedtohimself
tobeagreeable,ornotagreeabletothemeaningoftheplacesalleged.
Andgenerallyinallcasesoftheworld,hethatpretendethanyproof,
makethjudgeofhisproofhimtowhomheaddressethhisspeech.
AndastothecaseoftheJewsinparticular,theywereboundby
expresswords(Deut.17)toreceivethedeterminationofallhard
questions,fromthepriestsandjudgesofIsraelforthetimebeing.
ButthisistobeunderstoodoftheJewsthatwereyetunconverted.
33.FortheconversionoftheGentiles,therewasnouseof
allegingtheScriptures,whichtheybelievednot.Theapostlesthere
forelabouredbyreasontoconfutetheiridolatryandthatdone,to
persuadethemtothefaithofChrist,bytheirtestimonyofhislife,
andresurrection.Sothattherecouldnotyetbeanycontroversy
concerningtheauthoritytointerpretScriptureseeingnomanwas
obligedduringhisinfidelity,tofollowanyman'sinterpretationof
anyScripture,excepthissovereign'sinterpretationofthelawsofhis
country.
34.Letusnowconsidertheconversionitself,andseewhatthere[281]
wasthereinthatcouldbecauseofsuchanobligation.Menwere
convertedtonootherthingthantothebeliefofthatwhichthe

apostlespreached:andtheapostlespreachednothing,butthatJesus
wastheChrist,thatistosay,thekingthatwastosavethem,and
reignoverthemeternallyintheworldtocomeandconsequently
thathewasnotdead,butrisenagainfromthedead,andgoneup
intoheaven,andshouldcomeagainonedaytojudgetheworld,
(whichalsoshouldriseagaintobejudged,)andrewardeveryman
accordingtohisworks.Noneofthempreachedthathimself,orany
otherapostlewassuchaninterpreteroftheScripture,asallthat
becameChristians,oughttotaketheirinterpretationforlaw.Forto
interpretthelaws,ispartoftheadministrationofapresentking
domwhichtheapostleshadnot.Theyprayedthen,andallother
pastorseversince,letthykingdomcomeandexhortedtheirconverts
toobeytheirthenethnicprinces.TheNewTestamentwasnotyet
publishedinonebody.Everyoftheevangelistswasinterpreterof
hisowngospelandeveryapostleofhisownepistleandoftheOld
Testament,ourSaviourhimselfsaithtotheJews(John5.39)Search
theScripturesforinthemyethinktohaveeternallife,andtheyarethey
thattestifyofme.Ifhehadnotmeanttheyshouldinterpretthem,he
wouldnothavebiddenthemtakethencetheproofofhisbeingthe
Christ:hewouldeitherhaveinterpretedthemhimself,orreferred
themtotheinterpretationofthepriests.
35.Whenadifficultyarose,theapostlesandeldersoftheChurch
assembledthemselvestogether,anddeterminedwhatshouldbe
preached,andtaught,andhowtheyshouldinterprettheScriptures
tothepeoplebuttooknotfromthepeoplethelibertytoread,and
interpretthemtothemselves.Theapostlessentdiversletterstothe
Churches,andotherwritingsfortheirinstructionwhichhadbeen
invain,iftheyhadnotallowedthemtointerpret,thatis,toconsider
themeaningofthem.Andasitwasintheapostles'time,soitmust
betillsuchtimeasthereshouldbepastors,thatcouldauthorizean
interpreter,whoseinterpretationshouldgenerallybestoodto:but
thatcouldnotbetillkingswerepastors,orpastorskings.
Ofthepower36.Therebetwosenses,whereinawritingmaybesaidtobe
tomakecanonicalforcanon,signifietharuleandaruleisaprecept,by
Scripture,whichamanisguided,anddirectedinanyactionwhatsoever.Such
law.precepts,thoughgivenbyateachertohisdisciple,oracounsellorto
hisfriend,withoutpowertocompelhimtoobservethem,are
neverthelesscanonsbecausetheyarerules:butwhentheyaregiven
byone,whomhethatreceiveththemisboundtoobey,thenare
thosecanons,notonlyrules,butlaws.Thequestionthereforehere,

Page345

isofthepowertomaketheScriptures(whicharetherulesof
Christianfaith)laws.
37.ThatpartoftheScripture,whichwasfirstlaw,wastheTenOftheten
Commandments,writtenintwotablesofstone,anddeliveredbycommand
GodhimselftoMosesandbyMosesmadeknowntothepeople.ments.
BeforethattimetherewasnowrittenlawofGod,whoasyethaving[282]
notchosenanypeopletobehispeculiarkingdom,hadgivennolaw
tomen,butthelawofnature,thatistosay,thepreceptsofnatural
reason,writtenineveryman'sownheart.Ofthesetwotables,the
firstcontaineththelawofsovereignty1.Thattheyshouldnotobey,
norhonourthegodsofothernations,inthesewords,Nonhabebis
deosalienoscoramme,thatis,thoushaltnothaveforgods,thegodsthat
othernationsworship,butonlyme:wherebytheywereforbiddento
obey,orhonour,astheirkingandgovernor,anyotherGod,than
himthatspakeuntothemthenbyMoses,andafterwardsbythe
highpriest.2.Thattheyshouldnotmakeanyimagetorepresenthim
thatistosay,theywerenottochoosetothemselves,neitherin
heaven,norinearth,anyrepresentativeoftheirownfancying,but
obeyMosesandAaron,whomhehadappointedtothatoffice.3.
ThattheyshouldnottakethenameofGodinvainthatis,theyshould
notspeakrashlyoftheirking,nordisputehisright,northecommis
sionsofMosesandAaron,hislieutenants.4.Thattheyshouldevery
seventhdayabstainfromtheirordinarylabour,andemploythattime
indoinghimpublichonour.Thesecondtablecontaineththeduty
ofonemantowardsanother,astohonourparentsnottokillnotto
commitadulterynottostealnottocorruptjudgmentbyfalsewitness
andfinally,notsomuchastodesignintheirheartthedoingofanyinjury
onetoanother.Thequestionnowis,whoitwasthatgavetothese
writtentablestheobligatoryforceoflaws.Thereisnodoubtbut
theyweremadelawsbyGodhimself:butbecausealawobligesnot,
norislawtoany,buttothemthatacknowledgeittobetheactofthe
sovereignhowcouldthepeopleofIsraelthatwereforbiddento
approachthemountaintohearwhatGodsaidtoMoses,beobliged
toobediencetoallthoselawswhichMosespropoundedtothem?
Someofthemwereindeedthelawsofnature,asallthesecondtable
andthereforetobeacknowledgedforGod'slawsnottotheIsrael
itesalone,buttoallpeople:butofthosethatwerepeculiartothe
Israelites,asthoseofthefirsttable,thequestionremainssavingthat
theyhadobligedthemselves,presentlyafterthepropoundingof
them,toobeyMoses,inthesewords(Exod.20.19),Speakthoutous,

andwewillheartheebutletnotGodspeaktous,lestwedie.Itwas
thereforeonlyMosesthen,andafterhimthehighpriest,whom(by
Moses)Goddeclaredshouldadministerthishispeculiarkingdom,
thathadonearth,thepowertomakethisshortScriptureofthe
DecaloguetobelawinthecommonwealthofIsrael.ButMoses,and
Aaron,andthesucceedinghighpriests,werethecivilsovereigns.
Thereforehitherto,thecanonizingormakingtheScripturelaw,
belongedtothecivilsovereign.
Ofthe38.Thejudiciallaw,thatistosay,thelawsthatGodprescribed
judicialandtothemagistratesofIsraelfortheruleoftheiradministrationof
Leviticallaw.justice,andofthesentencesorjudgmentstheyshouldpronouncein
[283]pleasbetweenmanandmanandtheLeviticallaw,thatistosay,the
rulethatGodprescribedtouchingtheritesandceremoniesofthe
priestsandLevites,werealldeliveredtothembyMosesonlyand
thereforealsobecamelaws,byvirtueofthesamepromiseofobedi
encetoMoses.Whethertheselawswerethenwritten,ornot
written,butdictatedtothepeoplebyMoses(afterhisbeingforty
dayswithGodintheMount)bywordofmouth,isnotexpressedin
thetextbuttheywereallpositivelaws,andequivalenttoholy
Scripture,andmadecanonicalbyMosesthecivilsovereign.
Thesecond39.AftertheIsraeliteswerecomeintotheplainsofMoabover
law.againstJericho,andreadytoenterintothelandofpromise,Moses
totheformerlawsaddeddiversotherswhichthereforearecalled
Deuteronomythatis,secondlaws.Andare,(asitiswrittenDeut.29.
1)thewordsofacovenantwhichtheLordcommandedMosestomake
withthechildrenofIsrael,besidesthecovenantwhichhemadewiththem
inHoreb.Forhavingexplainedthoseformerlaws,inthebeginning
ofthebookofDeuteronomy,headdedothers,thatbeginatthe12th
chapter,andcontinuetotheendofthe26thofthesamebook.This
law(Deut.27.3)theywerecommandedtowriteupongreatstones
plasteredover,attheirpassingoverJordan:thislawalsowaswritten
byMoseshimselfinabookanddeliveredintothehandsof
thepriests,andtotheeldersofIsrael(Deut.31.9)andcommanded
(verse26)tobeputinthesideofthearkforinthearkitselfwas
nothingbutthetencommandments.Thiswasthelaw,whichMoses
(Deut.17.18)commandedthekingsofIsraelshouldkeepacopyof:
andthisisthelaw,whichhavingbeenlongtimelost,wasfound
againinthetempleinthetimeofJosiah,andbyhisauthority
receivedforthelawofGod.ButbothMosesatthewriting,
andJosiahattherecoverythereof,hadbothofthemthecivil

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sovereignty.HithertothereforethepowerofmakingScriptureca
nonical,wasinthecivilsovereign.
40.Besidesthisbookofthelaw,therewasnootherbook,from
thetimeofMosestillaftertheCaptivity,receivedamongsttheJews
forthelawofGod.Fortheprophets(exceptafew)livedinthetime
oftheCaptivityitselfandtherestlivedbutalittlebeforeitand
weresofarfromhavingtheirpropheciesgenerallyreceivedforlaws,
asthattheirpersonswerepersecuted,partlybyfalseprophets,and
partlybythekingswhichwereseducedbythem.Andthisbook
itself,whichwasconfirmedbyJosiahforthelawofGod,andwith
itallthehistoryoftheworksofGod,waslostinthecaptivity,and
sackofthecityofJerusalem,asappearsbythatof2Esdras14.21.
Thylawisburntthereforenomanknoweththethingsthataredoneof
thee,ortheworksthatshallbegin.AndbeforetheCaptivity,between
thetimewhenthelawwaslost,(whichisnotmentionedinthe
Scripture,butmayprobablybethoughttobethetimeof
Rehoboam,when(1Kings14.26)Shishak,kingofEgypt,tookthe
spoilofthetemple,)andthetimeofJosiah,whenitwasfoundagain,
theyhadnowrittenwordofGod,butruledaccordingtotheirown[284]
discretion,orbythedirectionofsuch,aseachofthemesteemed
prophets.
41.Fromhencewemayinfer,thattheScripturesoftheOldTheOld
Testament,whichwehaveatthisday,werenotcanonical,noralawTestament
untotheJews,tilltherenovationoftheircovenantwithGodattheirwhenmade
returnfromtheCaptivity,andrestorationoftheircommonwealthcanonical.
underEsdras.Butfromthattimeforwardtheywereaccountedthe
lawoftheJews,andforsuchtranslatedintoGreekbyseventyelders
ofJudea,andputintothelibraryofPtolemyatAlexandria,*and
approvedforthewordofGod.NowseeingEsdraswasthehigh
priest,andthehighpriestwastheircivilsovereign,itismanifest,
thattheScriptureswerenevermadelaws,butbythesovereigncivil
power.
42.BythewritingsoftheFathersthatlivedinthetimebeforeTheNew
thattheChristianreligionwasreceived,andauthorizedbyTestament
Constantinetheemperor,*wemayfind,thatthebookswenowhavebegantobe
oftheNewTestamentwereheldbytheChristiansofthattimecanonical
(exceptafew,inrespectofwhosepaucitytherestwerecalledtheunder
CatholicChurch,andothersheretics)forthedictatesoftheHolyChristian
Ghostandconsequentlyforthecanon,orruleoffaith:suchwasthesovereigns.
reverenceandopiniontheyhadoftheirteachersasgenerallythe

reverencethatthedisciplesbeartotheirfirstmasters,inallmanner
ofdoctrinetheyreceivefromthem,isnotsmall.Thereforethereis
nodoubt,butwhenSt.PaulwrotetotheChurcheshehadcon
vertedoranyotherapostle,ordiscipleofChrist,tothosewhichhad
thenembracedChrist,theyreceivedthosetheirwritingsforthetrue
Christiandoctrine.Butinthattime,whennotthepowerand
authorityoftheteacher,butthefaithofthehearercausedthemto
receiveit,itwasnottheapostlesthatmadetheirownwritings
canonical,buteveryconvertmadethemsotohimself.
43.Butthequestionhere,isnotwhatanyChristianmadealaw,
orcanontohimself,(whichhemightagainrejectbythesameright
hereceivedit)butwhatwassomadeacanontothem,aswithout
injusticetheycouldnotdoanythingcontrarythereunto.Thatthe
NewTestamentshouldinthissensebecanonical,thatistosay,a
lawinanyplacewherethelawofthecommonwealthhadnotmade
itso,iscontrarytothenatureofalaw.Foralaw,(ashasbeen
alreadyshown)isthecommandmentofthatman,orassembly,to
whomwehavegivensovereignauthority,tomakesuchrulesforthe
directionofouractionsasheshallthinkfitandtopunishus,when
wedoanythingcontrarytothesame.Whenthereforeanyotherman
shallofferuntousanyotherrules,whichthesovereignrulerhath
notprescribed,theyarebutcounsel,andadvicewhich,whether
good,orbad,hethatiscounselled,maywithoutinjusticerefuseto
observeandwhencontrarytothelawsalreadyestablished,without
[285]injusticecannotobserve,howgoodsoeverheconceivethittobe.I
say,hecannotinthiscaseobservethesameinhisactions,norinhis
discoursewithothermenthoughhemaywithoutblamebelievehis
privateteachers,andwishhehadthelibertytopractisetheiradvice
andthatitwerepubliclyreceivedforlaw.Forinternalfaithisinits
ownnatureinvisible,andconsequentlyexemptedfromallhuman
jurisdictionwhereasthewords,andactionsthatproceedfromit,as
breachesofourcivilobedience,areinjusticebothbeforeGodand
man.SeeingthenourSaviourhathdeniedhiskingdomtobeinthis
world,seeinghehadsaid,hecamenottojudge,buttosavethe
world,hehathnotsubjectedustootherlawsthanthoseofthe
commonwealththatis,theJewstothelawofMoses(whichhesaith
(Matt.5.17)hecamenottodestroy,buttofulfil,)andothernations
tothelawsoftheirseveralsovereigns,andallmentothelawsof
naturetheobservingwhereof,bothhehimself,andhisapostles
haveintheirteachingrecommendedtous,asanecessarycondition

Page349

ofbeingadmittedbyhiminthelastdayintohiseternalkingdom,
whereinshallbeprotection,andlifeeverlasting.Seeingthenour
Saviour,andhisapostles,leftnotnewlawstoobligeusinthisworld,
butnewdoctrinetoprepareusforthenextthebooksoftheNew
Testament,whichcontainthatdoctrine,untilobediencetothem
wascommanded,bythemthatGodhadgivenpowertoonearthto
belegislators,werenotobligatorycanons,thatis,laws,butonly
good,andsafeadvice,forthedirectionofsinnersinthewayto
salvation,whicheverymanmighttake,andrefuseathisownperil,
withoutinjustice.
44.Again,ourSaviourChrist'scommissiontohisapostles,and
disciples,wastoproclaimhiskingdom(notpresent,but)tocome
andtoteachallnationsandtobaptizethemthatshouldbelieveand
toenterintothehousesofthemthatshouldreceivethemandwhere
theywerenotreceived,toshakeoffthedustoftheirfeetagainst
thembutnottocallforfirefromheaventodestroythem,nor
tocompelthemtoobediencebythesword.Inallwhichthereis
nothingofpower,butofpersuasion.Hesentthemoutassheep
untowolves,notaskingstotheirsubjects.Theyhadnotincom
missiontomakelawsbuttoobey,andteachobediencetolaws
madeandconsequentlytheycouldnotmaketheirwritingsobliga
torycanons,withoutthehelpofthesovereigncivilpower.And
thereforetheScriptureoftheNewTestamentisthereonlylaw,
wherethelawfulcivilpowerhathmadeitso.Andtherealsothe
king,orsovereign,makethitalawtohimselfbywhichhe
subjectethhimself,nottothedoctor,orapostlethatconvertedhim,
buttoGodhimself,andhisSonJesusChrist,asimmediatelyasdid
theapostlesthemselves.
45.ThatwhichmayseemtogivetheNewTestament,inrespectOfthepower
ofthosethathaveembracedChristiandoctrine,theforceoflaws,inofcouncilsto
thetimes,andplacesofpersecution,isthedecreestheymademakethe
amongstthemselvesintheirsynod.Forweread(Acts15.28)theScriptures
styleofthecounciloftheapostles,theelders,andthewholelaw.
Church,inthismanner,ItseemedgoodtotheHolyGhost,andtous,[286]
tolayuponyounogreaterburthenthanthesenecessarythings,&c.
whichisastylethatsignifiethapowertolayaburthenonthemthat
hadreceivedtheirdoctrine.Nowtolayaburthenonanother,
seemeththesameastoobligeandthereforetheactsofthatcouncil
werelawstothethenChristians.Nevertheless,theywerenomore
lawsthanaretheseotherprecepts,Repentbebaptizedkeepthe

commandmentsbelievethegospelcomeuntomesellallthatthouhast
giveittothepoorand,followmewhicharenotcommands,but
invitations,andcallingsofmentoChristianity,likethatofIsaiah55.
1.Ho,everymanthatthirsteth,comeyetothewaters,come,andbuy
wineandmilkwithoutmoney.Forfirst,theapostles'powerwasno
otherthanthatofourSaviour,toinvitementoembracetheking
domofGodwhichtheythemselvesacknowledgedforakingdom
(notpresent,but)tocomeandtheythathavenokingdom,canmake
nolaws.Andsecondly,iftheiractsofcouncil,werelaws,theycould
notwithoutsinbedisobeyed.Butwereadnotanywhere,thatthey
whoreceivednotthedoctrineofChrist,didthereinsinbutthat
theydiedintheirsinsthatis,thattheirsinsagainstthelawsto
whichtheyowedobedience,werenotpardoned.Andthoselaws
werethelawsofnature,andthecivillawsofthestate,wheretoevery
Christianmanhadbypactsubmittedhimself.Andthereforebythe
burthen,whichtheapostlesmightlayonsuchastheyhadcon
verted,arenottobeunderstoodlaws,butconditionsproposedto
thosethatsoughtsalvationwhichtheymightaccept,orrefuseat
theirownperil,withoutanewsin,thoughnotwithoutthehazardof
beingcondemned,andexcludedoutofthekingdomofGodfortheir
sinspast.Andthereforeofinfidels,St.Johnsaithnot,thewrath
ofGodshallcomeuponthem,but(John3.36)thewrathofGod
remainethuponthemandnotthattheyshallbecondemned,butthat
(John3.18)theyarecondemnedalready.Norcanitbeconceived,that
thebenefitoffaith,isremissionofsins,unlessweconceivewithal,that
thedamageofinfidelity,istheretentionofthesamesins.
46.Buttowhatendisit(maysomemanask)thattheapostles,
andotherpastorsoftheChurch,aftertheirtime,shouldmeet
together,toagreeuponwhatdoctrineshouldbetaught,bothfor
faithandmanners,ifnomanwereobligedtoobservetheirdecrees?
Tothismaybeanswered,thattheapostles,andeldersofthat
council,wereobligedevenbytheirentranceintoit,toteachthe
doctrinethereinconcluded,anddecreedtobetaught,sofarforth,as
noprecedentlaw,towhichtheywereobligedtoyieldobedience,was
tothecontrarybutnotthatallotherChristiansshouldbeobligedto
observe,whattheytaught.Forthoughtheymightdeliberatewhat
eachofthemshouldteachyettheycouldnotdeliberatewhatothers
shoulddo,unlesstheirassemblyhadhadalegislativepowerwhich
nonecouldhavebutcivilsovereigns.ForthoughGodbethesover
eignofalltheworld,wearenotboundtotakeforhislaw,whatsoever

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ispropoundedbyeverymaninhisnamenoranythingcontraryto[287]
thecivillaw,whichGodhathexpresslycommandedustoobey.
47.Seeingthentheactsofcounciloftheapostles,werethenno
laws,butcounselsmuchlessarelawstheactsofanyotherdoctors,
orcouncilsince,ifassembledwithouttheauthorityofthecivil
sovereign.Andconsequently,theBooksoftheNewTestament,
thoughmostperfectrulesofChristiandoctrine,couldnotbemade
lawsbyanyotherauthoritythanthatofkingsorsovereign
assemblies.
48.Thefirstcouncil,thatmadetheScriptureswenowhave
canon,isnotextant:forthatcollectionofthecanonsoftheapostles,
attributedtoClement,thefirstbishopofRomeafterSt.Peter,is
subjecttoquestion:forthoughthecanonicalbooksbetherereck
onedupyetthesewords,sintvobisomnibusclericisetlaicislibri
venerandi,etc.*containadistinctionofclergy,andlaity,thatwasnot
inusesonearSt.Peter'stime.Thefirstcouncilforsettlingthe
canonicalScripture,thatisextant,isthatofLaodicea,(Can.59)
whichforbidsthereadingofotherbooksthanthoseinthechurches
whichisamandatethatisnotaddressedtoeveryChristian,butto
thoseonlythathadauthoritytoreadanythingpubliclyinthe
churchthatis,toecclesiasticsonly.
49.Ofecclesiasticalofficersinthetimeoftheapostles,someOfthe
weremagisterial,someministerial.Magisterialweretheofficesofrightof
thepreachingofthegospelofthekingdomofGodtoinfidelsofconstituting
administeringthesacraments,anddivineserviceandofteachingecclesiastical
therulesoffaithandmannerstothosethatwereconverted.Minisofficersinthe
terialwastheofficeofdeacons,thatis,ofthemthatwereappointedtimeofthe
totheadministrationofthesecularnecessitiesofthechurch,atsuchapostles.
timeastheyliveduponacommonstockofmoney,raisedoutofthe
voluntarycontributionsofthefaithful.
50.Amongsttheofficersmagisterial,thefirst,andprincipalwere
theapostleswhereoftherewereatfirstbuttwelveandthesewere
chosenandconstitutedbyourSaviourhimselfandtheirofficewas
notonlytopreach,teach,andbaptize,butalsotobemartyrs,
(witnessesofourSaviour'sresurrection.)Thistestimony,wasthe
specificalandessentialmarkwherebytheapostleshipwasdis
tinguishedfromothermagistracyecclesiasticalasbeingnecessary
foranapostle,eithertohaveseenourSaviourafterhisresurrection,
ortohaveconversedwithhimbefore,andseenhisworks,andother
argumentsofhisdivinity,wherebytheymightbetakenfor

sufficientwitnesses.Andthereforeattheelectionofanewapostlein
theplaceofJudasIscariot,St.Petersaith(Acts1.21,22)Ofthese
menthathavecompaniedwithus,allthetimethattheLordJesuswent
inandoutamongstus,beginningfromthebaptismofJohnuntothat
samedaythathewastakenupfromus,mustonebeordainedtobea
witnesswithusofhisresurrection:wherebythiswordmust,isimplied
[288]anecessarypropertyofanapostle,tohavecompaniedwiththefirst
andprimeapostlesinthetimethatourSaviourmanifestedhimself
intheflesh.
Matthias51.Thefirstapostle,ofthosewhichwerenotconstitutedby
madeapostleChristinthetimehewasupontheearth,wasMatthias,chosenin
bythethismanner:therewereassembledtogetherinJerusalemaboutone
congregation.hundredandtwentyChristians(Acts1.15).These(verse23)ap
pointedtwo,JosephtheJust,andMatthias,andcausedlotstobe
drawnand(verse26)thelotfillonMatthias,andhewasnumbered
withtheapostles.Sothathereweseetheordinationofthisapostle,
wastheactofthecongregation,andnotofSt.Peter,norofthe
eleven,otherwisethanasmembersoftheassembly.
Pauland52.Afterhimtherewasneveranyotherapostleordained,but
BarnabasPaulandBarnabaswhichwasdone(aswereadActs13.1,2,3)in
madeapostlesthismanner.TherewereintheChurchthatwasatAntioch,certain
bytheprophets,andteachersasBarnabas,andSimeonthatwascalledNiger,
ChurchofandLuciusofCyrene,andManaenwhichhadbeenbroughtupwith
Antioch.HerodtheTetrarch,andSaul.AstheyministereduntotheLord,and
fasted,theHolyGhostsaid,SeparatemeBarnabas,andSaulforthe
workwhereuntoIhavecalledthem.Andwhentheyhadfastedand
prayed,andlaidtheirhandsonthem,theysentthemaway.
53.Bywhichitismanifest,thatthoughtheywerecalledbythe
HolyGhost,theircallingwasdeclareduntothem,andtheirmission
authorizedbytheparticularChurchofAntioch.Andthatthistheir
callingwastotheapostleship,isapparentbythat,thattheyareboth
called(Acts14.14)apostles:andthatitwasbyvirtueofthisactof
theChurchofAntioch,thattheywereapostles,St.Pauldeclareth
plainly(Rom.1.1)inthatheuseththeword,whichtheHolyGhost
usedathiscalling:forhestylethhimself,Anapostleseparatedunto
thegospelofGodalludingtothewordsoftheHolyGhost,Separate
meBarnabasandSaul,&c.Butseeingtheworkofanapostle,wasto
beawitnessoftheresurrectionofChrist,amanmayhereask,how
St.Paul,thatconversednotwithourSaviourbeforehispassion,
couldknowhewasrisen?Towhichiseasilyanswered,thatour

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SaviourhimselfappearedtohiminthewaytoDamascus,from
heaven,afterhisascensionandchosehimforavesseltobearhisname
beforetheGentiles,andkings,andchildrenofIsraelandconsequently
(havingseentheLordafterhispassion)hewasacompetentwitness
ofhisresurrection:andasforBarnabas,hewasadisciplebeforethe
passion.ItisthereforeevidentthatPaul,andBarnabaswere
apostlesandyetchosen,andauthorized(notbythefirstapostles
alone,but)bytheChurchofAntiochasMatthiaswaschosen,and
authorizedbytheChurchofJerusalem.
54.Bishop,awordformedinourlanguageoutoftheGreekWhatoffices
episcopus,signifiethanoverseer,orsuperintendentofanybusiness,inthe
andparticularlyapastor,orshepherdandthencebymetaphorwaschurchare
taken,notonlyamongsttheJewsthatwereoriginallyshepherds,butmagisterial.
alsoamongsttheheathen,tosignifytheofficeofaking,oranyother[289]
rule,orguideofpeople,whetherheruledbylaws,ordoctrine.And
sotheapostleswerethefirstChristianbishops,institutedbyChrist
himself:inwhichsensetheapostleshipofJudasiscalled(Acts.1.20)
hisbishopric.Andafterwards,whentherewereconstitutedeldersin
theChristianChurches,withchargetoguideChrist'sflockbytheir
doctrine,andadvicetheseelderswerealsocalledbishops.Timothy
wasanelder(whichwordelder,intheNewTestament,isanameof
office,aswellasofage)yethewasalsoabishop.Andbishopswere
thencontentwiththetitleofelders.NaySt.Johnhimself,the
apostlebelovedofourLord,beginnethhissecondEpistlewiththese
words,Theeldertotheelectlady.Bywhichitisevident,thatbishop,
pastor,elder,doctor,thatistosay,teacher,werebutsomanydivers
namesofthesameofficeinthetimeoftheapostles.Forthere
wasthennogovernmentbycoercion,butonlybydoctrine,and
persuading.ThekingdomofGodwasyettocome,inanewworld
sothattherecouldbenoauthoritytocompelinanyChurch,till
thecommonwealthhadembracedtheChristianfaithandconse
quentlynodiversityofauthority,thoughtherewerediversityof
employments.
55.BesidesthesemagisterialemploymentsintheChurch
namely,apostles,bishops,elders,pastors,anddoctors,whosecall
ingwastoproclaimChristtotheJews,andinfidels,andtodirect,
andtoteachthosethatbelievedwereadintheNewTestamentofno
other.Forbythenamesofevangelistsandprophets,isnotsignified
anyoffice,butseveralgifts,bywhichseveralmenwereprofitableto
theChurch:asevangelists,bywritingthelifeandactsofour

SavioursuchaswereSt.MatthewandSt.Johnapostles,andSt.
MarkandSt.Lukedisciples,andwhosoeverelsewroteofthat
subject,(asSt.Thomas,andSt.Barnabasaresaidtohavedone,
thoughtheChurchhavenotreceivedthebooksthathavegone
undertheirnames:)andasprophets,bythegiftofinterpretingthe
OldTestament,andsometimesbydeclaringtheirspecialrevela
tionstotheChurch.Forneitherthesegifts,northegiftsoflan
guages,northegiftofcastingoutdevils,orofcuringotherdiseases,
noranythingelse,didmakeanofficerintheChurch,saveonlythe
duecallingandelectiontothechargeofteaching.
Ordinationof56.Astheapostles,Matthias,Paul,andBarnabas,werenotmade
teachers.byourSaviourhimself,butwereelectedbytheChurch,thatis,by
theassemblyofChristiansnamely,MatthiasbytheChurchof
Jerusalem,andPaul,andBarnabasbytheChurchofAntiochso
werealsothepresbyters,andpastorsinothercities,electedbythe
Churchesofthosecities.Forproofwhereof,letusconsider,first,
howSt.Paulproceededintheordinationofpresbyters,inthecities
wherehehadconvertedmentotheChristianfaith,immediately
afterheandBarnabashadreceivedtheirapostleship.Weread(Acts
14.23)thattheyordainedeldersineveryChurchwhichatfirstsight
[290]betakenforanargument,thattheythemselveschose,andgave
themtheirauthority:butifweconsidertheoriginaltext,itwillbe
manifest,thattheywereauthorizedandchosenbytheassemblyof
theChristiansofeachcity.Forthewordsthereare,

,thatis,whenthey
hadordainedthemeldersbytheholdingupofhandsineverycongrega
tion.Nowitiswellenoughknown,thatinallthosecitiesthemanner
ofchoosingmagistrates,andofficers,wasbypluralityofsuffrages
and(becausetheordinarywayofdistinguishingtheaffirmative
votesfromthenegatives,wasbyholdingupofhands)toordainan
officerinanyofthecities,wasnomorebuttobringthepeople
together,toelectthembypluralityofvotes,whetheritwereby
pluralityofelevatedhands,orbypluralityofvoices,orpluralityof
balls,orbeans,orsmallstones,ofwhicheverymancastinone,into
avesselmarkedfortheaffirmative,ornegativefordiverscitieshad
diverscustomsinthatpoint.Itwasthereforetheassemblythat
electedtheirownelders:theapostleswereonlypresidentsofthe
assemblytocallthemtogetherforsuchelection,andtopronounce
themelected,andtogivethemthebenediction,whichnowiscalled
consecration.Andforthiscausetheythatwerepresidentsofthe

Page355

assemblies,as(intheabsenceoftheapostles)theelderswere,were
called
,andinLatinantistiteswhichwordssignifythe
principalpersonoftheassembly,whoseofficewastonumberthe
votes,andtodeclaretherebywhowaschosenandwherethevotes
wereequal,todecidethematterinquestion,byaddinghisown
whichistheofficeofapresidentincouncil.And(becauseallthe
Churcheshadtheirpresbytersordainedinthesamemanner,)where
thewordisconstitute,(asTitus1.5)

,ForthiscauseleftItheeinCrete,thatthoushouldest
constituteeldersineverycity,wearetounderstandthesamething
namely,thatheshouldcallthefaithfultogether,andordainthem
presbytersbypluralityofsuffrages.Ithadbeenastrangething,ifin
atown,wheremenperhapshadneverseenanymagistrateotherwise
chosenthanbyanassembly,thoseofthetownbecomingChristians,
shouldsomuchashavethoughtonanyotherwayofelectionoftheir
teachers,andguides,thatistosay,oftheirpresbyters,(otherwise
calledbishops)thanthisofpluralityofsuffrages,intimatedbySt.
Paul(Acts14.23)intheword
:norwasthereever
anychoosingofbishops,(beforetheemperorsfounditnecessaryto
regulatetheminordertothekeepingofthepeaceamongstthem,)
butbytheassembliesoftheChristiansineveryseveraltown.
57.Thesameisalsoconfirmedbythecontinualpracticeevento
thisday,intheelectionofthebishopsofRome.Forifthebishopof
anyplace,hadtherightofchoosinganother,tothesuccessionofthe
pastoraloffice,inanycity,atsuchtimesashewentfromthence,to
plantthesameinanotherplacemuchmorehadhehadtheright,to
appointhissuccessorsinthatplace,inwhichhelastresidedand
died:andwefindnot,thateveranybishopofRomeappointedhis[291]
successor.Fortheywerealongtimechosenbythepeople,aswe
mayseebytheseditionraisedabouttheelectionbetweenDamasus
andUrsicinuswhichAmmianusMarcellinus*saithwassogreat,
thatJuventiusthepraefect,unabletokeepthepeacebetweenthem,
wasforcedtogooutofthecityandthattherewereabovean
hundredmenfounddeaduponthatoccasioninthechurchitself.
Andthoughtheyafterwardswerechosen,first,bythewholeclergy
ofRome,andafterwardsbythecardinalsyetneveranywasap
pointedtothesuccessionbyhispredecessor.Ifthereforetheypre
tendednorighttoappointtheirownsuccessors,IthinkImay
reasonablyconclude,theyhadnorighttoappointthesuccessors
ofotherbishops,withoutreceivingsomenewpowerwhichnone

couldtakefromtheChurchtobestowonthem,butsuchashada
lawfulauthority,notonlytoteach,buttocommandtheChurch
whichnonecoulddo,butthecivilsovereign.
Ministersof58.Thewordminister,intheoriginal
,signifiethone
theChurch,thatvoluntarilydoththebusinessofanothermananddiffereth
what:fromaservantonlyinthis,thatservantsareobligedbytheircondi
tion,todowhatiscommandedthemwhereasministersareobliged
onlybytheirundertaking,andboundthereforetonomorethanthat
theyhaveundertaken:sothatboththeythatteachthewordofGod,
andtheythatadministerthesecularaffairsoftheChurch,areboth
ministers,buttheyareministersofdifferentpersons.Forthepas
torsoftheChurch,called(Acts6.4)theministersoftheword,are
ministersofChrist,whoseworditis:buttheministryofadeacon,
whichiscalled(verse2ofthesamechapter)servingoftables,isa
servicedonetotheChurchorcongregation:sothatneitheranyone
man,northewholechurch,couldeveroftheirpastorsay,hewas
theirministerbutofadeacon,whetherthechargeheundertook
weretoservetables,ordistributemaintenancetotheChristians,
whentheylivedineachcityonacommonstock,oruponcollections,
asinthefirsttimes,ortotakeacareofthehouseofprayer,orofthe
revenue,orotherworldlybusinessoftheChurch,thewholecongre
gationmightproperlycallhimtheirminister.
59.Fortheiremployment,asdeacons,wastoservethecongrega
tionthoughuponoccasiontheyomittednottopreachthegospel,
andmaintainthedoctrineofChrist,everyoneaccordingtohisgifts,
asSt.Stephendid:andbothtopreach,andbaptize,asPhilipdid:
forthatPhilip,which(Acts8.5)preachedthegospelatSamaria,and
(verse38)baptizedtheEunuch,wasPhilipthedeacon,notPhilip
theapostle.Foritismanifest(verse1)thatwhenPhilippreachedin
Samaria,theapostleswereatJerusalem,and(verse14)whenthey
heardthatSamariahadreceivedthewordofGod,sentPeterandJohn
tothembyimpositionofwhosehands,theythatwerebaptized
(verse15),received(whichbeforebythebaptismofPhiliptheyhad
[292]notreceived)theHolyGhost.Foritwasnecessaryforthecon
ferringoftheHolyGhost,thattheirbaptismshouldbeadminis
tered,orconfirmedbyaministeroftheword,notbyaministerof
theChurch.Andthereforetoconfirmthebaptismofthosethat
Philipthedeaconhadbaptized,theapostlessentoutoftheirown
numberfromJerusalemtoSamaria,PeterandJohnwhoconferred
onthemthatbeforewerebutbaptized,thosegracesthatweresigns

Page357

oftheHolySpirit,whichatthattimedidaccompanyalltruebeliev
erswhichwhattheyweremaybeunderstoodbythatwhichSt.
Marksaith(chap.16.17),thesesignsfollowthemthatbelieveinmy
nametheyshallcastoutdevilstheyshallspeakwithnewtonguesthey
shalltakeupserpentsandiftheydrinkanydeadlything,itshallnot
hurtthemtheyshalllayhandsonthesick,andtheyshallrecover.This
todo,wasitthatPhilipcouldnotgivebuttheapostlescould,and
(asappearsbythisplace)effectuallydidtoeverymanthattruly
believed,andwasbyaministerofChristhimselfbaptized:
whichpowereitherChrist'sministersinthisagecannotconfer,or
elsethereareveryfewtruebelievers,orChristhathveryfew
ministers.
60.Thatthefirstdeaconswerechosen,notbytheapostles,butAndhow
byacongregationofthedisciplesthatis,ofChristianmenofallchosen.
sorts,ismanifestoutofActs,wherewereadthattheTwelve,after
thenumberofdiscipleswasmultiplied,calledthemtogether,and
havingtoldthem,thatitwasnotfitthattheapostlesshouldleavethe
wordofGod,andservetables,saiduntothem,(verse3)Brethren,
lookyououtamongyousevenmenofhonestreport,fulloftheHoly
Ghost,andofwisdom,whomwemayappointoverthisbusiness.Hereit
ismanifest,thatthoughtheapostlesdeclaredthemelectedyetthe
congregationchosethemwhichalso(verse5)ismoreexpressly
said,whereitiswritten,thatthesayingpleasedthewholemultitude,
andtheychoseseven,&c.
61.UndertheOldTestament,thetribeofLeviwereonlyOf
capableofthepriesthood,andotherinferiorofficesoftheChurch.ecclesiastical
Thelandwasdividedamongsttheothertribes(Leviexcepted)revenue,
which,bythesubdivisionofthetribeofJoseph,intoEphraimandunderthelaw
Manasseh,werestilltwelve.TothetribeofLeviwereassignedofMoses.
certaincitiesfortheirhabitation,withthesuburbsfortheircattle:
butfortheirportion,theyweretohavethetenthofthefruitsofthe
landoftheirbrethren.Again,thepriestsfortheirmaintenancehad
thetenthofthattenth,togetherwithpartoftheoblations[offer
ings],andsacrifices.ForGodhadsaidtoAaron(Numb.18.20)Thou
shalthavenoinheritanceintheirland,neithershaltthouhaveanypart
amongstthemIamthypart,andthineinheritanceamongstthechildren
ofIsrael.ForGodbeingthenking,andhavingconstitutedthetribe
ofLevitobehispublicministers,heallowedthemfortheirmain
tenance,thepublicrevenue,thatistosay,thepartthatGodhad
reservedtohimselfwhichweretithes,andofferings:andthatisit

whichismeant,whereGodsaith,Iamthineinheritance.Andthere
foretotheLevitesmightnotunfitlybeattributedthenameofclergy,
[293]from
,whichsignifiethlotorinheritancenotthattheywere
heirsofthekingdomofGod,morethanotherbutthatGod's
inheritance,wastheirmaintenance.NowseeinginthistimeGod
himselfwastheirking,andMoses,Aaron,andthesucceedinghigh
priestswerehislieutenantsitismanifest,thatthefightoftithes,
andofferingswasconstitutedbythecivilpower.
62.AftertheirrejectionofGodinthedemandingofaking,they
enjoyedstillthesamerevenuebuttherightthereofwasderived
fromthat,thatthekingsdidnevertakeitfromthem:forthepublic
revenuewasatthedisposingofhimthatwasthepublicpersonand
that(tilltheCaptivity)wastheking.Andagain,afterthereturn
fromtheCaptivity,theypaidtheirtithesasbeforetothepriest.
HithertothereforeChurchlivingsweredeterminedbythecivil
sovereign.
Inour63.OfthemaintenanceofourSaviour,andhisapostles,weread
Saviour'sonlytheyhadapurse,(whichwascarriedbyJudasIscariot)and,
time,andthatoftheapostles,suchaswerefishermen,didsometimesusetheir
after.tradeandthatwhenourSavioursentthetwelveapostlestopreach,
heforbadthem(Matt.10.9,10)tocarrygold,andsilver,andbrassin
theirpurses,forthattheworkmanisworthyofhishire:bywhichitis
probable,theirordinarymaintenancewasnotunsuitabletotheir
employmentfortheiremploymentwas(verse8)freelytogive,
becausetheyhadfreelyreceivedandtheirmaintenancewasthefree
giftofthosethatbelievedthegoodtidingtheycarriedaboutofthe
comingoftheMessiahtheirSaviour.Towhichwemayadd,that
whichwascontributedoutofgratitudebysuchasourSaviourhad
healedofdiseasesofwhicharementioned(Luke8.2,3)Certain
womenwhichhadbeenhealedofevilspiritsandinfirmitiesMary
Magdalen,outofwhomwentsevendevilsandJoannathewifeof
Chuza,Herod'ssteward,andSusanna,andmanyothers,whichminis
tereduntohimoftheirsubstance.
64.AfterourSaviour'sascension,theChristiansofeverycity
livedincommon(Acts4.34,35)uponthemoneywhichwasmade
ofthesaleoftheirlandsandpossessions,andlaiddownatthefeet
oftheapostles,ofgoodwill,notofdutyfor,whilstthelandremained
(saithSt.PetertoAnanias,Acts5.4)wasitnotthine?andafteritwas
sold,wasitnotinthypower?whichshewethheneedednothavesaved
hisland,norhismoneybylying,asnotbeingboundtocontribute

Page359

anythingatall,unlesshehadpleased.Andasinthetimeofthe
apostles,soalsoallthetimedownward,tillafterConstantinethe
Great,weshallfind,thatthemaintenanceofthebishops,andpas
torsoftheChristianChurch,wasnothingbutthevoluntarycontri
butionofthemthathadembracedtheirdoctrine.Therewasyetno
mentionoftithes:butsuchwasinthetimeofConstantine,andhis
sons,theaffectionofChristianstotheirpastors,asAmmianus
Marcellinussaith(describingtheseditionofDamasusand
Ursicinusaboutthebishopric,)thatitwasworththeircontention,in
thatthebishopsofthosetimes,bytheliberalityoftheirflock,and
especiallyofmatrons,livedsplendidly,werecarriedincoaches,and[294]
weresumptuousintheirfareandapparel.
65.Butheremaysomeask,whetherthepastorwerethenboundTheministers
toliveuponvoluntarycontribution,asuponalmsForwho,saithSt.oftheGospel
Paul(1Cor.9.7)goethtowarathisowncharges?orwhofeedethalivedonthe
flock,andeatethnotofthemilkoftheflock?Andagain,(verse13)benevolence
yenotknowthattheywhichministeraboutholythings,liveofthethingsDooftheir
ofthetempleandtheywhichwaitatthealtar,partakewiththealtarflocks.
thatistosay,havepartofthatwhichisofferedatthealtarfortheir
maintenance?Andthenheconcludeth,(verse14)Evensohaththe
Lordappointed,thattheywhichpreachthegospelshouldliveofthe
gospel.Fromwhichplacemaybeinferredindeed,thatthepastorsof
theChurchoughttobemaintainedbytheirflocksbutnotthatthe
pastorsweretodetermine,eitherthequantity,orthekindoftheir
ownallowance,andbe(asitwere)theirowncarvers.Theirallow
ancemustneedsthereforebedetermined,eitherbythegratitude
andliberalityofeveryparticularmanoftheirflock,orbythewhole
congregation.Bythewholecongregationitcouldnotbe,because
theiractswerethennolawsthereforethemaintenanceofpastors,
beforeemperorsandcivilsovereignshadmadelawstosettleit,was
nothingbutbenevolence.Theythatservedatthealtarlivedonwhat
wasoffered.Somaythepastorsalsotakewhatisofferedthemby
theirflockbutnotexactwhatisnotoffered.Inwhatcourtshould
theysueforit,whohadnotribunals?Or,iftheyhadarbitrators
amongstthemselves,whoshouldexecutetheirjudgments,when
theyhadnopowertoarmtheirofficers?Itremaineththerefore,that
therecouldbenocertainmaintenanceassignedtoanypastorsofthe
Church,butbythewholecongregationandthenonly,whentheir
decreesshouldhavetheforce(notonlyofcanons,butalso)oflaws
whichlawscouldnotbemade,butbyemperors,kings,orothercivil

sovereigns.TherightoftithesinMoses'law,couldnotbeapplied
tothethenministersofthegospelbecauseMosesandthehigh
priestswerethecivilsovereignsofthepeopleunderGod,whose
kingdomamongsttheJewswaspresentwhereasthekingdomof
GodbyChristisyettocome.
66.HithertohathbeenshewnwhatthepastorsoftheChurch
arewhatarethepointsoftheircommission(asthattheywereto
preach,toteach,tobaptize,tobepresidentsintheirseveralcongre
gations)whatisecclesiasticalcensure,viz.excommunication,that
istosay,inthoseplaceswhereChristianitywasforbiddenbythe
civillaws,aputtingofthemselvesoutofthecompanyoftheexcom
municate,andwhereChristianitywasbythecivillawcommanded,
aputtingtheexcommunicateoutofthecongregationsofChristians
whoelectedthepastorsandministersoftheChurch(thatitwas,the
congregation)whoconsecratedandblessedthem,(thatitwasthe
pastor)whatwastheirduerevenue,(thatitwasnonebuttheirown
possessions,andtheirownlabour,andthevoluntarycontributions
[295]ofdevoutandgratefulChristians).Wearetoconsidernow,what
officeintheChurchthosepersonshave,whobeingcivilsovereigns,
haveembracedalsotheChristianfaith.
Thatthecivil67.Andfirst,wearetoremember,thattherightofjudgingwhat
sovereign,doctrinesarefitforpeace,andtobetaughtthesubjects,isinall
beingacommonwealthsinseparablyannexed(ashathbeenalreadyproved
Christian,chapter18),tothesovereignpowercivil,whetheritbeinoneman,
haththerightorinoneassemblyofmen.Foritisevidenttothemeanestcapacity,
ofappointingthatmen'sactionsarederivedfromtheopinionstheyhaveofthe
pastors.good,orevil,whichfromthoseactionsredounduntothemselves
andconsequently,menthatareoncepossessedofanopinion,that
theirobediencetothesovereignpower,willbemorehurtfulto
them,thantheirdisobedience,willdisobeythelaws,andthereby
overthrowthecommonwealth,andintroduceconfusion,andcivil
warfortheavoidingwhereof,allcivilgovernmentwasordained.
Andthereforeinallcommonwealthsoftheheathen,thesovereigns
havehadthenameofpastorsofthepeople,becausetherewasno
subjectthatcouldlawfullyteachthepeople,butbytheirpermission
andauthority.
68.Thisrightoftheheathenkings,cannotbethoughttaken
fromthembytheirconversiontothefaithofChristwhonever
ordained,thatkings,forbelievinginhim,shouldbedeposed,thatis,
subjectedtoanybuthimself,or(whichisallone)bedeprivedofthe

Page361

powernecessaryfortheconservationofpeaceamongsttheirsub
jects,andfortheirdefenceagainstforeignenemies.Andtherefore
Christiankingsarestillthesupremepastorsoftheirpeople,and
havepowertoordainwhatpastorstheyplease,toteachtheChurch,
thatis,toteachthepeoplecommittedtotheircharge.
69.Again,lettherightofchoosingthembe(asbeforethecon
versionofkings)intheChurch,forsoitwasinthetimeofthe
apostlesthemselves(ashathbeenshownalreadyinthischapter)
evensoalsotherightwillbeinthecivilsovereign,Christian.Forin
thatheisaChristian,heallowstheteachingandinthatheisthe
sovereign(whichisasmuchastosay,theChurchbyrepresenta
tion,)theteachersheelects,areelectedbytheChurch.Andwhenan
assemblyofChristianschoosetheirpastorinaChristiancommon
wealth,itisthesovereignthatelectethhim,because'tisdonebyhis
authorityinthesamemanner,aswhenatownchoosetheirmayor,
itistheactofhimthathaththesovereignpower:foreveryactdone,
istheactofhim,withoutwhoseconsentitisinvalid.Andtherefore
whatsoeverexamplesmaybedrawnoutofhistory,concerningthe
electionofpastors,bythepeople,orbytheclergy,theyareno
argumentsagainsttherightofanycivilsovereign,becausetheythat
electedthemdiditbyhisauthority.
70.SeeingthenineveryChristiancommonwealth,thecivilsov
ereignisthesupremepastor,towhosechargethewholeflockofhis
subjectsiscommitted,andconsequentlythatitisbyhisauthority,[296]
thatallotherpastorsaremade,andhavepowertoteach,andper
formallotherpastoralofficesitfollowethalso,thatitisfromthe
civilsovereign,thatallotherpastorsderivetheirrightofteaching,
preaching,andotherfunctionspertainingtothatofficeandthat
theyarebuthisministersinthesamemannerasthemagistratesof
towns,judgesincourtsofjustice,andcommandersofarmies,areall
butministersofhimthatisthemagistrateofthewholecommon
wealth,judgeofallcauses,andcommanderofthewholemilitia,
whichisalwaysthecivilsovereign.Andthereasonhereof,isnot
becausetheythatteach,butbecausetheythataretolearn,arehis
subjects.Forletitbesupposed,thataChristiankingcommitthe
authorityofordainingpastorsinhisdominionstoanotherking(as
diversChristiankingsallowthatpowertothePope)hedothnot
therebyconstituteapastoroverhimself,norasovereignpastorover
hispeopleforthatweretodeprivehimselfofthecivilpowerwhich
dependingontheopinionmenhaveoftheirdutytohim,andthe

feartheyhaveofpunishmentinanotherworld,woulddependalso
ontheskill,andloyaltyofdoctors,whoarenolesssubject,notonly
toambition,butalsotoignorance,thananyothersortofmen.So
thatwhereastrangerhathauthoritytoappointteachers,itisgiven
himbythesovereigninwhosedominionsheteacheth.Christian
doctorsareourschoolmasterstoChristianitybutkingsarefathers
offamilies,andmayreceiveschoolmastersfortheirsubjectsfrom
therecommendationofastranger,butnotfromthecommand
especiallywhentheillteachingthemshallredoundtothegreatand
manifestprofitofhimthatrecommendsthem:norcantheybe
obligedtoretainthem,longerthanitisforthepublicgoodthecare
ofwhichtheystandsolongchargedwithal,astheyretainanyother
essentialfightofthesovereignty.
Thepastoral71.Ifamanthereforeshouldaskapastor,intheexecutionofhis
authorityofoffice,asthechiefpriestsandeldersofthepeople(Matt.21.23)
sovereignsaskedourSaviour,Bywhatauthoritydoestthouthesethings,andwho
onlyisjuregavetheethisauthority:hecanmakenootherjustanswer,butthathe
divinothatdothitbytheauthorityofthecommonwealth,givenhimbythe
ofotherking,orassemblythatrepresentethit.Allpastors,exceptthesu
pastorsisjurepreme,executetheirchargesintheright,thatisbytheauthorityof
civili.thecivilsovereign,thatis,jurecivili.Buttheking,andeveryother
sovereign,executethhisofficeofsupremepastor,byimmediate
authorityfromGod,thatistosay,inGod'sright,orjuredivino.And
thereforenonebutkingscanputintotheirtitles(amarkoftheir
submissiontoGodonly)Deigratiarex,&c.Bishopsoughttosayin
thebeginningoftheirmandates,BythefavouroftheKing'sMajesty,
bishopofsuchadioceseorascivilministers,inHisMajesty'sname.
Forinsaying,Divinaprovidentia,whichisthesamewithDeigratia,
thoughdisguised,theydenytohavereceivedtheirauthorityfrom
[297]thecivilstateandslylyslipoffthecollaroftheircivilsubjection,
contrarytotheunityanddefenceofthecommonwealth.
Christian72.ButifeveryChristiansovereignbethesupremepastorofhis
kingshaveownsubjects,itseemeththathehathalsotheauthority,notonlyto
powertopreach(whichperhapsnomanwilldeny)butalsotobaptize,andto
executealladministerthesacramentoftheLord'sSupper:andtoconsecrate
mannerofbothtemples,andpastorstoGod'sservicewhichmostmendeny
pastoralpartlybecausetheyusenottodoitandpartlybecausetheadmin
function.istrationofsacraments,andconsecrationofpersons,andplacesto
holyuses,requireththeimpositionofsuchmen'shands,asbythe
likeimpositionsuccessivelyfromthetimeoftheapostleshavebeen

Page363

ordainedtothelikeministry.ForproofthereforethatChristian
kingshavepowertobaptize,andtoconsecrate,Iamtorendera
reason,bothwhytheyusenottodoit,andhow,withoutthe
ordinaryceremonyofimpositionofhands,theyaremadecapableof
doingit,whentheywill.
73.Thereisnodoubtbutanyking,incasehewereskilfulinthe
sciences,mightbythesamerightofhisoffice,readlecturesofthem
himself,bywhichheauthorizethotherstoreadthemintheuniver
sities.Nevertheless,becausethecareofthesumofthebusinessof
thecommonwealthtakethuphiswholetime,itwerenotconvenient
forhimtoapplyhimselfinpersontothatparticular.Akingmayalso
ifheplease,sitinjudgment,tohearanddetermineallmannerof
causes,aswellasgiveothersauthoritytodoitinhisnamebutthat
thecharge,thatliethuponhimofcommandandgovernment,con
strainhimtobecontinuallyatthehelm,andtocommittheminis
terialofficestoothersunderhim.InthelikemannerourSaviour
(whosurelyhadpowertobaptize)baptizednone(John4.2)himself,
butsenthisapostlesanddisciplestobaptize.SoalsoSt.Paul,bythe
necessityofpreachingindiversandfardistantplaces,baptizedfew:
amongstalltheCorinthianshebaptizedonly(1Cor.1.14,16)
Crispus,Gaius,andStephanasandthereasonwas,(1Cor.1.17)
becausehisprincipalchargewastopreach.Wherebyitismanifest,
thatthegreatercharge,(suchasisthegovernmentoftheChurch,)
isadispensationfortheless.ThereasonthereforewhyChristian
kingsusenottobaptize,isevident,andthesameforwhichatthis
daytherearefewbaptizedbybishops,andbythePopefewer.
74.Andasconcerningimpositionofhands,whetheritbeneed
ful,fortheauthorizingofakingtobaptize,andconsecrate,wemay
considerthus.
75.Impositionofhands,wasamostancientpublicceremony
amongsttheJews,bywhichwasdesigned,andmadecertain,the
person,orotherthingintendedinaman'sprayer,blessing,sacrifice,
consecration,condemnation,orotherspeech.SoJacob,inblessing
thechildrenofJoseph(Gen.48.14),LaidhisrighthandonEphraim
theyounger,andhislefthandonManassehthefirstbornandthishe
didwittingly(thoughtheyweresopresentedtohimbyJoseph,ashe[298]
wasforcedindoingittostretchouthisarmsacross)todesignto
whomheintendedthegreaterblessing.Soalsointhesacrificingof
theburntoffering,Aaroniscommanded(Exod.29.10)tolayhis
handsontheheadofthebullockand(verse15)tolayhishandonthe

headoftheram.ThesameisalsosaidagainLevit.1.4,and8.14.
LikewiseMoseswhenheordainedJoshuatobecaptainofthe
Israelites,thatis,consecratedhimtoGod'sservice,(Numb.27.23)
Laidhishandsuponhim,andgavehimhischarge,designing,and
renderingcertain,whoitwastheyweretoobeyinwar.Andinthe
consecrationoftheLevites(Numb.8.10),Godcommandedthat
thechildrenofIsraelshouldputtheirhandsupontheLevites.Andinthe
condemnationofhimthathadblasphemedtheLord(Levit.24.14)
Godcommandedthatallthatheardhimshouldlaytheirhandsonhis
head,andthatallthecongregationshouldstonehim.Andwhyshould
theyonlythatheardhim,laytheirhandsuponhim,andnotrather
apriest,Levite,orotherministerofjustice,butthatnoneelsewere
abletodesign,andtodemonstratetotheeyesofthecongregation,
whoitwasthathadblasphemed,andoughttodie?Andtodesigna
man,oranyotherthing,bythehandtotheeye,islesssubjectto
mistake,thanwhenitisdonetotheearbyaname.
76.Andsomuchwasthisceremonyobserved,thatinblessing
thewholecongregationatonce,whichcannotbedonebylayingon
ofhands,yetAaron(Levit.9.22)didliftuphishandtowardthepeople
whenheblessedthem.Andwereadalsoofthelikeceremonyof
consecrationoftemplesamongsttheheathen,asthatthepriestlaid
hishandsonsomepostofthetemple,allthewhilehewasuttering
thewordsofconsecration.Sonaturalitistodesignanyindividual
thing,ratherbythehand,toassuretheeyes,thanbywordsto
informtheear,inmattersofGod'spublicservice.
77.ThisceremonywasnotthereforenewinourSaviour'stime.
ForJairus(Mark5.23),whosedaughterwassick,besoughtour
Saviour(nottohealher)buttolayhishandsuponherthatshemight
behealed.And(Matt.19.13)theybroughtuntohimlittlechildren,that
heshouldputhishandsonthem,andpray.
78.Accordingtothisancientrite,theapostles,andpresbyters,
andthepresbyteryitself,laidhandsonthemwhomtheyordained
pastors,andwithalprayedforthemthattheymightreceivetheHoly
Ghostandthatnotonlyonce,butsometimesoftener,whenanew
occasionwaspresented:buttheendwasstillthesame,namelya
punctual,andreligiousdesignationoftheperson,ordainedeitherto
thepastoralchargeingeneral,ortoaparticularmission:so(Acts6.
6)Theapostlesprayed,andlaidtheirhandsonthesevendeacons
whichwasdone,nottogivethemtheHolyGhost,(fortheywere

Page365

fulloftheHolyGhostbeforetheywerechosen,asappearethimme
diatelybefore,verse3)buttodesignthemtothatoffice.Andafter[299]
PhilipthedeaconhadconvertedcertainpersonsinSamaria,Peter
andJohnwentdown(Acts8.17)andlaidtheirhandsonthem,and
theyreceivedtheHolyGhost.Andnotonlyanapostle,butapresbyter
hadthispower:forSt.PauladvisethTimothy(1Tim.5.22)Lay
handssuddenlyonnomanthatis,designnomanrashlytotheoffice
ofapastor.ThewholepresbyterylaidtheirhandsonTimothy,as
weread1Tim.4.14,butthisistobeunderstood,asthatsomedid
itbytheappointmentofthepresbytery,andmostlikelytheir

,orprolocutor,whichitmaybewasSt.Paulhimself.For
inhissecondEpistletoTimothy(chap.1.6)hesaithtohim,Stirup
thegiftofGodwhichisinthee,bythelayingonofmyhands:where
notebytheway,thatbytheHolyGhost,isnotmeantthethird
personintheTrinity,butthegiftsnecessarytothepastoraloffice.
Wereadalso,thatSt.Paulhadimpositionofhandstwiceoncefrom
AnaniasatDamascus,(Acts9.17,18)atthetimeofhisbaptismand
again(Acts13.3)atAntioch,whenhewasfirstsentouttopreach.
Theusethenofthisceremonyconsideredintheordinationof
pastors,wastodesignthepersontowhomtheygavesuchpower.
ButiftherehadbeenthenanyChristian,thathadhadthepowerof
teachingbeforethebaptizingofhim,thatis,themakinghima
Christian,hadgivenhimnonewpower,buthadonlycausedhimto
preachtruedoctrine,thatis,tousehispowerarightandtherefore
theimpositionofhandshadbeenunnecessarybaptismitselfhad
beensufficient.Buteverysovereign,beforeChristianity,hadthe
powerofteaching,andordainingteachersandthereforeChristian
itygavethemnonewright,butonlydirectedtheminthewayof
teachingtruthandconsequentlytheyneedednoimpositionof
hands(besidesthatwhichisdoneinbaptism)toauthorizethemto
exerciseanypartofthepastoralfunction,asnamely,tobaptize,and
consecrate.AndintheOldTestament,thoughthepriestonlyhad
righttoconsecrate,duringthetimethatthesovereigntywasinthe
highpriestyetitwasnotsowhenthesovereigntywasintheking:
forweread(1Kings8)thatSolomonblessedthepeople,consecrated
theTemple,andpronouncedthatpublicprayer,whichisthepat
ternnowforconsecrationofallChristianchurches,andchapels:
wherebyitappears,hehadnotonlytherightofecclesiasticalgov
ernmentbutalsoofexercisingecclesiasticalfunctions.

Thecivil79.Fromthisconsolidationoftherightpolitic,andecclesiastic
sovereign,ifainChristiansovereigns,itisevident,theyhaveallmannerofpower
Christian,isovertheirsubjects,thatcanbegiventoman,forthegovernmentof
headofthemen'sexternalactions,bothinpolicy,andreligionandmaymake
Churchinhissuchlaws,asthemselvesshalljudgefittest,forthegovernmentof
owntheirownsubjects,bothastheyarethecommonwealth,andasthey
dominions.aretheChurch:forbothState,andChurcharethesamemen.
[300]80.Iftheypleasetherefore,theymay(asmanyChristiankings
nowdo)committhegovernmentoftheirsubjectsinmattersof
religiontothePopebutthenthePopeisinthatpointsubordinate
tothem,andexerciseththatchargeinanother'sdominionjurecivili,
intherightofthecivilsovereignnotjuredivino,inGod'srightand
maythereforebedischargedofthatoffice,whenthesovereign,for
thegoodofhissubjects,shallthinkitnecessary.Theymayalsoif
theyplease,committhecareofreligiontoonesupremepastor,
ortoanassemblyofpastorsandgivethemwhatpoweroverthe
Church,oroneoveranother,theythinkmostconvenientandwhat
titlesofhonour,asofarchbishops,bishops,priests,orpresbyters,
theywillandmakesuchlawsfortheirmaintenance,eitherbytithes,
orotherwise,astheyplease,sotheydoitoutofasincereconscience,
ofwhichGodonlyisthejudge.Itisthecivilsovereign,thatisto
appointjudges,andinterpretersofthecanonicalScripturesforitis
hethatmakeththemlaws.Itishealsothatgivethstrengthto
excommunicationswhichbutforsuchlawsandpunishments,as
mayhumbleobstinatelibertines,andreducethemtounionwiththe
restoftheChurch,wouldbecontemned.Insum,hehaththe
supremepowerinallcauses,aswellecclesiastical,ascivil,asfaras
concernethactions,andwords,forthoseonlyareknown,andmay
beaccusedandofthatwhichcannotbeaccused,thereisnojudgeat
all,butGod,thatknoweththeheart.Andtheserightsareincident
toallsovereigns,whethermonarchs,orassemblies:fortheythatare
therepresentantsofaChristianpeople,arerepresentantsofthe
Church:foraChurch,andacommonwealthofChristianpeople,are
thesamething.*
Cardinal81.ThoughthisthatIhaveheresaid,andinotherplacesofthis
Bellarmine'sbook,seemclearenoughfortheassertingofthesupremeecclesias
books,DeticalpowertoChristiansovereignsyetbecausethePopeofRome's
Summochallengetothatpoweruniversally,hathbeenmaintainedchiefly,
PontificeandIthinkasstronglyasispossible,byCardinalBellarmine,inhis
consideredcontroversyDeSummoPontificeIhavethoughtitnecessary,as

Page367

brieflyasIcan,toexaminethegrounds,andstrengthofhis
discourse.
82.Offivebookshehathwrittenofthissubject,thefirstThefirst
containeththreequestions:one,whichissimplythebestgovernbook.
ment,Monarchy,Aristocracy,orDemocracyandconcludethfor
neither,butforagovernmentmixedofallthree:another,whichof
theseisthebestgovernmentoftheChurchandconcludethforthe
mixed,butwhichshouldmostparticipateofmonarchy:thethird,
whetherinthismixedmonarchy,St.Peterhadtheplaceofmon
arch.Concerninghisfirstconclusion,Ihavealreadysufficiently
proved(chapter18)thatallgovernmentswhichmenareboundto
obey,aresimple,andabsolute.Inmonarchythereisbutoneman
supremeandallothermenthathaveanykindofpowerinthestate,
haveitbyhiscommission,duringhispleasureandexecuteitinhis
name:andinaristocracy,anddemocracy,butonesupremeassem
bly,withthesamepowerthatinmonarchybelongethtothemon[301]
arch,whichisnotamixed,butanabsolutesovereignty.Andofthe
threesorts,whichisthebest,isnottobedisputed,whereanyoneof
themisalreadyestablishedbutthepresentoughtalwaystobe
preferred,maintained,andaccountedbestbecauseitisagainstboth
thelawofnature,andthedivinepositivelaw,todoanything
tendingtothesubversionthereof.Besides,itmakethnothingtothe
powerofanypastor,(unlesshehavethecivilsovereignty,)what
kindofgovernmentisthebestbecausetheircallingisnottogovern
menbycommandment,buttoteachthem,andpersuadethemby
arguments,andleaveittothemtoconsider,whethertheyshall
embrace,orrejectthedoctrinetaught.Formonarchy,aristocracy,
anddemocracy,domarkoutuntousthreesortsofsovereigns,notof
pastorsor,aswemaysay,threesortsofmastersoffamilies,not
threesortsofschoolmastersfortheirchildren.
83.Andthereforethesecondconclusion,concerningthebest
formofgovernmentoftheChurch,isnothingtothequestionofthe
Pope'spowerwithouthisowndominions:forinallothercommon
wealthshispower(ifhehaveanyatall)isthatoftheschoolmaster
only,andnotofthemasterofthefamily.
84.Forthethirdconclusion,whichis,thatSt.Peterwasmonarch
oftheChurch,hebringethforhischiefargumenttheplaceofSt.
Matthew(chap.18.18,19)ThouartPeter,anduponthisrockIwill
buildmyChurch,&c.AndIwillgivetheethekeysofheavenwhatso
everthoushaltbindonearth,shallbeboundinheaven,andwhatsoever

thoushaltlooseonearth,shallbeloosedinheaven.Whichplacewell
considered,provethnomore,butthattheChurchofChristhathfor
foundationoneonlyarticlenamely,thatwhichPeterinthenameof
alltheapostlesprofessing,gaveoccasiontoourSaviourtospeakthe
wordsherecitedwhichthatwemayclearlyunderstand,weareto
consider,thatourSaviourpreachedbyhimself,byJohntheBaptist,
andbyhisapostles,nothingbutthisarticleoffaith,thathewas
theChristallotherarticlesrequiringfaithnootherwise,thanas
foundedonthat.Johnbeganfirst,(Matt.3.2)preachingonlythis,
thekingdomofGodisathand.ThenourSaviourhimself(Matt.4.17)
preachedthesame:andtohistwelveapostles,whenhegavethem
theircommission,(Matt.10.7),thereisnomentionofpreachingany
otherarticlebutthat.Thiswasthefundamentalarticle,thatisthe
foundationoftheChurch'sfaith.Afterwardstheapostlesbeing
returnedtohim,he(Matt.16.13)askeththemall,notPeteronly,
whomensaidhewasandtheyanswered,thatsomesaidhewasJohn
theBaptist,someElias,andothersJeremiah,oroneoftheProphets.
Then(verse15)heaskedthemallagain,(notPeteronly)whomsay
yethatIam?ThereforeSt.Peteranswered(forthemall)Thouart
Christ,theSonofthelivingGodwhichIsaidisthefoundationofthe
faithofthewholeChurchfromwhichourSaviourtakestheoc
[302]casionofsaying,uponthisstoneIwillbuildmyChurch:bywhichitis
manifest,thatbythefoundationstoneoftheChurch,wasmeantthe
fundamentalarticleoftheChurch'sfaith.Butwhythen(willsome
object)dothourSaviourinterposethesewords,thouartPeter?Ifthe
originalofthistexthadbeenrigidlytranslated,thereasonwould
easilyhaveappeared:wearethereforetoconsider,thattheapostle
Simon,wassurnamedStone,(whichisthesignificationoftheSyriac
wordCephas,andoftheGreekword
).OurSaviourthere
foreaftertheconfessionofthatfundamentalarticle,alludingtohis
name,said(asifitwereinEnglish)thus,ThouartStone,andupon
thisStoneIwillbuildmyChurch:whichisasmuchastosay,this
article,thatIamtheChrist,isthefoundationofallthefaithIrequire
inthosethataretobemembersofmyChurch:neitheristhisallusion
toaname,anunusualthingincommonspeech:butithadbeena
strange,andobscurespeech,ifourSaviour,intendingtobuildhis
ChurchonthepersonofSt.Peter,hadsaid,thouartastone,andupon
thisstoneIwillbuildmyChurch,whenitwassoobviouswithout
ambiguitytohavesaid,IwillbuildmyChurchontheeandyetthere
hadbeenstillthesameallusiontohisname.

Page369

85.Andforthefollowingwords,Iwillgivetheethekeysof
heaven,&c.itisnomorethanwhatourSaviourgavealsotoallthe
restofhisdisciples,(Matt.18.18)Whatsoeveryeshallbindonearth,
shallbeboundinheaven.Andwhatsoeveryeshalllooseonearth,shall
beloosedinheaven.Buthowsoeverthisbeinterpreted,thereisno
doubtbutthepowerheregrantedbelongstoallsupremepastors
suchasareallChristiancivilsovereignsintheirowndominions.In
somuch,asifSt.Peter,orourSaviourhimselfhadconvertedanyof
themtobelievehim,andtoacknowledgehiskingdomyetbecause
hiskingdomisnotofthisworld,hehadleftthesupremecareof
convertinghissubjectstononebuthimorelsehemusthave
deprivedhimofthesovereignty,towhichtherightofteaching
isinseparablyannexed.Andthusmuchinrefutationofhisfirst
book,whereinhewouldproveSt.Petertohavebeenthemonarch
universaloftheChurch,thatistosay,ofalltheChristiansinthe
world.
86.Thesecondbookhathtwoconclusions:one,thatSt.PeterThesecond
wasBishopofRome,andtheredied:theother,thatthePopesofbook.
Romearehissuccessors.Bothwhichhavebeendisputedbyothers.
ButsupposingthemtrueyetifbyBishopofRome,beunderstood
eitherthemonarchoftheChurch,orthesupremepastorofitnot
Silvester,butConstantine(whowasthefirstChristianemperor)was
thatbishopandasConstantine,soallotherChristianemperors
wereofrightsupremebishopsoftheRomanempireIsayofthe
Romanempire,notofallChristendom:forotherChristiansover
eignshadthesamerightintheirseveralterritories,astoanoffice
essentiallyadherenttotheirsovereignty.Whichshallservefor
answertohissecondbook.
87.Inthethirdbook,hehandleththequestionwhetherthePope[303]
beAntichrist?Formypart,Iseenoargumentthatprovesheisso,Thethird
inthatsensetheScriptureuseththename:norwillItakeanybook
argumentfromthequalityofAntichrist,tocontradicttheauthority
heexerciseth,orhathheretoforeexercised,inthedominionsofany
otherprince,orstate.
88.ItisevidentthattheprophetsoftheOldTestamentforetold,
andtheJewsexpectedaMessiah,thatis,aChrist,thatshouldre
establishamongstthemthekingdomofGod,whichhadbeenre
jectedbytheminthetimeofSamuel,whentheyrequiredaking
afterthemannerofothernations.Thisexpectationoftheirs,made
themobnoxioustotheimpostureofallsuch,ashadboththe

ambitiontoattempttheattainingofthekingdom,andtheartto
deceivethepeoplebycounterfeitmiracles,byhypocriticallife,orby
orationsanddoctrineplausible.OurSaviourtherefore,andhis
apostlesforewarnedmenoffalseprophets,andoffalseChrists.
FalseChrists,aresuchaspretendtobetheChrist,butarenot,and
arecalledproperlyAntichrists,insuchsense,aswhenthere
happenethaschismintheChurchbytheelectionoftwoPopes,the
onecalleththeotherAntipapa,orthefalsePope.Andtherefore
Antichristinthepropersignificationhathtwoessentialmarksone,
thathedeniethJesustobeChristandanotherthatheprofesseth
himselftobeChrist.ThefirstmarkissetdownbySt.Johninhis
firstEpistle,4.3,EverySpiritthatconfessethnotthatJesusChristis
comeintheflesh,isnotofGodandthisisthespiritofAntichrist.The
othermarkisexpressedinthewordsofourSaviour,(Matt.24.5)
manyshallcomeinmyname,saying,IamChristandagain,(verse23)
Ifanymanshallsayuntoyou,lo!hereisChrist,thereisChrist,believe
itnot.AndthereforeAntichristmustbeafalseChrist,thatis,some
oneofthemthatshallpretendthemselvestobeChrist.Andoutof
thesetwomarks,todenyJesustobetheChrist,andtoaffirmhimselfto
betheChrist,itfolloweth,thathemustalsobeanadversaryofJesus
thetrueChrist,whichisanotherusualsignificationoftheword
Antichrist.ButofthesemanyAntichrists,thereisonespecialone,

,theAntichrist,orAntichristdefinitely,asonecertain
personnotindefinitelyanAntichrist.NowseeingthePopeofRome
neitherpretendethhimself,nordeniethJesustobetheChrist,I
perceivenothowhecanbecalledAntichristbywhichwordisnot
meant,onethatfalselypretendethtobehislieutenant,orvicar
general,buttobeHe.Thereisalsosomemarkofthetimeofthis
specialAntichrist,as(Matt.24.15),whenthatabominablede
stroyer,spokenofbyDaniel(Dan.9.27)shallstandintheHoly
place,andsuchtribulationaswasnotsincethebeginningofthe
world,norevershallbeagain,insomuchasifitweretolastlong,
(Matt.24.22)nofleshcouldbesavedbutfortheelect'ssakethosedays
shallbeshortened(madefewer).Butthattribulationisnotyetcome
foritistobefollowedimmediately(verse29)byadarkeningofthe
sunandmoon,afallingofthestars,aconcussionoftheheavens,and
[304]thegloriouscomingagainofourSaviourintheclouds.Andthere
foretheAntichristisnotyetcomewhereas,manyPopesareboth
comeandgone.Itistrue,thePopeintakinguponhimtogivelaws
toallChristiankings,andnations,usurpethakingdominthis

Page371

world,whichChristtooknotonhim:buthedothitnotasChrist,
butasforChrist,whereinthereisnothingoftheAntichrist.
89.Inthefourthbook,toprovethePopetobethesupremejudgeFourthbook.
inallquestionsoffaithandmanners,(whichisasmuchastobethe
absolutemonarchofallChristiansintheworld,)hebringeththree
propositions:thefirst,thathisjudgmentsareinfallible:*thesecond,
thathecanmakeverylaws,andpunishthosethatobservethemnot:
thethird,thatourSaviourconferredalljurisdictionecclesiasticalon
thePopeofRome.
90.Fortheinfallibilityofhisjudgments,heallegeththeScripTextsforthe
tures:andfirst,thatofLuke22.31,32:Simon,Simon,Satanhathinfallibilityof
desiredyouthathemaysiftyouaswheatbutIhaveprayedforthee,thePope's
thatthyfaithfailnotandwhenthouartconverted,strengthenthyjudgmentin
brethren.This,accordingtoBellarmine'sexposition,is,thatChristpointsof
gaveheretoSimonPetertwoprivileges:one,thatneitherhisfaithfaith.
shouldfail,northefaithofanyofhissuccessors:theother,that
neitherhe,noranyofhissuccessors,shouldeverdefineanypoint
concerningfaith,ormannerserroneously,orcontrarytothedefini
tionofaformerPope:whichisastrange,andverymuchstrained
interpretation.Buthethatwithattentionreadeththatchapter,shall
findthereisnoplaceinthewholeScripturethatmakethmore
againstthePope'sauthority,thanthisveryplace.ThePriestsand
ScribesseekingtokillourSaviouratthePassover,andJudaspos
sessedwitharesolutiontobetrayhim,andthedayofkillingthe
Passoverbeingcome,ourSaviourcelebratedthesamewithhis
apostles,whichhesaid,tillthekingdomofGodwascomehewould
donomoreandwithaltoldthem,thatoneofthemwastobetray
him:hereupontheyquestioned,whichofthemitshouldbeand
withal(seeingthenextPassovertheirmasterwouldcelebrateshould
bewhenhewasking)enteredintoacontention,whoshouldthenbe
thegreatestman.OurSaviourthereforetoldthem,thatthekingsof
thenationshaddominionovertheirsubjects,andarecalledbya
name(inHebrew)thatsignifiesbountifulbutIcannotbesotoyou,
youmustendeavourtoserveoneanotherIordainyouakingdom,
butitissuchasmyFatherhathordainedmeakingdomthatIam
nowtopurchasewithmyblood,andnottopossesstillmysecond
comingthenyeshalleatanddrinkatmytable,andsitonthrones
judgingthetwelvetribesofIsrael:andthenaddressinghimself
toSt.Peter,hesaithSimon,Simon,Satanseeksbysuggestinga
presentdomination,toweakenyourfaithofthefuturebutIhave

prayedforthee,thatthyfaithshallnotfailthoutherefore(note
this,)beingconverted,andunderstandingmykingdomasofan
otherworld,confirmthesamefaithinthybrethren.TowhichSt.
Peteranswered(asonethatnomoreexpectedanyauthorityinthis
world)Lord,Iamreadytogowiththee,notonlytoprison,buttodeath.
[305]Wherebyitismanifest,St.Peterhadnotonlynojurisdictiongiven
himinthisworld,butachargetoteachalltheotherapostles,that
theyalsoshouldhavenone.AndfortheinfallibilityofSt.Peter's
sentencedefinitiveinmatteroffaith,thereisnomoretobeat
tributedtoitoutofthistext,thanthatPetershouldcontinueinthe
beliefofthispoint,namely,thatChristshouldcomeagain,and
possessthekingdomatthedayofjudgmentwhichwasnotgivenby
thistexttoallhissuccessorsforweseetheyclaimitintheworld
thatnowis.
91.ThesecondplaceisthatofMatt.16.18,ThouartPeter,and
uponthisrockIwillbuildmyChurch,andthegatesofhellshallnot
prevailagainstit.Bywhich(asIhavealreadyshowninthischapter)
isprovednomore,thanthatthegatesofhellshallnotprevailagainst
theconfessionofPeter,whichgaveoccasiontothatspeechnamely
this,thatJesusisChristtheSonofGod.
92.ThethirdtextisJohn21.16,17:Feedmysheepwhich
containsnomorebutacommissionofteaching:andifwegrantthe
restoftheapostlestobecontainedinthatnameofsheepthenitisthe
supremepowerofteaching:butitwasonlyforthetimethatthere
werenoChristiansovereignsalreadypossessedofthatsupremacy.
ButIhavealreadyproved,thatChristiansovereignsareintheirown
dominionsthesupremepastors,andinstitutedthereto,byvirtueof
theirbeingbaptized,thoughwithoutotherimpositionofhands.For
suchimpositionbeingaceremonyofdesigningtheperson,isneed
less,whenheisalreadydesignedtothepowerofteachingwhat
doctrinehewill,byhisinstitutiontoanabsolutepoweroverhis
subjects.ForasIhaveprovedbefore,sovereignsaresupreme
teachers(ingeneral)bytheirofficeandthereforeobligethemselves
(bytheirbaptism)toteachthedoctrineofChrist:andwhenthey
sufferotherstoteachtheirpeople,theydoitattheperiloftheirown
soulsforitisatthehandsoftheheadsoffamiliesthatGodwill
requiretheaccountoftheinstructionofhischildrenandservants.It
isofAbrahamhimself,notofahireling,thatGodsaith(Gen.18.19)
Iknowhimthathewillcommandhischildren,andhishouseholdafter
him,thattheykeepthewayoftheLord,anddojusticeandjudgment.

Page373

93.ThefourthplaceisthatofExod.28.30.Thoushaltputinthe
breastplateofjudgment,theUrimandtheThummim:whichhesaith
isinterpretedbytheSeptuagint
,thatis,
evidenceandtruth:andthenceconcludeth,Godhathgivenevidence,
andtruth,(whichisalmostinfallibility,)tothehighpriest.Butbeit
evidenceandtruthitselfthatwasgivenorbeitbutadmonitionto
thepriesttoendeavourtoinformhimselfclearly,andgivejudgment
uprightlyyetinthatitwasgiventothehighpriest,itwasgivento
thecivilsovereign:forsuchnextunderGodwasthehighpriestin
thecommonwealthofIsraelandisanargumentforevidenceand[306]
truth,thatis,fortheecclesiasticalsupremacyofcivilsovereignsover
theirownsubjects,againstthepretendedpowerofthePope.These
areallthetextshebringethfortheinfallibilityofthejudgmentof
thePope,inpointoffaith.
94.Fortheinfallibilityofhisjudgmentconcerningmanners,heTextsforthe
bringethonetext,whichisthatofJohn16.13:WhentheSpiritofsame,inpoint
truthiscome,hewillleadyouintoalltruth:where(saithhe)byallofmanners.
truth,ismeant,atleast,alltruthnecessarytosalvation.Butwiththis
mitigation,heattributethnomoreinfallibilitytothePope,thanto
anymanthatprofessethChristianity,andisnottobedamned:forif
anymanerrinanypoint,whereinnottoerrisnecessarytosalvation,
itisimpossibleheshouldbesavedforthatonlyisnecessaryto
salvation,withoutwhichtobesavedisimpossible.Whatpoints
theseare,IshalldeclareoutoftheScriptureinthechapterfollow
ing.InthisplaceIsaynomore,butthatthoughitweregranted,the
Popecouldnotpossiblyteachanyerroratall,yetdothnotthis
entitlehimtoanyjurisdictioninthedominionsofanotherprince
unlessweshallalsosay,amanisobligedinconsciencetosetonwork
uponalloccasionsthebestworkman,eventhenalsowhenhehath
formerlypromisedhisworktoanother.
95.Besidesthetext,hearguethfromreason,thus.IfthePope
coulderrinnecessaries,thenChristhathnotsufficientlyprovided
fortheChurch'ssalvationbecausehehathcommandedherto
followthePope'sdirections.Butthisreasonisinvalid,unlesshe
shewwhen,andwhereChristcommandedthat,ortookatallany
noticeofaPope:naygrantingwhatsoeverwasgiventoSt.Peter,
wasgiventothePopeyetseeingthereisintheScriptureno
commandtoanymantoobeySt.Peter,nomancanbejust,that
obeyethhim,whenhiscommandsarecontrarytothoseofhislawful
sovereign.

96.Lastly,ithathnotbeendeclaredbytheChurch,norbythe
Popehimself,thatheisthecivilsovereignofalltheChristiansinthe
worldandthereforeallChristiansarenotboundtoacknowledgehis
jurisdictioninpointofmanners.Forthecivilsovereignty,and
supremejudicatureincontroversiesofmanners,arethesamething:
andthemakersofcivillaws,arenotonlydeclarers,butalsomakers
ofthejusticeandinjusticeofactionstherebeingnothinginmen's
mannersthatmakesthemrighteous,orunrighteous,buttheircon
formitywiththelawofthesovereign.AndthereforewhenthePope
challengethsupremacyincontroversiesofmanners,heteacheth
mentodisobeythecivilsovereignwhichisanerroneousdoctrine,
contrarytothemanypreceptsofourSaviourandhisapostles,
deliveredtousintheScripture.
97.ToprovethePopehaspowertomakelaws,heallegethmany
placesasfirst,(Deut.17.12)Themanthatwilldopresumptuously,
andwillnothearkenuntothepriest,(thatstandethtoministerthere
[307]beforetheLordthyGod,oruntothejudge,)eventhatmanshalldieand
thoushaltputawaytheevilfromIsrael.Foranswerwhereunto,weare
torememberthatthehighpriest(nextandimmediatelyunderGod)
wasthecivilsovereignandalljudgesweretobeconstitutedbyhim.
Thewordsallegedsoundthereforethus.Themanthatwillpresume
todisobeythecivilsovereignforthetimebeing,oranyofhisofficersin
theexecutionoftheirplaces,thatmanshalldie,&c.whichisclearlyfor
thecivilsovereignty,againsttheuniversalpowerofthePope.
98.Secondly,heallegeththatofMatt.16.19Whatsoeveryeshall
bind,&c.andinterpretethitforsuchbindingasisattributed(Matt.
23.4)totheScribesandPharisees,Theybindheavyburthens,and
grievoustobeborne,andlaythemonmen'sshouldersbywhichis
meant,(hesays)makingoflawsandconcludesthence,thatthe
Popecanmakelaws.Butthisalsomakethonlyforthelegislative
powerofcivilsovereigns:fortheScribes,andPhariseessatin
Moses'chair,butMosesnextunderGodwassovereignofthe
peopleofIsrael:andthereforeourSaviourcommandedthemtodo
allthattheyshouldsay,butnotallthattheyshoulddo.Thatis,to
obeytheirlaws,butnotfollowtheirexample.
99.ThethirdplaceisJohn21.16Feedmysheepwhichisnota
powertomakelaws,butacommandtoteach.Makinglawsbelongs
tothelordofthefamilywhobyhisowndiscretionchoosethhis
chaplain,asalsoaschoolmastertoteachhischildren.
100.Thefourthplace(John20.21)isagainsthim.Thewords

Page375

are,Asmyfathersentme,sosendIyou.ButourSaviourwassentto
redeem(byhisdeath)suchasshouldbelieveandbyhisown,and
hisapostles'preachingtopreparethemfortheirentranceintohis
kingdomwhichhehimselfsaith,isnotofthisworld,andhath
taughtustoprayforthecomingofithereafter,thoughherefused
(Acts1.6,7)totellhisapostleswhenitshouldcomeandinwhich,
whenitcomes,thetwelveapostlesshallsitontwelvethrones(every
oneperhapsashighasthatofSt.Peter)tojudgethetwelvetribesof
Israel.SeeingthenGodtheFathersentnotourSaviourtomake
lawsinthispresentworld,wemayconcludefromthetext,that
neitherdidourSavioursendSt.Petertomakelawshere,butto
persuadementoexpecthissecondcomingwithasteadfastfaith
andinthemeantime,ifsubjects,toobeytheirprincesandif
princes,bothtobelieveitthemselves,andtodotheirbesttomake
theirsubjectsdothesamewhichistheofficeofabishop.Therefore
thisplacemakethmoststronglyforthejoiningoftheecclesiastical
supremacytothecivilsovereignty,contrarytothatwhichCardinal
Bellarmineallegethitfor.
101.ThefifthplaceisActs15.28,29,Ithathseemedgoodtothe
HolySpirit,andtous,tolayuponyounogreaterburthen,thanthese
necessarythings,thatyeabstainflorameatsofferedtoidols,andfrom
blood,andfromthingsstrangled,andfromfornication.Herehenotes
thewordlayingofburthensforthelegislativepower.Butwhois[308]
there,thatreadingthistext,cansay,thisstyleoftheapostlesmay
notasproperlybeusedingivingcounsel,asinmakinglaws?The
styleofalawis,wecommand:but,wethinkgood,istheordinarystyle
ofthem,thatbutgiveadviceandtheylayaburthenthatgive
advice,thoughitbeconditional,thatis,iftheytowhomtheygiveit,
willattaintheirends:andsuchistheburthen,ofabstainingfrom
thingsstrangled,andfrombloodnotabsolute,butincasetheywill
noterr.Ihaveshownbefore(chapter25)thatlawisdistinguished
fromcounsel,inthis,thatthereasonofalawistakenfromthe
design,andbenefitofhimthatprescribethitbutthereasonofa
counsel,fromthedesignandbenefitofhim,towhomthecounselis
given.Buthere,theapostlesaimonlyatthebenefitoftheconverted
Gentiles,namelytheirsalvationnotattheirownbenefitforhaving
donetheirendeavour,theyshallhavetheirreward,whethertheybe
obeyed,ornot.Andthereforetheactsofthiscouncil,werenotlaws,
butcounsels.
102.ThesixthplaceisthatofRom.13.Leteverysoulbesubjectto

thehigherpowers,forthereisnopowerbutofGodwhichismeant,he
saith,notonlyofsecular,butalsoofecclesiasticalprinces.Towhich
Ianswer,first,thattherearenoecclesiasticalprincesbutthosethat
arealsocivilsovereignsandtheirprincipalitiesexceednotthe
compassoftheircivilsovereigntywithoutthoseboundsthough
theymaybereceivedfordoctors,theycannotbeacknowledgedfor
princes.Foriftheapostlehadmeant,weshouldbesubjectbothto
ourownprinces,andalsotothePope,hehadtaughtusadoctrine,
whichChristhimselfhathtoldusisimpossible,namely,toservetwo
masters.Andthoughtheapostlesayinanotherplace,(2Cor.13.10)
Iwritethesethingsbeingabsent,lestbeingpresentIshouldusesharpness,
accordingtothepowerwhichtheLordhathgivenmeitisnot,that
hechallengedapowereithertoputtodeath,imprison,banish,
whip,orfineanyofthem,whicharepunishmentsbutonlyto
excommunicate,which(withoutthecivilpower)isnomorebuta
leavingoftheircompany,andhavingnomoretodowiththem,
thanwithaheathenman,orapublicanwhichinmanyoccasions
mightbeagreaterpaintotheexcommunicant,thantotheexcom
municate.
103.Theseventhplaceis1Cor.4.21.ShallIcomeuntoyouwith
arod,orinlove,andthespiritoflenity?Buthereagain,itisnotthe
powerofamagistratetopunishoffenders,thatismeantbyarod
butonlythepowerofexcommunication,whichisnotinitsown
natureapunishment,butonlyadenouncingofpunishment,that
Christshallinflict,whenheshallbeinpossessionofhiskingdom,at
thedayofjudgment.Northenalsoshallitbeproperlyapunish
ment,asuponasubjectthathathbrokenthelawbutarevenge,as
uponanenemy,orrevolter,thatdenieththerightofourSaviourto
thekingdom.Andthereforethisprovethnotthelegislativepowerof
anybishop,thathasnotalsothecivilpower.
[309]104.Theeighthplaceis1Timothy3.2.Abishopmustbethe
husbandofbutonewife,vigilant,sober,&c.whichhesaithwasalaw.
IthoughtthatnonecouldmakealawintheChurch,butthemon
archoftheChurch,St.Peter.Butsupposethispreceptmadebythe
authorityofSt.PeteryetIseenoreasonwhytocallitalaw,rather
thananadvice,seeingTimothywasnotasubject,butadiscipleof
St.PaulnortheflockunderthechargeofTimothy,hissubjectsin
thekingdom,buthisscholarsintheschoolofChrist:ifallthe
preceptshegivethTimothy,belaws,whyisnotthisalsoalaw,(I
Tim.5.23)Drinknolongerwater,butusealittlewineforthyhealth's

Page377

sake.Andwhyarenotalsothepreceptsofgoodphysicians,somany
laws?Butthatitisnottheimperativemannerofspeaking,butan
absolutesubjectiontoaperson,thatmakethhispreceptslaws?
105.Inlikemanner,theninthplace,1Tim.5.19.Againstanelder
receivenotanaccusation,butbeforetwoorthreewitnesses,isawise
precept,butnotalaw.
106.ThetenthplaceisLuke10.16.Hethathearethyou,heareth
meandhethatdespisethyou,despisethme.Andthereisnodoubt,but
hethatdespiseththecounselofthosethataresentbyChrist,
despiseththecounselofChristhimself.Butwhoarethosenowthat
aresentbyChrist,butsuchasareordainedpastorsbylawfulauth
ority?Andwhoarelawfullyordained,thatarenotordainedbythe
sovereignpastor?Andwhoisordainedbythesovereignpastorina
Christiancommonwealth,thatisnotordainedbytheauthorityof
thesovereignthereof?Outofthisplacethereforeitfolloweth,that
hewhichhearethhissovereignbeingaChristian,hearethChrist
andhethatdespiseththedoctrinewhichhiskingbeingaChristian,
authorizeth,despiseththedoctrineofChrist(whichisnotthat
whichBellarmineintendethheretoprove,butthecontrary).Butall
thisisnothingtoalaw.Naymore,aChristianking,asapastor,and
teacherofhissubjects,makesnottherebyhisdoctrineslaws.He
cannotobligementobelievethoughasacivilsovereignhemay
makelawssuitabletohisdoctrine,whichmayobligementocertain
actions,andsometimestosuchastheywouldnototherwisedo,and
whichheoughtnottocommandandyetwhentheyarecom
manded,theyarelawsandtheexternalactionsdoneinobedienceto
them,withouttheinwardapprobation,aretheactionsofthesover
eign,andnotofthesubject,whichisinthatcasebutasaninstru
ment,withoutanymotionofhisownatallbecauseGodhath
commandedtoobeythem.
107.Theeleventh,iseveryplace,wheretheapostleforcounsel,
puttethsomeword,bywhichmenusetosignifycommandor
calleththefollowingofhiscounselbythenameofobedience.And
thereforetheyareallegedoutof1Cor.11.2,Icommendyoufor
keepingmypreceptsasIdeliveredthemtoyou.TheGreekis,I
commendyouforkeepingthosethingsIdeliveredtoyou,asIdelivered
them.Whichisfarfromsignifyingthattheywerelaws,oranything[310]
else,butgoodcounsel.Andthatof1Thess.4.2.Youknowwhat
commandmentswegaveyou:wheretheGreekwordis

,whatwedeliveredtoyou,

asintheplacenextbeforealleged,whichdoesnotprovethetra
ditionsoftheapostles,tobeanymorethancounselsthoughasis
saidinthe8thverse,hethatdespiseththem,despisethnotman,but
God:forourSaviourhimselfcamenottojudge,thatis,tobekingin
thisworldbuttosacrificehimselfforsinners,andleavedoctorsin
hisChurch,tolead,nottodrivementoChrist,whoneveraccepteth
forcedactions,(whichisallthelawproduceth,)buttheinward
conversionoftheheartwhichisnottheworkoflaws,butof
counsel,anddoctrine.
108.Andthatof2Thess.3.14.Ifanymanobeynotourwordby
thisEpistle,notethatman,andhavenocompanywithhim,thathemay
beashamed:wherefromthewordobey,hewouldinfer,thatthis
epistlewasalawtotheThessalonians.Theepistlesoftheemperors
wereindeedlaws.IfthereforetheepistleofSt.Paulwerealsoalaw,
theyweretoobeytwomasters.Butthewordobey,asitisinthe
Greek
,signifiethhearkeningto,orputtinginpractice,not
onlythatwhichiscommandedbyhimthathasrighttopunish,but
alsothatwhichisdeliveredinawayofcounselforourgoodand
thereforeSt.Pauldoesnotbidkillhimthatdisobeysnorbeat,nor
imprison,noramerce[fine]him,whichlegislatorsmayalldobut
avoidhiscompany,thathemaybeashamed:wherebyitisevident,
itwasnottheempireofanapostle,buthisreputationamongstthe
faithful,whichtheChristiansstoodinaweof.
109.ThelastplaceisthatofHeb.13.17.Obeyyourleaders,and
submityourselvestothem,fortheywatchforyoursouls,astheythat
mustgiveaccount:andherealsoisintendedbyobedience,afollowing
oftheircounsel:forthereasonofourobedience,isnotdrawnfrom
thewillandcommandofourpastors,butfromourownbenefit,as
beingthesalvationofoursoulstheywatchfor,andnotforthe
exaltationoftheirownpower,andauthority.Ifitweremeanthere,
thatalltheyteachwerelaws,thennotonlythePope,butevery
pastorinhisparishshouldhavelegislativepower.Again,theythat
areboundtoobey,theirpastors,havenopowertoexaminetheir
commands.WhatthenshallwesaytoSt.John,whobidsus(1John
4.1)Nottobelieveeveryspirit,buttotrythespiritswhethertheyareof
God,becausemanyfalseprophetsaregoneoutintotheworld?Itis
thereforemanifest,thatwemaydisputethedoctrineofourpastors
butnomancandisputealaw.Thecommandsofcivilsovereignsare
onallsidesgrantedtobelaws:ifanyelsecanmakealawbesides
himself,allcommonwealth,andconsequentlyallpeaceandjustice

Page379

mustceasewhichiscontrarytoalllaws,bothdivineandhuman.
Nothingthereforecanbedrawnfromthese,oranyotherplacesof
Scripture,toprovethedecreesofthePope,wherehehasnotalso
thecivilsovereignty,tobelaws.
110.Thelastpointhewouldprove,isthis,ThatourSaviour[311]
ChristhascommittedecclesiasticaljurisdictionimmediatelytononebutThequestion
thePope.Whereinhehandlethnotthequestionofsupremacybeofsuperiority
tweenthePopeandChristiankings,butbetweenthePopeandotherbetweenthe
bishops.Andfirst,hesaysitisagreed,thatthejurisdictionofPopeand
bishops,isatleastinthegeneraldejuredivino,thatis,intherightofotherbishops.
GodforwhichheallegesSt.Paul,Eph.4.11,wherehesays,that
Christafterhisascensionintoheaven,gavegiftstomen,someapostles,
someprophets,andsomeevangelists,andsomepastors,andsome
teachers.Andthenceinfers,theyhaveindeedtheirjurisdictionin
God'srightbutwillnotgranttheyhaveitimmediatelyfromGod,
butderivedthroughthePope.Butifamanmaybesaidtohavehis
jurisdictiondejuredivino,andyetnotimmediatelywhatlawful
jurisdiction,thoughbutcivil,isthereinaChristiancommon
wealth,thatisnotalsodejurodivino?ForChristiankingshavetheir
civilpowerfromGodimmediatelyandthemagistratesunderhim
exercisetheirseveralchargesinvirtueofhiscommissionwherein
thatwhichtheydo,isnolessdejuredivinomediato,thanthatwhich
thebishopsdo,invirtueofthePope'sordination.Alllawfulpower
isofGod,immediatelyintheSupremeGovernor,andmediatelyin
thosethathaveauthorityunderhim:sothateitherhemustgrant
everyconstableinthestate,toholdhisofficeintherightofGodor
hemustnotholdthatanybishopholdshisso,besidesthePope
himself.
111.Butthiswholedispute,whetherChristleftthejurisdiction
tothePopeonly,ortootherbishopsalso,ifconsideredoutofthose
placeswherethePopehasthecivilsovereignty,isacontentionde
lanacaprina:*fornoneofthem(wheretheyarenotsovereigns)has
anyjurisdictionatall.Forjurisdictionisthepowerofhearingand
determiningcausesbetweenmanandmanandcanbelongtonone,
buthimthathaththepowertoprescribetherulesofrightand
wrongthatis,tomakelawsandwiththeswordofjusticetocompel
mentoobeyhisdecisions,pronouncedeitherbyhimself,orbythe
judgesheordaineththereuntowhichnonecanlawfullydobutthe
civilsovereign.
112.Thereforewhenheallegethoutofchapter6ofLuke,that

ourSaviourcalledhisdisciplestogether,andchosetwelveofthem
whichhenamedapostles,heproveththatheelectedthem(all,
exceptMatthias,PaulandBarnabas,)andgavethempowerand
commandtopreach,butnottojudgeofcausesbetweenmanand
man:forthatisapowerwhichherefusedtotakeuponhimself,
saying,Whomademeajudge,oradivider,amongstyou?andin
anotherplace,Mykingdomisnotofthisworld.Buthethathathnot
thepowertohear,anddeterminecausesbetweenmanandman,
cannotbesaidtohaveanyjurisdictionatall.Andyetthishinders
not,butthatourSaviourgavethempowertopreachandbaptizein
allpartsoftheworld,supposingtheywerenotbytheirownlawful
sovereignforbidden:fortoourownsovereignsChristhimself,and
[312]hisapostles,haveinsundryplacesexpresslycommandedusinall
thingstobeobedient.
113.Theargumentsbywhichhewouldprove,thatbishops
receivetheirjurisdictionfromthePope(seeingthePopeinthe
dominionsofotherprinceshathnojurisdictionhimself,)areallin
vain.Yetbecausetheyprove,onthecontrary,thatallbishops
receivejurisdictionwhentheyhaveitfromtheircivilsovereigns,I
willnotomittherecitalofthem.
114.Thefirstisfromchapter11ofNumbers,whereMosesnot
beingablealonetoundergothewholeburthenofadministeringthe
affairsofthepeopleofIsrael,Godcommandedhimtochoose
seventyelders,andtookpartofthespiritofMoses,toputitupon
thoseseventyelders:bywhichisunderstood,notthatGodweak
enedthespiritofMoses,forthathadnoteasedhimatallbutthat
theyhadallofthemtheirauthorityfromhimwhereinhedoth
truly,andingenuouslyinterpretthatplace.ButseeingMoseshad
theentiresovereigntyinthecommonwealthoftheJews,itismani
fest,thatitistherebysignified,thattheyhadtheirauthorityfrom
thecivilsovereign:andthereforethatplaceproveth,thatbishopsin
everyChristiancommonwealthhavetheirauthorityfromthecivil
sovereignandfromthePopeinhisownterritoriesonly,andnotin
theterritoriesofanyotherstate.
115.Thesecondargument,isfromthenatureofmonarchy
whereinallauthorityisinoneman,andinothersbyderivationfrom
him:butthegovernmentoftheChurch,hesays,ismonarchical.
ThisalsomakesforChristianmonarchs.Fortheyarereallymon
archsoftheirownpeoplethatis,oftheirownChurch(forthe
ChurchisthesamethingwithaChristianpeople)whereasthe

Page381

powerofthePope,thoughhewereSt.Peter,isneithermonarchy,
norhathanythingofarchical,norcratical,butonlyofdidactical*
forGodacceptethnotaforced,butawillingobedience.
116.Thethird,is,fromthattheseeofSt.PeteriscalledbySt.
Cyprian,thehead,thesource,theroot,thesun,fromwhencethe
authorityofbishopsisderived.Butbythelawofnature(whichisa
betterprincipleofrightandwrong,thanthewordofanydoctorthat
isbutaman)thecivilsovereignineverycommonwealth,isthehead,
thesource,theroot,andthesun,fromwhichalljurisdictionis
derived.Andthereforethejurisdictionofbishops,isderivedfrom
thecivilsovereign.
117.Thefourth,istakenfromtheinequalityoftheirjurisdic
tions:forifGod(saithhe)hadgivenitthemimmediately,hehad
givenaswellequalityofjurisdiction,asoforder:butwesee,some
arebishopsbutofonetown,someofahundredtowns,andsomeof
manywholeprovinceswhichdifferenceswerenotdeterminedby
thecommandofGodtheirjurisdictionthereforeisnotofGod,but
ofmanandonehasagreater,anotheraless,asitpleaseththePrince
oftheChurch.Whichargument,ifhehadprovedbefore,thatthe
PopehadanuniversaljurisdictionoverallChristians,hadbeenfor
hispurpose.Butseeingthathathnotbeenproved,andthatitis[313]
notoriouslyknown,thelargejurisdictionofthePopewasgivenhim
bythosethathadit,thatis,bytheEmperorsofRome,(forthe.
PatriarchofConstantinople,uponthesametitle,namely,ofbeing
bishopofthecapitalcityoftheempire,andseatoftheemperor,
claimedtobeequaltohim,)itfolloweth,thatallotherbishopshave
theirjurisdictionfromthesovereignsoftheplacewhereinthey
exercisethesame:andasforthatcausetheyhavenottheirauthority
dejuredivinosoneitherhaththePopehisdejuredivino,exceptonly
whereheisalsothecivilsovereign.
118.Hisfifthargumentisthis,ifbishopshavetheirjurisdiction
immediatelyfloraGod,thePopecouldnottakeitfromthem,forhecan
donothingcontrarytoGod'sordinationandthisconsequenceisgood,
andwellproved.But(saithhe)thePopecandothis,andhasdoneit.
Thisalsoisgranted,sohedoitinhisowndominions,orinthe
dominionsofanyotherprincethathathgivenhimthatpowerbut
notuniversally,inrightofthePopedom:forthatpowerbelongethto
everyChristiansovereign,withintheboundsofhisownempire,and
isinseparablefromthesovereignty.BeforethepeopleofIsraelhad
(bythecommandmentofGodtoSamuel)setoverthemselvesa

king,afterthemannerofothernations,thehighpriesthadthecivil
governmentandnonebuthecouldmake,nordeposeaninferior
priest:butthatpowerwasafterwardsintheking,asmaybeproved
bythissameargumentofBellarmineforifthepriest(behethe
highpriestoranyother)hadhisjurisdictionimmediatelyfrom
God,thenthekingcouldnottakeitfromhimforhecoulddonothing
contrarytoGod'sordinance.ButitiscertainthatkingSolomon(1
Kings2.26,27)deprivedAbiatharthehighpriestofhisoffice,and
placedZadok(verse35)inhisroom.Kingsthereforemayinlike
mannerordain,anddeprivebishops,astheyshallthinkfit,forthe
wellgoverningoftheirsubjects.
119.Hissixthargumentisthis,ifbishopshavetheirjurisdiction
dejuredivino(thatis,immediatelyfromGod,)theythatmaintainit,
shouldbringsomewordofGodtoproveit:buttheycanbringnone.
TheargumentisgoodIhavethereforenothingtosayagainstit.But
itisanargumentnolessgood,toprovethePopehimselftohaveno
jurisdictioninthedominionofanyotherprince.
120.Lastly,hebringethforargument,thetestimonyoftwo
popes,InnocentandLeoandIdoubtnothemighthavealleged,
withasgoodreason,thetestimoniesofallthepopesalmostsinceSt.
Peter:forconsideringtheloveofpowernaturallyimplantedin
mankind,whosoeverweremadePope,hewouldbetemptedto
upholdthesameopinion.Nevertheless,theyshouldthereinbutdo,
asInnocent,andLeodid,bearwitnessofthemselves,andtherefore
theirwitnessshouldnotbegood.
[314]121.Inthefifthbookhehathfourconclusions.Thefirstis,that
OfthePope'sthePopeisnotlordofalltheworld:thesecond,thatthePopeisnotthe
temporallordofalltheChristianworld:thethird,thatthePope(withouthisown
power.territory)hasnotanytemporaljurisdictionDIRECTLY.Thesethree
conclusionsareeasilygranted.Thefourthis,thatthePopehas(inthe
dominionsofotherprinces)thesupremetemporalpowerINDIRECTLY:
whichisdeniedunlesshemeanbyindirectly,thathehasgottenitby
indirectmeans,thenisthatalsogranted.ButIunderstand,that
whenhesaith:hehathitindirectly,hemeans,thatsuchtemporal
jurisdictionbelongethtohimofright,butthatthisrightisbuta
consequenceofhispastoralauthority,thewhichhecouldnotexer
cise,unlesshehavetheotherwithit:andthereforetothepastoral
power(whichhecallsspiritual)thesupremepowercivilisnecess
arilyannexedandthattherebyhehatharighttochangekingdoms,

Page383

givingthemtoone,andtakingthemfromanother,whenheshall
thinkitconducestothesalvationofsouls.
122.BeforeIcometoconsidertheargumentsbywhichhewould
provethisdoctrine,itwillnotbeamisstolayopentheconsequences
ofitthatprinces,andstates,thathavethecivilsovereigntyintheir
severalcommonwealths,maybethinkthemselves,whetheritbe
convenientforthem,andconducingtothegoodoftheirsubjects,of
whomtheyaretogiveanaccountatthedayofjudgment,toadmit
thesame.
123.Whenitissaid,thePopehathnot(intheterritoriesofother
states)thesupremecivilpowerdirectlywearetounderstand,he
dothnotchallengeit,asothercivilsovereignsdo,fromtheoriginal
submissiontheretoofthosethataretobegoverned.Foritisevident,
andhasalreadybeensufficientlyinthistreatisedemonstrated,that
therightofallsovereigns,isderivedoriginallyfromtheconsentof
everyoneofthosethataretobegovernedwhethertheythatchoose
him,doitfortheircommondefenceagainstanenemy,aswhenthey
agreeamongstthemselvestoappointaman,oranassemblyofmen
toprotectthemorwhethertheydoit,tosavetheirlives,bysub
missiontoaconqueringenemy.ThePopetherefore,whenhe
disclaimeththesupremecivilpoweroverotherstatesdirectly,
deniethnomore,butthathisrightcomethtohimbythatwayhe
ceasethnotforallthat,toclaimitanotherwayandthatis,(without
theconsentofthemthataretobegoverned)byarightgivenhimby
God,(whichhecallethindirectly,)inhisassumptiontothepapacy.
Butbywhatwaysoeverhepretend,thepoweristhesameandhe
may(ifitbegrantedtobehisright)deposeprincesandstates,as
oftenasitisforthesalvationofsouls,thatis,asoftenashewillfor
heclaimethalsothesolepowertojudge,whetheritbetothe
salvationofmen'ssouls,ornot.Andthisisthedoctrine,notonly
thatBellarminehere,andmanyotherdoctors,teachintheirser
monsandbooks,butalsothatsomecouncilshavedecreed,andthe
Popeshaveaccordingly,whentheoccasionhathservedthem,putin[315]
practice.ForthefourthcouncilofLateran,*heldunderPopeInno
centtheThird,(inthethirdchapterDeHaereticis,)haththiscanon.
Ifaking,atthePope'sadmonition,donotpurgehiskingdomofheretics,
andbeingexcommunicateforthesame,makenotsatisfactionwithina
year,hissubjectsareabsolvedoftheirobedience.Andthepractice
hereofhathbeenseenondiversoccasionsasinthedeposingof

Childeric,kingofFranceinthetranslationoftheRomanempireto
CharlemagneintheoppressionofJohnkingofEnglandintrans
ferringthekingdomofNavarreandoflateyears,intheLeague
againstHenrytheThirdofFrance,andinmanymoreoccurrences.
Ithinktherebefewprincesthatconsidernotthisasunjust,and
inconvenientbutIwishtheywouldallresolvetobekings,or
subjects.Mencannotservetwomasters:theyoughtthereforeto
easethem,eitherbyholdingthereinsofgovernmentwhollyintheir
ownhandsorbywhollydeliveringthemintothehandsofthePope
thatsuchmenasarewillingtobeobedient,maybeprotectedin
theirobedience.Forthisdistinctionoftemporalandspiritualpower
isbutwords.Powerisasreallydivided,andasdangerouslytoall
purposes,bysharingwithanotherindirectpower,aswithadirect
one.Buttocomenowtohisarguments.
124.Thefirstisthis,Thecivilpowerissubjecttothespiritual
thereforehethathaththesupremepowerspiritual,hathrighttocom
mandtemporalprinces,anddisposeoftheirtemporalsinordertothe
spiritual.Asforthedistinctionoftemporal,andspiritual,letus
considerinwhatsenseitmaybesaidintelligibly,thatthetemporal,
orcivilpowerissubjecttothespiritual.Therebebuttwowaysthat
thosewordscanbemadesense.Forwhenwesay,onepoweris
subjecttoanotherpower,themeaningeitheris,thathewhichhath
theone,issubjecttohimthathaththeotherorthattheonepower
istotheother,asthemeanstotheend.Forwecannotunderstand,
thatonepowerhathpoweroveranotherpowerorthatonepower
canhaverightorcommandoveranother.Forsubjection,command,
right,andpower,areaccidents,notofpowers,butofpersons:one
powermaybesubordinatetoanother,astheartofasaddler,tothe
artofarider.Ifthenitbegranted,thatthecivilgovernmentbe
ordainedasameanstobringustoaspiritualfelicityyetitdoesnot
follow,thatifakinghavethecivilpower,andthePopethespiritual,
thatthereforethekingisboundtoobeythePope,morethanevery
saddlerisboundtoobeyeveryrider.Thereforeasfromsubordina
tionofanart,cannotbeinferredthesubjectionoftheprofessorso
fromthesubordinationofagovernment,cannotbeinferredthe
subjectionofthegovernor.Whenthereforehesaith,thecivilpower
issubjecttothespiritual,hismeaningis,thatthecivilsovereign,is
subjecttothespiritualsovereign.Andtheargumentstandsthus,
Thecivilsovereignissubjecttothespiritualthereforethespiritual
princemaycommandtemporalprinces.Wheretheconclusionisthe

Page385

samewiththeantecedentheshouldhaveproved.Buttoproveit,he[316]
allegethfirst,thisreason,kingsandpopes,clergyandlaity,makebut
onecommonwealththatistosay,butoneChurch:andinallbodiesthe
membersdependoneuponanother:butthingsspiritualdependnotof
thingstemporal:thereforetemporaldependonspiritual.Andtherefore
aresubjecttothem.Inwhichargumentationtherebetwogross
errors:oneis,thatallChristiankings,popes,clergy,andallother
Christianmen,makebutonecommonwealth:foritisevidentthat
Franceisonecommonwealth,Spainanother,andVeniceathird,
&c.AndtheseconsistofChristiansandthereforealsoareseveral
bodiesofChristiansthatistosay,severalChurches:andtheir
severalsovereignsrepresentthem,wherebytheyarecapableof
commandingandobeying,ofdoingandsuffering,asanaturalman
whichnogeneraloruniversalChurchis,tillithavearepresentant
whichithathnotonearth:forifithad,thereisnodoubtbutthatall
Christendomwereonecommonwealth,whosesovereignwerethat
representant,bothinthingsspiritualandtemporal:andthePope,to
makehimselfthisrepresentant,wanteththreethingsthatour
Saviourhathnotgivenhim,tocommand,andtojudge,andtopunish,
otherwisethan(byexcommunication)torunfromthosethatwill
notlearnofhim:forthoughthePopewereChrist'sonlyvicar,yet
hecannotexercisehisgovernment,tillourSaviour'ssecondcom
ing:andthenalsoitisnotthePope,butSt.Peterhimself,withthe
otherapostles,thataretobejudgesoftheworld.
125.Theothererrorinthishisfirstargumentis,thathesays,the
membersofeverycommonwealth,asofanaturalbody,dependone
ofanother:itistrue,theycoheretogetherbuttheydependonlyon
thesovereign,whichisthesoulofthecommonwealthwhichfailing,
thecommonwealthisdissolvedintoacivilwar,noonemansomuch
ascoheringtoanother,forwantofacommondependenceona
knownsovereignjustasthemembersofthenaturalbodydissolve
intoearth,forwantofasoultoholdthemtogether.Thereforethere
isnothinginthissimilitude,fromwhencetoinferadependenceof
thelaityontheclergy,orofthetemporalofficersonthespiritual
butofbothonthecivilsovereignwhichoughtindeedtodirecthis
civilcommandstothesalvationofsoulsbutisnotthereforesubject
toanybuttoGodhimself.Andthusyouseethelabouredfallacyof
thefirstargument,todeceivesuchmenasdistinguishnotbetween
thesubordinationofactionsinthewaytotheendandthesubjec
tionofpersonsonetoanotherintheadministrationofthemeans.

Fortoeveryend,themeansaredeterminedbynature,orbyGod
himselfsupernaturally:butthepowertomakemenusethemeans,
isineverynationresigned(bythelawofnature,whichforbiddeth
mentoviolatetheirfaithgiven)tothecivilsovereign.
[317]126.Hissecondargumentisthis,everycommonwealth,(becauseit
issupposedtobeperfectandsufficientinitself,)maycommandanyother
commonwealth,notsubjecttoit,andforceittochangetheadministration
ofthegovernmentnaydeposetheprince,andsetanotherinhisroom,if
itcannototherwisedefenditselfagainsttheinjurieshegoesabouttodo
them:muchmoremayaspiritualcommonwealthcommandatemporal
onetochangetheadministrationoftheirgovernment,andmaydepose
princes,andinstituteothers,whentheycannototherwisedefendthe
spiritualgood.
127.Thatacommonwealth,todefenditselfagainstinjuries,may
lawfullydoallthathehathheresaid,isverytrueandhathalready
inthatwhichhathgonebeforebeensufficientlydemonstrated.And
ifitwerealsotrue,thatthereisnowinthisworldaspiritual
commonwealth,distinctfromacivilcommonwealth,thenmightthe
princethereof,uponinjurydonehim,oruponwantofcautionthat
injurybenotdonehimintimetocome,repair,andsecurehimself
bywarwhichisinsum,deposing,killing,orsubduing,ordoingany
actofhostility.Butbythesamereason,itwouldbenolesslawfulfor
acivilsovereign,uponthelikeinjuriesdone,orfeared,tomakewar
uponthespiritualsovereignwhichIbelieveismorethanCardinal
Bellarminewouldhaveinferredfromhisownproposition.
128.Butspiritualcommonwealththereisnoneinthisworld:for
itisthesamethingwiththekingdomofChristwhichhehimself
saith,isnotofthisworldbutshallbeinthenextworld,atthe
resurrection,whentheythathavelivedjustly,andbelievedthathe
wastheChrist,shall(thoughtheydiednaturalbodies)risespiritual
bodiesandthenitis,thatourSaviourshalljudgetheworld,and
conquerhisadversaries,andmakeaspiritualcommonwealth.Inthe
meantime,seeingtherearenomenonearth,whosebodiesare
spiritualtherecanbenospiritualcommonwealthamongstmenthat
areyetinthefleshunlesswecallpreachers,thathavecommission
toteach,andpreparemenfortheirreceptionintothekingdomof
Christattheresurrection,acommonwealthwhichIhaveproved
alreadytobenone.
129.ThethirdargumentisthisitisnotlawfulforChristiansto
tolerateaninfidel,orhereticalking,incaseheendeavourtodrawthem

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tohisheresy,orinfidelity.Buttojudgewhetherakingdrawhissubjects
toheresy,ornot,belongethtothePope.ThereforehaththePope
right,todeterminewhethertheprincebetobedeposed,ornotdeposed.
130.TothisIanswer,thatboththeseassertionsarefalse.For
Christians,(ormenofwhatreligionsoever,)iftheytoleratenottheir
king,whatsoeverlawhemaketh,thoughitbeconcerningreligion,
doviolatetheirfaith,contrarytothedivinelaw,bothnaturaland
positive:noristhereanyjudgeofheresyamongstsubjects,buttheir
owncivilsovereign:forheresyisnothingelse,butaprivateopinion,[318]
obstinatelymaintained,contrarytotheopinionwhichthepublicperson
(thatistosay,therepresentantofthecommonwealth)hathcom
mandedtobetaught.Bywhichitismanifest,thatanopinionpublicly
appointedtobetaught,cannotbeheresynorthesovereignprinces
thatauthorizethem,heretics.Forhereticsarenonebutprivatemen,
thatstubbornlydefendsomedoctrine,prohibitedbytheirlawful
sovereigns.
131.ButtoprovethatChristiansarenottotolerateinfidel,or
hereticalkings,heallegethaplaceinDeut.17whereGodforbiddeth
theJews,whentheyshallsetakingoverthemselves,tochoosea
stranger:andfromthenceinferreth,thatitisunlawfulforaChris
tian,tochooseakingthatisnotaChristian.And'tistrue,thathe
thatisaChristian,thatis,hethathathalreadyobligedhimselfto
receiveourSaviourwhenheshallcome,forhisking,shalltempt
Godtoomuchinchoosingforkinginthisworld,onethathe
knowethwillendeavour,bothbyterror,andpersuasiontomakehim
violatehisfaith.Butitis(saithhe)thesamedanger,tochooseone
thatisnotaChristian,forking,andnottodeposehim,whenheis
chosen.TothisIsay,thequestionisnotofthedangerofnot
deposingbutofthejusticeofdeposinghim.Tochoosehim,mayin
somecasesbeunjustbuttodeposehim,whenheischosen,isinno
casejust.Foritisalwaysaviolationoffaith,andconsequently
againstthelawofnature,whichistheeternallawofGod.Nordowe
read,thatanysuchdoctrinewasaccountedChristianinthetimeof
theapostlesnorinthetimeoftheRomanemperors,tillthePopes
hadthecivilsovereigntyofRome.Buttothishehathreplied,that
theChristiansofold,deposednotNero,norDiocletian,norJulian,
norValensanArian,*forthiscauseonly,thattheywantedtemporal
forces.Perhapsso.ButdidourSaviour,whoforcallingfor,might
havehadtwelvelegionsofimmortal,invulnerableangelstoassist
him,wantforcestodeposeCaesar,oratleastPilate,thatunjustly,

withoutfindingfaultinhim,deliveredhimtotheJewstobecruci
fied?OriftheapostleswantedtemporalforcestodeposeNero,was
itthereforenecessaryforthemintheirepistlestothenewmade
Christians,toteachthem(astheydid)toobeythepowersconsti
tutedoverthem,(whereofNerointhattimewasone,)andthatthey
oughttoobeythem,notforfearoftheirwrath,butforconscience
sake?Shallwesaytheydidnotonlyobey,butalsoteachwhatthey
meantnot,forwantofstrength?Itisnotthereforeforwantof
strength,butforconsciencesake,thatChristiansaretotoleratetheir
heathenprinces,orprinces(forIcannotcallanyonewhosedoctrine
isthepublicdoctrine,anheretic)thatauthorizetheteachingofan
error.AndwhereasforthetemporalpowerofthePope,heallegeth
further,thatSt.Paul(1Cor.6)appointedjudgesundertheheathen
princesofthosetimes,suchaswerenotordainedbythoseprinces
itisnottrue.ForSt.Pauldoesbutadvisethem,totakesomeoftheir
[319]brethrentocompoundtheirdifferences,asarbitrators,ratherthan
togotolawonewithanotherbeforetheheathenjudgeswhichisa
wholesomeprecept,andfullofcharity,fittobepractisedalsointhe
bestChristiancommonwealths.Andforthedangerthatmayariseto
religion,bythesubjectstoleratingofaheathen,oranerringprince,
itisapoint,ofwhichasubjectisnocompetentjudgeorifhebe,the
Pope'stemporalsubjectsmayjudgealsoofthePope'sdoctrine.For
everyChristianprince,asIhaveformerlyproved,isnolesssupreme
pastorofhisownsubjects,thanthePopeofhis.
132.Thefourthargument,istakenfromthebaptismofkings
wherein,thattheymaybemadeChristianstheysubmittheirscep
trestoChristandpromisetokeep,anddefendtheChristianfaith.
ThisistrueforChristiankingsarenomorebutChrist'ssubjects:
buttheymay,forallthat,bethePope'sfellowsfortheyaresupreme
pastorsoftheirownsubjectsandthePopeisnomorebutking,and
pastor,eveninRomeitself.
133.Thefifthargument,isdrawnfromthewordsspokenbyour
Saviour,Feedmysheepbywhichwasgivenallpowernecessaryfor
apastorasthepowertochaseawaywolves,suchasarehereticsthe
powertoshutuprams,iftheybemad,orpushattheothersheep
withtheirhorns,suchasareevil(thoughChristian)kingsand
powertogivetheflockconvenientfood:fromwhenceheinferreth,
thatSt.PeterhadthesethreepowersgivenhimbyChrist.Towhich
Ianswer,thatthelastofthesepowers,isnomorethanthepower,or
rathercommandtoteach.Forthefirst,whichistochaseaway

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wolves,thatis,heretics,theplacehequotethis(Matt.7.15)Beware
offalseprophetswhichcometoyouinsheep'sclothing,butinwardlyare
raveningwolves.Butneitherarehereticsfalseprophets,oratall
prophets:nor(admittinghereticsforthewolvestheremeant,)were
theapostlescommandedtokillthem,oriftheywerekings,to
deposethembuttobewareof,fly,andavoidthem:norwasittoSt.
Peter,nortoanyoftheapostles,buttothemultitudeoftheJews
thatfollowedhimintothemountain,menforthemostpartnotyet
converted,thathegavethiscounsel,tobewareoffalseprophets:
whichtherefore,ifitconferapowerofchasingawaykings,was
given,notonlytoprivatemenbuttomenthatwerenotatall
Christians.Andastothepowerofseparating,andshuttingupof
furiousrams,(bywhichhemeanethChristiankingsthatrefuseto
submitthemselvestotheRomanpastor,)ourSaviourrefusedto
takeuponhimthatpowerinthisworldhimself,butadvisedtolet
thecornandtaresgrowuptogethertillthedayofjudgment:much
lessdidhegiveittoSt.Peter,orcanSt.PetergiveittothePopes.
St.Peter,andallotherpastors,arebiddentoesteemthoseChris
tiansthatdisobeytheChurch,thatis,(thatdisobeytheChristian
sovereign)asheathenmen,andaspublicans.Seeingthenmen[320]
challengetothePopenoauthorityoverheathenprinces,theyought
tochallengenoneoverthosethataretobeesteemedasheathen.
134.Butfromthepowertoteachonly,heinferrethalsoacoer
civepowerinthePope,overkings.Thepastor(saithhe)mustgive
hisflockconvenientfood:thereforethePopemay,andoughtto
compelkingstodotheirduty.Outofwhichitfolloweth,thatthe
Pope,aspastorofChristianmen,iskingofkings:whichallChris
tiankingsoughtindeedeithertoconfess,orelsetheyoughttotake
uponthemselvesthesupremepastoralcharge,everyoneinhisown
dominion.
135.Hissixth,andlastargument,isfromexamples.TowhichI
answer,first,thatexamplesprovenothing:secondly,thattheexam
plesheallegethmakenotsomuchasaprobabilityofright.Thefact
ofJehoiada,inkillingAthaliah,(2Kings11)waseitherbythe
authorityofkingJoash,oritwasahorriblecrimeinthehighpriest,
which(everaftertheelectionofkingSaul)wasameresubject.The
factofSt.Ambrose,inexcommunicatingTheodosiustheemperor,
(ifitweretruehedidso,)wasacapitalcrime.AndforthePopes,
GregoryI,GregoryII,Zachary,andLeoIII,theirjudgmentsare
void,asgivenintheirowncauseandtheactsdonebythemcon

formablytothisdoctrine,arethegreatestcrimes(especiallythatof
Zachary)thatareincidenttohumannature.Andthusmuchof
PowerEcclesiasticalwhereinIhadbeenmorebrief,forbearingto
examinetheseargumentsofBellarmine,iftheyhadbeenhis,asa
privateman,andnotasthechampionofthePapacyagainstallother
ChristianPrinces,andStates.
[321]ChapterXLIII
OfWhatIsNecessaryforaMan'sReceptionIntotheKingdomofHeaven
Thedifficulty1.Themostfrequentpretextofsedition,andcivilwar,inChris
ofobeyingtiancommonwealthshathalongtimeproceededfromadifficulty,
Godandmannotyetsufficientlyresolved,ofobeyingatonce,bothGodandman,
bothatoncethenwhentheircommandmentsareonecontrarytotheother.Itis
manifestenough,thatwhenamanreceivethtwocontrarycom
mands,andknowsthatoneofthemisGod's,heoughttoobeythat,
andnottheother,thoughitbethecommandevenofhislawful
sovereign(whetheramonarch,orasovereignassembly,)orthe
commandofhisfather.Thedifficultythereforeconsistethinthis,
thatmenwhentheyarecommandedinthenameofGod,knownot
indiverscases,whetherthecommandbefromGod,orwhetherhe
thatcommandeth,dobutabuseGod'snameforsomeprivateends
ofhisown.ForastherewereintheChurchoftheJews,manyfalse
prophets,thatsoughtreputationwiththepeople,byfeigneddreams
andvisionssotherehavebeeninalltimesintheChurchofChrist,
falseteachers,thatseekreputationwiththepeople,byfantastical
andfalsedoctrinesandbysuchreputation(asisthenatureof
ambition,)togovernthemfortheirprivatebenefit.
Isnoneto2.ButthisdifficultyofobeyingbothGod,andthecivilsovereign
themthatonearth,tothosethatcandistinguishbetweenwhatisnecessary,and
distinguishwhatisnotnecessaryfortheirreceptionintothekingdomofGod,isof
betweenwhatnomoment.Forifthecommandofthecivilsovereignbesuch,as
is,andwhatthatitmaybeobeyed,withouttheforfeitureoflifeeternalnotto
isnotobeyitisunjustandthepreceptoftheapostletakesplaceServants
necessarytoobeyyourmastersinallthingsand,Childrenobeyyourparentsinall
salvation.thingsandthepreceptofourSaviour,TheScribesandPhariseessitin
Moses'chair,allthereforetheyshallsay,thatobserve,anddo.Butifthe

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commandbesuch,ascannotbeobeyed,withoutbeingdamnedto
eternaldeath,thenitweremadnesstoobeyit,andthecouncilofour
Saviourtakesplace,(Matt.10.28)Fearnotthosethatkillthebody,
butcannotkillthesoulAllmenthereforethatwouldavoid,boththe
punishmentsthataretobeinthisworldinflicted,fordisobedience
totheirearthlysovereign,andthosethatshallbeinflictedinthe
worldtocomefordisobediencetoGod,haveneedbetaughtto
distinguishwellbetweenwhatis,andwhatisnotnecessaryto
eternalsalvation.
3.AllthatisNECESSARYtosalvation,iscontainedintwovirtues,[322]
faithinChrist,andobediencetolaws.Thelatterofthese,ifitwereAllthatis
perfect,wereenoughtous.Butbecauseweareallguiltyofdisobenecessaryto
diencetoGod'slaw,notonlyoriginallyinAdam,butalsoactuallysalvationis
byourowntransgressions,thereisrequiredatourhandsnow,notcontainedin
onlyobediencefortherestofourtime,butalsoaremissionofsinsforfaithand
thetimepastwhichremissionistherewardofourfaithinChrist.obedience.
Thatnothingelseisnecessarilyrequiredtosalvation,ismanifest
fromthis,thatthekingdomofheavenisshuttononebuttosinners
thatistosay,tothedisobedient,ortransgressorsofthelawnorto
them,incasetheyrepent,andbelieveallthearticlesofChristian
faith,necessarytosalvation.
4.TheobediencerequiredatourhandsbyGod,thatacceptethWhat
inallouractionsthewillforthedeed,isaseriousendeavourtoobeyobedienceis
himandiscalledalsobyallsuchnamesassignifythatendeavour.necessary
Andthereforeobedience,issometimescalledbythenamesofchar
ity,andlove,becausetheyimplyawilltoobeyandourSaviour
himselfmakethourlovetoGod,andtooneanother,afulfillingof
thewholelaw:andsometimesbythenameofrighteousnessfor
righteousnessisbutthewilltogivetoeveryonehisownthatisto
say,thewilltoobeythelaws:andsometimesbythenameofrepent
ancebecausetorepent,impliethaturningawayfromsin,whichis
thesamewiththereturnofthewilltoobedience.Whosoeverthere
foreunfeignedlydesirethtofulfilthecommandmentsofGod,or
repentethhimtrulyofhistransgressions,orthatlovethGodwithall
hisheart,andhisneighbourashimself,hathalltheobedience
necessarytohisreceptionintothekingdomofGod:forifGod
shouldrequireperfectinnocence,therecouldnofleshbesaved.
5.ButwhatcommandmentsarethosethatGodhathgivenus?Andtowhat
AreallthoselawswhichweregiventotheJewsbythehandoflaws.
Moses,thecommandmentsofGod?Iftheybe,whyarenotChris

tianstaughttoobeythem?Iftheybenot,whatothersareso,besides
thelawofnature?ForourSaviourChristhathnotgivenusnew
laws,butcounseltoobservethosewearesubjecttothatistosay,
thelawsofnature,andthelawsofourseveralsovereigns:nordidhe
makeanynewlawtotheJewsinhissermonontheMount,butonly
expoundedthelawofMoses,towhichtheyweresubjectbefore.
ThelawsofGodthereforearenonebutthelawsofnature,whereof
theprincipalis,thatweshouldnotviolateourfaith,thatis,a
commandmenttoobeyourcivilsovereigns,whichweconstituted
overus,bymutualpactonewithanother.AndthislawofGod,that
commandethobediencetothelawcivil,commandethbyconse
quenceobediencetoallthepreceptsoftheBiblewhich(asIhave
provedintheprecedentchapter)isthereonlylaw,wherethecivil
sovereignhathmadeitsoandinotherplaces,butcounselwhicha
manathisownperilmaywithoutinjusticerefusetoobey.
[323]6.Knowingnowwhatistheobediencenecessarytosalvation,
Inthefaithandtowhomitisduewearetoconsidernextconcerningfaith,
ofawhom,andwhywebelieveandwhatarethearticles,orpoints
Christian,necessarytobebelievedbythemthatshallbesaved.Andfirst,for
whoisthethepersonwhomwebelieve,becauseitisimpossibletobelieveany
personperson,beforeweknowwhathesaith,itisnecessaryhebeonethat
believed.wehaveheardspeak.Thepersontherefore,whomAbraham,Isaac,
Jacob,Moses,andtheprophets,believed,wasGodhimself,that
spakeuntothemsupernaturally:andtheperson,whomtheapostles
anddisciplesthatconversedwithChristbelieved,wasourSaviour
himself.Butofthem,towhomneitherGodtheFather,norour
Savioureverspake,itcannotbesaid,thatthepersonwhomthey
believed,wasGod.Theybelievedtheapostles,andafterthemthe
pastorsanddoctorsoftheChurch,thatrecommendedtotheirfaith
thehistoryoftheOldandNewTestament:sothatthefaithof
ChristianseversinceourSaviour'stime,hathhadforfoundation,
first,thereputationoftheirpastors,andafterward,theauthorityof
thosethatmadetheOldandNewTestamenttobereceivedforthe
ruleoffaithwhichnonecoulddobutChristiansovereignswhoare
thereforethesupremepastors,andtheonlypersons,whomChris
tiansnowhearspeakfromGodexceptsuchasGodspeakethto,in
thesedayssupernaturally.Butbecausetherebemanyfalseprophets
goneoutintotheworld,menaretoexaminesuchspirits(asSt.John
advisethus,1John4.1)whethertheybeofGod,ornot.Andtherefore,
seeingtheexaminationofdoctrinesbelongethtothesupremepas

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tor,thepersonwhichalltheythathavenospecialrevelationareto
believe,is(ineverycommonwealth)thesupremepastor,thatisto
say,thecivilsovereign.
7.ThecauseswhymenbelieveanyChristiandoctrine,arevariThecausesof
ous:forfaithisthegiftofGodandheworkethitineachseveralChristian
man,bysuchways,asitseemethgooduntohimself.Themostfaith.
ordinaryimmediatecauseofourbelief,concerninganypointof
Christianfaith,is,thatwebelievetheBibletobethewordofGod.
ButwhywebelievetheBibletobethewordofGod,ismuch
disputed,asallquestionsmustneedsbe,thatarenotwellstated.For
theymakenotthequestiontobe,whywebelieveit,but,howweknow
itasifbelievingandknowingwereallone.Andthencewhileoneside
groundtheirknowledgeupontheinfallibilityoftheChurch,andthe
otherside,onthetestimonyoftheprivatespirit,neitherside
concludethwhatitpretends.Forhowshallamanknowtheinfalli
bilityoftheChurch,butbyknowingfirsttheinfallibilityofthe
Scripture?Orhowshallamanknowhisownprivatespirittobe
otherthanabelief,groundedupontheauthority,andargumentsof
histeachersoruponapresumptionofhisowngifts?Besides,there
isnothingintheScripture,fromwhichcanbeinferredtheinfalli
bilityoftheChurchmuchless,ofanyparticularChurchandleast
ofall,theinfallibilityofanyparticularman.
8.Itismanifesttherefore,thatChristianmendonotknow,but[324]
onlybelievetheScripturetobethewordofGodandthatthemeansFaithcomes
ofmakingthembelievewhichGodispleasedtoaffordmenordibyhearing.
narily,isaccordingtothewayofnature,thatistosay,fromtheir
teachers.ItisthedoctrineofSt.PaulconcerningChristianfaithin
general(Rom.10.17),faithcomethbyhearing,thatis,byhearingour
lawfulpastors.Hesaithalso,(verses14,15,ofthesamechapter)how
shalltheybelieveinhimofwhomtheyhavenotheard?andhowshall
theyhearwithoutapreacher?andhowshalltheypreach,excepttheybe
sent?Wherebyitisevident,thattheordinarycauseofbelievingthat
theScripturesarethewordofGod,isthesamewiththecauseofthe
believingofallotherarticlesofourfaith,namely,thehearingof
thosethatarebythelawallowedandappointedtoteachus,asour
parentsintheirhouses,andourpastorsinthechurches:whichalso
ismademoremanifestbyexperience.Forwhatothercausecan
therebeassigned,whyinChristiancommonwealthsallmeneither
believe,oratleastprofesstheScripturetobethewordofGod,and
inothercommonwealthsscarceanybutthatinChristiancommon

wealthstheyaretaughtitfromtheirinfancyandinotherplaces
theyaretaughtotherwise?
9.Butifteachingbethecauseoffaith,whydonotallbelieve?It
iscertainthereforethatfaithisthegiftofGod,andhegivethitto
whomhewill.Nevertheless,becausetothemtowhomhegivethit,
hegivethitbythemeansofteachers,theimmediatecauseoffaithis
hearing.Inaschool,wheremanyaretaught,andsomeprofit,others
profitnot,thecauseoflearninginthemthatprofit,isthemasteryet
itcannotbethenceinferred,thatlearningisnotthegiftofGod.All
goodthingsproceedfromGodyetcannotallthathavethem,say
theyareinspiredforthatimpliesagiftsupernatural,andtheim
mediatehandofGodwhichhethatpretendsto,pretendstobea
prophet,andissubjecttotheexaminationoftheChurch.
10.Butwhethermenknow,orbelieve,orgranttheScripturesto
bethewordofGodifoutofsuchplacesofthem,asarewithout
obscurity,Ishallshowwhatarticlesoffaitharenecessary,andonly
necessaryforsalvation,thosemenmustneedsknow,believe,orgrant
thesame.
Theonly11.The(unumnecessarium)onlyarticleoffaith,whichtheScrip
necessaryturemakethsimplynecessarytosalvation,isthis,thatJESUSISTHE
articleofCHRIST.BythenameofChrist,isunderstoodtheking,whichGod
ChristianhadbeforepromisedbytheprophetsoftheOldTestament,tosend
faithintotheworld,toreign(overtheJews,andoversuchofother
nationsasshouldbelieveinhim)underhimselfeternallyandto
givethemthateternallife,whichwaslostbythesinofAdam.
WhichwhenIhaveprovedoutofScripture,Iwillfurthershow
when,andinwhatsensesomeotherarticlesmaybealsocalled
necessary.
[325]12.Forproofthatthebeliefofthisarticle,JesusistheChrist,isall
Provedfromthefaithrequiredtosalvation,myfirstargumentshallbefromthe
thescopeofscopeoftheEvangelistswhichwasbythedescriptionofthelifeof
theourSaviour,toestablishthatonearticle,JesusistheChrist.Thesum
Evangelists:ofSt.Matthew'sGospelisthis,thatJesuswasofthestockofDavid
bornofaVirginwhicharethemarksofthetrueChrist:thatthe
MagicametoworshiphimasKingoftheJews:thatHerodforthe
samecausesoughttokillhim:thatJohntheBaptistproclaimedhim:
thathepreachedbyhimself,andhisapostlesthathewasthatking:
thathetaughtthelaw,notasascribe,butasamanofauthority:that
hecureddiseasesbyhiswordonly,anddidmanyothermiracles,
whichwereforetoldtheChristshoulddo:thathewassalutedking

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whenheenteredintoJerusalem:thatheforewarnedthemtobeware
ofallothersthatshouldpretendtobeChrist:thathewastaken,
accused,andputtodeath,forsayinghewasking:thatthecauseof
hiscondemnationwrittenonthecrosswas,JESUSOFNAZARETH,THE
KINGOFTHEJEWS.Allwhichtendtonootherendthanthis,that
menshouldbelieve,thatJesusistheChrist.Suchthereforewasthe
scopeofSt.Matthew'sGospel.Butthescopeofalltheevangelists
(asmayappearbyreadingthem)wasthesame.Thereforethescope
ofthewholeGospel,wastheestablishingofthatonlyarticle.And
St.Johnexpresslymakesithisconclusion(John20.31),Thesethings
arewritten,thatyoumayknowthatJesusistheChrist,theSonofthe
livingGod.
13.MysecondargumentistakenfromthesubjectsoftheserFromthe
monsoftheapostles,bothwhilstourSaviourlivedonearth,andsermonsof
afterhisascension.TheapostlesinourSaviour'stime,weresent,theapostles:
(Luke9.2)topreachthekingdomofGod:forneitherthere,norMatt.
10.7givethheanycommissiontothem,otherthanthis,Asyego,
preach,saying,thekingdomofheavenisathandthatis,thatJesusis
theMessiah,theChrist,theKingwhichwastocome.Thattheir
preachingalsoafterhisascensionwasthesame,ismanifestoutof
Acts17.6,7,Theydrew(saithSt.Luke)Jasonandcertainbrethren
untotherulersofthecity,crying,thesethathaveturnedtheworldupside
downarecomehitheralso,whomJasonhathreceived.Andthesealldo
contrarytothedecreesofCaesar,saying,thatthereisanotherking,one
Jesus.Andoutofthe2ndand3rdversesofthesamechapter,where
itissaid,thatSt.Paul,ashismannerwas,wentinuntothemandthree
sabbathdaysreasonedwiththemoutoftheScripturesopeningand
alleging,thatChristmustneedshavesuffered,andrisenagainflorathe
dead,andthatthisJesus(whomhepreached)isChrist.
14.ThethirdargumentisfromthoseplacesofScripture,byFromthe
whichallthefaithrequiredtosalvationisdeclaredtobeeasy.Forifeasinessofthe
aninwardassentofthemindtoallthedoctrinesconcerningChrisdoctrine:
tianfaithnowtaught,(whereofthegreatestpartaredisputed,)were
necessarytosalvation,therewouldbenothingintheworldsohard,
astobeaChristian.Thethiefuponthecrossthoughrepenting,
couldnothavebeensavedforsaying,Lordremembermewhenthou[326]
comestintothykingdombywhichhetestifiednobeliefofanyother
article,butthis,thatJesuswastheking.Norcoulditbesaid(asitis,
Matt.11.30)thatChrist'syokeiseasy,andhisburthenlight:northat
littlechildrenbelieveinhim,asitisMatt.18.6.NorcouldSt.Paul

havesaid(1Cor.1.21)ItpleasedGodbythefoolishnessofpreaching,
tosavethemthatbelieve.NorcouldSt.Paulhimselfhavebeensaved,
muchlesshavebeensogreatadoctoroftheChurchsosuddenly,
thatneverperhapsthoughtoftransubstantiation,norpurgatory,nor
manyotherarticlesnowobtruded.
Fromformal15.Thefourthargumentistakenfromplacesexpress,andsuch
andclearasreceivenocontroversyofinterpretationasfirst,John5.39.
texts.SearchtheScriptures,forinthemyethinkyehaveeternallifeandthey
aretheythattestifyofme.OurSaviourherespeakethoftheScrip
turesonlyoftheOldTestamentfortheJewsatthattimecouldnot
searchtheScripturesoftheNewTestament,whichwerenotwrit
ten.ButtheOldTestamenthathnothingofChrist,butthemarks
bywhichmenmightknowhimwhenhecameasthatheshould
descendfromDavidbebornatBethlehem,andofaVirgindogreat
miracles,andthelike.ThereforetobelievethatthisJesuswasHe,
wassufficienttoeternallife:butmorethansufficientisnotnecess
aryandconsequentlynootherarticleisrequired.Again,(John11.
26)Whosoeverlivethandbelievethinme,shallnotdieeternally.There
foretobelieveinChrist,isfaithsufficienttoeternallifeand
consequentlynomorefaiththanthatisnecessary,buttobelievein
Jesus,andtobelievethatJesusistheChrist,isallone,asappeareth
intheversesimmediatelyfollowing.ForwhenourSaviour(verse
26)hadsaidtoMartha,Believestthouthis?sheanswereth(verse27)
Yea,Lord,IbelievethatthouarttheChrist,theSonofGod,which
shouldcomeintotheworld:thereforethisarticlealoneisfaithsuf
ficienttolifeeternalandmorethansufficientisnotnecessary.
Thirdly,John20.31.Thesethingsarewrittenthatyemightbelieve,
thatJesusistheChrist,theSonofGod,andthatbelievingyemighthave
lifethroughhisname.There,tobelievethatJesusistheChrist,isfaith
sufficienttotheobtainingoflifeandthereforenootherarticleis
necessary.Fourthly,1John4.2:EveryspiritthatconfesseththatJesus
Christiscomeintheflesh,isofGod.And1John5.1.Whosoever
believeththatJesusistheChrist,isbornofGod.Andverse5.Whoishe
thatovercomeththeworld,buthethatbelieveththatJesusistheSonof
God?Fifthly,Acts8.36,37.See,saiththeEunuch,hereiswater,
whatdothhindermetobebaptized?AndPhilipsaid,ifthoubelievest
withallthyheart,thoumayst.Andheansweredandsaid,Ibelievethat
JesusChrististheSonofGod.Thereforethisarticlebelieved,Jesusis
theChrist,issufficienttobaptism,thatistosay,toourreceptioninto
thekingdomofGod,andbyconsequence,onlynecessary.And

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generallyinallplaceswhereourSavioursaithtoanyman,Thyfaith[327]
hathsavedthee,thecausehesaithit,issomeconfession,
whichdirectly,orbyconsequence,impliethabelief,thatJesusisthe
Christ.
16.Thelastargumentisfromtheplaces,wherethisarticleisFromthatit
madethefoundationoffaith:forhethatholdeththefoundation,isthe
shallbesaved.Whichplacesarefirst,Matt.24.23,24.Ifanyfoundationof
manshallsayuntoyou,LohereisChrist,orthere,believeitnot,forallother
thereshallarisefalseChrists,andfalseprophets,andshallshewgreatarticles.
signsandwonders,&c.Herewesee,thisarticleJesusistheChrist,
mustbeheld,thoughhethatshallteachthecontraryshoulddogreat
miracles.Thesecondplaceis,Gal.1.8.Thoughwe,oranangelfrom
heavenpreachanyothergospeluntoyou,thanthatwehavepreached
untoyou,lethimbeaccursed.ButthegospelwhichPaul,andthe
otherapostles,preached,wasonlythisarticle,thatJesusistheChrist:
thereforeforthebeliefofthisarticle,wearetorejecttheauthority
ofanangelfromheavenmuchmoreofanymortalman,ifheteach
thecontrary.ThisisthereforethefundamentalarticleofChristian
faith.Athirdplaceis,1John4.1,2.Beloved,believenoteveryspirit.
HerebyyeshallknowtheSpiritofGodeveryspiritthatconfesseththat
JesusChristiscomeintheflesh,isofGod.Bywhichitisevident,that
thisarticle,isthemeasure,andrule,bywhichtoestimate,and
examineallotherarticlesandisthereforeonlyfundamental.A
fourthis,Matt.16.16,18,whereafterSt.Peterhadprofessedthis
article,sayingtoourSaviour,ThouartChristtheSonoftheliving
God,ourSaviouranswered,ThouartPeter,anduponthisrockIwill
buildmyChurch:fromwhenceIinfer,thatthisarticleisthat,on
whichallotherdoctrinesoftheChurcharebuilt,asontheirfoun
dation.Afifthis(1Cor.3.11,12,&c.)Otherfoundationcannoman
lay,thanthatwhichislaid,JesusistheChrist.Nowifanymanbuild
uponthisfoundation,gold,silver,preciousstones,wood,hay,stubble
everyman'sworkshallbemademanliestforthedayshalldeclareit,
becauseitshallberevealedbyfire,andthefireshalltryeveryman's
work,ofwhatsortitis.Ifanyman'sworkabide,whichhehathbuilt
thereupon,heshallreceiveareward.Ifanyman'sworkshallbeburnt,
heshallsufferlossbuthehimselfshallbesaved,yetsoasbyfire.Which
words,beingpartlyplainandeasytounderstand,andpartlyalle
goricalanddifficultoutofthatwhichisplain,maybeinferred,that
pastorsthatteachthisfoundation,thatJesusistheChrist,though
theydrawfromitfalseconsequences,(whichallmenaresometimes

subjectto,)theymayneverthelessbesavedmuchmorethatthey
maybesaved,whobeingnopastors,buthearers,believethatwhich
isbytheirlawfulpastorstaughtthem.Thereforethebeliefofthis
articleissufficientandbyconsequence,thereisnootherarticleof
faithnecessarilyrequiredtosalvation.
[328]17.Nowforthepartwhichisallegorical,asthatthefireshalltry
everyman'swork,andthattheyshallbesaved,butsoasbyfire,or
thoughfire,(fortheoriginalis
,)itmakethnothingagainst
thisconclusionwhichIhavedrawnfromtheotherwords,thatare
plain.Nevertheless,becauseuponthisplacetherehathbeenan
argumenttaken,toprovethefireofpurgatory,Iwillalsohereoffer
youmyconjectureconcerningthemeaningofthistrialofdoctrines,
andsavingofmenasbyfire.Theapostlehereseemethtoalludeto
thewordsoftheprophetZechariah,(13.8,9),whospeakingofthe
restorationofthekingdomofGod,saiththus,Twopartsthereinshall
becutoff,anddie,butthethirdshallbeleftthereinandIwillbringthe
thirdpartthroughthefire,andwillrefinethemassilverisrefined,and
willtrythemasgoldistriedtheyshallcallonthenameoftheLord,and
Iwillhearthem.Thedayofjudgment,isthedayoftherestoration
ofthekingdomofGodandatthatdayitis,thatSt.Petertellsus(2
Pet.3.7,10,12)shallbetheconflagrationoftheworld,whereinthe
wickedshallperishbuttheremnantwhichGodwillsave,shallpass
throughthatfire,unhurt,andbetherein(assilverandgoldare
refinedbythefirefromtheirdross)tried,andrefinedfromtheir
idolatry,andbemadetocalluponthenameofthetrueGod.
AlludingwheretoSt.Paulheresaith,thattheday(thatis,thedayof
judgment,thegreatdayofourSaviour'scomingtorestorethe
kingdomofGodinIsrael)shalltryeveryman'sdoctrine,byjud
ging,whicharegold,silver,preciousstones,wood,hay,stubbleand
thentheythathavebuiltfalseconsequencesonthetruefoundation,
shallseetheirdoctrinescondemnedneverthelesstheythemselves
shallbesaved,andpassunhurtthroughthisuniversalfire,andlive
eternally,tocalluponthenameofthetrueandonlyGod.Inwhich
sensethereisnothingthataccordethnotwiththerestofHoly
Scripture,oranyglimpseofthefireofpurgatory.
Inwhatsense18.Butamanmayhereask,whetheritbenotasnecessaryto
otherarticlessalvation,tobelieve,thatGodisomnipotentCreatoroftheworld
maybecalledthatJesusChristisrisenandthatallmenelseshallriseagainfrom
necessary.thedeadatthelastdayastobelieve,thatJesusistheChrist.To
whichIanswer,theyareandsoaremanymorearticles:buttheyare

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such,asarecontainedinthisone,andmaybededucedfromit,with
more,orlessdifficulty.Forwhoistherethatdoesnotsee,thatthey
whobelieveJesustobetheSonoftheGodofIsrael,andthatthe
IsraeliteshadforGodtheOmnipotentCreatorofallthings,do
thereinalsobelieve,thatGodistheOmnipotentCreatorofall
things?Orhowcanamanbelieve,thatJesusisthekingthatshall
reigneternally,unlesshebelievehimalsorisenagainfromthedead?
Foradeadmancannotexercisetheofficeofaking.Insum,hethat
holdeththisfoundation,JesusistheChrist,holdethexpresslyallthat
heseethrightlydeducedfromit,andimplicitlyallthatisconse
quentthereunto,thoughhehavenotskillenoughtodiscernthe[329]
consequence.Andthereforeitholdethstillgood,thatthebeliefof
thisonearticleissufficientfaithtoobtainremissionofsinstothe
penitent,andconsequentlytobringthemintothekingdomof
heaven.
19.NowthatIhaveshown,thatalltheobediencerequiredtoThatfaith
salvation,consistethinthewilltoobeythelawofGod,thatistosay,andobedience
inrepentanceandallthefaithrequiredtothesame,iscomprearebothof
hendedinthebeliefofthisarticle,JesusistheChristIwillfurtherthem
allegethoseplacesoftheGospel,thatprove,thatallthatisnecessarynecessaryto
tosalvationiscontainedinboththesejoinedtogether.Thementosalvation.
whomSt.PeterpreachedonthedayofPentecost,nextafterthe
ascensionofourSaviour,askedhim,andtherestoftheapostles,
saying,(Acts2.37),Menandbrethren,whatshallwedo?TowhomSt.
Peteranswered(inthenextverse)Repent,andbebaptizedeveryone
ofyou,fortheremissionofsins,andyeshallreceivethegiftoftheHoly
Ghost.Thereforerepentance,andbaptism,thatis,believingthat
JesusistheChrist,isallthatisnecessarytosalvation.Again,our
Saviourbeingaskedbyacertainruler(Luke18.18),WhatshallIdo
toinheriteternallife?answered,(verse20)Thouknowestthecom
mandments,donotcommitadultery,donotkill,donotsteal,donotbear
falsewitness,honourthyfatherandthymother:whichwhenhesaidhe
hadobserved,ourSaviouradded,(verse22)Sellallthouhast,giveit
tothepoor,andcomeandfollowme:whichwasasmuchastosay,rely
onmethatamtheking.Thereforetofulfilthelaw,andtobelieve
thatJesusistheking,isallthatisrequiredtobringamantoeternal
life.Thirdly,St.Paulsaith(Rom.1.17),Thejustshalllivebyfaith
noteveryone,butthejustthereforefaithandjustice(thatis,thewill
tobejust,orrepentance)areallthatisnecessarytolifeeternal.And
(Mark1.15)ourSaviourpreached,saying,Thetimeisfulfilled,and

thekingdomofGodisathand,repentandbelievetheevangel,thatis,
thegoodnewsthattheChristwascome.Thereforetorepent,andto
believethatJesusistheChrist,isallthatisrequiredtosalvation.
Whateach20.Seeingthenitisnecessarythatfaith,andobedience(implied
oftheminthewordrepentance)dobothconcurtooursalvationtheques
contributestionbywhichofthetwowearejustified,isimpertinentlydisputed.
thereunto.Nevertheless,itwillnotbeimpertinent,tomakemanifestinwhat
mannereachofthemcontributesthereuntoandinwhatsenseitis
said,thatwearetobejustifiedbytheone,andbytheother.And
first,ifbyrighteousnessbeunderstoodthejusticeoftheworks
themselves,thereisnomanthatcanbesavedforthereisnonethat
hathnottransgressedthelawofGod.Andthereforewhenweare
saidtobejustifiedbyworks,itistobeunderstoodofthewill,which
Goddothalwaysacceptfortheworkitself,aswellingood,asinevil
men.Andinthissenseonlyitis,thatamaniscalledjust,orunjust
andthathisjusticejustifieshim,thatis,giveshimthetitle,inGod's
acceptation,ofjustandrendershimcapableoflivingbyhisfaith,
whichbeforehewasnot.Sothatjusticejustifiesinthatsense,in
[330]whichtojustify,isthesameasthattodenominateamanjustandnot
inthesignificationofdischargingthelawwherebythepunishment
ofhissinsshouldbeunjust.
21.Butamanisthenalsosaidtobejustified,whenhisplea,
thoughinitselfinsufficient,isacceptedaswhenwepleadourwill,
ourendeavourtofulfilthelaw,andrepentusofourfailings,and
Godacceptethitfortheperformanceitself:andbecauseGod
acceptethnotthewillforthedeed,butonlyinthefaithfulitis
thereforefaiththatmakesgoodourpleaandinthissenseitis,that
faithonlyjustifies.Sothatfaithandobediencearebothnecessaryto
salvationyetinseveralsenseseachofthemissaidtojustify.
Obedienceto22.*Havingthusshownwhatisnecessarytosalvationitisnot
GodandtohardtoreconcileourobediencetoGod,withourobediencetothe
thecivilcivilsovereignwhoiseitherChristian,orinfidel.IfhebeaChris
sovereignnottian,healloweththebeliefofthisarticle,thatJesusistheChristand
inconsistent,ofallthearticlesthatarecontainedin,orarebyevidentconse
whetherquencededucedfromit:whichisallthefaithnecessarytosalvation.
Christian,Andbecauseheisasovereign,herequirethobediencetoallhisown,
thatis,toallthecivillawsinwhichalsoarecontainedallthelaws
ofnature,thatis,allthelawsofGod:forbesidesthelawsofnature,
andthelawsoftheChurch,whicharepartofthecivillaw,(forthe
Churchthatcanmakelawsisthecommonwealth,)therebenoother

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lawsdivine.WhosoeverthereforeobeyethhisChristiansovereign,is
nottherebyhindered,neitherfrombelieving,norfromobeying
God.ButsupposethataChristiankingshouldfromthisfoundation
JesusistheChrist,drawsomefalseconsequences,thatistosay,make
somesuperstructionsofhay,orstubble,andcommandtheteaching
ofthesameyetseeingSt.Paulsays,heshallbesavedmuchmore
shallhebesaved,thatteacheththembyhiscommandandmuch
moreyet,hethatteachesnot,butonlybelieveshislawfulteacher.
Andincaseasubjectbeforbiddenbythecivilsovereigntoprofess
someofthosehisopinions,uponwhatjustgroundcanhedisobey?
Christiankingsmayerrindeducingaconsequence,butwhoshall
judge?Shallaprivatemanjudge,whenthequestionisofhisown
obedience?Orshallanymanjudgebuthethatisappointedthereto
bytheChurch,thatis,bythecivilsovereignthatrepresentethit?Or
ifthepope,oranapostlejudge,mayhenoterrindeducingofa
consequence?Didnotoneofthetwo,St.Peter,orSt.Paulerrina
superstructure,whenSt.PaulwithstoodSt.Petertohisface?There
canthereforebenocontradictionbetweenthelawsofGod,andthe
lawsofaChristiancommonwealth.
23.*Andwhenthecivilsovereignisaninfidel,everyoneofhisOrinfidel.
ownsubjectsthatresistethhim,sinnethagainstthelawsofGod(for
sucharethelawsofnature,)andrejecteththecounselofthe
apostles,thatadmonishethallChristianstoobeytheirprinces,and
allchildrenandservantstoobeytheirparentsandmastersinall[331]
things.Andfortheirfaith,itisinternal,andinvisibletheyhavethe
licencethatNaamanhad,andneednotputthemselvesintodanger
forit.Butiftheydo,theyoughttoexpecttheirrewardinheaven,
andnotcomplainoftheirlawfulsovereignmuchlessmakewar
uponhim.Forhethatisnotgladofanyjustoccasionofmartyrdom,
hasnotthefaithheprofesseth,butpretendsitonly,tosetsome
colouruponhisowncontumacy.Butwhatinfidelkingissounrea
sonable,asknowinghehasasubject,thatwaitethforthesecond
comingofChrist,afterthepresentworldshallbeburnt,and
intendeththentoobeyhim(whichistheintentofbelievingthat
JesusistheChrist,)andinthemeantimethinkethhimselfboundto
obeythelawsofthatinfidelking,(whichallChristiansareobligedin
consciencetodo,)toputtodeathortopersecutesuchasubject?
24.Andthusmuchshallsuffice,concerningthekingdomofConclusion.
God,andpolicyecclesiastical.WhereinIpretendnottoadvanceany
positionofmyown,butonlytoshowwhataretheconsequencesthat

seemtomededuciblefromtheprinciplesofChristianpolitics,
(whicharetheholyScriptures,)inconfirmationofthepowerofcivil
sovereigns,andthedutyoftheirsubjects.Andintheallegationof
Scripture,Ihaveendeavouredtoavoidsuchtextsasareofobscure,
orcontrovertedinterpretationandtoallegenone,butinsuchsense
asismostplain,andagreeabletotheharmonyandscopeofthe
wholeBiblewhichwaswrittenforthereestablishmentof
thekingdomofGodinChrist.Foritisnotthebarewords,butthe
scopeofthewriter,thatgiveththetruelight,bywhichanywriting
istobeinterpretedandtheythatinsistuponsingletexts,without
consideringthemaindesign,canderivenothingfromthemclearly
butratherbycastingatomsofScripture,asdustbeforemen'seyes,
makeeverythingmoreobscurethanitisanordinaryartificeof
thosethatseeknotthetruth,buttheirownadvantage.

Page403

Part4[333]
OftheKingdomofDarkness
ChapterXLIV
OfSpiritualDarkness,fromMisinterpretationOfScripture
1.Besidesthesesovereignpowers,divine,andhuman,ofwhichIThekingdom
havehithertodiscoursed,thereismentioninScriptureofanotherofDarkness,
power,namely,(Eph.6.12)thatoftherulersofthedarknessofthiswhat.
world(Matt.12.26)thekingdomofSatanand(Matt.9.34)the
principalityofBeelzebuboverdemons,thatistosay,overphantasms
thatappearintheair:forwhichcauseSatanisalsocalled,(Eph.2.
2)theprinceofthepoweroftheairand(becauseherulethinthe
darknessofthisworld)theprinceofthisworld(John16.11):andin
consequencehereunto,theywhoareunderhisdominion,inoppo
sitiontothefaithful(whoarethechildrenofthelight)arecalledthe
childrenofdarkness.ForseeingBeelzebubisprinceofphantasms,
inhabitantsofhisdominionofairanddarkness,thechildrenof
darkness,andthesedemons,phantasms,orspiritsofillusion,sig
nifyallegoricallythesamething.Thisconsidered,thekingdomof
darkness,asitissetforthinthese,andotherplacesoftheScripture,
isnothingelsebutaconfederacyofdeceivers,thattoobtaindominion
overmeninthispresentworld,endeavourbydark,anderroneousdoc
trines,toextinguishinthemthelight,bothofnature,andofthegospel
andsotodispreparethemforthekingdomofGodtocome.
2.Asmenthatareutterlydeprivedfromtheirnativity,ofthe[334]
lightofthebodilyeye,havenoideaatall,ofanysuchlightandnoTheChurch
manconceivesinhisimaginationanygreaterlight,thanhehathatnotyetfully
sometime,orother,perceivedbyhisoutwardsenses:soalsoisitoffreedof
thelightofthegospel,andofthelightoftheunderstanding,thatnodarkness.
mancanconceivethereisanygreaterdegreeofit,thanthatwhich
hehathalreadyattainedunto.Andfromhenceitcomestopass,that
menhavenoothermeanstoacknowledgetheirowndarkness,but
onlybyreasoningfromtheunforeseenmischances,thatbefallthem

intheirways.ThedarkestpartofthekingdomofSatan,isthat
whichiswithouttheChurchofGodthatistosay,amongstthem
thatbelievenotinJesusChrist.Butwecannotsay,thatthereforethe
Churchenjoyeth(asthelandofGoshen)allthelight,whichtothe
performanceoftheworkenjoinedusbyGod,isnecessary.Whence
comesit,thatinChristendomtherehasbeen,almostfromthetime
oftheApostles,suchjostlingofoneanotheroutoftheirplaces,both
byforeign,andcivilwarsuchstumblingateverylittleasperityof
theirownfortune,andeverylittleeminenceofthatofothermen
andsuchdiversityofwaysinrunningtothesamemark,felicity,ifit
benotnightamongstus,oratleastamist?Wearethereforeyetin
thedark.
Fourcauses3.Theenemyhasbeenhereinthenightofournaturalignor
ofspiritualance,andsownthetaresofspiritualerrorsandthat,first,byabus
darkness.*ing,andputtingoutthelightoftheScriptures:forweerr,not
knowingtheScriptures.Secondly,byintroducingthedemonology
oftheheathenpoets,thatistosay,theirfabulousdoctrineconcern
ingdemons,whicharebutidols,orphantasmsofthebrain,without
anyrealnatureoftheirown,distinctfromhumanfancysuchasare
deadmen'sghosts,andfairies,andothermatterofoldwives'tales.
Thirdly,bymixingwiththeScripturediversrelicsofthereligion,
andmuchofthevainanderroneousphilosophyoftheGreeks,
especiallyofAristotle.Fourthly,byminglingwithboththese,false,
oruncertaintraditions,andfeigned,oruncertainhistory.Andsowe
cometoerr,bygivingheedtoseducingspirits,andthedemonologyof
suchasspeakliesinhypocrisy,(orasitisintheoriginal,(1Tim.4.1,
2)ofthosethatplaythepartofliars)withasearedconscience,thatis,
contrarytotheirownknowledge.Concerningthefirstofthese,
whichistheseducingofmenbyabuseofScripture,Iintendto
speakbrieflyinthischapter.
Errorsfrom4.ThegreatestandmainabuseofScripture,andtowhichalmost
misinteralltherestareeitherconsequent,orsubservient,isthewrestingof
pretingtheit,toprovethatthekingdomofGod,mentionedsoofteninthe
Scriptures,Scripture,isthepresentChurch,ormultitudeofChristianmennow
concerningliving,orthatbeingdead,aretoriseagainatthelastday:whereasthe
thekingdomkingdomofGodwasfirstinstitutedbytheministryofMoses,over
ofGod:theJewsonlywhowerethereforecalledhispeculiarpeopleand
ceasedafterward,intheelectionofSaul,whentheyrefusedtobe
[335]governedbyGodanymore,anddemandedakingafterthemanner
ofthenationswhichGodhimselfconsentedunto,asIhavemoreat

Page405

largeprovedbeforeinthe35thchapter.Afterthattime,therewasno
otherkingdomofGodintheworld,byanypact,orotherwise,than
heeverwas,is,andshallbeking,ofallmen,andofallcreatures,as
governingaccordingtohiswill,byhisinfinitepower.Nevertheless,
hepromisedbyhisprophetstorestorethishisgovernmenttothem
again,whenthetimehehathinhissecretcounselappointedforit
shallbefullycome,andwhentheyshallturnuntohimbyrepent
ance,andamendmentoflife:andnotonlyso,butheinvitedthe
Gentilestocomein,andenjoythehappinessofhisreign,onthe
sameconditionsofconversionandrepentanceandhepromisedalso
tosendhisSonintotheworld,toexpiatethesinsofthemallbyhis
death,andtopreparethembyhisdoctrine,toreceivehimathis
secondcoming:whichsecondcomingnotyetbeing,thekingdomof
Godisnotyetcome,andwearenotnowunderanyotherkingsby
pact,butourcivilsovereignssavingonly,thatChristianmenare
alreadyinthekingdomofgrace,inasmuchastheyhavealreadythe
promiseofbeingreceivedathiscomingagain.
5.Consequenttothiserror,thatthepresentChurchisChrist'sAsthat
kingdom,thereoughttobesomeoneman,orassembly,bywhosethekingdom
mouthourSaviour(nowinheaven)speaketh,andgivethlaw,andofGodis
whichrepresentethhispersontoallChristians,ordiversmen,orthepresent
diversassembliesthatdothesametodiverspartsofChristendom.Church.
ThispowerregalunderChrist,beingchallenged,universallybythe
Pope,andinparticularcommonwealthsbyassembliesofthepastors
oftheplace,(whentheScripturegivesittononebuttocivilsover
eigns,)comestobesopassionatelydisputed,thatitputtethoutthe
lightofnature,andcausethsogreatadarknessinmen'sunderstand
ing,thattheyseenotwhoitistowhomtheyhaveengagedtheir
obedience.
6.ConsequenttothisclaimofthePopetobevicargeneralofAndthatthe
ChristinthepresentChurch,(supposedtobethatkingdomofhistoPopeishis
whichweareaddressedinthegospel,)isthedoctrine,thatitisvicargeneral:
necessaryforaChristianking,toreceivehiscrownbyabishopasif
itwerefromthatceremony,thathederivestheclauseofDeigratia
inhistitleandthatthenonlyheismadekingbythefavourofGod,
whenheiscrownedbytheauthorityofGod'suniversalvicegerent
onearthandthateverybishopwhosoeverbehissovereign,taketh
athisconsecrationanoathofabsoluteobediencetothePope.*
Consequenttothesame,isthedoctrineofthefourthCouncil
ofLateran,heldunderPopeInnocenttheThird,(chap.3.De

Hereticis),thatifakingatthePope'sadmonition,donotpurgehis
kingdomofheresies,andbeingexcommunicateforthesame,donotgive
satisfactionwithinayear,hissubjectsareabsolvedofthebondoftheir
obedience.Where,byheresiesareunderstoodallopinionswhichthe
ChurchofRomehathforbiddentobemaintained.Andbythis
[336]means,asoftenasthereisanyrepugnancybetweenthepolitical
designsofthePope,andotherChristianprinces,asthereisvery
often,therearisethsuchamistamongsttheirsubjects,thatthey
knownotastrangerthatthrustethhimselfintothethroneoftheir
lawfulprince,fromhimwhomtheyhadthemselvesplacedthere
andinthisdarknessofmind,aremadetofightoneagainstanother,
withoutdiscerningtheirenemiesfromtheirfriends,underthecon
ductofanotherman'sambition.
Andthatthe7.Fromthesameopinion,thatthepresentChurchistheking
pastorsaredomofGod,itproceedsthatpastors,deacons,andallotherminis
theclergy.tersoftheChurch,takethenametothemselvesoftheclergygiving
tootherChristiansthenameoflaity,thatis,simplypeople.For
clergysignifiesthose,whosemaintenanceisthatrevenue,which
GodhavingreservedtohimselfduringhisreignovertheIsraelites,
assignedtothetribeofLevi(whoweretobehispublicministers,
andhadnoportionoflandsetthemouttoliveon,astheirbrethren)
tobetheirinheritance.ThePopetherefore,(pretendingthepresent
Churchtobe,astherealmofIsrael,thekingdomofGod)challen
gingtohimselfandhissubordinateministers,thelikerevenue,as
theinheritanceofGod,thenameofclergywassuitabletothatclaim.
Andthenceitis,thattithes,andothertributespaidtotheLevites,
asinGod'sright,amongsttheIsraelites,havealongtimebeen
demanded,andtakenofChristians,byecclesiastics,juredivino,that
is,inGod'sright.Bywhichmeans,thepeopleeverywherewere
obligedtoadoubletributeonetothestate,anothertotheclergy
whereof,thattotheclergy,beingthetenthoftheirrevenue,is
doubletothatwhichakingofAthens(andesteemedatyrant)
exactedofhissubjectsforthedefrayingofallpubliccharges:forhe
demandednomorebutthetwentiethpartandyetabundantly
maintainedtherewiththecommonwealth.Andinthekingdomof
theJews,duringthesacerdotalreignofGod,thetithesandofferings
werethewholepublicrevenue.
8.FromthesamemistakingofthepresentChurchfortheking
domofGod,cameinthedistinctionbetweenthecivilandthecanon
laws:thecivillawbeingtheactsofsovereignsintheirowndo

Page407

minions,andthecanonlawbeingtheactsofthePopeinthesame
dominon.Whichcanons,thoughtheywerebutcanons,thatis,rules
propounded,andbutvoluntarilyreceivedbyChristianprinces,
tillthetranslationoftheempiretoCharlemagneyetafterwards,
asthepowerofthePopeincreased,becamerulescommanded,and
theemperorsthemselves(toavoidgreatermischiefs,whichthe
peopleblindedmightbeledinto)wereforcedtoletthempassfor
laws.
9.Fromhenceitis,thatinalldominions,wherethePope's
ecclesiasticalpowerisentirelyreceived,Jews,Turks,andGentiles,
areintheRomanChurchtoleratedintheirreligion,asfarforth,as
intheexerciseandprofessionthereoftheyoffendnotagainstthe
civilpower:whereasinaChristian,thoughastranger,nottobeof
theRomanreligion,iscapitalbecausethePopepretendeth,thatall
Christians,arehissubjects.Forotherwiseitwereasmuchagainst[337]
thelawofnations,topersecuteaChristianstranger,forprofessing
thereligionofhisowncountry,asaninfidelorrathermore,inas
muchastheythatarenotagainstChrist,arewithhim.
10.Fromthesameitis,thatineveryChristianstatethereare
certainmen,thatareexempt,byecclesiasticalliberty,fromthe
tributes,andfromthetribunalsofthecivilstateforsoarethe
secularclergy,besidesmonksandfriars,whichinmanyplaces,bear
sogreataproportiontothecommonpeople,asifneedwere,there
mightberaisedoutofthemalone,anarmy,sufficientforanywar
theChurchmilitantshouldemploythemin,againsttheirown,or
otherprinces.
11.AsecondgeneralabuseofScripture,istheturningofconseErrorfrom
crationintoconjuration,orenchantment.Toconsecrate,isinScripmistaking
ture,tooffer,give,ordedicate,inpiousanddecentlanguageandconsecration
gesture,aman,oranyotherthingtoGod,byseparatingofitfromfor
commonusethatistosay,tosanctify,ormakeitGod's,andtobeconjuration.
usedonlybythose,whomGodhathappointedtobehispublic
ministers,(asIhavealreadyprovedatlargeinthe35thchapter)and
therebytochange,notthethingconsecrated,butonlytheuseofit,
frombeingprofaneandcommon,tobeholy,andpeculiartoGod's
service.Butwhenbysuchwords,thenatureorqualityofthething
itself,ispretendedtobechanged,itisnotconsecration,buteither
anextraordinaryworkofGod,oravainandimpiousconjuration.
But(seeingforthefrequencyofpretendingthechangeofnaturein
theirconsecrations,itcannotbeesteemedaworkextraordinary,)it

isnootherthanaconjurationorincantation,wherebytheywould
havementobelieveanalterationofnaturethatisnot,contraryto
thetestimonyofman'ssight,andofalltherestofhissenses.Asfor
example,whenthepriest,insteadofconsecratingbreadandwineto
God'speculiarserviceinthesacramentoftheLord'sSupper,
(whichisbutaseparationofitfromthecommonuse,tosignify,that
is,toputmeninmindoftheirredemption,bythepassionofChrist,
whosebodywasbroken,andbloodsheduponthecrossforour
transgressions,)pretends,thatbysayingofthewordsofour
Saviour,Thisismybody,andthisismyblood,thenatureofbreadis
nomorethere,buthisverybodynotwithstandingthereappeareth
nottothesight,orothersenseofthereceiver,anythingthat
appearednotbeforetheconsecration.TheEgyptianconjurers,that
aresaidtohaveturnedtheirrodstoserpents,andthewaterinto
blood,arethoughtbuttohavedeludedthesensesofthespectators,
byafalseshowofthings,yetareesteemedenchanters.Butwhat
shouldwehavethoughtofthem,iftherehadappearedintheirrods
nothinglikeaserpent,andinthewaterenchanted,nothinglike
blood,norlikeanythingelsebutwater,butthattheyhadfaced
downtheking,thattheywereserpentsthatlookedlikerods,and
thatitwasbloodthatseemedwater?Thathadbeenbothenchant
ment,andlying.Andyetinthisdailyactofthepriest,theydothe
verysame,byturningtheholywordsintothemannerofacharm,
[338]whichproducethnothingnewtothesensebuttheyfaceusdown,
thatithathturnedthebreadintoamannaymore,intoaGodand
requirementoworshipit,asifitwereourSaviourhimselfpresent
Godandman,andtherebytocommitmostgrossidolatry.Forifit
beenoughtoexcuseitofidolatry,tosayitisnomorebread,but
GodwhyshouldnotthesameexcuseservetheEgyptians,incase
theyhadthefacestosay,theleeks,andonionstheyworshipped,
werenotveryleeks,andonions,butadivinityundertheirspecies,or
likeness.Thewords,Thisismybody,areequivalenttothese,this
signifies,orrepresentsmybodyanditisanordinaryfigureofspeech:
buttotakeitliterally,isanabusenorthoughsotaken,canitextend
anyfurther,thantothebreadwhichChristhimselfwithhisown
handsconsecrated.Forheneversaid,thatofwhatbreadsoever,any
priestwhatsoever,shouldsay,Thisismybody,or,thisisChrist's
body,thesameshouldpresentlybetransubstantiated.Nordidthe
ChurchofRomeeverestablishthistransubstantiation,tillthetime
ofInnocenttheThirdwhichwasnotabove500yearsago,whenthe

Page409

powerOfpopeswasatthehighest,andthedarknessofthetime
grownsogreat,asmendiscernednotthebreadthatwasgiventhem
toeat,especiallywhenitwasstampedwiththefigureofChristupon
thecross,asiftheywouldhavemenbelieveitweretransubstanti
ated,notonlyintothebodyofChrist,butalsointothewoodofhis
cross,andthattheydideatbothtogetherinthesacrament.
12.*Thelikeincantation,insteadofconsecration,isusedalsoinIncantation
thesacramentofbaptism:wheretheabuseofGod'snameineachinthe
severalperson,andinthewholeTrinity,withthesignofthecrossceremonies
ateachname,makethupthecharm.Asfirst,whentheymaketheofbaptism:
holywater,thepriestsaith,Iconjure*thee,thoucreatureofwater,in
thenameofGodtheFatherAlmighty,andinthenameofJesusChrist
hisonlySonourLord,andinvirtueoftheHolyGhost,thatthoubecome
conjuredwater,todriveawayallthepowersoftheenemy,andto
eradicate,andsupplanttheenemy,&c.Andthesameinthebenedic
tionofthesalttobemingledwithit:Thatthoubecomeconjuredsalt,
thatallphantasms,andknaveryofthedevil'sfraudmayflyanddepart
fromtheplacewhereinthouartsprinkledandeveryuncleanspiritbe
conjuredbyHimthatshallcometojudgethequickandthedead.The
sameinthebenedictionoftheoilThatallthepoweroftheenemy,all
thehostofthedevil,allassaultsandphantasmsofSatan,maybedriven
awaybythiscreatureofoil.Andfortheinfantthatistobebaptized,
heissubjecttomanycharms:first,atthechurchdoorthepriest
blowsthriceinthechild'sface,andsays:Gooutofhimuncleanspirit,
andgiveplacetotheHolyGhostthecomforter.Asifallchildren,till
blownonbythepriest,weredemoniacs.Again,beforehisentrance
intothechurch,hesaithasbefore,Iconjurethee,&c.togoout,and
departfromthisservantofGod:andagainthesameexorcismis
repeatedoncemorebeforehebebaptized.These,andsomeother[339]
incantations,arethosethatareusedinsteadofbenedictions,and
consecrations,inadministrationofthesacramentsofbaptism,and
theLord'ssupperwhereineverythingthatservethtothoseholy
uses(excepttheunhallowedspittleofthepriest)hathsomesetform
ofexorcism.
13.Noraretheotherrites,asofmarriage,ofextremeunction,ofAndin
visitationofthesick,ofconsecratingchurchesandchurchyards,andmarriage,in
thelike,exemptfromcharmsinasmuchasthereisinthemtheusevisitation
ofenchantedoil,andwater,withtheabuseofthecross,andoftheofthesick,
holywordofDavid,aspergesmeDominehyssopo,*asthingsofeffiandin
cacytodriveawayphantasms,andimaginaryspirits.consecrationofplaces.

Errorsfrom14.Anothergeneralerror,isfromthemisinterpretationofthe
mistakingwordseternallife,everlastingdeath,andtheseconddeath.Forthough
eternallife,wereadplainlyinHolyScripture,thatGodcreatedAdaminan
andestateoflivingforever,whichwasconditional,thatistosay,ifhe
everlastingdisobeyednothiscommandmentwhichwasnotessentialtohuman
death:nature,butconsequenttothevirtueofthetreeoflifewhereofhe
hadlibertytoeat,aslongashehadnotsinnedandthathewas
thrustoutofParadiseafterhehadsinned,lestheshouldeatthereof,
andliveforeverandthatChrist'sPassionisadischargeofsintoall
thatbelieveonhimandbyconsequence,arestitutionofeternallife,
toallthefaithful,andtothemonly:yetthedoctrineisnow,andhath
beenalongtimefarotherwisenamely,thateverymanhatheternity
oflifebynature,inasmuchashissoulisimmortal:sothatthe
flamingswordattheentranceofParadise,thoughithinderaman
fromcomingtothetreeoflife,hindershimnotfromtheimmor
talitywhichGodtookfromhimforhissinnormakeshimtoneed
thesacrificingofChrist,fortherecoveringofthesameandconse
quently,notonlythefaithfulandrighteous,butalsothewickedand
theheathen,shallenjoyeternallife,withoutanydeathatallmuch
lessasecond,andeverlastingdeath.Tosalvethis,itissaid,thatby
second,andeverlastingdeath,ismeantasecond,andeverlasting
life,butintormentsafigureneverusedbutinthisverycase.
15.Allwhichdoctrineisfoundedonlyonsomeoftheobscurer
placesoftheNewTestamentwhichnevertheless,thewholescope
oftheScriptureconsidered,areclearenoughinadifferentsense,
andisunnecessarytotheChristianfaith.Forsupposingthatwhen
amandies,thereremainethnothingofhimbuthiscarcasscannot
God,thatraisedinanimateddustandclayintoalivingcreatureby
hisword,easilyraiseadeadcarcasstolifeagain,andcontinuehim
aliveforever,ormakehimdieagain,byanotherword?Thesoulin
Scripture,signifiethalways,eitherthelife,orthelivingcreature
[340]andthebodyandsouljointly,thebodyalive.Inthefifthdayofthe
creation,Godsaid,Letthewatersproducereptileanimaeviventis,*
thecreepingthingthathathinitalivingsoultheEnglishtranslate
it,thathathlife.Andagain,Godcreatedwhales,etomnemanimam
viventemwhichintheEnglishis,everylivingcreature.Andlikewise
ofman,Godmadehimofthedustoftheearth,andbreathedinhis
facethebreathoflife,etfactusesthomoinanimamviventem,thatis,
andmanwasmadealivingcreature.AndafterNoahcameoutofthe
ark,Godsaith,hewillnomoresmiteomnemanimamviventem,that

Page411

is,everylivingcreature.And(Deut.12.23),Eatnottheblood,forthe
bloodisthesoulthatis,thelife.Fromwhichplaces,ifbysoulwere
meantasubstanceincorporeal,withanexistenceseparatedfromthe
body,itmightaswellbeinferredofanyotherlivingcreatureasof
man.Butthatthesoulsofthefaithful,arenotoftheirownnature,
butbyGod'sspecialgrace,toremainintheirbodies,fromthe
resurrectiontoalleternity,IhavealreadyIthinksufficientlyproved
outoftheScriptures,inthe38thchapter.Andfortheplacesofthe
NewTestament,whereitissaidthatanymanshallbecastbodyand
soulintohellfire,itisnomorethanbodyandlifethatistosay,they
shallbecastaliveintotheperpetualfireofGehenna.
16.Thiswindowitis,thatgivesentrancetothedarkdoctrine,Asthe
first,ofeternaltormentsandafterwardsofpurgatory,andconsedoctrineof
quentlyofthewalkingabroad,especiallyinplacesconsecrated,purgatory,
solitary,ordark,oftheghostsofmendeceasedandtherebytotheand
pretencesofexorcismandconjurationofphantasmsasalsoofexorcisms,
invocationofmendeadandtothedoctrineofindulgencesthatistoand
say,ofexemptionforatime,orforever,fromthefireofpurgatory,invocationof
whereintheseincorporealsubstancesarepretendedbyburningtosaints.
becleansed,andmadefitforheaven.Formenbeinggenerally
possessedbeforethetimeofourSaviour,bycontagionofthede
monologyoftheGreeks,ofanopinion,thatthesoulsofmenwere
substancesdistinctfromtheirbodies,*andthereforethatwhenthe
bodywasdead,thesoulofeveryman,whethergodly,orwicked,
mustsubsistsomewherebyvirtueofitsownnature,withoutac
knowledgingthereinanysupernaturalgiftofGodthedoctorsofthe
Churchdoubtedalongtime,whatwastheplace,whichtheywereto
abidein,tilltheyshouldbereunitedtotheirbodiesintheresurrec
tionsupposingforawhile,theylayunderthealtars:butafterward
theChurchofRomefounditmoreprofitable,tobuildforthemthis
placeofpurgatorywhichbysomeotherChurchesinthislatterage
hasbeendemolished.
17.Letusnowconsider,whattextsofScriptureseemmosttoThetexts
confirmthesethreegeneralerrors,Ihaveheretouched.Asforthoseallegedfor
whichCardinalBellarminehathalleged,forthepresentkingdomofthedoctrines
GodadministeredbythePope,(thanwhichtherearenonethataforementioned
makeabettershowofproof,)Ihavealreadyansweredthemandhavebeen
madeitevident,thatthekingdomofGod,institutedbyMoses,[341]
endedintheelectionofSaul:afterwhichtimethepriestofhisownanswered
authorityneverdeposedanyking.Thatwhichthehighpriestdidtobefore.

Athaliah,wasnotdoneinhisownright,butintherightoftheyoung
kingJoashherson:butSolomoninhisownrightdeposedthehigh
priestAbiathar,andsetupanotherinhisplace.Themostdifficult
placetoanswer,ofallthosethatcanbebrought,toprovethe
kingdomofGodbyChristisalreadyinthisworld,isalleged,notby
Bellarmine,noranyotheroftheChurchofRomebutbyBeza*
thatwillhaveittobeginfromtheresurrectionofChrist.But
whetherheintendthereby,toentitlethePresbyterytothesupreme
powerecclesiasticalinthecommonwealthofGeneva,(andconse
quentlytoeverypresbyteryineveryothercommonwealth,)or
toprinces,andothercivilsovereigns,Idonotknow.Forthe
presbyteryhathchallengedthepowertoexcommunicatetheirown
kings,andtobethesuprememoderatorsinreligion,intheplaces
wheretheyhavethatformofChurchgovernment,nolessthanthe
Popechallengethituniversally.
18.Thewordsare(Mark9.1),VerilyIsayuntoyou,thattherebe
Answertothesomeofthemthatstandhere,whichshallnottasteofdeath,tilltheyhave
textonwhichseenthekingdomofGodcomewithpower.Whichwords,iftaken
Bezagrammatically,makeitcertain,thateithersomeofthosementhat
inferreththatstoodbyChristatthattime,areyetaliveorelse,thatthekingdom
thekingdomofGodmustbenowinthispresentworld.Andthenthereisanother
ofChristplacemoredifficult:forwhentheapostlesafterourSaviour'sresur
beganattherection,andimmediatelybeforehisascension,askedourSaviour,
resurrection.saying,(Acts1.6),Wiltthouatthistimerestoreagainthekingdomto
Israel?heansweredthem,Itisnotforyoutoknowthetimesandthe
seasons,whichtheFatherhathputinhisownpowerbutyeshallreceive
powerbythecomingoftheHolyGhostuponyou,andyeshallbemy
(martyrs)witnessesbothinJerusalem,andinallJudea,andinSamaria,
anduntotheuttermostpartoftheearth.Whichisasmuchastosay,My
kingdomisnotyetcome,norshallyouforeknowwhenitshallcome
foritshallcomeasathiefinthenightbutIwillsendyoutheHoly
Ghost,andbyhimyoushallhavepowertobearwitnesstoallthe
world(byyourpreaching)ofmyresurrection,andtheworksIhave
done,andthedoctrineIhavetaught,thattheymaybelieveinme,
andexpecteternallife,atmycomingagain.Howdoesthisagreewith
thecomingofChrist'skingdomattheresurrection?Andthatwhich
St.Paulsays(1Thess.1.9,10)Thattheyturnedfromidols,toservethe
livingandtrueGod,andtowaitforhisSonfromheavenwheretowait
forhisSonfromheaven,istowaitforhiscomingtobekinginpower
whichwerenotnecessary,ifhiskingdomhadbeenthenpresent.

Page413

Again,ifthekingdomofGodbegan,asBezaonthatplace(Mark9.
1)wouldhaveit,attheresurrectionwhatreasonisthereforChris
tianseversincetheresurrectiontosayintheirprayers,Letthy
kingdomcome?Itisthereforemanifest,thatthewordsofSt.Markare
notsotobeinterpreted.Therebesomeofthemthatstandhere(saith[342]
ourSaviour)thatshallnottasteofdeathtilltheyhaveseenthe
kingdomofGodcomeinpower.Ifthenthiskingdomweretocome
attheresurrectionofChrist,whyisitsaid,someofthem,ratherthan
all?FortheyalllivedtillafterChristwasrisen.
19.Buttheythatrequireanexactinterpretationofthistext,letExplication
theminterpretfirstthelikewordsofourSaviourtoSt.Peter,oftheplace
concerningSt.John,(chap.21.22)IfIwillthathetarrytillIcome,inMark9.1.
whatisthattothee?uponwhichwasgroundedareportthathe
shouldnotdie.Neverthelessthetruthofthatreportwasneither
confirmed,aswellgroundednorrefuted,asillgroundedonthose
wordsbutleftasasayingnotunderstood.Thesamedifficultyis
alsointheplaceofSt.Mark.Andifitbelawfultoconjectureattheir
meaning,bythatwhichimmediatelyfollows,bothhere,andinSt.
Luke,wherethesameisagainrepeated,itisnotimprobable,tosay
theyhaverelationtotheTransfiguration,whichisdescribedinthe
versesimmediatelyfollowingwhereitissaid,thataftersixdays
JesustakethwithhimPeter,andJames,andJohn(notall,butsomeof
hisdisciples),andleadeththemupintoahighmountainapartby
themselves,andwastransfiguredbeforethem.Andhisraimentbecame
shining,exceedingwhiteassnowsoasnofulleronearthcanwhitethem.
Andthereappeareduntothem,EliaswithMosesandtheyweretalking
withJesus,&c.SothattheysawChristingloryandmajesty,asheis
tocomeinsomuchastheyweresoreafraid.Andthusthepromiseof
ourSaviourwasaccomplishedbywayofvision:foritwasavision,as
mayprobablybeinferredoutofSt.Luke,thatreciteththesame
story(chap.9.28)andsaith,thatPeterandtheythatwerewithhim,
wereheavywithsleep:butmostcertainlyoutofMatt.17.9(where
thesameisagainrelated)forourSaviourchargedthem,saying,Tell
nomanthevisionuntiltheSonofManberisenflorathedead.Howso
everitbe,yettherecanfromthencebetakennoargument,toprove
thatthekingdomofGodtakethbeginningtillthedayofjudgment.Abuseofsome
20.Asforsomeothertexts,toprovethePope'spowerovercivilothertextsin
sovereigns(besidesthoseofBellarmine)asthatthetwoswordsthatdefenceofthe
Christandhisapostleshadamongstthem,werethespiritualandthepowerofthe
temporalsword,whichtheysaySt.PeterhadgivenhimbyChrist:Pope.

and,thatofthetwoluminaries,thegreatersignifiesthePope,and
thelessertheKingonemightaswellinferoutofthefirstverseof
theBible,thatbyheavenismeantthePope,andbyearththeKing:
whichisnotarguingfromScripture,butawantoninsultingover
princes,whichcameinfashionafterthetimethePopesweregrown
sosecureoftheirgreatness,astocontemnallChristiankingsand
treadingonthenecksofemperors,*tomockboththemandthe
Scripture,inthewordsofPsalm91.13,Thoushalttreaduponthelion
andtheaddertheyounglionandthedragonthoushalttrampleunder
thyfeet.
Themanner21.Asfortheritesofconsecration,thoughtheydependforthe
ofmostpartuponthediscretionandjudgmentofthegovernorsofthe
consecrationsChurch,andnotupontheScripturesyetthosegovernorsare
intheobligedtosuchdirection,asthenatureoftheactionitselfrequireth
[343]asthattheceremonies,words,andgestures,bebothdecent,and
Scripture,significant,oratleastconformabletotheaction.WhenMosescon
waswithoutsecratedthetabernacle,thealtar,andthevesselsbelongingtothem,
exorcisms.(Exod.40.9)heanointedthemwiththeoilwhichGodhadcom
mandedtobemadeforthatpurposeandtheywereholy:therewas
nothingexorcised,todriveawayphantasms.ThesameMoses(the
civilsovereignofIsrael)whenheconsecratedAaron(thehigh
priest)andhissons,didwashthemwithwater,(notexorcised
water,)puttheirgarmentsuponthem,andanointedthemwithoil
andtheyweresanctified,toministeruntotheLordinthepriest's
officewhichwasasimpleanddecentcleansing,andadorningthem,
beforehepresentedthemtoGod,tobehisservants.Whenking
Solomon,(thecivilsovereignofIsrael)consecratedthetemplehe
hadbuilt,(1Kings8)hestoodbeforeallthecongregationofIsrael
andhavingblessedthem,hegavethankstoGod,forputtingintothe
heartofhisfather,tobuilditandforgivingtohimselfthegraceto
accomplishthesameandthenprayeduntohim,first,toacceptthat
house,thoughitwerenotsuitabletohisinfinitegreatnessandto
heartheprayersofhisservantsthatshouldpraytherein,or(ifthey
wereabsent,)towardsitandlastly,heofferedasacrificeofpeace
offering,andthehousewasdedicated.Herewasnoprocessionthe
kingstoodstillinhisfirstplacenoexorcisedwaternoAspergesme,
norotherimpertinentapplicationofwordsspokenuponanother
occasionbutadecentandrationalspeech,andsuchasinmakingto
Godapresentofhisnewbuilthouse,wasmostconformabletothe
occasion.

Page415

22.WereadnotthatSt.JohndidexorcisethewaterofJordan
norPhilipthewateroftheriverwhereinhebaptizedtheEunuch
northatanypastorinthetimeoftheapostles,didtakehisspittle,
andputittothenoseofthepersontobebaptized,andsay,inodorem
suavitatis,thatis,forasweetsavouruntotheLordwhereinneither
theceremonyofspittle,fortheuncleannessnortheapplication
ofthatScriptureforthelevity,canbyanyauthorityofmanbe
justified.
23.Toprovethatthesoulseparatedfromthebody,livetheterThe
nally,notonlythesoulsoftheelect,byespecialgrace,andrestoraimmortality
tionoftheeternallifewhichAdamlostbysin,andourSaviourofman'ssoul,
restored(bythesacrificeofhimself,)tothefaithfulbutalsothenotprovedby
soulsofreprobates,asapropertynaturallyconsequenttotheesScriptureto
senceofmankind,withoutothergraceofGod,butthatwhichisbeofnature,
universallygiventoallmankindtherearediversplaces,whichatbutofgrace.
thefirstsightseemsufficientlytoservetheturn:butsuch,aswhen
IcomparethemwiththatwhichIhavebefore(chapter38)alleged
outofthefourteenthofJob,seemtomemuchmoresubjecttoa
diverseinterpretation,thanthewordsofJob.
24.AndfirsttherearethewordsofSolomon(Eccles.12.7),Then
shallthedustreturntodust,asitwas,andthespiritshallreturntoGod
thatgaveit.Whichmaybearwellenough(iftherebenoothertext[344]
directlyagainstit)thisinterpretation,thatGodonlyknows,(but
mannot,)whatbecomesofaman'sspirit,whenheexpirethandthe
sameSolomon,inthesamebook,(chapter3.20,21)delivereththe
samesentenceinthesamesenseIhavegivenit.Hiswordsare:All
go(manandbeast)tothesameplaceallareofthedust,andallturnto
dustagainwhoknoweththatthespiritofmangoethupward,andthat
thespiritofthebeastgoethdownwardtotheearth?Thatis,noneknows
butGodnorisitanunusualphrasetosayofthingsweunderstand
not,Godknowswhat,and,Godknowswhere.Thatof(Gen.5.24)
EnochwalkedwithGod,andhewasnotforGodtookhimwhichis
expounded,(Heb.11.5),Hewastranslated,thatheshouldnotdieand
wasnotfound,becauseGodhadtranslatedhim.Forbeforehistransla
tion,hehadthistestimony,thathepleasedGodmakingasmuchfor
theimmortalityofthebody,asofthesoul,proveth,thatthishis
translationwaspeculiartothemthatpleaseGodnotcommonto
themwiththewicked,anddependingongrace,notonnature.But
onthecontrary,whatinterpretationshallwegivebesidestheliteral
sense,ofthewordsofSolomon(Eccles.3.19),Thatwhichbefalleth

thesonsofmen,befallethbeastsevenonethingbefalleththemastheone
dieth,sodoththeotheryea,theyhaveallonebreath(onespirit),so
thatamanhathnopreeminenceaboveabeast,forallisvanity.Bythe
literalsense,hereisnonaturalimmortalityofthesoulnoryetany
repugnancywiththelifeeternal,whichtheelectshallenjoyby
grace.And(Eccles.chap.4.3)Betterishethathathnotyetbeen,than
boththeythatis,thantheythatlive,orhavelivedwhich,ifthesoul
ofallthemthathavelived,wereimmortal,wereahardsayingfor
thentohaveanimmortalsoul,wereworsethantohavenosoulatall.
Andagain,(chapter9.5)Thelivingknowtheyshalldie,butthedead
knownotanythingthatis,naturally,andbeforetheresurrectionof
thebody.
25.Anotherplacewhichseemstomakeforanaturalimmortality
ofthesoul,isthat,whereourSavioursaith,thatAbraham,Isaac,
andJacobareliving:butthisisspokenofthepromiseofGod,and
oftheircertitudetoriseagain,notofalifethenactualandinthe
samesensethatGodsaidtoAdam,thatonthedayheshouldeatof
theforbiddenfruit,heshouldcertainlydiefromthattimeforward
hewasadeadmanbysentencebutnotbyexecution,tillalmosta
thousandyearsafter.SoAbraham,Isaac,andJacobwerealiveby
promise,then,whenChristspakebutarenotactuallytilltheresur
rection.AndthehistoryofDivesandLazarus,makesnothing
againstthis,ifwetakeit,(asitis)foraparable.
26.ButtherebeotherplacesoftheNewTestament,wherean
immortalityseemethtobedirectlyattributedtothewicked.Foritis
evident,thattheyshallallrisetojudgment.Anditissaidbesidesin
manyplaces,thattheyshallgointoeverlastingfire,everlastingtor
[345]ments,everlastingpunishmentsandthatthewormofconsciencenever
diethandallthisiscomprehendedinthewordeverlastingdeath,
whichisordinarilyinterpretedeverlastinglifeintorments.AndyetI
canfindnowherethatanymanshallliveintormentseverlastingly.
Also,itseemethhard,tosay,thatGodwhoisthefatherofmercies,
thatdothinheavenandearthallthathewillthathaththeheartsof
allmeninhisdisposingthatworkethinmenbothtodo,andtowill
andwithoutwhosefreegiftamanhathneitherinclinationtogood,
norrepentanceofevil,shouldpunishmen'stransgressionswithout
anyendoftime,andwithalltheextremityoftorture,thatmencan
imagine,andmore.*Wearethereforetoconsider,whatthemean
ingis,ofeverlastingfire,andotherthelikephrasesofScripture.
27.Ihaveshowedalready,thatthekingdomofGodbyChrist

Page417

beginnethatthedayofjudgment:thatinthatday,thefaithfulshall
riseagain,withglorious,andspiritualbodies,andbehissubjectsin
thathiskingdom,whichshallbeeternal:thattheyshallneither
marrynorbegiveninmarriage,noreatanddrink,astheydidin
theirnaturalbodiesbutliveforeverintheirindividualpersons,
withoutthespecificaleternityofgeneration:andthatthereprobates
alsoshallriseagain,toreceivepunishmentsfortheirsins:asalso,
thatthoseoftheelect,whichshallbealiveintheirearthlybodiesat
thatday,shallhavetheirbodiessuddenlychanged,andmadespiri
tualandimmortalButthatthebodiesofthereprobate,whomake
thekingdomofSatan,shallalsobeglorious,orspiritualbodies,or
thattheyshallbeastheangelsofGod,neithereating,nordrinking,
norengenderingorthattheirlifeshallbeeternalintheirindividual
persons,asthelifeofeveryfaithfulmanis,orasthelifeofAdamhad
beenifhehadnotsinned,thereisnoplaceofScripturetoproveit
saveonlytheseplacesconcerningeternaltormentswhichmay
otherwisebeinterpreted.
28.Fromwhencemaybeinferred,thatastheelectafterthe
resurrectionshallberestoredtotheestate,whereinAdamwasbe
forehehadsinnedsothereprobateshallbeintheestate,thatAdam
andhisposteritywereinafterthesincommittedsavingthatGod
promisedaRedeemertoAdam,andsuchofhisseedasshouldtrust
inhim,andrepentbutnottothemthatshoulddieintheirsins,as
dothereprobate.
29.Thesethingsconsidered,thetextsthatmentioneternalfire,Eternal
eternaltorments,orthewormthatneverdieth,contradictnotthetorments,
doctrineofasecond,andeverlastingdeath,intheproperandnatuwhat.
ralsenseoftheworddeath.Thefire,ortormentspreparedforthe
wickedinGehenna,Tophet,orinwhatplacesoever,maycontinue
forever*andtheremayneverwantwickedmentobetormentedin
themthoughnotevery,noranyoneeternally.Forthewickedbeing
leftintheestatetheywereinafterAdam'ssin,mayattheresurrec
tionliveastheydid,marry,andgiveinmarriage,andhavegrossand
corruptiblebodies,asallmankindnowhaveandconsequentlymay
engenderperpetually,aftertheresurrection,astheydidbefore:for[346]
thereisnoplaceinScripturetothecontrary.ForSt.Paul,speaking
oftheresurrection(1Cor.15)understandethitonlyoftheresurrec
tiontolifeeternalandnottheresurrectiontopunishment.Andof
thefirst,hesaiththatthebodyissownincorruption,raisedin
incorruptionsownindishonour,raisedinhonoursowninweakness,

raisedinpowersownanaturalbody,raisedaspiritualbody.Thereis
nosuchthingcanbesaidofthebodiesofthemthatrisetopunish
ment.SoalsoourSaviour,whenhespeakethofthenatureofman
aftertheresurrection,meaneththeresurrectiontolifeeternal,notto
punishment.Thetextis,Luke20,verses34,35,36,afertiletext.
Thechildrenofthisworldmarry,andaregiveninmarriagebutthey
thatshallbecountedworthytoobtainthatworld,andtheresurrection
fromthedead,neithermarry,noraregiveninmarriage:neithercanthey
dieanymorefortheyareequaltotheangels,andarethechildrenof
God,beingthechildrenoftheresurrection.Thechildrenofthisworld,
thatareintheestatewhichAdamleftthemin,shallmarry,andbe
giveninmarriagethatis,corrupt,andgeneratesuccessivelywhich
isanimmortalityofthekind,butnotofthepersonsofmen:theyare
notworthytobecountedamongstthemthatshallobtainthenext
world,andanabsoluteresurrectionfromthedeadbutonlyashort
time,asinmatesofthatworldandtotheendonlytoreceive
condign[merited]punishmentfortheircontumacy.Theelectare
theonlychildrenoftheresurrectionthatistosay,thesoleheirsof
eternallife:theyonlycandienomore:itistheythatareequaltothe
angels,andthatarethechildrenofGodandnotthereprobate.To
thereprobatethereremainethaftertheresurrection,asecond,and
eternaldeath:betweenwhichresurrection,andtheirsecond,and
eternaldeath,isbutatimeofpunishmentandtormentandtolast
bysuccessionofsinnersthereunto,aslongasthekindofmanby
propagationshallendurewhichiseternally.
Answerof30.Uponthisdoctrineofthenaturaleternityofseparatedsouls,
thetextsisfounded(asIsaid)thedoctrineofpurgatory.Forsupposing
allegedforeternallifebygraceonly,thereisnolife,butthelifeofthebodyand
purgatory.noimmortalitytilltheresurrection.Thetextsforpurgatoryalleged
byBellarmineoutofthecanonicalScriptureoftheOldTestament,
arefirst,thefastingofDavidforSaulandJonathan,mentioned(2
Sam.1.12)andagain,(2Sam.3.35)forthedeathofAbner.This
fastingofDavid,hesaith,wasfortheobtainingofsomethingfor
thematGod'shands,aftertheirdeathbecauseafterhehadfisted
toprocuretherecoveryofhisownchild,assoonasheknewitwas
dead,hecalledformeat.Seeingthenthesoulhathanexistence
separatefromthebody,andnothingcanbeobtainedbymen's
fastingforthesoulsthatarealreadyeitherinheaven,orhell,it
followeththattherebesomesoulsofdeadmen,thatareneitherin
heaven,norinhellandthereforetheymustbeinsomethirdplace,

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whichmustbepurgatory.Andthuswithhardstraining,hehas
wrestedthoseplacestotheproofofapurgatory:whereasitis[347]
manifest,thattheceremoniesofmourning,andfasting,whenthey
areusedforthedeathofmen,whoselifewasnotprofitabletothe
mourners,theyareusedforhonour'ssaketotheirpersonsand
when'tisdoneforthedeathofthembywhoselifethemournershad
benefit,itproceedsfromtheirparticulardamage:andsoDavid
honouredSaul,andAbner,withhisfastingandinthedeathofhis
ownchild,recomfortedhimself,byreceivinghisordinaryfood.
31.Intheotherplaces,whichheallegethoutoftheOldTesta
ment,thereisnotsomuchasanyshow,orcolourofproof.He
bringsineverytextwhereinthereisthewordanger,orfire,or
burning,orpurging,orcleansing,incaseanyofthefathershavebutin
asermonrhetoricallyappliedittothedoctrineofpurgatory,already
believed.ThefirstverseofPsalm,37.OLord,rebukemenotinthy
wrath,norchastenmeinthyhotdispleasure:whatwerethistopurga
tory,ifAugustinehadnotappliedthewrathtothefireofhell,and
thedispleasuretothatofpurgatory?Andwhatisittopurgatory,that
ofPsalm66.12.Wewentthroughfireandwater,andthoubroughtestus
toamoistplaceandothertheliketexts,(withwhichthedoctorsof
thosetimesintendedtoadorn,orextendtheirsermons,orcommen
taries)haledtotheirpurposesbyforceofwit?
32.ButheallegethotherplacesoftheNewTestament,thatarePlacesof
notsoeasytobeanswered.AndfirstthatofMatt.12.32:WhosoevertheNew
speakethawordagainsttheSonofman,itshallbeforgivenhimbutTestamentfor
whosoeverspeakethagainsttheHolyGhost,itshallnotbeforgivenhimpurgatory
neitherinthisworld,norintheworldtocome:wherehewillhaveanswered.
purgatorytobetheworldtocome,whereinsomesinsmaybe
forgiven,whichinthisworldwerenotforgiven:notwithstanding
thatitismanifest,therearebutthreeworldsonefromthecreation
totheflood,whichwasdestroyedbywater,andiscalledinScripture
theoldworldanotherfromtheflood,tothedayofjudgment,which
isthepresentworld,andshallbedestroyedbyfireandthethird,
whichshallbefromthedayofjudgmentforward,everlasting,which
iscalledtheworldtocomeandinwhichitisagreedbyall,thereshall
benopurgatory:andthereforetheworldtocome,andpurgatory,
areinconsistent.Butwhatthencanbethemeaningofthoseour
Saviour'swords?Iconfesstheyareveryhardlytobereconciledwith
allthedoctrinesnowunanimouslyreceived:norisitanyshame,to
confesstheprofoundnessoftheScripturetobetoogreattobe

soundedbytheshortnessofhumanunderstanding.Nevertheless,I
maypropoundsuchthingstotheconsiderationofmorelearned
divines,asthetextitselfsuggesteth.Andfirst,seeingtospeak
againsttheHolyGhost,asbeingthethirdpersonoftheTrinity,is
tospeakagainsttheChurch,inwhichtheHolyGhostresidethit
seemeththecomparisonismade,betweentheeasinessofourSav
iour,inbearingwithoffencesdonetohimwhilehehimselftaught
theworld,thatis,whenhewasonearth,andtheseverityofthe
pastorsafterhim,againstthosewhichshoulddenytheirauthority,
whichwasfromtheHolyGhost.Asifheshouldsay,youthatdeny
[348]mypowernayyouthatshallcrucifyme,shallbepardonedbyme,
asoftenasyouturnuntomebyrepentance:butifyoudenythe
powerofthemthatteachyouhereafter,byvirtueoftheHolyGhost,
theyshallbeinexorable,andshallnotforgiveyou,butpersecuteyou
inthisworld,andleaveyouwithoutabsolution,(thoughyouturnto
me,unlessyouturnalsotothem,)tothepunishments(asmuchas
liesinthem)oftheworldtocome:andsothewordsmaybetakenas
aprophecy,orpredictionconcerningthetimes,astheyhavelong
beenintheChristianChurch.Orifthisbenotthemeaning,(forI
amnotperemptoryinsuchdifficultplaces,)perhapstheremaybe
placesleftaftertheresurrectionfortherepentanceofsomesinners:
andthereisalsoanotherplace,thatseemethtoagreetherewith.For
consideringthewordsofSt.Paul(1Cor.15.29),Whatshalltheydo
whicharebaptizedforthedead,ifthedeadrisenotatall?whyalsoare
theybaptizedforthedead?amanmayprobablyinfer,assomehave
done,thatinSt.Paul'stime,therewasacustombyreceiving
baptismforthedead,(asmenthatnowbelieve,aresuretiesand
undertakersforthefaithofinfants,thatarenotcapableofbeliev
ing,)toundertakeforthepersonsoftheirdeceasedfriends,thatthey
shouldbereadytoobey,andreceiveourSaviourfortheirking,at
hiscomingagainandthentheforgivenessofsinsintheworldto
come,hasnoneedofapurgatory.Butinboththeseinterpretations,
thereissomuchofparadox,thatItrustnottothembutpropound
themtothosethatarethoroughlyversedintheScripture,toinquire
iftherebenoclearerplacethatcontradictsthem.Onlyofthus
much,IseeevidentScripture,topersuademe,thatthereisneither
theword,northethingofpurgatory,neitherinthis,noranyother
textnoranythingthatcanproveanecessityofaplaceforthesoul
withoutthebodyneitherforthesoulofLazarusduringthefour
dayshewasdeadnorforthesoulsofthemwhichtheRoman

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Churchpretendtobetormentednowinpurgatory.ForGod,that
couldgivealifetoapieceofclay,haththesamepowertogivelife
againtoadeadman,andrenewhisinanimate,androttencarcass,
intoaglorious,spiritual,andimmortalbody.
33.Anotherplaceisthatof1Cor.3,whereitissaid,thatthey
whichbuildstubble,hay,&c.onthetruefoundation,theirwork
shallperishbuttheythemselvesshallbesaved,butasthroughfire:this
fire,hewillhavetobethefireofpurgatory.Thewords,asIhave
saidbefore,areanallusiontothoseofZech.13.9,wherehesaith,I
willbringthethirdpartthroughthefire,andrefinethemassilveris
refined,andwilltrythemasgoldistried:whichisspokenofthe
comingoftheMessiahinpowerandglorythatis,atthedayof
judgment,andconflagrationofthepresentworldwhereintheelect
shallnotbeconsumed,butberefinedthatis,deposetheirerro
neousdoctrines,andtraditions,andhavethemasitweresingedoff
andshallafterwardscalluponthenameofthetrueGod.Inlike
manner,theapostlesaithofthem,thatholdingthisfoundation,
JesusistheChrist,shallbuildthereonsomeotherdoctrinesthatbe
erroneous,thattheyshallnotbeconsumedinthatfirewhich[349]
reneweththeworld,butshallpassthroughittosalvationbutso,as
tosee,andrelinquishtheirformererrors.Thebuilders,arethe
pastorsthefoundation,thatJesusistheChristthestubbleandhay,
falseconsequencesdrawnfromitthroughignorance,orfrailtythegold,
silver,andpreciousstones,aretheirtruedoctrinesandtheirrefining
orpurging,therelinquishingoftheirerrors.Inallwhichthereisno
colouratallfortheburningofincorporeal,thatistosay,impatible
souls.
34.Athirdplaceisthatof1Cor.15.29beforementioned,Baptismfor
concerningbaptismforthedead:outofwhichheconcludeth,first,thedead,how
thatprayersforthedeadarenotunprofitableandoutofthat,thatunderstood.
thereisafireofpurgatory:butneitherofthemrightly.Forofmany
interpretationsofthewordbaptism,heapproveththisinthefirst
place,thatbybaptismismeant(metaphorically)abaptismofpen
anceandthatmenareinthissensebaptized,whentheyfast,and
pray,andgivealms:andso,baptismforthedead,andprayerforthe
dead,isthesamething.Butthisisametaphor,ofwhichthereisno
example,neitherintheScripture,norinanyotheruseoflanguage
andwhichisalsodiscordanttotheharmony,andscopeofthe
Scripture.Thewordbaptismisused(Mark10.38,andLuke12.50)
forbeingdippedinone'sownblood,asChristwasuponthecross,

andasmostoftheapostleswere,forgivingtestimonyofhim.Butit
ishardtosay,thatprayer,fasting,andalms,haveanysimilitude
withdipping.ThesameisusedalsoMatt.3.11(whichseemethto
makesomewhatforpurgatory)forapurgingwithfire.Butitis
evidentthefireandpurgingherementioned,isthesamewhereof
theprophetZechariahspeaketh(chapter13.9)Iwillbringthethird
partthroughthefire,andwillrefinethem,&c.AndSt.Peterafterhim
(1Epistle1.7)Thatthetrialofyourfaith,whichismuchmoreprecious
thanofgoldthatperisheth,thoughitbetriedwithfire,mightbefound
untopraise,andhonour,andgloryattheappearingofJesusChristand
St.Paul(1Cor.3.13)Thefireshalltryeveryman'sworkofwhatsort
itis.ButSt.Peter,andSt.Paulspeakofthefirethatshallbeatthe
secondappearingofChristandtheprophetZechariahofthedayof
judgment.AndthereforethisplaceofSt.Matthewmaybeinter
pretedofthesameandthentherewillbenonecessityofthefireof
purgatory.
35.Anotherinterpretationofbaptismforthedead,isthatwhich
Ihavebeforementioned,whichhepreferrethtothesecondplaceof
probability:andthencealsoheinferreththeutilityofprayerforthe
dead.Forifaftertheresurrection,suchashavenotheardofChrist,
ornotbelievedinhim,maybereceivedintoChrist'skingdomitis
notinvain,aftertheirdeath,thattheirfriendsshouldprayforthem,
tilltheyshouldberisen.ButgrantingthatGod,attheprayersofthe
faithful,mayconvertuntohimsomeofthosethathavenotheard
Christpreached,andconsequentlycannothaverejectedChrist,and
thatthecharityofmeninthatpoint,cannotbeblamedyetthis
[350]concludethnothingforpurgatorybecausetorisefromdeathtolife,
isonethingtorisefrompurgatorytolifeisanotherasbeinga
risingfromlifetolife,fromalifeintormentstoalifeinjoy.
36.AfourthplaceisthatofMatt.5.25,26:Agreewiththine
adversaryquickly,whilstthouartinthewaywithhim,lestatany
timetheadversarydelivertheetothejudge,andthejudgedeliverthee
totheofficer,andthoubecastintoprison:verilyIsayuntothee,
thoushaltbynomeanscomeoutthence,tillthouhastpaidtheutter
mostfarthing.Inwhichallegory,theoffenderisthesinner
boththeadversaryandthejudgeisGodthewayisthislifethe
prisonisthegravetheofficer,deathfromwhich,thesinnershall
notriseagaintolifeeternal,buttoaseconddeath,tillhehavepaid
theutmostfarthing,orChristpayitforhimbyhispassion,whichis
afullransomforallmannerofsin,aswelllessersins,asgreater

Page423

crimesbothbeingmadebythepassionofChristequallyvenial.
37.Thefifthplace,isthatofMatt.5.22:Whosoeverisangrywith
hisbrotherwithoutacause,shallbeguiltyinjudgment.Andwhosoever
shallsaytohisbrother,Raca,shallbeguiltyinthecouncilbutwhoso
evershallsay,thoufool,shallbeguiltytohellfire.Fromwhichwords
heinferreththreesortsofsins,andthreesortsofpunishmentsand
thatnoneofthosesins,butthelast,shallbepunishedwithhellfire
andconsequently,thatafterthislife,thereispunishmentoflesser
sinsinpurgatory.Ofwhichinference,thereisnocolourinany
interpretationthathat.hyetbeengivenofthem:shalltherebea
distinctionafterthislifeofcourtsofjustice,astherewasamongst
theJewsinourSaviour'stime,tohear,anddeterminediverssortsof
crimes,asthejudges,andthecouncil?Shallnotalljudicature
appertaintoChrist,andhisapostles?Tounderstandthereforethis
text,wearenottoconsideritsolitarily,butjointlywiththewords
precedent,andsubsequent.OurSaviourinthischapterinterpreteth
thelawofMoseswhichtheJewsthoughtwasthenfulfilled,when
theyhadnottransgressedthegrammaticalsensethereof,howsoever
theyhadtransgressedagainstthesentence,ormeaningofthelegis
lator.Thereforewhereastheythoughtthesixthcommandmentwas
notbroken,butbykillingamannortheseventh,butwhenaman
laywithawoman,nothiswifeourSaviourtellsthemtheinward
angerofamanagainsthisbrother,ifitbewithoutjustcause,is
homicide:youhaveheard(saithhe)theLawofMoses,Thoushalt
notkill,andthatWhosoevershallkill,shallbecondemnedbeforethe
judges,orbeforethesessionoftheSeventy:butIsayuntoyou,tobe
angrywithone'sbrotherwithoutcause,ortosayuntohimRaca,or
Fool,ishomicide,andshallbepunishedatthedayofjudgment,and
sessionofChrist,andhisapostles,withhellfire.Sothatthosewords
werenotusedtodistinguishbetweendiverscrimes,anddivers
courtsofjustice,anddiverspunishmentsbuttotaxthedistinction
betweensin,andsin,whichtheJewsdrewnotfromthedifferenceof
thewillinobeyingGod,butfromthedifferenceoftheirtemporal
courtsofjusticeandtoshowthemthathethathadthewilltohurt[351]
hisbrother,thoughtheeffectappearbutinreviling,ornotatall,
shallbecastintohellfire,bythejudges,andbythesession,which
shallbethesame,notdifferent,courtsatthedayofjudgment.This
considered,whatcanbedrawnfromthistext,tomaintainpurga
tory,Icannotimagine.
38.ThesixthplaceisLuke16.9.Makeyefriendsofthe

unrighteousMammonthatwhenyefail,theymayreceiveyouinto
everlastingtabernacles.Thisheallegestoproveinvocationofsaints
departed.Butthesenseisplain,thatweshouldmakefriendswith
ourriches,ofthepoorandtherebyobtaintheirprayerswhilstthey
live.Hethatgivethtothepoor,lendethtotheLord.
39.TheseventhisLuke23.42:Lord,rememberme,whenthou
comestintothykingdom.Therefore,saithhe,thereisremissionof
sinsafterthislife.Buttheconsequenceisnotgood.OurSaviour
thenforgavehimandathiscomingagaininglory,willrememberto
raisehimagaintolifeeternal.
40.TheeighthisActs2.24whereSt.PetersaithofChrist,that
Godhadraisedhimup,andloosedthepainsofdeath,becauseitwasnot
possibleheshouldbeholdenofit:whichheinterpretstobeadescent
ofChristintopurgatory,toloosesomesoulstherefromtheirtor
ments:whereasitismanifest,thatitwasChristthatwasloosedit
washethatcouldnotbeholdenofdeath,orthegraveandnotthe
soulsinpurgatory.ButifthatwhichBezasays,inhisnotesonthis
placebewellobserved,thereisnonethatwillnotsee,thatinsteadof
pains,itshouldbebandsandthenthereisnofurthercausetoseek
forpurgatoryinthistext.
[352]ChapterXLV
OfDemonology,AndOtherRelicsoftheReligionoftheGentiles
Theoriginal1.Theimpressionmadeontheorgansofsight,bylucidbodies,
ofeitherinonedirectline,orinmanylines,reflectedfromopaque,or
demonology.refractedinthepassagethroughdiaphanousbodies,producethin
livingcreatures,inwhomGodhathplacedsuchorgans,animagina
tionoftheobject,fromwhencetheimpressionproceedethwhich
imaginationiscalledsightandseemethnottobeamereimagina
tion,butthebodyitselfwithoutusinthesamemanner,aswhena
manviolentlypressethhiseye,thereappearstohimalightwithout,
andbeforehim,whichnomanperceivethbuthimselfbecausethere
isindeednosuchthingwithouthim,butonlyamotioninthe
interiororgans,pressingbyresistanceoutward,thatmakeshim
thinkso.Andthemotionmadebythispressure,continuingafterthe
objectwhichcauseditisremoved,isthatwecallimagination,and

Page425

memory,and(insleep,andsometimesingreatdistemperofthe
organsbysickness,orviolence)adream:ofwhichthingsIhave
alreadyspokenbriefly,inthesecondandthirdchapters.
2.Thisnatureofsighthavingneverbeendiscoveredbythe
ancientpretenderstonaturalknowledgemuchlessbythosethat
considernotthingssoremote(asthatknowledgeis)fromtheir
presentuseitwashardformentoconceiveofthoseimagesinthe
fancy,andinthesense,otherwise,thanofthingsreallywithout
us:*whichsome(becausetheyvanishaway,theyknownotwhither,
norhow)willhavetobeabsolutelyincorporeal,thatistosayimma
terialformswithoutmattercolourandfigure,withoutanycol
ouredorfiguredbodyandthattheycanputonairybodies(asa
garment)tomakethemvisiblewhentheywilltoourbodilyeyes
andotherssay,arebodiesandlivingcreatures,butmadeofair,or
othermoresubtleandetherealmatter,whichis,(then,whenthey
willbeseen,)condensed.Butbothofthemagreeononegeneral
appellationofthem,DEMONS.Asifthedeadofwhomtheydreamed,
werenotinhabitantsoftheirownbrain,butoftheair,orofheaven,
orhellnotphantasms,butghostswithjustasmuchreason,asif
oneshouldsay,hesawhisownghostinalookingglass,ortheghosts
ofthestarsinariverorcalltheordinaryapparitionofthesun,of
thequantityofaboutafoot,thedemon,orghostofthatgreatsunthat
enlighteneththewholevisibleworld:andbythatmeanshavefeared
them,asthingsofanunknown,thatis,ofanunlimitedpowertodo
themgoodorharmandconsequently,givenoccasiontothegover
norsoftheheathencommonwealthstoregulatethistheirfear,by[353]
establishingthatDEMONOLOGY(inwhichthepoets,asprincipal
priestsoftheheathenreligion,werespeciallyemployedorrever
enced)tothepublicpeace,andtotheobedienceofsubjectsnecess
arythereuntoandtomakesomeofthemgooddemons,andothers
eviltheoneasaspurtotheobservance,theother,asreinsto
withholdthemfromviolationofthelaws.
3.Whatkindofthingstheywere,towhomtheyattributedtheWhatwere
nameofdemons,appearethpartlyinthegenealogyoftheirgods,thedemonsof
writtenbyHesiod,*oneofthemostancientpoetsoftheGrecianstheancients.
andpartlyinotherhistoriesofwhichIhaveobservedsomefew
before,inthe12thchapterofthisdiscourse.
4.TheGrecians,bytheircoloniesandconquests,communicatedHowthat
theirlanguageandwritingsintoAsia,Egypt,andItalyandtherein,doctrinewas
bynecessaryconsequencetheirdemonology,or(asSt.Paulcallsit)spread.

theirdoctrinesofdevils:andbythatmeans,thecontagionwasderived
alsototheJews,bothofJudea,andAlexandria,andotherparts,
whereintotheyweredispersed.Butthenameofdemontheydidnot
(astheGrecians)attributetospiritsbothgood,andevilbuttothe
evilonly:andtothegooddemonstheygavethenameofthespiritof
HowfarGodandesteemedthoseintowhosebodiestheyenteredtobe
receivedbyprophets.Insum,allsingularityifgood,theyattributedtothespirit
theJews.ofGodandifevil,tosomedemon,buta
,anevil
demon,thatis,adevil.Andtherefore,theycalleddemoniacs,thatis,
possessedbythedevil,suchaswecallmadmenorlunaticsorsuchas
hadthefallingsicknessorthatspokeanything,whichtheyforwant
ofunderstanding,thoughtabsurd:asalsoofanuncleanpersonina
notoriousdegree,theyusedtosayhehadanuncleanspiritofa
dumbman,thathehadadumbdevilandofJohntheBaptist(Matt.
11.18),forthesingularityofhisfasting,thathehadadevilandof
ourSaviour,becausehesaid,hethatkeepethhissayingsshouldnot
seedeathinaeternum,(John8.52),Nowweknowthouhastadevil
Abrahamisdead,andtheprophetsaredead:andagain,becausehesaid
(John7.20)Theywentabouttokillhim,thepeopleanswered,Thou
hastadevil,whogoethabouttokillthee?Wherebyitismanifest,that
theJewshadthesameopinionwiththeGreeksconcerningphan
tasms,namely,thattheywerenotphantasms,thatis,idolsofthe
brain,butthingsreal,andindependentonthefancy.
Whyour5.Whichdoctrineifitbenottrue,why(maysomesay)didnot
SaviourourSaviourcontradictit,andteachthecontrary?Nay,whydoeshe
controlledituseondiversoccasionssuchformsofspeechasseemtoconfirmit?
not.TothisIanswer,thatfirst,whereChristsaith,(Luke24.39)Aspirit
hathnotfleshandbone,thoughheshowthattherebespirits,yethe
deniesnotthattheyarebodies:andwhereSt.Paulsays,(1Cor.15.
44)weshallrisespiritualbodies,heacknowledgeththenatureof
spirits,butthattheyarebodilyspiritswhichisnotdifficultto
understand.Forairandmanyotherthingsarebodies,thoughnot
fleshandbone,oranyothergrossbodytobediscernedbytheeye.
[354]ButwhenourSaviourspeakethtothedevil,andcommandethhim
togooutofaman,ifbythedevil,hemeantadisease,asfrenzy,or
lunacy,oracorporealspirit,isnotthespeechimproper?Candis
easeshear?Orcantherebeacorporealspiritinabodyoffleshand
bone,fullalreadyofvitalandanimalspirits?Aretherenottherefore
spirits,thatneitherhavebodies,noraremereimaginations?Tothe
firstIanswer,thattheaddressingofourSaviour'scommandtothe

Page427

madness,orlunacyhecureth,isnomoreimproperthanwashis
rebukingofthefever,orofthewind,andseaforneitherdothese
hear:orthanwasthecommandofGod,tothelight,tothe
firmament,tothesun,andstars,whenhecommandedthemtobe:
fortheycouldnothearbeforetheyhadabeing.Butthosespeeches
arenotimproper,becausetheysignifythepowerofGod'sword:no
morethereforeisitimproper,tocommandmadness,orlunacy
(undertheappellationofdevils,bywhichtheywerethencommonly
understood,)todepartoutofaman'sbody.Tothesecond,concern
ingtheirbeingincorporeal,Ihavenotyetobservedanyplaceof
Scripture,fromwhenceitcanbegathered,thatanymanwasever
possessedwithanyothercorporealspirit,butthatofhisown,by
whichhisbodyisnaturallymoved.
6.OurSaviour,immediatelyaftertheHolyGhostdescendedThe
uponhimintheformofadove,issaidbySt.Matthew(chapter4.Scripturesdo
1),tohavebeenledupbytheSpiritintothewildernessandthesamenotteachthat
isrecited(Luke4.1)inthesewords,JesusbeingfulloftheHolyGhost,spiritsare
wasledintheSpiritintothewilderness:wherebyitisevidentthatbyincorporeal.
spiritthere,ismeanttheHolyGhost.Thiscannotbeinterpretedfor
apossession:forChrist,andtheHolyGhost,arebutoneandthe
samesubstancewhichisnopossessionofonesubstance,orbody,
byanother.Andwhereasintheversesfollowing,heissaidtohave
beentakenupbythedevilintotheholycity,andsetuponapinnacleof
thetemple,shallweconcludethencethathewaspossessedofthe
devil,orcarriedthitherbyviolence?Andagain,carriedthencebythe
devilintoanexceedinghighmountain,whoshowedhimthenceallthe
kingdomsoftheworld:whereinwearenottobelievehewaseither
possessed,orforcedbythedevilnorthatanymountainishigh
enough,(accordingtotheliteralsense,)toshowhimonewhole
hemisphere.Whatthencanbethemeaningofthisplace,otherthan
thathewentofhimselfintothewildernessandthatthiscarryingof
himupanddown,fromthewildernesstothecity,andfromthence
intoamountain,wasavision?Conformablewhereunto,isalsothe
phraseofSt.Luke,thathewasledintothewilderness,notby,but
in,theSpirit:whereasconcerninghisbeingtakenupintothemoun
tain,anduntothepinnacleofthetemple,hespeakethasSt.Mat
thewdoth.Whichsuitethwiththenatureofavision.
7.Again,whereSt.Luke(chap.22.3,4)saysofJudasIscariot,
thatSatanenteredintohim,andthereuponthathewentandcommuned
withthechiefpriests.andcaptains.howhemightbetrayChristunto

[355]them:itmaybeanswered,thatbytheenteringofSatan(thatisthe
enemy)intohim,ismeant,thehostileandtraitorousintentionof
sellinghisLordandMaster.ForasbytheHolyGhost,isfrequently
inScriptureunderstood,thegracesandgoodinclinationsgivenby
theHolyGhostsobytheenteringofSatan,maybeunderstoodthe
wickedcogitations,anddesignsoftheadversariesofChrist,andhis
disciples.Forasitishardtosay,thatthedevilwasenteredinto
Judas,beforehehadanysuchhostiledesignsoitisimpertinentto
say,hewasfirstChrist'senemyinhisheart,andthatthedevil
enteredintohimafterwards.ThereforetheenteringofSatan,and
hiswickedpurpose,wasoneandthesamething.
8.Butiftherebenoimmaterialspirit,oranypossessionofmen's
bodiesbyanyspiritcorporeal,itmayagainbeasked,whyour
Saviourandhisapostlesdidnotteachthepeoplesoandinsuch
clearwords,astheymightnomoredoubtthereof.Butsuchques
tionsasthese,aremorecurious,thannecessaryforaChristian
man'ssalvation.Menmayaswellask,whyChristthatcouldhave
giventoallmenfaith,piety,andallmannerofmoralvirtues,gaveit
tosomeonly,andnottoall:andwhyheleftthesearchofnatural
causes,andsciences,tothenaturalreasonandindustryofmen,and
didnotrevealittoall,oranymansupernaturallyandmanyother
suchquestions:ofwhichneverthelesstheremaybeallegedprobable
andpiousreasons.ForasGod,whenhebroughttheIsraelitesinto
thelandofPromise,didnotsecurethemtherein,bysubduingallthe
nationsroundaboutthembutleftmanyofthem,asthornsintheir
sides,toawakenfromtimetotimetheirpietyandindustry:soour
Saviour,inconductingustowardhisheavenlykingdom,didnot
destroyallthedifficultiesofnaturalquestionsbutleftthemto
exerciseourindustry,andreasonthescopeofhispreaching,being
onlytoshowusthisplainanddirectwaytosalvation,namely,the
beliefofthisarticle,thathewastheChrist,theSonofthelivingGod,
sentintotheworldtosacrificehimselfforoursins,andathiscoming
again,gloriouslytoreignoverhiselect,andtosavethemfromtheir
enemieseternally:towhich,theopinionofpossessionbyspirits,or
phantasms,isnoimpedimentinthewaythoughitbetosomean
occasionofgoingoutoftheway,andtofollowtheirowninventions.
IfwerequireoftheScriptureanaccountofallquestions,whichmay
beraisedtotroubleusintheperformanceofGod'scommandswe
mayaswellcomplainofMosesfornothavingsetdownthetimeof
thecreationofsuchspirits,aswellasofthecreationoftheearth,

Page429

andsea,andofmen,andbeasts.Toconclude,IfindinScripture
thattherebeangels,andspirits,goodandevilbutnotthattheyare
incorporeal,asaretheapparitionsmenseeinthedark,orina
dream,orvisionwhichtheLatinscallspectra,andtookfordemons.
AndIfindthattherearespiritscorporeal,(thoughsubtleandinvis
ible)butnotthatanyman'sbodywaspossessedorinhabited
bythemandthatthebodiesofthesaintsshallbesuch,namely,[356]
spiritualbodies,asSt.Paulcallsthem.
9.Nevertheless,thecontrarydoctrine,namely,thattherebeThepowerof
incorporealspirits,hathhithertosoprevailedintheChurch,thatcastingout
theuseofexorcism,(thatistosay,ofejectionofdevilsbydevils,notthe
conjuration)isthereuponbuiltand(thoughrarelyandfaintlypracsameitwas
tised)isnotyettotallygivenover.Thatthereweremanydemoniacsinthe
intheprimitiveChurch,andfewmadmen,andothersuchsingularprimitive
diseaseswhereasinthesetimeswehearof,andseemanymadmen,church.
andfewdemoniacs,proceedsnotfromthechangeofnature,butof
names.Buthowitcomestopassthatwhereasheretoforetheapos
tles,andafterthemforatime,thepastorsoftheChurch,didcure
thosesingulardiseases,whichnowtheyarenotseentodoas
likewise,whyitisnotinthepowerofeverytruebelievernow,todo
allthatthefaithfuldidthen,thatistosay,asweread(Mark16.17,
18),inChrist'snametocastoutdevils,tospeakwithnewtongues,totake
upserpents,todrinkdeadlypoisonwithoutharmtaking,andtocurethe
sickbythelayingonoftheirhands,andallthiswithoutotherwords,
butinthenameofJesus,isanotherquestion.Anditisprobable,that
thoseextraordinarygiftsweregiventotheChurch,fornolongera
time,thanmentrustedwhollytoChrist,andlookedfortheirfelicity
onlyinhiskingdomtocomeandconsequently,thatwhenthey
soughtauthority,andriches,andtrustedtotheirownsubtletyfora
kingdomofthisworld,thesesupernaturalgiftsofGodwereagain
takenfromthem.
10.AnotherrelicofGentilism,istheworshipofimages,neitherAnotherrelic
institutedbyMosesintheOld,norbyChristintheNewTestaofGentilism,
mentnoryetbroughtinfromtheGentilesbutleftamongstthem,worshipping
aftertheyhadgiventheirnamestoChrist.BeforeourSaviourofimages,
preached,itwasthegeneralreligionoftheGentiles,toworshipforleftinthe
gods,thoseappearancesthatremaininthebrainfromtheimpresChurch,not
sionofexternalbodiesupontheorgansoftheirsenses,whicharebroughtinto
commonlycalledideas,idols,phantasms,conceits,asbeingrepresenit.
tationsofthoseexternalbodies,whichcausethem,andhavenothing

inthemofreality,nomorethanthereisinthethingsthatseemto
standbeforeusinadream:andthisisthereasonwhySt.Paulsays,
(1Cor.8.4)weknowthatanidolisnothing:notthathethoughtthat
animageofmetal,stone,orwood,wasnothingbutthatthething
whichtheyhonoured,orfearedintheimage,andheldforagod,was
amerefigment,withoutplace,habitation,motion,orexistence,but
inthemotionsofthebrain.Andtheworshipofthesewithdivine
honour,isthatwhichisintheScripturecalledidolatry,andrebel
lionagainstGod.ForGodbeingKingoftheJews,andhislieuten
antbeingfirstMoses,andafterwardsthehighpriestifthepeople
hadbeenpermittedtoworship,andpraytoimages,(whichare
representationsoftheirownfancies,)theyhadhadnofurtherde
pendenceonthetrueGod,ofwhomtherecanbenosimilitudenor
[357]onhisprimeministers,Mosesandthehighpriestsbuteveryman
hadgovernedhimselfaccordingtohisownappetite,totheutter
eversion[overturning]ofthecommonwealth,andtheirownde
structionforwantofunion.AndthereforethefirstlawofGodwas,
theyshouldnottakeforgods,ALIENOSDEOS,thatis,thegodsof
othernations,butthatonlytrueGod,whovouchsafedtocommunewith
Moses,andbyhimtogivethemlawsanddirections,fortheirpeace,
andfortheftsalvationfromtheftenemies.Andthesecondwas,that
theyshouldnotmaketothemselvesanyimagetoworship,oftheft
owninvention.Foritisthesamedeposingofaking,tosubmitto
anotherking,whetherhebesetupbyaneighbournation,orby
ourselves.
Answerto11.TheplacesofScripturepretendedtocountenancethesetting
certainupofimages,toworshipthemortosetthemupatallintheplaces
seemingtextswhereGodisworshipped,arefirst,twoexamplesoneofthe
forimages.cherubimsoverthearkofGodtheotherofthebrazenserpent.
Secondly,sometextswherebywearecommandedtoworship
certaincreaturesfortheirrelationtoGodastoworshiphis
footstool.Andlastly,someothertexts,bywhichisauthorizeda
religioushonouringofholythings.ButbeforeIexaminetheforce
ofthoseplaces,toprovethatwhichispretended,Imustfirstexplain
whatistobeunderstoodbyworshipping,andwhatbyimages,and
idols.
Whatis12.Ihavealreadyshowninthe20thchapterofthisdiscourse,
worship.thattohonour,istovaluehighlythepowerofanyperson:andthat
suchvalueismeasured,byourcomparinghimwithothers.But
becausethereisnothingtobecomparedwithGodinpowerwe

Page431

honourhimnotbutdishonourhimbyanyvaluelessthaninfinite.
Andthushonourisproperlyofitsownnature,secret,andinternal
intheheart.Buttheinwardthoughtsofmen,whichappearout
wardlyintheirwordsandactions,arethesignsofourhonouring,
andthesegobythenameofworshipinLatin,cultus.Therefore,to
prayto,toswearby,toobey,tobediligent,andofficiousinserving:
insum,allwordsandactionsthatbetokenfeartooffend,ordesire
toplease,isworship,whetherthosewordsandactionsbesincere,
orfeigned:andbecausetheyappearassignsofhonouring,are
ordinarilyalsocalledhonour.
13.Theworshipweexhibittothoseweesteemtobebutmen,asDistinction
tokings,andmeninauthority,iscivilworship:buttheworshipwebetween
exhibittothatwhichwethinktobeGod,whatsoeverthewords,divineand
ceremonies,gesturesorotheractionsbe,isdivineworship.Tofallcivilworship.
prostratebeforeaking,inhimthatthinkshimbutaman,isbutcivil
worship:andhethatputtethoffhishatinthechurch,forthiscause,
thathethinkethitthehouseofGod,worshippethwithdivine
worship.Theythatseekthedistinctionofdivineandcivilworship,
notintheintentionoftheworshipper,butinthewords
,
and
,deceivethemselves.Forwhereastherebetwosortsof
servantsthatsort,whichisofthosethatareabsolutelyinthepower[358]
oftheirmasters,asslavestakeninwar,andtheirissue,whosebodies
arenotintheirownpower,(theirlivesdependingonthewilloftheir
masters,insuchmannerastoforfeitthemupontheleastdisobedi
ence,)andthatareboughtandsoldasbeasts,werecalled
,
thatisproperly,slaves,andtheirservice
:theother,which
isofthosethatserve(forhire,orinhopeofbenefitfromtheir
masters)voluntarilyarecalled
thatis,domesticservantsto
whoseservicethemastershavenofurtherright,thaniscontainedin
thecovenantsmadebetwixtthem.Thesetwokindsofservantshave
thusmuchcommontothemboth,thattheirlabourisappointed
thembyanother:andtheword
,isthegeneralnameofboth,
signifyinghimthatworkethforanother,whether,asaslave,ora
voluntaryservant.Sothat
signifiethgenerallyallservice
but
theserviceofbondmenonly,andtheconditionof
slavery:andbothareusedinScripture(tosignifyourserviceof
God)promiscuously.
,becauseweareGod'sslaves

,becauseweservehim:andinallkindsofserviceiscon
tained,notonlyobedience,butalsoworshipthatis,suchactions,
gestures,andwords,assignifyhonour.

Animage,14.Animage(inthemoststrictsignificationoftheword)isthe
what.resemblanceofsomethingvisible:inwhichsensethephantastical
Phantasms.forms,apparitions,orseemingsofvisiblebodiestothesight,are
onlyimagessuchasaretheshowofaman,orotherthinginthe
water,byreflection,orrefractionorofthesun,orstarsbydirect
visionintheairwhicharenothingrealinthethingsseen,norinthe
placewheretheyseemtobenoraretheirmagnitudesandfigures
thesamewiththatoftheobjectbutchangeable,bythevariationof
theorgansofsight,orbyglassesandarepresentoftentimesinour
imagination,andinourdreams,whentheobjectisabsentor
changedintoothercolours,andshapes,asthingsthatdependonly
uponthefancy.Andthesearetheimageswhichareoriginallyand
mostproperlycalledideas,andidols,andderivedfromthelanguage
oftheGrecians,withwhomtheword
signifiethtosee.They
alsoarecalledPHANTASMS,whichisinthesamelanguage,appari
tions.Andfromtheseimagesitis,thatoneofthefacultiesofman's
nature,iscalledtheimagination.Andfromhenceitismanifest,that
thereneitheris,norcanbe,anyimagemadeofathinginvisible.
15.Itisalsoevident,thattherecanbenoimageofathing
infinite:foralltheimages,andphantasmsthataremadebythe
impressionofthingsvisible,arefigured:butfigureisaquantity
everywaydetermined.AndthereforetherecanbenoimageofGod
norofthesoulofmannorofspiritsbutonlyofbodiesvisible,that
is,bodiesthathavelightinthemselves,orarebysuchenlightened.
Fictions.16.Andwhereasamancanfancyshapesheneversawmaking
upafigureoutofthepartsofdiverscreaturesasthepoetsmake
[359]theircentaurs,chimeras,andothermonstersneverseen:socanhe
alsogivemattertothoseshapes,andmaketheminwood,clay,or
Materialmetal.Andthesearealsocalledimages,notfortheresemblanceof
images.anycorporealthing,butfortheresemblanceofsomephantastical
inhabitantsofthebrainofthemaker.Butintheseidols,astheyare
originallyinthebrain,andastheyarepainted,carved,moulded,or
moulteninmatter,thereisasimilitudeoftheonetotheother,for
whichthematerialbodymadebyart,maybesaidtobetheimageof
thefantasticalidolmadebynature.
17.Butinalargeruseofthewordimage,iscontainedalso,any
representationofonethingbyanother.Soanearthlysovereignmay
becalledtheimageofGod:andaninferiormagistratetheimageof
anearthlysovereign.AndmanytimesintheidolatryoftheGentiles
therewaslittleregardtothesimilitudeoftheirmaterialidoltothe

Page433

idolintheirfancy,andyetitwascalledtheimageofit.Forastone
unhewnhasbeensetupforNeptune,anddiversothershapesfar
differentfromtheshapestheyconceivedoftheirgods.Andatthis
dayweseemanyimagesoftheVirginMary,andothersaints,unlike
oneanother,andwithoutcorrespondencetoanyoneman'sfancy
andyetservewellenoughforthepurposetheywereerectedfor
whichwasnomorebutbythenamesonly,torepresentthepersons
mentionedinthehistorytowhicheverymanappliethamental
imageofhisownmaking,ornoneatall.Andthusanimageinthe
largestsense,iseithertheresemblance,ortherepresentationof
somethingvisibleorbothtogether,asithappenethforthemost
part.
18.ButthenameofidolisextendedyetfurtherinScripture,to
signifyalsothesun,orastar,oranyothercreature,visibleor
invisible,whentheyareworshippedforgods.
19.Havingshownwhatisworship,andwhatanimageIwillnowIdolatry,
putthemtogether,andexaminewhatthatIDOLATRYis,whichiswhat.
forbiddeninthesecondcommandment,andotherplacesofthe
Scripture.
20.Toworshipanimage,isvoluntarilytodothoseexternalacts,
whicharesignsofhonouringeitherthematteroftheimage,which
iswood,stone,metal,orsomeothervisiblecreatureorthephan
tasmofthebrain,fortheresemblance,orrepresentationwhereof,
thematterwasformedandfiguredorbothtogether,asoneanimate
body,composedofthematterandthephantasm,asofabodyand
soul.
21.Tobeuncovered,beforeamanofpowerandauthority,or
beforethethroneofaprince,orinsuchotherplacesasheordaineth
tothatpurposeinhisabsence,istoworshipthatman,orprincewith
civilworshipasbeingasign,notofhonouringthestool,orplace,
butthepersonandisnotidolatry.Butifhethatdothit,should
supposethesouloftheprincetobeinthestool,orshouldpresenta
petitiontothestool,itweredivineworship,andidolatry.
22.Topraytoakingforsuchthings,asheisabletodoforus,[360]
thoughweprostrateourselvesbeforehim,isbutcivilworship
becauseweacknowledgenootherpowerinhim,buthuman:but
voluntarilytoprayuntohimforfairweather,orforanythingwhich
Godonlycandoforus,isdivineworship,andidolatry.Ontheother
side,ifakingcompelamantoitbytheterrorofdeath,orothergreat
corporalpunishment,itisnotidolatry:fortheworshipwhichthe

sovereigncommandethtobedoneuntohimselfbytheterrorofhis
laws,isnotasignthathethatobeyethhim,doesinwardlyhonour
himasaGod,butthatheisdesiroustosavehimselffromdeath,or
fromamiserablelifeandthatwhichisnotasignofinternalhonour,
isnoworshipandthereforenoidolatry.Neithercanitbesaid,that
hethatdoesit,scandalizeth,orlayethanystumblingblockbefore
hisbrotherbecausehowwise,orlearnedsoeverhebethat
worshippethinthatmanner,anothermancannotfromthencear
gue,thatheapprovethitbutthathedothitforfearandthatitis
nothisact,buttheactofhissovereign.
23.ToworshipGod,insomepeculiarplace,orturningaman's
facetowardsanimage,ordeterminateplace,isnottoworship,or
honourtheplace,orimagebuttoacknowledgeitholy,thatistosay,
toacknowledgetheimage,ortheplacetobesetapartfromcommon
use.Forthatisthemeaningofthewordholywhichimpliesnonew
qualityintheplace,orimagebutonlyanewrelationbyappropria
tiontoGodandthereforeisnotidolatrynomorethanitwas
idolatrytoworshipGodbeforethebrazenserpentorfortheJews,
whentheywereoutoftheirowncountry,toturntheirfaces(when
theyprayed)towardsthetempleofJerusalemorforMosestoput
offhisshoeswhenhewasbeforetheflamingbush,theground
appertainingtoMountSinai,whichplaceGodhadchosentoappear
in,andtogivehislawstothepeopleofIsrael,andwasthereforeholy
ground,notbyinherentsanctity,butbyseparationtoGod'suseor
forChristianstoworshipinthechurches,whichareoncesolemnly
dedicatedtoGodforthatpurpose,bytheauthorityoftheking,or
othertruerepresentantoftheChurch.ButtoworshipGod,as
inanimating,orinhabitingsuchimage,orplacethatistosay,in
infinitesubstanceinafiniteplace,isidolatry:forsuchfinitegods,
arebutidolsofthebrain,nothingrealandarecommonlycalledin
theScripturebythenamesofvanity,andlies,andnothing.Alsoto
worshipGod,notasinanimating,orpresentintheplace,orimage
buttotheendtobeputinmindofhim,orofsomeworksofhis,in
casetheplace,orimagebededicated,orsetupbyprivateauthority,
andnotbytheauthorityofthemthatareoursovereignpastors,is
idolatry.Forthecommandmentis,thoushaltnotmaketothyselfany
gravenimage.GodcommandedMosestosetupthebrazenserpent
hedidnotmakeittohimselfitwasnotthereforeagainstthe
commandment.ButthemakingofthegoldencalfbyAaron,and

Page435

thepeople,asbeingdonewithoutauthorityfromGod,wasidolatry[361]
notonlybecausetheyhelditforGod,butalsobecausetheymadeit
forareligioususe,withoutwarranteitherfromGodtheirsovereign,
orfromMoses,thatwashislieutenant.
24.TheGentilesworshippedforgods,Jupiter,andothersthat
living,weremenperhapsthathaddonegreatandgloriousactsand
forthechildrenofGod,diversmenandwomen,supposingthem
gottenbetweenanimmortaldeity,andamortalman.Thiswas
idolatry,becausetheymadethemsotothemselves,havingnoau
thorityfromGod,neitherinhiseternallawofreason,norinhis
positiveandrevealedwill.ButthoughourSaviourwasaman,
whomwealsobelievetobeGodimmortal,andtheSonofGodyet
thisisnoidolatrybecausewebuildnotthatbeliefuponourown
fancy,orjudgment,butupontheWordofGodrevealedinthe
Scriptures.AndfortheadorationoftheEucharist,ifthewordsof
Christ,thisismybody,signify,thathehimself,andtheseemingbread
inhishand,andnotonlyso,butthatalltheseemingmorselsofbreadthat
haveeversincebeen,andanytimehereaftershallbeconsecratedby
priests,besomanyChrist'sbodies,andyetallofthembutonebody,then
isthatnoidolatry,becauseitisauthorizedbyourSaviour:butifthat
textdonotsignifythat,(forthereisnootherthatcanbeallegedfor
it,)then,becauseitisaworshipofhumaninstitution,itisidolatry.
Foritisnotenoughtosay,Godcantransubstantiatethebreadinto
Christ'sbody:fortheGentilesalsoheldGodtobeomnipotent,and
mightuponthatgroundnolessexcusetheiridolatry,bypretending,
aswellasothers,atransubstantiationoftheirwood,andstoneinto
GodAlmighty.
25.Whereastherebe,thatpretenddivineinspirationtobethe
supernaturalenteringoftheHolyGhostintoaman,andnotan
acquisitionofGod'sgraces,bydoctrine,andstudyIthinktheyare
inaverydangerousdilemma.Foriftheyworshipnottheman
whomtheybelievetobesoinspired,theyfallintoimpietyasnot
adoringGod'ssupernaturalpresence.Andagain,iftheyworship
him,theycommitidolatryfortheapostleswouldneverpermit
themselvestobesoworshipped.Thereforethesafestwayisto
believe,thatbythedescendingofthedoveupontheapostlesandby
Christ'sbreathingonthem,whenhegavethemtheHolyGhostand
bythegivingofitbyimpositionofhands,areunderstoodthesigns
whichGodhasbeenpleasedtouse,orordaintobeused,ofhis

promisetoassistthosepersonsintheirstudytopreachhiskingdom,
andintheirconversation,thatitmightnotbescandalous,but
edifyingtoothers.
Scandalous26.Besidestheidolatrousworshipofimages,thereisalsoa
worshipofscandalousworshipofthemwhichisalsoasinbutnotidolatry.For
images.idolatryistoworshipbysignsofaninternal,andrealhonour:but
scandalousworship,isbutseemingworship,andmaysometimesbe
[362]joinedwithaninward,andheartydetestation,bothoftheimage,
andofthephantasticaldemon,oridol,towhichitisdedicatedand
proceedonlyfromthefearofdeath,orothergrievouspunishment
andisneverthelessasininthemthatsoworship,incasetheybemen
whoseactionsarelookedatbyothers,aslightstoguidethemby
becausefollowingtheirways,theycannotbutstumble,andfallin
thewayofreligion:whereastheexampleofthoseweregardnot,
worksnotonusatall,butleavesustoourowndiligenceand
cautionandconsequentlyarenocausesofourfalling.
27.Ifthereforeapastorlawfullycalledtoteachanddirectothers,
oranyother,ofwhoseknowledgethereisagreatopinion,doexter
nalhonourtoanidolforfearunlesshemakehisfear,andunwill
ingnesstoit,asevidentastheworshiphescandalizethhisbrother,
byseemingtoapproveidolatry.Forhisbrotherarguingfromthe
actionofhisteacher,orofhimwhoseknowledgeheesteemethgreat,
concludesittobelawfulinitself.Andthisscandal,issin,anda
scandalgiven.Butifonebeingnopastor,norofeminentreputation
forknowledgeinChristiandoctrine,dothesame,andanother
followhimthisisnoscandalgivenforhehadnocausetofollow
suchexample:butisapretenceofscandalwhichhetakethofhim
selfforanexcusebeforemen:foranunlearnedman,thatisinthe
powerofanidolatrousking,orstate,ifcommandedonpainofdeath
toworshipbeforeanidol,hedetesteththeidolinhisheart,hedoth
wellthoughifhehadthefortitudetosufferdeath,ratherthan
worshipit,heshoulddobetter.Butifapastor,whoasChrist's
messenger,hasundertakentoteachChrist'sdoctrinetoallnations,
shoulddothesame,itwerenotonlyasinfulscandal,inrespectof
otherChristianmen'sconsciences,butaperfidiousforsakingofhis
charge.
28.ThesumofthatwhichIhavesaidhitherto,concerningthe
worshipofimages,isthis,thathethatworshippethinanimage,or
anycreature,eitherthematterthereof,oranyfancyofhisown,
whichhethinkethtodwellinitorbothtogetherorbelieveththat

Page437

suchthingshearhisprayers,orseehisdevotions,withoutcars,or
eyes,committethidolatry:andhethatcounterfeitethsuchworship
forfearofpunishment,ifhebeamanwhoseexamplehathpower
amongsthisbrethren,committethasin.Buthethatworshippeth
theCreatoroftheworldbeforesuchanimage,orinsuchaplaceas
hehathnotmade,orchosenofhimself,buttakenfromthecom
mandmentofGod'sword,astheJewsdidinworshippingGod
beforethecherubims,andbeforethebrazenserpentforatime,and
in,ortowardstheTempleofJerusalem,whichwasalsobutfora
time,committethnotidolatry.
29.Nowfortheworshipofsaints,andimages,andrelics,and
otherthingsatthisdaypractisedintheChurchofRome,Isaythey
arenotallowedbytheWordofGod,norbroughtintotheChurch
ofRome,fromthedoctrinetheretaughtbutpartlyleftinitatthe[363]
firstconversionoftheGentilesandafterwardscountenanced,and
confirmed,andaugmentedbythebishopsofRome.
30.AsfortheproofsallegedoutofScripture,namely,thoseAnswertothe
examplesofimagesappointedbyGodtobesetuptheywerenotsetargument
upforthepeople,oranymantoworshipbutthattheyshouldporethe
worshipGodhimselfbeforethemasbeforethecherubimsoverthecherubims,
ark,andbeforethebrazenserpent.Forwereadnot,thatthepriest,andbrazen
oranyotherdidworshipthecherubimsbutcontrarilyweread(2serpent.
Kings18.4)thatHezekiahbrakeinpiecesthebrazenserpentwhich
Moseshadsetup,becausethepeopleburntincensetoit.Besides,
thoseexamplesarenotputforourimitation,thatwealsoshouldset
upimages,underpretenceofworshippingGodbeforethembe
causethewordsofthesecondcommandment,thoushaltnotmaketo
thyselfanygravenimage,&c.distinguishbetweentheimagesthat
Godcommandedtobesetup,andthosewhichwesetuptoour
selves.Andthereforefromthecherubims,orbrazenserpent,tothe
imagesofman'sdevisingandfromtheworshipcommandedby
God,tothewillworshipofmen,theargumentisnotgood.This
alsoistobeconsidered,thatasHezekiahbrakeinpiecesthebrazen
serpent,becausetheJewsdidworshipit,totheendtheyshoulddo
sonomoresoalsoChristiansovereignsoughttobreakdownthe
imageswhichtheirsubjectshavebeenaccustomedtoworshipthat
therebenomoreoccasionofsuchidolatry.Foratthisday,the
ignorantpeople,whereimagesareworshipped,doreallybelieve
thereisadivinepowerintheimagesandaretoldbytheirpastors,
thatsomeofthemhavespokenandhavebledandthatmiracles

havebeendonebythemwhichtheyapprehendasdonebythesaint,
whichtheythinkeitheristheimageitself,orinit.TheIsraelites,
whentheyworshippedthecalf,didthinktheyworshippedtheGod
thatbroughtthemoutofEgyptandyetitwasidolatry,because
theythoughtthecalfeitherwasthatGod,orhadhiminhisbelly.
Andthoughsomemanmaythinkitimpossibleforpeopletobeso
stupid,astothinktheimagetobeGod,orasaintortoworshipit
inthatnotionyetitismanifestinScripturetothecontrarywhere
whenthegoldencalfwasmade,thepeoplesaid,(Exod.32.4)These
arethygods,OIsraelandwheretheimagesofLaban(Gen.31.30)
arecalledhisgods.Andweseedailybyexperienceinallsortsof
people,thatsuchmenasstudynothingbuttheirfoodandease,are
contenttobelieveanyabsurdity,ratherthantotroublethemselves
toexamineitholdingtheirfaithasitwerebyentailunalienable,
exceptbyanexpressandnewlaw.
Paintingof31.Buttheyinferfromsomeotherplaces,thatitislawfultopaint
fanciesnoangels,andalsoGodhimself:asfromGod'swalkinginthegarden
idolatrybutfromJacob'sseeingGodatthetopoftheladderandfromother
abusingthemvisions,anddreams.Butvisions,anddreams,whethernatural,or
toreligioussupernatural,arebutphantasms:andhethatpaintethanimageof
worshipis.anyofthem,makethnotanimageofGod,butofhisownphantasm,
[364]whichis,makingofanidol.Isaynot,thattodrawapictureaftera
fancy,isasinbutwhenitisdrawn,toholditforarepresentation
ofGod,isagainstthesecondcommandmentandcanbeofnouse,
buttoworship.Andthesamemaybesaidoftheimagesofangels,
andofmendeadunlessasmonumentsoffriends,orofmenworthy
remembrance.Forsuchuseofanimage,isnotworshipoftheimage
butacivilhonouringoftheperson,notthatis,butthatwas:but
whenitisdonetotheimagewhichwemakeofasaint,fornoother
reason,butthatwethinkhehearethourprayers,andispleasedwith
thehonourwedohim,whendead,andwithoutsense,weattribute
tohimmorethanhumanpowerandthereforeitisidolatry.
32.Seeingthereforethereisnoauthority,neitherinthelawof
Moses,norintheGospel,forthereligiousworshipofimages,or
otherrepresentationsofGod,whichmensetuptothemselves
orfortheworshipoftheimageofanycreatureinheaven,orearth,
orundertheearth:andwhereasChristiankings,whoareliving
representantsofGod,arenottobeworshippedbytheirsubjects,by
anyact,thatsignifiethagreateresteemofhispower,thanthenature
ofmortalmaniscapableofitcannotbeimagined,thatthereligious

Page439

worshipnowinuse,wasbroughtintotheChurchbymisunder
standingoftheScripture.Itresteththerefore,thatitwasleftinit,
bynotdestroyingtheimagesthemselves,intheconversionofthe
Gentilesthatworshippedthem.
33.Thecausewhereof,wastheimmoderateesteem,andpricesHowidolatry
setupontheworkmanshipofthem,whichmadetheowners(thoughwasleftin
convertedfromworshippingthemastheyhaddonereligiouslyfortheChurch.
demons)toretainthemstillintheirhouses,uponpretenceofdoing
itinthehonourofChrist,oftheVirginMary,andoftheApostles,
andotherthepastorsoftheprimitiveChurchasbeingeasy,by
givingthemnewnames,tomakethatanimageoftheVirginMary,
andofhersonourSaviour,whichbeforeperhapswascalledthe
imageofVenus,andCupidandsoofaJupitertomakeaBarnabas,
andofMercuryaPaul,andthelike.Andasworldlyambition
creepingbydegreesintothepastors,drewthemtoanendeavourof
pleasingthenewmadeChristiansandalsotoalikingofthiskindof
honour,whichtheyalsomighthopeforaftertheirdecease,aswell
asthosethathadalreadygainedit:sotheworshippingoftheimages
ofChristandhisapostles,grewmoreandmoreidolatroussave
thatsomewhatafterthetimeofConstantine,diversemperors,and
bishops,andgeneralcouncils,observed,andopposedtheunlaw
fulnessthereofbuttoolate,ortooweakly.
34.Thecanonizingofsaints,isanotherrelicofGentilism:itisCanonizing
neitheramisunderstandingofScripture,noranewinventionofofsaints.
theRomanChurch,butacustomasancientasthecommonwealth
ofRomeitself.ThefirstthateverwascanonizedatRome,was
Romulus,andthatuponthenarrationofJuliusProculus,thatswore
beforethesenate,hespakewithhimafterhisdeath,andwasassured
byhim,hedweltinheaven,andwastherecalledQuirinus,and[365]
wouldbepropitioustothestateoftheirnewcity:andthereuponthe
senategavepublictestimonyofhissanctity.*JuliusCaesar,andother
emperorsafterhim,hadtheliketestimonythatis,werecanonized
forsaintsforbysuchtestimonyisCANONIZATIONnowdefinedand
isthesamewiththe
oftheheathen.
35.ItisalsofromtheRomanHeathen,thatthePopeshaveThenameof
receivedthename,andpowerofPONTIFEXMAXIMUS.ThiswasthePontifex.
nameofhimthatintheancientcommonwealthofRome,hadthe
supremeauthorityunderthesenateandpeople,ofregulatingall
ceremonies,anddoctrinesconcerningtheirreligion:andwhen
AugustusCaesarchangedthestateintoamonarchy,hetookto

himselfnomorebutthisoffice,andthatoftribuneofthepeople,
(thatistosay,thesupremepowerbothinstate,andreligion)and
thesucceedingemperorsenjoyedthesame.Butwhentheemperor
Constantinelived,whowasthefirstthatprofessedandauthorized
Christianreligion,itwasconsonanttohisprofession,tocausereli
giontoberegulated(underhisauthority)bytheBishopofRome:
thoughitdonotappeartheyhadsosoonthenameofPontifexbut
rather,thatthesucceedingbishopstookitofthemselves,tocoun
tenancethepowertheyexercisedoverthebishopsoftheRoman
provinces.ForitisnotanyprivilegeofSt.Peter,buttheprivilege
ofthecityofRome,whichtheemperorswerealwayswillingto
uphold,thatgavethemsuchauthorityoverotherbishopsasmaybe
evidentlyseenbythat,thatthebishopofConstantinople,whenthe
emperormadethatcitytheseatoftheempire,pretendedtobeequal
tothebishopofRomethoughatlast,notwithoutcontention,the
Popecarriedit,andbecamethePontifexMaximusbutinrightonly
oftheemperorandnotwithouttheboundsoftheempirenorany
where,aftertheemperorhadlosthispowerinRomethoughitwere
thePopehimselfthattookhispowerfromhim.Fromwhencewe
maybythewayobserve,thatthereisnoplaceforthesuperiorityof
thePopeoverotherbishops,exceptintheterritorieswhereofheis
himselfthecivilsovereignandwheretheemperorhavingsovereign
powercivil,hathexpresslychosenthePopeforthechiefpastor
underhimself,ofhisChristiansubjects.
Processionof36.Thecarryingaboutofimagesinprocession,isanotherrelicof
images.thereligionoftheGreeks,andRomans.Fortheyalsocarriedtheir
idolsfromplacetoplace,inakindofchariot,whichwaspeculiarly
dedicatedtothatuse,whichtheLatinscalledthensa,andvehiculum
Deorumandtheimagewasplacedinaframe,orshrine,whichthey
calledferculum:andthatwhichtheycalledpompa,isthesamethat
nowisnamedprocession.Accordingwhereunto,amongstthedivine
honourswhichweregiventoJuliusCaesarbythesenate,thiswas
one,thatinthepomp(orprocession)attheCircaeangames,he
shouldhavethensametferculum,asacredchariot,andashrine
whichwasasmuch,astobecarriedupanddownasagod:justasat
thisdaythePopesarecarriedbySwitzersunderacanopy.
[366]37.Totheseprocessionsalsobelongedthebearingofburning
Waxcandles,torches,andcandles,beforetheimagesofthegods,bothamongst
andtorchestheGreeks,andRomans.ForafterwardstheemperorsofRome
lighted.receivedthesamehonouraswereadofCaligula,*thatathis

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receptiontotheempire,hewascarriedfromMisenumtoRome,in
themidstofathrongofpeople,thewaysbesetwithaltars,and
beastsforsacrifice,andburningtorches:andofCaracalla,*thatwas
receivedintoAlexandriawithincense,andwithcastingofflowers,
and
weretheythat
amongsttheGreekscarriedtorcheslightedintheprocessionsof
theirgods.Andinprocessoftime,thedevout,butignorantpeople,
didmanytimeshonourtheirbishopswiththelikepompofwax
candles,andtheimagesofourSaviour,andthesaints,constantly,in
thechurchitself.Andthuscameintheuseofwaxcandlesandwas
alsoestablishedbysomeoftheancientCouncils.
38.Theheathenshadalsotheiraqualustralis,thatistosay,holy
water.TheChurchofRomeimitatesthemalsointheirholydays.
Theyhadtheirbacchanaliaandwehaveourwakes,answering
tothem:theytheirsaturnalia,andweourcarnivals,andShrove
Tuesday'slibertyofservants:theytheirprocessionofPriapuswe
ourfetchingin,erection,anddancingaboutMaypolesanddancing
isonekindofworship:theyhadtheirprocessioncalledAmbarvalia
andweourprocessionaboutthefieldsintheRogationweek.Nordo
Ithinkthatthesearealltheceremoniesthathavebeenleftinthe
Church,fromthefirstconversionoftheGentilesbuttheyareall
thatIcanforthepresentcalltomindandifamanwouldwell
observethatwhichisdeliveredinthehistories,concerningthe
religiousritesoftheGreeksandRomans,Idoubtnotbuthemight
findmanymoreoftheseoldemptybottlesofGentilism,whichthe
doctorsoftheRomanChurch,eitherbynegligenceorambition,
havefilledupagainwiththenewwineofChristianity,thatwillnot
failintimetobreakthem.
ChapterXLVI[367]
OfDarknessFromVainPhilosophy,andFabulousTraditions
1.Byphilosophy,*isunderstoodtheknowledgeacquiredbyreasonWhat
ing,fromthemannerofthegenerationofanything,totheproperties:orphilosophyis.
fromtheproperties,tosomepossiblewayofgenerationofthesametothe
endtobeabletoproduce,asfarasmatter,andhumanforcepermit,such
effects,ashumanliferequireth.Sothegeometrician,fromthecon

structionoffigures,findethoutmanypropertiesthereofandfrom
theproperties,newwaysoftheirconstruction,byreasoningtothe
endtobeabletomeasureland,andwaterandforinfiniteotheruses.
Sotheastronomer,fromtherising,setting,andmovingofthesun,
andstars,indiverspartsoftheheavens,findethoutthecausesofday,
andnight,andofthedifferentseasonsoftheyearwherebyhe
keepethanaccountoftimeandthelikeofothersciences.
Prudenceno2.Bywhichdefinitionitisevident,thatwearenottoaccountas
artofanypartthereof,thatoriginalknowledgecalledexperience,inwhich
philosophy.consistethprudence:becauseitisnotattainedbyreasoning,but
foundaswellinbrutebeasts,asinmanandisbutamemoryof
successionsofeventsintimespast,whereintheomissionofevery
littlecircumstancealteringtheeffect,frustrateththeexpectationof
themostprudent:whereasnothingisproducedbyreasoningaright,
butgeneral,eternal,andimmutabletruth.
Nofalse3.Norarewethereforetogivethatnametoanyfalseconclu
doctrineissions:forhethatreasonetharightinwordsheunderstandeth,can
artofneverconcludeanerror:
philosophy:4.Nortothatwhichanymanknowsbysupernaturalrevelation
Nomoreisbecauseitisnotacquiredbyreasoning:
revelation5.Northatwhichisgottenbyreasoningfromtheauthorityof
supernatural:booksbecauseitisnotbyreasoningfromthecausetotheeffect,nor
Norlearningfromtheeffecttothecauseandisnotknowledge,butfaith.
takenupon6.Thefacultyofreasoningbeingconsequenttotheuseof
creditofspeech,itwasnotpossible,butthatthereshouldhavebeensome
authors.generaltruthsfoundoutbyreasoning,asancientalmostaslanguage
Oftheitself.ThesavagesofAmerica,arenotwithoutsomegoodmoral
beginningssentencesalsotheyhavealittlearithmetic,toadd,anddividein
andprogressnumbersnottoogreat:buttheyarenot,therefore,philosophers.
ofphilosophy.Forastherewereplantsofcornandwineinsmallquantitydis
[368]persedinthefieldsandwoods,beforemenknewtheirvirtue,or
madeuseofthemfortheirnourishment,orplantedthemapartin
fields,andvineyardsinwhichtimetheyfedonacorns,anddrank
water:soalsotherehavebeendiverstrue,general,andprofitable
speculationsfromthebeginningasbeingthenaturalplantsof
humanreason.Buttheywereatfirstbutfewinnumbermenlived
upongrossexperiencetherewasnomethodthatistosay,no
sowing,norplantingofknowledgebyitself,apartfromtheweeds,
andcommonplantsoferrorandconjecture.Andthecauseofit
beingthewantofleisurefromprocuringthenecessitiesoflife,and

Page443

defendingthemselvesagainsttheirneighbours,itwasimpossible,
tilltheerectingofgreatcommonwealths,itshouldbeotherwise.
LeisureisthemotherofphilosophyandCommonwealth,themother
ofpeaceandleisure.Wherefirstweregreatandflourishingcities,
therewasfirstthestudyofphilosophy.TheGymnosophistsofIndia,
theMagiofPersia,andthePriestsofChaldeaandEgypt,are
countedthemostancientphilosophersandthosecountrieswerethe
mostancientofkingdoms.PhilosophywasnotrisentotheGrecians,
andotherpeopleofthewest,whosecommonwealths(nogreater
perhapsthanLucca,orGeneva)hadneverpeace,butwhentheir
fearsofoneanotherwereequalnortheleisuretoobserveanything
butoneanother.Atlength,whenwarhadunitedmanyofthese
Grecianlessercities,intofewer,andgreaterthenbegansevenmen,*
ofseveralpartsofGreece,togetthereputationofbeingwisesome
ofthemformoralandpoliticsentencesandothersforthelearningof
theChaldeansandEgyptians,whichwasastronomy,andgeometry.
Butwehearnotyetofanyschoolsofphilosophy.
7.AftertheAthenians,bytheoverthrowofthePersianarmies,Oftheschools
hadgottenthedominionoftheseaandthereby,ofalltheislands,ofphilosophy
andmaritimecitiesoftheArchipelago,aswellofAsiaasEuropeamongstthe
andweregrownwealthytheythathadnoemployment,neitheratAthenians.
homenorabroad,hadlittleelsetoemploythemselvesin,buteither
(asSt.Lukesays,Acts17.21),intellingandhearingnews,orin
discoursingofphilosophypubliclytotheyouthofthecity.Every
mastertooksomeplaceforthatpurpose.Platoincertainpublic
walkscalledAcademia,fromoneAcademus:Aristotleinthewalkof
thetempleofPan,calledLyceum:othersintheStoa,orcovered
walk,whereinthemerchants'goodswerebroughttoland:othersin
otherplaceswheretheyspentthetimeoftheirleisure,inteaching
orindisputingoftheiropinions:andsomeinanyplace,wherethey
couldgettheyouthtogethertohearthemtalk.Andthiswasitwhich
Carneades*alsodidatRome,whenhewasambassador:which
causedCatotoadvisethesenatetodispatchhimquickly,forfearof
corruptingthemannersoftheyoungmen,thatdelightedtohear
himspeak(astheythought)finethings.
8.Fromthisitwas,thattheplacewhereanyofthemtaught,and
disputed,wascalledschola,whichintheirtonguesignifiethleisure
andtheirdisputations,diatribae,thatistosay,passingofthetime.
Alsothephilosophersthemselveshadthenameoftheirsects,[369]
someofthemfromthesetheirSchools:fortheythatfollowed

Plato'sdoctrine,werecalledAcademicsthefollowersofAristotle
Peripatetics,fromthewalkhetaughtinandthosethatZenotaught,
Stoics,fromtheStoa:asifweshoulddenominatemenfromMoor
fields,fromPaul'sChurch,andfromtheExchange,becausetheymeet
thereoften,toprateandloiter.
9.Nevertheless,menweresomuchtakenwiththiscustom,that
intimeitspreaditselfoverallEurope,andthebestpartofAfricaso
astherewereschoolspubliclyerected,andmaintainedforlectures,
anddisputations,almostineverycommonwealth.
Oftheschools10.Therewerealsoschools,anciently,bothbefore,andafterthe
oftheJews.timeofourSaviour,amongsttheJews:buttheywereschoolsof
theirlaw.Forthoughtheywerecalledsynagogues,thatistosay,
congregationsofthepeopleyet,inasmuchasthelawwasevery
sabbathdayread,expounded,anddisputedinthem,theydiffered
notinnature,butinnameonly,frompublicschoolsandwerenot
onlyinJerusalem,butineverycityoftheGentiles,wheretheJews
inhabited.TherewassuchaschoolatDamascus,whereintoPaul
entered,topersecute.TherewereothersatAntioch,Iconium,and
Thessalonica,whereintoheentered,todispute:andsuchwasthe
synagogueoftheLibertines,Cyrenians,Alexandrians,Cilicians,and
thoseofAsiathatistosay,theschoolofLibertines,andofJewsthat
werestrangersinJerusalem:andofthisschooltheywerethatdis
puted(Acts6.9)withSt.Stephen.
Theschools11.Butwhathasbeentheutilityofthoseschools?Whatscience
oftheisthereatthisdayacquiredbytheirreadingsanddisputings?That
Grecianswehaveofgeometry,whichisthemotherofallnaturalscience,we
unprofitable.arenotindebtedforittotheschools.Platothatwasthebestphilos
opheroftheGreeks,forbadentranceintohisSchool,toallthatwere
notalreadyinsomemeasuregeometricians.Thereweremanythat
studiedthatsciencetothegreatadvantageofmankind:butthereis
nomentionoftheirschoolsnorwasthereanysectofgeometricians
nordidtheythenpassunderthenameofphilosophers.Thenatural
philosophyofthoseschools,wasratheradreamthanscience,and
setforthinsenselessandinsignificantlanguagewhichcannotbe
avoidedbythosethatwillteachphilosophy,withouthavingfirst
attainedgreatknowledgeingeometry:fornatureworkethbymo
tionthewaysanddegreeswhereofcannotbeknown,withoutthe
knowledgeoftheproportionsandpropertiesoflines,andfigures.
Theirmoralphilosophyisbutadescriptionoftheirownpassions.
Fortheruleofmanners,withoutcivilgovernment,isthelawof

Page445

natureandinit,thelawcivil,thatdeterminethwhatishonestand
dishonestwhatisjustandunjustandgenerallywhatisgoodandevil.
Whereastheymaketherulesofgood,andbad,bytheirownliking
anddisliking:bywhichmeans,insogreatdiversityoftastes,thereis
nothinggenerallyagreedonbuteveryonedoth(asfarashedares)[370]
whatsoeverseemethgoodinhisowneyes,tothesubversionof
commonwealth.Theirlogic,whichshouldbethemethodofreason
ing,isnothingelsebutcaptions[quibbles]ofwords,andinventions
howtopuzzlesuchasshouldgoabouttoposethem.Toconclude,
thereisnothingsoabsurd,thattheoldphilosophers(asCicero
saith,*whowasoneofthem)havenotsomeofthemmaintained.
AndIbelievethatscarceanythingcanbemoreabsurdlysaidin
naturalphilosophy,thanthatwhichnowiscalledAristotle'sMeta
physicsnormorerepugnanttogovernment,thanmuchofthathe
hathsaidinhisPoliticsnormoreignorantly,thanagreatpartofhis
Ethics.
12.TheschooloftheJews,wasoriginallyaschoolofthelawofTheschools
Moseswhocommanded(Deut.31.10)thatattheendofeveryoftheJews
seventhyear,attheFeastoftheTabernacles,itshouldbereadtoallunprofitable.
thepeople,thattheymighthear,andlearnit.Thereforethereading
ofthelaw(whichwasinuseafterthecaptivity)everySabbathday,
oughttohavehadnootherend,buttheacquaintingofthepeople
withtheCommandmentswhichtheyweretoobey,andtoexpound
untothemthewritingsoftheprophets.Butitismanifest,bythe
manyreprehensionsofthembyourSaviour,thattheycorruptedthe
textofthelawwiththeirfalsecommentaries,andvaintraditions
andsolittleunderstoodtheprophets,thattheydidneitheracknow
ledgeChrist,northeworkshedidofwhichtheprophetsproph
esied.Sothatbytheirlecturesanddisputationsintheirsynagogues,
theyturnedthedoctrineoftheirlawintoafantasticalkindof
philosophy,concerningtheincomprehensiblenatureofGod,andof
spiritswhichtheycompoundedofthevainphilosophyandtheo
logyoftheGrecians,mingledwiththeirownfancies,drawnfrom
theobscurerplacesoftheScripture,andwhichmightmosteasilybe
wrestedtotheirpurposeandfromthefabuloustraditionsoftheir
ancestors.
13.ThatwhichisnowcalledanUniversity,isajoiningtogether,University,
andanincorporationunderonegovernmentofmanypublicschools,whatitis.
inoneandthesametownorcity.Inwhich,theprincipalschools
wereordainedforthethreeprofessions,thatistosay,oftheRoman

religion,oftheRomanlaw,andoftheartofmedicine.Andforthe
studyofphilosophyithathnootherwiseplace,thanasahandmaid
totheRomanreligion:andsincetheauthorityofAristotleisonly
currentthere,thatstudyisnotproperlyphilosophy,(thenature
whereofdependethnotonauthors,)butAristotelity.Andforgeo
metry,tillofverylatetimesithadnoplaceatallasbeingsubservi
enttonothingbutrigidtruth.Andifanymanbytheingenuityofhis
ownnature,hadattainedtoanydegreeofperfectiontherein,hewas
commonlythoughtamagician,andhisartdiabolical.
[371]14.Nowtodescendtotheparticulartenetsofvainphilosophy,
ErrorsderivedtotheUniversities,andthenceintotheChurch,partlyfrom
broughtintoAristotle,partlyfromblindnessofunderstandingIshallfirstcon
religionfromsidertheseprinciples.Thereisacertainphilosophiaprima,onwhich
Aristotle'sallotherphilosophyoughttodependandconsistethprincipally,in
metaphysics.rightlimitingofthesignificationsofsuchappellations,ornames,as
areofallothersthemostuniversalwhichlimitationsservetoavoid
ambiguityandequivocationinreasoningandarecommonlycalled
definitions:*suchasarethedefinitionsofbody,time,place,matter,
form,essence,subject,substance,accident,power,act,finite,infi
nite,quantity,quality,motion,action,passion,anddiversothers,
necessarytotheexplainingofaman'sconceptionsconcerningthe
natureandgenerationofbodies.Theexplication(thatis,thesettling
ofthemeaning)ofwhich,andtheliketerms,iscommonlyinthe
Schoolscalledmetaphysicsasbeingapartofthephilosophyof
Aristotle,whichhaththatfortitle:butitisinanothersensefor
thereitsignifiethasmuchasbookswrittenorplacedafterhisnatural
philosophy:buttheSchoolstakethemforbooksofsupernaturalphilo
sophy:forthewordmetaphysicswillbearboththesesenses.And
indeedthatwhichistherewritten,isforthemostpartsofarfrom
thepossibilityofbeingunderstood,andsorepugnanttonatural
reason,thatwhosoeverthinkeththereisanythingtobeunderstood
byit,mustneedsthinkitsupernatural.
Errors15.*Fromthesemetaphysics,whicharemingledwiththeScrip
concerningturetomakeSchooldivinity,wearetold,therebeintheworld
abstractcertainessencesseparatedfrombodies,whichtheycallabstract
essences,andsubstantialforms:fortheinterpretingofwhichjargon,
thereisneedofsomewhatmorethanordinaryattentioninthis
place.AlsoIaskpardonofthosethatarenotusedtothiskindof
discourse,forapplyingmyselftothosethatare.Theworld,(Imean
nottheearthonly,thatdenominatestheloversofitworldlymen,but

Page447

theuniverse,thatis,thewholemassofallthingsthatare),iscor
poreal,thatistosay,bodyandhaththedimensionsofmagnitude,
namely,length,breadth,anddepth:alsoeverypartofbody,is
likewisebody,andhaththelikedimensionsandconsequentlyevery
partoftheuniverse,isbody,andthatwhichisnotbody,isnopart
oftheuniverse:andbecausetheuniverseisall,thatwhichisnopart
ofit,isnothingandconsequentlynowhere.Nordoesitfollowfrom
hence,thatspiritsarenothing:fortheyhavedimensions,andare
thereforereallybodiesthoughthatnameincommonspeechbe
giventosuchbodiesonly,asarevisible,orpalpablethatis,that
havesomedegreeofopacity:butforspirits,theycallthemincor
porealwhichisanameofmorehonour,andmaythereforewith
morepietybeattributedtoGodhimselfinwhomweconsidernot
whatattributeexpressethbesthisnature,whichisincomprehensi
blebutwhatbestexpressethourdesiretohonourHim.
16.Toknownowuponwhatgroundstheysaytherebeessences[372]
abstract,orsubstantialforms,wearetoconsiderwhatthosewordsdo
properlysignify.Theuseofwords,istoregistertoourselves,and
makemanifesttoothersthethoughtsandconceptionsofourminds.
Ofwhichwords,somearethenamesofthethingsconceivedasthe
namesofallsortsofbodies,thatworkuponthesenses,andleavean
impressionintheimagination:othersarethenamesoftheimagin
ationsthemselvesthatistosay,ofthoseideas,ormentalimageswe
haveofallthingswesee,orremember:andothersagainarenames
ofnamesorofdifferentsortsofspeech:asuniversal,plural,singular,
arethenamesofnamesanddefinition,affirmation,negation,true,
false,syllogism,interrogation,promise,covenant,arethenamesof
certainformsofspeech.Othersservetoshowtheconsequence,or
repugnanceofonenametoanotheraswhenonesaith,amanisa
body,heintendeththatthenameofbodyisnecessarilyconsequentto
thenameofmanasbeingbutseveralnamesofthesamething,man
whichconsequenceissignifiedbycouplingthemtogetherwiththe
wordis.Andasweusetheverbis,sotheLatinsusetheirverbest,
andtheGreekstheir
throughallitsdeclinations.Whetherall
othernationsoftheworldhaveintheirseverallanguagesawordthat
answerethtoit,ornot,IcannottellbutIamsuretheyhavenot
needofit.Fortheplacingoftwonamesinordermayservetosignify
theirconsequence,ifitwerethecustom,(forcustomisit,thatgives
wordstheirforce,)aswellasthewordsis,orbe,orare,andthelike.
17.Andifitwereso,thattherewerealanguagewithoutanyverb

answerabletoest,oris,orbeyetthementhatuseditwouldbenot
ajotthelesscapableofinferring,concluding,andofallkindof
reasoning,thanweretheGreeks,andLatins.Butwhatthenwould
becomeoftheseterms,ofentity,essence,essential,essentiality,that
arederivedfromit,andofmanymorethandependonthese,applied
asmostcommonlytheyare?Theyarethereforenonamesofthings
butsigns,bywhichwemakeknown,thatweconceivetheconse
quenceofonenameorattributetoanother:aswhenwesay,aman,
is,alivingbody,wemeannotthatthemanisonething,theliving
bodyanother,andtheis,orbeingathird:butthattheman,andthe
livingbody,isthesamethingbecausetheconsequence,ifhebea
man,heisalivingbody,isatrueconsequence,signifiedbythatword
is.Therefore,tobeabody,towalk,tobespeaking,tolive,tosee,and
thelikeinfinitivesalsocorporeity,walking,speaking,life,sight,and
thelike,thatsignifyjustthesame,arethenamesofnothingasIhave
elsewhere*moreamplyexpressed.
18.Buttowhatpurpose(maysomemansay)issuchsubtletyin
aworkofthisnature,whereIpretendtonothingbutwhatis
necessarytothedoctrineofgovernmentandobedience?Itistothis
[373]purpose,thatmenmaynolongersufferthemselvestobeabused,by
them,thatbythisdoctrineofseparatedessences,builtonthevain
philosophyofAristotle,wouldfrightthemfromobeyingthelawsof
theircountry,withemptynamesasmenfrightbirdsfromthecorn
withanemptydoublet,ahat,andacrookedstick.Foritisuponthis
ground,thatwhenamanisdeadandburied,theysayhissoul(that
ishislife)canwalkseparatedfromhisbody,andisseenbynight
amongstthegraves.Uponthesamegroundtheysay,thatthefigure,
andcolour,andtasteofapieceofbread,hasabeing,there,where
theysaythereisnobread:anduponthesamegroundtheysay,that
faith,andwisdom,andothervirtues,aresometimespouredintoa
man,sometimesblownintohimfromHeavenasifthevirtuousand
theirvirtuescouldbeasunderandagreatmanyotherthingsthat
servetolessenthedependenceofsubjectsonthesovereignpowerof
theircountry.Forwhowillendeavourtoobeythelaws,ifheexpect
obediencetobepouredorblownintohim?Orwhowillnotobeya
priest,thatcanmakeGod,ratherthanhissovereignnaythanGod
himself?Orwho,thatisinfearofghosts,willnotbeargreatrespect
tothosethatcanmaketheholywater,thatdrivesthemfromhim?
Andthisshallsufficeforanexampleoftheerrors,whicharebrought
intotheChurch,fromtheentitiesandessencesofAristotle:whichit

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maybeheknewtobefalsephilosophybutwrititasathing
consonantto,andcorroborativeoftheirreligionandfearingthefate
ofSocrates.
19.Beingoncefallenintothiserrorofseparatedessences,theyare
therebynecessarilyinvolvedinmanyotherabsurditiesthatfollowit.
Forseeingtheywillhavetheseformstobereal,theyareobligedto
assignthemsomeplace.Butbecausetheyholdthemincorporeal,
withoutalldimensionofquantity,andallmenknowthatplaceis
dimension,andnottobefilled,butbythatwhichiscorporealthey
aredriventoupholdtheircreditwithadistinction,thattheyarenot
indeedanywherecircumscriptive,butdefinitive:whichtermsbeing
merewords,andinthisoccasioninsignificant,passonlyinLatin,
thatthevanityofthemmaybeconcealed.Forthecircumscription
ofathing,isnothingelsebutthedetermination,ordefiningofits
placeandsoboththetermsofthedistinctionarethesame.Andin
particular,oftheessenceofaman,which(theysay)ishissoul,they
affirmit,tobeallofitinhislittlefinger,andallofitineveryother
part(howsmallsoever)ofhisbodyandyetnomoresoulinthe
wholebody,thaninanyoneofthoseparts.*Cananymanthinkthat
Godisservedwithsuchabsurdities?Andyetallthisisnecessaryto
believe,tothosethatwillbelievetheexistenceofanincorporeal
soul,separatedfromthebody.
20.Andwhentheycometogiveaccounthowanincorporeal
substancecanbecapableofpain,andbetormentedinthefireofhell
orpurgatory,theyhavenothingatalltoanswer,butthatitcannotbe
knownhowfirecanburnsouls.*
21.Again,whereasmotionischangeofplace,andincorporeal[374]
substancesarenotcapableofplace,theyaretroubledtomakeit
seempossible,howasoulcangohence,withoutthebody,toheaven,
hell,orpurgatoryandhowtheghostsofmen(andImayaddof
theirclotheswhichtheyappearin)canwalkbynightinchurches,
churchyards,andotherplacesofsepulture.TowhichIknownot
whattheycananswer,unlesstheywillsay,theywalkdefinitiv,not
circumscriptiv,orspiritually,nottemporally:forsuchegregiousdis
tinctionsareequallyapplicabletoanydifficultywhatsoever.
22.Forthemeaningofeternity,theywillnothaveittobeanNuncstans.
endlesssuccessionoftimeforthentheyshouldnotbeableto
renderareasonhowGod'swill,andpreordainingofthingsto
come,shouldnotbebeforehisprescienceofthesame,astheef
ficientcausebeforetheeffect,oragentbeforetheactionnorof

manyothertheirboldopinionsconcerningtheincomprehensible
natureofGod.Buttheywillteachus,thateternityisthestanding
stillofthepresenttime,anuncstans,astheSchoolscallitwhich
neitherthey,noranyelseunderstand,nomorethantheywoulda
hicstansforaninfinitegreatnessofplace.
Onebodyin23.Andwhereasmendivideabodyintheirthought,bynumber
manyplaces,ingpartsofit,and,innumberingthoseparts,numberalsotheparts
andmanyoftheplaceitfilleditcannotbe,butinmakingmanyparts,wemake
bodiesinonealsomanyplacesofthosepartswherebytherecannotbeconceived
placeatonce.inthemindofanyman,more,orfewerparts,thanthereareplaces
for:yettheywillhaveusbelieve,thatbytheAlmightypowerof
God,onebodymaybeatoneandthesametimeinmanyplacesand
manybodiesatoneandthesametimeinoneplace:asifitwerean
acknowledgmentoftheDivinePowertosay,thatwhichis,isnotor
thatwhichhasbeen,hasnotbeen.Andthesearebutasmallpartof
theincongruitiestheyareforcedto,fromtheirdisputingphilo
sophically,insteadofadmiring,andadoringofthedivineandin
comprehensiblenature*whoseattributescannotsignifywhatheis,
butoughttosignifyourdesiretohonourhim,withthebestappel
lationswecanthinkon.Buttheythatventuretoreasonofhis
nature,fromtheseattributesofhonour,losingtheirunderstanding
intheveryfirstattempt,fallfromoneinconvenienceintoanother,
withoutend,andwithoutnumberinthesamemanner,aswhena
manignorantoftheceremoniesofcourt,comingintothepresence
ofagreaterpersonthanheisusedtospeakto,andstumblingathis
entrance,tosavehimselffromfalling,letssliphiscloaktorecover
hiscloak,letsfallhishatandwithonedisorderafteranother,
discovershisastonishmentandrusticity.
Absurditiesin24.Thenforphysics,thatis,theknowledgeofthesubordinate
naturalandsecondarycausesofnaturaleventstheyrendernoneatall,but
philosophy,asemptywords.Ifyoudesiretoknowwhysomekindofbodiessink
gravitythenaturallydownwardstowardtheearth,andothersgonaturallyfrom
causeofittheSchoolswilltellyououtofAristotle,thatthebodiesthatsink
heaviness.downwards,areheavyandthatthisheavinessisitthatcausesthem
[375]todescend:butifyouaskwhattheymeanbyheaviness,theywill
defineittobeanendeavourtogotothecentreoftheearth:sothat
thecausewhythingssinkdownward,isanendeavourtobebelow:
whichisasmuchastosay,thatbodiesdescend,orascend,because
theydo.Ortheywilltellyouthecentreoftheearthistheplaceof
rest,andconservationforheavythingsandthereforetheyendeav

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ourtobethere:asifstonesandmetalshadadesire,orcoulddiscern
theplacetheywouldbeat,asmandoesorlovedrest,asmandoes
notorthatapieceofglasswerelesssafeinthewindow,thanfalling
intothestreet.
25.Ifwewouldknowwhythesamebodyseemsgreater(withoutQuantityput
addingtoit)onetime,thananothertheysay,whenitseemsless,itintobody
iscondensedwhengreater,rarefied.Whatisthatcondensed,andalready
rarefied?Condensed,iswhenthereisintheverysamematter,lessmade.
quantitythanbeforeandrarefied,whenmore.Asiftherecouldbe
matter,thathadnotsomedeterminedquantitywhenquantityis
nothingelsebutthedeterminationofmatterthatistosay,ofbody,
bywhichwesayonebodyisgreater,orlesserthananother,bythus,
orthusmuch.Orasifabodyweremadewithoutanyquantityatall,
andthatafterwardsmore,orlesswereputintoit,accordingasitis
intendedthebodyshouldbemore,orlessdense.
26.Forthecauseofthesoulofman,theysay,creaturinfundendo,Pouringinof
andcreandoinfunditur:thatis,itiscreatedbypouringitin,andpouredsouls.
inbycreation.
27.Forthecauseofsense,anubiquityofspeciesthatis,oftheUbiquityof
showsorapparitionsofobjectswhichwhentheybeapparitionstoapparition.
theeye,issightwhentotheear,hearingtothepalate,tastetothe
nostril,smellingandtotherestofthebody,feeling.
28.Forcauseofthewill,todoanyparticularaction,whichisWill,the
calledvolitio,theyassignthefaculty,thatistosay,thecapacityincauseof
general,thatmenhave,towillsometimesonething,sometimeswilling.
another,whichiscalledvoluntasmakingthepowerthecauseofthe
act:asifoneshouldassignforcauseofthegoodorevilactsofmen,
theirabilitytodothem.
29.Andinmanyoccasionstheyputforcauseofnaturalevents,Sympathy,
theirownignorancebutdisguisedinotherwords:aswhentheysay,antipathy,
fortuneisthecauseofthingscontingentthatis,ofthingswhereofandother
theyknownocause:andaswhentheyattributemanyeffectstooccult
occultqualitiesthatis,qualitiesnotknowntothemandthereforequalities.
also(astheythink)tonomanelse.Andtosympathy,antipathy,
antiperistasis,specificalqualities,andotherliketerms,whichsignify
neithertheagentthatproduceththem,northeoperationbywhich
theyareproduced.
30.Ifsuchmetaphysics,andphysicsasthis,benotvainphilosophy,[376]
therewasneveranynorneededSt.Paultogiveuswarningtoavoid
it.

Andthat31.Andfortheirmoral,andcivilphilosophy,ithaththesame,or
onemakesgreaterabsurdities.Ifamandoanactionofinjustice,thatistosay,
thethingsanactioncontrarytothelaw,Godtheysayistheprimecauseofthe
incongruent,law,andalsotheprimecauseofthat,andallotheractionsbutno
andanothercauseatalloftheinjusticewhichistheinconformityoftheaction
thetothelaw.Thisisvainphilosophy.Amanmightaswellsay,that
incongruity.onemanmakethbothastraightline,andacrooked,andanother
makeththeirincongruity.Andsuchisthephilosophyofallmenthat
resolveoftheirconclusions,beforetheyknowtheirpremisespre
tendingtocomprehend,thatwhichisincomprehensibleandof
attributesofhonourtomakeattributesofnatureasthisdistinction
wasmadetomaintainthedoctrineoffreewill,thatis,ofawillof
man,notsubjecttothewillofGod.
Andthat32.*Aristotle,andotherheathenphilosophersdefinegood,and
privateevil,bytheappetiteofmenandwellenough,aslongasweconsider
appetitethethemgovernedeveryonebyhisownlaw:forintheconditionofmen
ruleofpublicthathavenootherlawbuttheirownappetites,therecanbeno
goodandgeneralruleofgood,andevilactions.Butinacommonwealththis
evil.measureisfalse:nottheappetiteofprivatemen,butthelaw,which
isthewillandappetiteofthestateisthemeasure.Andyetisthis
doctrinestillpractisedandmenjudgethegoodness,orwickedness
oftheirown,andofothermen'sactions,andoftheactionsofthe
commonwealthitself,bytheirownpassionsandnomancalleth
goodorevil,butthatwhichissoinhisowneyes,withoutanyregard
atalltothepubliclawsexceptonlymonks,andfriars,thatare
boundbyvowtothatsimpleobediencetotheirsuperior,towhich
everysubjectoughttothinkhimselfboundbythelawofnatureto
thecivilsovereign.Andthisprivatemeasureofgood,isadoctrine,
notonlyvain,butalsopernicioustothepublicstate.
Andthat33.Itisalsovainandfalsephilosophy,tosaytheworkofmar
lawfulriageisrepugnanttochastity,orcontinence,andbyconsequenceto
marriageismakethemmoralviceastheydo,thatpretendchastity,andconti
incontinence.nence,forthegroundofdenyingmarriagetotheclergy.Forthey
confessitisnomore,butaconstitutionoftheChurch,that
requirethinthoseholyordersthatcontinuallyattendthealtar,and
administrationoftheeucharist,acontinualabstinencefromwomen,
underthenameofcontinualchastity,continence,andpurity.
Thereforetheycallthelawfuluseofwives,wantofchastity,and
continenceandsomakemarriageasin,oratleastathingsoimpure,
andunclean,astorenderamanunfitforthealtar.Ifthelawwere

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madebemusetheuseofwivesisincontinence,andcontraryto
chastity,thenallmarriageisvice:ifbecauseitisathingtooimpure,
anduncleanforamanconsecratedtoGodmuchmoreshouldother
natural,necessary,anddailyworkswhichallmendo,rendermen
unworthytobepriests,bemusetheyaremoreunclean.[377]
34.Butthesecretfoundationofthisprohibitionofmarriageof
priests,isnotlikelytohavebeenlaidsoslightly,asuponsucherrors
inmoralphilosophynoryetuponthepreferenceofsinglelife,to
theestateofmatrimonywhichproceededfromthewisdomofSt.
Paul,whoperceivedhowinconvenientathingitwas,forthosethat
inthosetimesofpersecutionwerepreachersofthegospel,and
forcedtoflyfromonecountrytoanother,tobecloggedwiththecare
ofwifeandchildrenbutuponthedesignofthePopes,andpriests
ofaftertimes,tomakethemselvestheclergy,thatistosay,soleheirs
ofthekingdomofGodinthisworldtowhichitwasnecessaryto
takefromthemtheuseofmarriage,bemuseourSavioursaith,that
atthecomingofhiskingdomthechildrenofGodshallneithermarry,
norbegiveninmarriage,butshallbeastheangelsinheaventhatisto
say,spiritual.Seeingthentheyhadtakenonthemthenameof
spiritual,tohaveallowedthemselves(whentherewasnoneed)the
proprietyofwives,hadbeenanincongruity.
35.FromAristotle'scivilphilosophy,theyhavelearned,tocallAndthatall
allmannerofcommonwealthsbutthepopular,(suchaswasatthatgovernment
timethestateofAthens),tyranny.Allkingstheycalledtyrantsbutpopularis
andthearistocracyofthethirtygovernorssetuptherebythetyranny.
Lacedemoniansthatsubduedthem,thethirtytyrants:*asalsoto
calltheconditionofthepeopleunderthedemocracy,liberty.A
tyrantoriginallysignifiednomoresimply,butamonarch:butwhen
afterwardsinmostpartsofGreecethatkindofgovernmentwas
abolished,thenamebegantosignify,notonlythethingitdid
before,butwithit,thehatredwhichthepopularstatesbaretowards
it.Asalsothenameofkingbecameodiousafterthedeposingofthe
kingsinRome,asbeingathingnaturaltoallmen,toconceivesome
greatfaulttobesignifiedinanyattribute,thatisgivenindespite,
andtoagreatenemy.Andwhenthesamemenshallbedispleased
withthosethathavetheadministrationofthedemocracy,oraristo
cracy,theyarenottoseekfordisgracefulnamestoexpresstheir
angerinbutcallreadilytheoneanarchy,andtheother,oligarchy,or
thetyrannyofafew.Andthatwhichoffendeththepeople,isno
otherthing,butthattheyaregoverned,notaseveryoneofthem

wouldhimself,butasthepublicrepresentant,beitoneman,oran
assemblyofmenthinksfitthatis,byanarbitrarygovernment:for
whichtheygiveevilnamestotheirsuperiorsneverknowing(till
perhapsalittleafteracivilwar)thatwithoutsucharbitrarygovern
ment,suchwarmustbeperpetualandthatitismen,andarms,not
wordsandpromises,thatmaketheforceandpowerofthelaws.
Thatnot36.AndthereforethisisanothererrorofAristotle'spolitics,that
men,butlawinawellorderedcommonwealth,notmenshouldgovern,butthe
governs.laws.Whatman,thathashisnaturalsenses,thoughhecanneither
[378]writenorread,doesnotfindhimselfgovernedbythemhefears,and
believescankillorhurthimwhenheobeyethnot?Orthatbelieves
thelawcanhurthimthatis,words,andpaper,withoutthehands
andswordsofmen?Andthisisofthenumberofperniciouserrors:
fortheyinducemen,asoftastheylikenottheirgovernors,toadhere
tothosethatcallthemtyrants,andtothinkitlawfultoraisewar
againstthem:andyettheyaremanytimescherishedfromthe
pulpit,bytheclergy.
Lawsover37.Thereisanothererrorintheircivilphilosophy(whichthey
theneverlearnedofAristotle,norCicero,noranyotheroftheheathen,)
conscience.toextendthepowerofthelaw,whichistheruleofactionsonly,to
theverythoughtsandconsciencesofmen,byexamination,and
inquisitionofwhattheyhold,notwithstandingtheconformityof
theirspeechandactions:bywhich,menareeitherpunishedfor
answeringthetruthoftheirthoughts,orconstrainedtoansweran
untruthforfearofpunishment.Itistrue,thatthecivilmagistrate,
intendingtoemployaministerinthechargeofteaching,may
enquireofhim,ifhebecontenttopreachsuch,andsuchdoctrines
andincaseofrefusal,maydenyhimtheemployment.Buttoforce
himtoaccusehimselfofopinions,whenhisactionsarenotbylaw
forbidden,isagainstthelawofnatureandespeciallyinthem,who
teach,thatamanshallbedamnedtoeternalandextremetorments,
ifhedieinafalseopinionconcerninganarticleoftheChristian
faith.Forwhoisthere,thatknowingthereissogreatdangerinan
error,whomthenaturalcareofhimself,compellethnottohazard
hissouluponhisownjudgment,ratherthanthatofanyotherman
Thatprivatethatisunconcernedinhisdamnation?
menmay38.Foraprivateman,withouttheauthorityofthecommon
interpretthewealth,thatistosay,withoutpermissionfromtherepresentant
lawastheythereof,tointerpretthelawbyhisownspirit,isanothererrorinthe
please.politicsbutnotdrawnfromAristotle,norfromanyotherofthe

Page455

heathenphilosophers.Fornoneofthemdeny,butthatinthepower
ofmakinglaws,iscomprehendedalsothepowerofexplainingthem
whenthereisneed.AndarenottheScriptures,inallplaceswhere
theyarelaw,madelawbytheauthorityofthecommonwealth,and
consequently,apartofthecivillaw?
39.Ofthesamekinditisalso,whenanybutthesovereign
restrainethinanymanthatpowerwhichthecommonwealthhath
notrestrainedastheydo,thatimpropriatethepreachingofthe
gospeltoonecertainorderofmen,wherethelawshaveleftitfree.
Ifthestategivemeleavetopreach,orteachthatis,ifitforbidme
not,nomancanforbidme.IfIfindmyselfamongsttheidolatersof
America,shallIthatamaChristian,thoughnotinorders,thinkit
asintopreachJesusChrist,tillIhavereceivedordersfromRome?
OrwhenIhavepreached,shallnotIanswertheirdoubts,and
expoundtheScripturestothemthatis,shallInotteach?Butfor
thismaysomesay,asalsoforadministeringtothemthesacraments,[379]
thenecessityshallbeesteemedforasufficientmissionwhichis
true:butthisistruealso,thatforwhatsoever,adispensationisdue
forthenecessity,forthesamethereneedsnodispensation,when
thereisnolawthatforbidsit.Thereforetodenythesefunctionsto
those,towhomthecivilsovereignhathnotdeniedthem,isataking
awayofalawfulliberty,whichiscontrarytothedoctrineofcivil
government.
40.Moreexamplesofvainphilosophy,broughtintoreligionbyLanguageof
thedoctorsofSchooldivinity,mightbeproducedbutothermenSchool
mayiftheypleaseobservethemofthemselves.Ishallonlyaddthis,divines.
thatthewritingsofSchooldivines,arenothingelseforthemost
part,butinsignificanttrainsofstrangeandbarbarouswords,or
wordsotherwiseused,thaninthecommonuseoftheLatintongue
suchaswouldposeCicero,andVarro,andallthegrammariansof
ancientRome.Whichifanymanwouldseeproved,lethim(asI
havesaidoncebefore)seewhetherhecantranslateanySchool
divineintoanyofthemoderntongues,asFrench,English,orany
othercopiouslanguage:forthatwhichcannotinmostofthese
bemadeintelligible,isnotintelligibleintheLatin.Whichinsig
nificancyoflanguage,thoughIcannotnoteitforfalsephilosophy
yetithathaquality,notonlytohidethetruth,butalsotomake
menthinktheyhaveit,anddesistfromfurthersearch.
41.Lastly,fortheerrorsbroughtinfromfalse,oruncertainErrorsfrom
history,whatisallthelegendoffictitiousmiracles,inthelivesofthetradition.

saintsandallthehistoriesofapparitions,andghosts,allegedbythe
doctorsoftheRomanChurch,tomakegoodtheirdoctrinesofhell,
andpurgatory,thepowerofexorcism,andotherdoctrineswhich
havenowarrant,neitherinreason,norScriptureasalsoallthose
traditionswhichtheycalltheunwrittenwordofGodbutoldwives'
fables?Whereof,thoughtheyfinddispersedsomewhatinthewrit
ingsoftheancientfathersyetthosefathersweremen,thatmight
tooeasilybelievefalsereportsandtheproducingoftheiropinions
fortestimonyofthetruthofwhattheybelieved,hathnootherforce
withthemthat(accordingtothecounselofSt.John,1John4.1)
examinespirits,thaninallthingsthatconcernthepowerofthe
RomanChurch,(theabusewhereofeithertheysuspectednot,or
hadbenefitbyit,)todiscredittheirtestimony,inrespectoftoorash
beliefofreportswhichthemostsinceremen,withoutgreatknow
ledgeofnaturalcauses,(suchasthefatherswere)arecommonlythe
mostsubjectto.Fornaturally,thebestmenaretheleastsuspicious
offraudulentpurposes.GregorythePope,andSt.Bernardhave
somewhatofapparitionsofghosts,thatsaidtheywereinpurgatory
andsohasourBede:butnowhere,Ibelieve,butbyreportfrom
others.Butifthey,oranyother,relateanysuchstoriesoftheirown
knowledge,theyshallnottherebyconfirmthemoresuchvainre
portsbutdiscovertheirowninfirmity,orfraud.
[380]42.Withtheintroductionoffalse,wemayjoinalsothesup
Suppressionpressionoftruephilosophy,bysuchmen,asneitherbylawful
ofreason.authority,norsufficientstudy,arecompetentjudgesofthetruth.
Ourownnavigationsmakemanifest,andallmenlearnedinhuman
sciences,nowacknowledgethereareantipodes:andeverydayit
appearethmoreandmore,thatyears,anddaysaredeterminedby
motionsoftheearth.Nevertheless,men*thathaveintheirwritings
butsupposedsuchdoctrine,asanoccasiontolayopenthereasons
for,andagainstit,havebeenpunishedforitbyauthorityecclesias
tical.Butwhatreasonisthereforit?Isitbecausesuchopinionsare
contrarytotruereligion?Thatcannotbe,iftheybetrue.*
Letthereforethetruthbefirstexaminedbycompetentjudges,or
confutedbythemthatpretendtoknowthecontrary.Isitbemuse
theybecontrarytothereligionestablished?Letthembesilencedby
thelawsofthose,towhomtheteachersofthemaresubjectthatis,
bythelawscivil.Fordisobediencemaylawfullybepunishedin
them,thatagainstthelawsteacheventruephilosophy.Isitbecause
theytendtodisorderingovernment,ascountenancingrebellion,or

Page457

sedition?Thenletthembesilenced,andtheteacherspunishedby
virtueofhispowertowhomthecareofthepublicquietiscommit
tedwhichistheauthoritycivil.Forwhatsoeverpowerecclesiastics
takeuponthemselves(inanyplacewheretheyaresubjecttothe
state)intheirownright,thoughtheycallitGod'sright,isbut
usurpation.
ChapterXLVII[381]
OftheBenefitThatProceedethfromSuchDarkness,andToWhomItAccrueth
1.Ciceromakethhonourablemention*ofoneoftheCassii,aHethat
severejudgeamongsttheRomans,foracustomhehad,incriminalreceiveth
causes,(whenthetestimonyofthewitnesseswasnotsufficient,)tobenefitby
asktheaccusers,cuibonothatistosay,whatprofit,honour,orotherafact,is
contentment,theaccusedobtained,orexpectedbythefact.Forpresumedto
amongstpresumptions,thereisnonethatsoevidentlydeclareththebetheauthor.
author,asdoththebenefitoftheaction.BythesameruleIintendin
thisplacetoexamine,whotheymaybe,thathavepossessedthe
peoplesolonginthispartofChristendom,withthesedoctrines,
contrarytothepeaceablesocietiesofmankind.
2.Andfirst,tothiserror,thatthepresentChurchnowmilitantonThatthe
earth,isthekingdomofGod,(thatis,thekingdomofglory,ortheChurch
landofpromisenotthekingdomofgrace,whichisbutapromiseofmilitantisthe
theland),areannexedtheseworldlybenefitsfirst,thatthepastors,kingdomof
andteachersoftheChurch,areentitledthereby,asGod'spublicGod,was
ministers,toarightofgoverningtheChurchandconsequentlybyfirsttaught
(becausetheChurch,andcommonwealtharethesamepersons)tothe
berectors,andgovernorsofthecommonwealth.Bythistitleitis,Churchof
thatthePopeprevailedwiththesubjectsofallChristianprinces,toRome:
believe,thattodisobeyhim,wastodisobeyChristhimselfandinall
differencesbetweenhimandotherprinces,(charmedwiththeword
powerspiritual,)toabandontheirlawfulsovereignswhichisin
effectanuniversalmonarchyoverallChristendom.Forthoughthey
werefirstinvestedintherightofbeingsupremeteachersofChris
tiandoctrine,byandunderChristianemperors,withinthelimitsof
theRomanempire(asisacknowledgedbythemselves)bythetitleof
PontifexMaximus,whowasanofficersubjecttothecivilstateyet

aftertheempirewasdivided,anddissolved,itwasnothardto
obtrudeuponthepeoplealreadysubjectedtothem,anothertitle,
namely,therightofSt.Peternotonlytosaveentiretheirpretended
powerbutalsotoextendthesameoverthesameChristianprov
inces,thoughnomoreunitedintheempireofRome.Thisbenefitof
anuniversalmonarchy,(consideringthedesireofmentobearrule)
isasufficientpresumption,thatthePopesthatpretendedtoit,and
foralongtimeenjoyedit,weretheauthorsofthedoctrine,bywhich
itwasobtainednamely,thattheChurchnowonearth,isthe
kingdomofChrist.Forthatgranted,itmustbeunderstood,that
Christhathsomelieutenantamongstus,bywhomwearetobetold
whatarehiscommandments.
[382]3.AfterthatcertainChurcheshadrenouncedthisuniversal
powerofthePope,onewouldexpectinreason,thatthecivilsover
eignsinallthoseChurches,shouldhaverecoveredsomuchofit,as
(beforetheyhadunadvisedlyletitgo)wastheirownright,andin
theirownhands.AndinEnglanditwassoineffectsavingthatthey,
bywhomthekingsadministeredthegovernmentofreligion,by
maintainingtheiremploymenttobeinGod'sright,seemedto
usurp,ifnotasupremacy,yetanindependencyonthecivilpower:
andtheybutseemedtousurpit,inasmuchastheyacknowledgeda
rightintheking,todeprivethemoftheexerciseoftheirfunctions
athispleasure.
And4.Butinthoseplaceswherethepresbyterytookthatoffice,
maintainedthoughmanyotherdoctrinesoftheChurchofRomewereforbidden
alsobythetobetaughtyetthisdoctrine,thatthekingdomofChristisalready
Presbytery.come,andthatitbeganattheresurrectionofourSaviour,wasstill
retained.Butcuibono?Whatprofitdidtheyexpectfromit?The
samewhichthePopesexpected:tohaveasovereignpoweroverthe
people.Forwhatisitformentoexcommunicatetheirlawfulking,
buttokeephimfromallplacesofGod'spublicserviceinhisown
kingdom?Andwithforcetoresisthim,whenhewithforce
endeavourethtocorrectthem?Orwhatisit,withoutauthorityfrom
thecivilsovereign,toexcommunicateanyperson,buttotakefrom
himhislawfulliberty,thatis,tousurpanunlawfulpowerovertheir
brethren?Theauthorsthereforeofthisdarknessinreligion,arethe
Roman,andthepresbyterianclergy.
Infallibility.5.Tothishead,Ireferalsoallthosedoctrines,thatservethemto
keepthepossessionofthisspiritualsovereigntyafteritisgotten.As
first,thatthePopeinhispubliccapacitycannoterr.Forwhoisthere,

Page459

thatbelievingthistobetrue,willnotreadilyobeyhiminwhatsoever
hecommands?
6.Secondly,thatallotherbishops,inwhatcommonwealthSubjectionof
soever,havenottheirright,neitherimmediatelyfromGod,norbishops.
mediatelyfromtheircivilsovereigns,butfromthePope,isadoc
trine,bywhichtherecomestobeineveryChristiancommonwealth
manypotentmen,(forsoarebishops,)thathavetheirdependence
onthePope,andoweobediencetohim,thoughhebeaforeign
princebywhichmeansheisable,(ashehathdonemanytimes)to
raiseacivilwaragainstthestatethatsubmitsnotitselftobe
governedaccordingtohispleasureandinterest.
7.Thirdly,theexemptionofthese,andofallotherpriests,andofExemptions
allmonks,andfriars,fromthepowerofthecivillaws.Forbythisoftheclergy.
means,thereisagreatpartofeverycommonwealth,thatenjoythe
benefitofthelaws,andareprotectedbythepowerofthecivilstate,
whichneverthelesspaynopartofthepublicexpensenorareliable
tothepenalties,asothersubjects,duetotheircrimesandconse
quently,standnotinfearofanyman,butthePopeandadhereto
himonly,toupholdhisuniversalmonarchy.
8.Fourthly,thegivingtotheirpriests(whichisnomoreintheThenamesof
NewTestamentbutpresbyters,thatis,elders)thenameofsacerdotes,
sacerdotes,thatis,sacrificers,whichwasthetitleofthecivilsoverand
eign,andhispublicministers,amongsttheJews,whilstGodwassacrificers.
theirking.Also,themakingtheLord'sSupperasacrifice,servethto[383]
makethepeoplebelievethePopehaththesamepoweroverall
Christians,thatMosesandAaronhadovertheJewsthatistosay,
allpower,bothcivilandecclesiastical,asthehighpriestthenhad.
9.Fifthly,theteachingthatmatrimonyisasacrament,givethtoThe
theclergythejudgingofthelawfulnessofmarriagesandthereby,ofsacramentation
whatchildrenarelegitimateandconsequently,oftherightofsucofmarriage.
cessiontohereditarykingdoms.
10.Sixthly,thedenialofmarriagetopriests,servethtoassureThesingle
thispowerofthePopeoverkings.Forifakingbeapriest,hecannotlifeofpriests.
marry,andtransmithiskingdomtohisposterityifhebenota
priest,thenthePopepretendeththisauthorityecclesiasticalover
him,andoverhispeople.
11.Seventhly,fromauricularconfession,theyobtain,fortheAuricular
assuranceoftheirpower,betterintelligenceofthedesignsofconfession.
princes,andgreatpersonsinthecivilstate,thanthesecanhaveof
thedesignsofthestateecclesiastical.

Canonization12.Eighthly,bythecanonizationofsaints,anddeclaringwhoare
ofsaints,andmartyrs,theyassuretheirpower,inthattheyinducesimplemen
declaringofintoanobstinacyagainstthelawsandcommandsoftheircivil
martyrs.sovereignseventodeath,ifbythePope'sexcommunication,theybe
declaredhereticsorenemiestotheChurchthatis,(astheyinterpret
it,)tothePope.
Transubstan13.Ninthly,theyassurethesame,bythepowertheyascribeto
tiation,everypriest,ofmakingChristandbythepowerofordainingpen
penance,anceandofremitting,andretainingofsins.
absolution.14.Tenthly,bythedoctrineofpurgatory,ofjustificationby
Purgatory,externalworks,andofindulgences,theclergyisenriched.
indulgences,15.Eleventhly,bytheirdemonology,andtheuseofexorcism,
externalandotherthingsappertainingthereto,theykeep(orthinkthey
works.keep)thepeoplemoreinaweoftheirpower.
Demonology16.Lastly,themetaphysics,ethics,andpoliticsofAristotle,the
andexorcism.frivolousdistinctions,barbarousterms,andobscurelanguageofthe
SchoolSchoolmen,taughtintheuniversities,(whichhavebeenallerected
divinity.andregulatedbythePope'sauthority,)servethemtokeepthese
errorsfrombeingdetected,andtomakemenmistaketheignisfatuus
ofvainphilosophy,forthelightoftheGospel.
Theauthors17.Tothese,iftheysufficednot,mightbeaddedotheroftheir
ofspiritualdarkdoctrines,theprofitwhereofredoundethmanifestly,tothe
darkness,whosettingupofanunlawfulpoweroverthelawfulsovereignsofChris
theybe.tianpeopleorforthesustainingofthesame,whenitissetuporto
theworldlyriches,honour,andauthorityofthosethatsustainit.
Andthereforebytheaforesaidrule,ofcuibono,wemayjustly
pronouncefortheauthorsofallthisspiritualdarkness,thePope,
andRomanclergy,andallthosebesidesthatendeavourtosettlein
themindsofmenthiserroneousdoctrine,thattheChurchnowon
earth,isthatkingdomofGodmentionedintheOldandNew
Testament.
[384]18.Buttheemperors,andotherChristiansovereigns,under
whosegovernmenttheseerrors,andthelikeencroachmentsofec
clesiasticsupontheiroffice,atfirstcreptin,tothedisturbanceof
theirpossessions,andofthetranquillityoftheirsubjects,though
theysufferedthesameforwantofforesightofthesequel,andof
insightintothedesignsoftheirteachers,mayneverthelessbees
teemedaccessoriestotheirown,andthepublicdamage.Forwith
outtheirauthoritytherecouldatfirstnoseditiousdoctrinehave
beenpubliclypreached.Isaytheymighthavehinderedthesamein

Page461

thebeginning:butwhenthepeoplewereoncepossessedbythose
spiritualmen,therewasnohumanremedytobeapplied,thatany
mancouldinvent:andfortheremediesthatGodshouldprovide,
whoneverfailethinhisgoodtimetodestroyallthemachinationsof
menagainstthetruth,wearetoattendhisgoodpleasure,that
sufferethmanytimestheprosperityofhisenemies,togetherwith
theirambition,togrowtosuchaheight,astheviolencethereof
openeththeeyes,whichthewarinessoftheirpredecessorshad
beforesealedup,andmakesmenbytoomuchgraspingletgoall,as
Peter'snetwasbroken,bythestrugglingoftoogreatamultitudeof
fisheswhereastheimpatienceofthose,thatstrivetoresistsuch
encroachment,beforetheirsubjects'eyeswereopened,didbut
increasethepowertheyresisted.Idonotthereforeblametheem
perorFredericforholdingthestirruptoourcountrymanPope
Adrian*forsuchwasthedispositionofhissubjectsthen,asifhe
hadnotdoneit,hewasnotlikelytohavesucceededintheempire.
ButIblamethose,thatinthebeginning,whentheirpowerwas
entire,bysufferingsuchdoctrinestobeforgedintheuniversitiesof
theirowndominions,haveholdenthestirruptoallthesucceeding
Popes,whilsttheymountedintothethronesofallChristiansover
eigns,toride,andtire,boththem,andtheirpeopleattheirpleasure.
19.Butastheinventionsofmenarewoven,soalsoarethey
ravelledoutthewayisthesame,buttheorderisinverted.Theweb
beginsatthefirstelementsofpower,whicharewisdom,humility,
sincerity,andothervirtuesoftheApostles,whomthepeople,con
verted,obeyedoutofreverence,notbyobligation:theirconsciences
werefree,andtheirwordsandactionssubjecttononebutthecivil
power.Afterwardsthepresbyters(astheflocksofChristincreased)
assemblingtoconsiderwhattheyshouldteach,andtherebyobliging
themselvestoteachnothingagainstthedecreesoftheirassemblies,
madeittobethoughtthepeopleweretherebyobligedtofollowtheir
doctrine,andwhentheyrefused,refusedtokeepthemcompany,
(thatwasthencalledexcommunication,)notasbeinginfidels,butas
beingdisobedient:andthiswasthefirstknotupontheirliberty.And
thenumberofpresbytersincreasing,thepresbytersofthechiefcity
ofaprovince,gotthemselvesanauthorityovertheparochialpresby
ters,andappropriatedtothemselvesthenamesofbishops:andthis
wasasecondknotonChristianliberty.Lastly,thebishopofRome,[385]
inregardoftheimperialcity,tookuponhimanauthority(partlyby
thewillsoftheemperorsthemselves,andbythetitleofPontifex

Maximus,andatlastwhentheemperorsweregrownweak,bythe
privilegesofSt.Peter)overallotherbishopsoftheempire:which
wasthethirdandlastknot,andthewholesynthesisandconstruction,
ofthepontificialpower.
20.Andthereforetheanalysis,orresolution,isbythesameway
butbeginnethwiththeknotthatwaslasttiedaswemayseeinthe
dissolutionofthepreterpoliticalChurchgovernmentinEngland.
First,thepowerofthePopeswasdissolvedtotallybyQueenEliza
bethandthebishops,whobeforeexercisedtheirfunctionsinright
ofthePope,didafterwardsexercisethesameinrightoftheQueen
andhersuccessorsthoughbyretainingthephraseofjuredivino,
theywerethoughttodemanditbyimmediaterightfromGod:and
sowasuntiedthethirdknot.Afterthis,thepresbyterianslatelyin
Englandobtainedtheputtingdownofepiscopacy:andsowasthe
secondknotdissolved.Andalmostatthesametime,thepowerwas
takenalsofromthepresbyterians:andsowearereducedtothe
independencyoftheprimitiveChristianstofollowPaul,orCephas,
orApollos,everymanashelikethbest:which,ifitbewithout
contention,andwithoutmeasuringthedoctrineofChrist,byour
affectiontothepersonofhisminister,(thefaultwhichtheapostle
reprehendedintheCorinthians,)isperhapsthebest.First,because
thereoughttobenopowerovertheconsciencesofmen,butofthe
Worditself,workingfaithineveryone,notalwaysaccordingtothe
purposeofthemthatplantandwater,butofGodhimself,that
giveththeincrease:andsecondly,becauseitisunreasonablein
them,whoteachthereissuchdangerineverylittleerror,torequire
ofamanenduedwithreasonofhisown,tofollowthereasonofany
otherman,orofthemostvoicesofanyothermenwhichislittle
better,thantoventurehissalvationatcrossandpile.*Norought
thoseteacherstobedispleasedwiththislossoftheirancientauth
ority.Forthereisnoneshouldknowbetterthanthey,thatpower
ispreservedbythesamevirtuesbywhichitisacquiredthatisto
say,bywisdom,humility,clearnessofdoctrine,andsincerity
ofconversationandnotbysuppressionofthenaturalsciences,
andofthemoralityofnaturalreasonnorbyobscurelanguage
norbyarrogatingtothemselvesmoreknowledgethantheymake
appearnorbypiousfraudsnorbysuchotherfaults,asinthe
pastorsofGod'sChurcharenotonlyfaults,butalsoscandals,aptto
makemenstumbleonetimeorotheruponthesuppressionoftheir
authority.

Page463

21.Butafterthisdoctrine,thattheChurchnowmilitant,istheComparison
kingdomofGodspokenofintheOldandNewTestament,wasreceivedofthepapacy
intheworldtheambition,andcanvassingfortheofficesthatbelongwiththe
thereunto,andespeciallyforthatgreatofficeofbeingChrist'skingdomof
lieutenant,andthepompofthemthatobtainedthereintheprin[386]
cipalpubliccharges,becamebydegreessoevident,thattheylostfairies.
theinwardreverenceduetothepastoralfunction:insomuch
asthewisestmen,ofthemthathadanypowerinthecivilstate,
needednothingbuttheauthorityoftheirprinces,todenythem
anyfurtherobedience.For,fromthetimethattheBishopof
Romehadgottentobeacknowledgedforbishopuniversal,bypre
tenceofsuccessiontoSt.Peter,theirwholehierarchy,or
kingdomofdarkness,maybecomparednotunfitlytothekingdom
offairiesthatis,totheoldwives'fablesinEngland,concerning
ghostsandspirits,andthefeatstheyplayinthenight.Andifaman
considertheoriginalofthisgreatecclesiasticaldominion,hewill
easilyperceive,thatthePapacy,isnootherthantheghostofthe
deceasedRomanempire,sittingcrowneduponthegravethereof:for
sodidthePapacystartuponasuddenoutoftheruinsofthat
heathenpower.
22.Thelanguagealso,whichtheyuse,bothinthechurches,and
intheirpublicacts,beingLatin,whichisnotcommonlyusedbyany
nationnowintheworld,whatisitbuttheghostoftheoldRoman
language?
23.Thefairiesinwhatnationsoevertheyconverse,havebutone
universalking,whichsomepoetsofourscallKingOberonbutthe
ScripturecallsBeelzebub,princeofdemons.Theecclesiasticslike
wise,inwhosedominionssoevertheybefound,acknowledgebut
oneuniversalking,thePope.
24.Theecclesiasticsarespiritualmen,andghostlyfathers.The
fairiesarespirits,andghosts.Fairiesandghostsinhabitdarkness,
solitudesandgraves.Theecclesiasticswalkinobscurityofdoctrine,
inmonasteries,churches,andchurchyards.
25.Theecclesiasticshavetheircathedralchurcheswhich,in
whattownsoevertheybeerected,byvirtueofholywater,and
certaincharmscalledexorcisms,havethepowertomakethose
towns,cities,thatistosay,seatsofempire.Thefairiesalsohave
theirenchantedcastles,andcertaingiganticghosts,thatdomineer
overtheregionsroundaboutthem.
26.Thefairiesarenottobeseizedonandbroughttoanswerfor

thehurttheydo.Soalsotheecclesiasticsvanishawayfromthe
tribunalsofciviljustice.
27.Theecclesiasticstakefromyoungmen,theuseofreason,by
certaincharmscompoundedofmetaphysics,andmiracles,andtra
ditions,andabusedScripture,wherebytheyaregoodfornothing
else,buttoexecutewhattheycommandthem.Thefairieslikewise
aresaidtotakeyoungchildrenoutoftheircradles,andtochange
themintonaturalfools,whichcommonpeopledothereforecall
elves,andareapttomischief.
28.Inwhatshop,oroperatorythefairiesmaketheirenchant
ment,theoldwiveshavenotdetermined.Buttheoperatoriesofthe
clergy,arewellenoughknowntobetheuniversities,thatreceived
theirdisciplinefromauthoritypontifical.
[387]29.Whenthefairiesaredispleasedwithanybody,theyaresaidto
sendtheirelves,topinchthem.Theecclesiastics,whentheyare
displeasedwithanycivilstate,makealsotheirelves,thatis,super
stitious,enchantedsubjects,topinchtheirprinces,bypreaching
seditionoroneprinceenchantedwithpromises,topinchanother.
30.Thefairiesmarrynotbuttherebeamongstthemincubi,that
havecopulationwithfleshandblood.Thepriestsalsomarrynot.
31.Theecclesiasticstakethecreamoftheland,bydonationsof
ignorantmen,thatstandinaweofthem,andbytithes.Soalsoitis
inthefableoffairies,thattheyenterintothedairies,andfeastupon
thecream,whichtheyskimfromthemilk.
32.Whatkindofmoneyiscurrentinthekingdomoffairies,is
notrecordedinthestory.Buttheecclesiasticsintheirreceiptsaccept
ofthesamemoneythatwedothoughwhentheyaretomakeany
payment,itisincanonizations,indulgences,andmasses.
33.Tothis,andsuchlikeresemblancesbetweenthepapacy,and
thekingdomoffairies,maybeaddedthis,thatasthefairieshaveno
existence,butinthefanciesofignorantpeople,risingfromthe
traditionsofoldwives,oroldpoets:sothespiritualpowerofthe
Pope(withouttheboundsofhisowncivildominion)consistethonly
inthefearthatseducedpeoplestandin,oftheirexcommunication
uponhearingoffalsemiracles,falsetraditions,andfalseinterpret
ationsoftheScripture.
34.Itwasnotthereforeaverydifficultmatter,forHenryVIIIby
hisexorcismnorforqueenElizabethbyhers,tocastthemout.But
whoknowsthatthisspiritofRome,nowgoneout,andwalkingby
missionsthroughthedryplacesofChina,Japan,andtheIndies,that

Page465

yieldhimlittlefruit,maynotreturn,orratheranassemblyofspirits
worsethanhe,enter,andinhabitthiscleanswepthouse,andmake
theendthereofworsethanthebeginning?ForitisnottheRoman
clergyonly,thatpretendsthekingdomofGodtobeofthisworld,
andtherebytohaveapowertherein,distinctfromthatofthecivil
state.AndthisisallIhadadesigntosay,concerningthedoctrineof
thePOLITICS.WhichwhenIhavereviewed,Ishallwillinglyexpose
ittothecensureofmycountry.

AReview,andConclusion[389]
1.Fromthecontrarietyofsomeofthenaturalfacultiesofthe
mind,onetoanother,asalsoofonepassiontoanother,andfrom
theirreferencetoconversation,therehasbeenanargumenttaken,to
inferanimpossibilitythatanyonemanshouldbesufficientlydis
posedtoallsortsofcivilduty.Theseverityofjudgment,theysay,
makesmencensorious,andunapttopardontheerrorsandinfirmi
tiesofothermen:andontheotherside,celerityoffancy,makesthe
thoughtslesssteadythanisnecessary,todiscernexactlybetween
rightandwrong.Again,inalldeliberations,andinallpleadings,the
facultyofsolidreasoningisnecessary:forwithoutit,theresolutions
ofmenarerash,andtheirsentencesunjust:andyetiftherebenot
powerfuleloquence,whichprocurethattentionandconsent,the
effectofreasonwillbelittle.Butthesearecontraryfacultiesthe
formerbeinggroundeduponprinciplesoftruththeotherupon
opinionsalreadyreceived,true,orfalseanduponthepassionsand
interestsofmen,whicharedifferent,andmutable.
2.Andamongstthepassions,courage,(bywhichImeanthe
contemptofwounds,andviolentdeath)inclinethmentoprivate
revenges,andsometimestoendeavourtheunsettlingofthepublic
peace:andtimorousness,manytimesdisposethtothedesertionofthe
publicdefence.Boththesetheysaycannotstandtogetherinthe
sameperson.
3.Andtoconsiderthecontrarietyofmen'sopinions,andman
nersingeneral,itistheysay,impossibletoentertainaconstantcivil
amitywithallthose,withwhomthebusinessoftheworldconstrains
ustoconverse:whichbusiness,consistethalmostinnothingelsebut
aperpetualcontentionforhonour,riches,andauthority.
4.TowhichIanswer,thattheseareindeedgreatdifficulties,but
notimpossibilities:forbyeducation,anddiscipline,theymaybe,
andaresometimesreconciled.Judgment,andfancymayhaveplace
inthesamemanbutbyturnsastheendwhichheaimethat
requireth.AstheIsraelitesinEgypt,weresometimesfastenedto
theirlabourofmakingbricks,andothertimeswererangingabroad
togatherstraw:soalsomaythejudgmentsometimesbefixedupon
onecertainconsideration,andthefancyatanothertimewandering
abouttheworld.Soalsoreason,andeloquence,(thoughnotperhaps

Page468

inthenaturalsciences,yetinthemoral)maystandverywell
[390]together.Forwheresoeverthereisplaceforadorningandpreferring
oferror,thereismuchmoreplaceforadorningandpreferringof
truth,iftheyhaveittoadorn.Noristhereanyrepugnancybetween
fearingthelaws,andnotfearingapublicenemynorbetween
abstainingfrominjury,andpardoningitinothers.Thereisthere
forenosuchinconsistenceofhumannature,withcivilduties,as
somethink.Ihaveknownclearnessofjudgment,andlargenessof
fancystrengthofreason,andgracefulelocutionacourageforthe
war,andafearforthelaws,andalleminentlyinonemanandthat
wasmymostnobleandhonouredfriend,Mr.SidneyGodolphin
whohatingnoman,norhatedofany,wasunfortunatelyslaininthe
beginningofthelatecivilwar,inthepublicquarrel,byan
undiscernedandanundiscerninghand.
5.TotheLawsofNature,declaredinChapter15,Iwouldhave
thisadded,thateverymanisboundbynature,asmuchasinhimlieth,
toprotectinwar,theauthority,bywhichheishimselfprotectedintime
ofpeace.Forhethatpretendetharightofnaturetopreservehisown
body,cannotpretendarightofnaturetodestroyhim,bywhose
strengthheispreserved:itisamanifestcontradictionofhimself.
Andthoughthislawmaybedrawnbyconsequence,fromsomeof
thosethataretherealreadymentionedyetthetimesrequiretohave
itinculcated,andremembered.
6.AndbecauseIfindbydiversEnglishbookslatelyprinted,*
thatthecivilwarshavenotyetsufficientlytaughtmen,inwhatpoint
oftimeitis,thatasubjectbecomesobligedtotheconquerornor
whatisconquestnorhowitcomesabout,thatitobligesmentoobey
hislaws:thereforeforfurthersatisfactionofmentherein,Isay,the
pointoftime,whereinamanbecomessubjecttoaconqueror,isthat
point,whereinhavinglibertytosubmittohim,heconsenteth,either
byexpresswords,orbyothersufficientsign,tobehissubject.When
itisthatamanhaththelibertytosubmit,Ihaveshowedbeforein
theendofChapter21namely,thatforhimthathathnoobligation
tohisformersovereignbutthatofanordinarysubject,itisthen,
whenthemeansofhislifearewithintheguardsandgarrisonsofthe
enemyforitisthen,thathehathnolongerprotectionfromhim,
butisprotectedbytheadversepartyforhiscontribution.Seeing
thereforesuchcontributioniseverywhere,asathinginevitable,
(notwithstandingitbeanassistancetotheenemy,)esteemedlawful
atotalsubmission,whichisbutanassistancetotheenemy,cannot

beesteemedunlawful.Besides,ifamanconsiderthattheywho
submit,assisttheenemybutwithpartoftheirestates,whereasthey
thatrefuse,assisthimwiththewhole,thereisnoreasontocalltheir
submission,orcomposition,anassistancebutratheradetrimentto
theenemy.Butifaman,besidestheobligationofasubject,hath
takenuponhimanewobligationofasoldier,thenhehathnotthe
libertytosubmittoanewpower,aslongastheoldonekeepsthe
field,andgivethhimmeansofsubsistence,eitherinhisarmies,or
garrisons:forinthiscase,hecannotcomplainofwantofprotection,
andmeanstoliveasasoldier.Butwhenthatalsofails,asoldieralso[391]
mayseekhisprotectionwheresoeverhehasmosthopetohaveit
andmaylawfullysubmithimselftohisnewmaster.Andsomuch
forthetimewhenhemaydoitlawfully,ifhewill.Ifthereforehedo
it,heisundoubtedlyboundtobeatruesubject:foracontract
lawfullymade,cannotlawfullybebroken.
7.Bythisalsoamanmayunderstand,whenitis,thatmenmay
besaidtobeconqueredandinwhatthenatureofconquest,andthe
rightofaconquerorconsisteth:forthissubmissionisitthat
implieththemall.Conquest,isnotthevictoryitselfbuttheacqui
sitionbyvictory,ofarightoverthepersonsofmen.Hetherefore
thatisslain,isovercome,butnotconquered:hethatistaken,and
putintoprison,orchains,isnotconquered,thoughovercomefor
heisstillanenemy,andmaysavehimselfifhecan:buthethatupon
promiseofobedience,hathhislifeandlibertyallowedhim,isthen
conquered,andasubjectandnotbefore.TheRomansusedtosay,
thattheirgeneralhadpacifiedsuchaprovince,thatistosay,in
English,conquereditandthatthecountrywaspacifiedbyvictory,
whenthepeopleofithadpromisedimperatafacere,thatis,todo
whattheRomanpeoplecommandedthem:thiswastobeconquered.
Butthispromisemaybeeitherexpress,ortacit:express,byprom
ise:tacit,byothersigns.Asforexample,amanthathathnotbeen
calledtomakesuchanexpresspromise,(becauseheisonewhose
powerperhapsisnotconsiderable)yetifheliveundertheirprotec
tionopenly,heisunderstoodtosubmithimselftothegovernment:
butifhelivetheresecretly,heisliabletoanythingthatmaybedone
toaspy,andenemyofthestate.Isaynot,hedoesanyinjustice,(for
actsofopenhostilitybearnotthatname)butthathemaybejustly
puttodeath.Likewise,ifaman,whenhiscountryisconquered,be
outofit,heisnotconquered,norsubject:butifathisreturn,he
submittothegovernment,heisboundtoobeyit.Sothatconquest

Page470

(todefineit)istheacquiringoftherightofsovereigntybyvictory.
Whichright,isacquired,inthepeople'ssubmission,bywhichthey
contractwiththevictor,promisingobedience,forlifeandliberty.
8.Inthe29thchapter,Ihavesetdownforoneofthecausesof
thedissolutionsofcommonwealths,theirimperfectgeneration,
consistinginthewantofanabsoluteandarbitrarylegislativepower
forwantwhereof,thecivilsovereignisfaintohandletheswordof
justiceunconstantly,andasifitweretoohotforhimtohold:one
reasonwhereof(whichIhavenottherementioned)isthis,thatthey
willallofthemjustifythewar,bywhichtheirpowerwasatfirst
gotten,andwhereon(astheythink)theirrightdependeth,andnot
onthepossession.Asif,forexample,therightofthekingsof
EnglanddiddependonthegoodnessofthecauseofWilliamthe
Conqueror,andupontheirlineal,anddirectestdescentfromhim
bywhichmeans,therewouldperhapsbenotieofthesubjects'
[392]obediencetotheirsovereignatthisdayinalltheworld:wherein
whilsttheyneedlesslythinktojustifythemselves,theyjustifyallthe
successfulrebellionsthatambitionshallatanytimeafterraise
againstthem,andtheirsuccessors.ThereforeIputdownforoneof
themosteffectualseedsofthedeathofanystate,thattheconquer
orsrequirenotonlyasubmissionofmen'sactionstothemforthe
future,butalsoanapprobationofalltheiractionspastwhenthere
isscarceacommonwealthintheworld,whosebeginningscanin
consciencebejustified.
9.Andbecausethenameoftyranny,signifiethnothingmore,
norless,thanthenameofsovereignty,beitinone,ormanymen,
savingthattheythatusetheformerword,areunderstoodtobe
angrywiththemtheycalltyrantsIthinkthetolerationofapro
fessedhatredoftyranny,isatolerationofhatredtocommonwealth
ingeneral,andanotherevilseed,notdifferingmuchfromthe
former.Fortothejustificationofthecauseofaconqueror,the
reproachofthecauseoftheconquered,isforthemostpartneces
sary:butneitherofthemnecessaryfortheobligationofthecon
quered.AndthusmuchIhavethoughtfittosayuponthereviewof
thefirstandsecondpartofthisdiscourse.
10.Inthe35thchapter,Ihavesufficientlydeclaredoutofthe
Scripture,thatinthecommonwealthoftheJews,Godhimselfwas
madethesovereign,bypactwiththepeoplewhoweretherefore
calledhispeculiarpeople,todistinguishthemfromtherestofthe
world,overwhomGodreignednotbytheirconsent,butbyhisown

power:andthatinthiskingdomMoseswasGod'slieutenanton
earthandthatitwashethattoldthemwhatlawsGodappointed
themtoberuledby.ButIhaveomittedtosetdownwhowerethe
officersappointedtodoexecutionespeciallyincapitalpunish
mentsnotthenthinkingitamatterofsonecessaryconsideration,as
Ifinditsince.Weknowthatgenerallyinallcommonwealths,the
executionofcorporalpunishments,waseitherputupontheguards,
orothersoldiersofthesovereignpowerorgiventothose,inwhom
wantofmeans,contemptofhonour,andhardnessofheart,con
curred,tomakethemsueforsuchanoffice.Butamongstthe
IsraelitesitwasapositivelawofGodtheirsovereign,thathethat
wasconvictedofacapitalcrime,shouldbestonedtodeathbythe
peopleandthatthewitnessesshouldcastthefirststone,andafter
thewitnesses,thentherestofthepeople.Thiswasalawthat
designedwhoweretobetheexecutionersbutnotthatanyone
shouldthrowastoneathimbeforeconvictionandsentence,where
thecongregationwasjudge.Thewitnesseswereneverthelesstobe
heardbeforetheyproceededtoexecution,unlessthefactwere
committedinthepresenceofthecongregationitself,orinsightof
thelawfuljudgesforthenthereneedednootherwitnessesbutthe
judgesthemselves.Nevertheless,thismannerofproceedingbeing
notthoroughlyunderstood,hathgivenoccasiontoadangerous
opinion,thatanymanmaykillanother,insomecases,byarightof
zealasiftheexecutionsdoneuponoffendersinthekingdomofGod
inoldtime,proceedednotfromthesovereigncommand,butfrom[393]
theauthorityofprivatezeal:which,ifweconsiderthetextsthat
seemtofavourit,isquitecontrary.
11.First,wheretheLevitesfelluponthepeople,thathadmade
andworshippedtheGoldenCalf,andslewthreethousandofthem
itwasbythecommandmentofMoses,fromthemouthofGodasis
manifest,Exod.32.27.AndwhenthesonofawomanofIsraelhad
blasphemedGod,theythatheardit,didnotkillhim,butbrought
himbeforeMoses,whoputhimundercustody,tillGodshouldgive
sentenceagainsthimasappears,Levit.25.11,12.Again,(Numb.
25.6,7)whenPhinehaskilledZimriandCozbi,itwasnotbyright
ofprivatezeal:theircrimewascommittedinthesightoftheas
semblythereneedednowitnessthelawwasknown,andhethe
heirapparenttothesovereigntyand,whichistheprincipalpoint,
thelawfulnessofhisactdependedwhollyuponasubsequentratifi
cationbyMoses,whereofhehadnocausetodoubt.Andthis

Page472

presumptionofafutureratification,issometimesnecessarytothe
safetyofacommonwealthasinasuddenrebellion,anymanthat
cansuppressitbyhisownpowerinthecountrywhereitbegins,
withoutexpresslaworcommission,maylawfullydoit,andprovide
tohaveitratified,orpardoned,whilstitisindoing,orafteritis
done.AlsoNumb.35.30itisexpresslysaid,Whosoevershallkillthe
murderer,shallkillhimuponthewordofwitnesses:butwitnesses
supposeaformaljudicature,andconsequentlycondemnthatpre
tenceofjuszelotarum.ThelawofMosesconcerninghimthat
enticethtoidolatry,(thatistosay,inthekingdomofGodtoa
renouncingofhisallegiance,Deut.13.8,9)forbidstoconcealhim,
andcommandstheaccusertocausehimtobeputtodeath,andto
castthefirststoneathimbutnottokillhimbeforehebecon
demned.And(Deut.17.4,5,6,7)theprocessagainstidolatryis
exactlysetdown:forGodtherespeakethtothepeople,asjudge,and
commandeththem,whenamanisaccusedofidolatry,toenquire
diligentlyofthefact,andfindingittrue,thentostonehimbutstill
thehandofthewitnessthroweththefirststone.Thisisnotprivate
zeal,butpubliccondemnation.Inlikemannerwhenafatherhatha
rebelliousson,thelawis,(Deut.21,1821),thatheshallbringhim
beforethejudgesofthetown,andallthepeopleofthetownshall
stonehim.Lastly,bypretenceoftheselawsitwas,thatSt.Stephen
wasstoned,andnotbypretenceofprivatezeal:forbeforehewas
cardedawaytoexecution,hehadpleadedhiscausebeforethehigh
priest.Thereisnothinginallthis,norinanyotherpartoftheBible,
tocountenanceexecutionsbyprivatezealwhichbeingoftentimes
butaconjunctionofignoranceandpassion,isagainstboththe
justiceandthepeaceofacommonwealth.
12.Inthe36thchapter,Ihavesaid,thatitisnotdeclaredinwhat
mannerGodspakesupernaturallytoMoses:northathespakenotto
himsometimesbydreamsandvisions,andbyasupernaturalvoice,
astootherprophets:forthemannerhowhespakeuntohimfrom
[394]themercyseat,isexpresslysetdown,Numb.7.89,inthesewords,
Fromthattimeforward,whenMosesenteredintotheTabernacleofthe
congregationtospeakwithGod,heheardavoicewhichspakeuntohim
fromoverthemercyseat,whichisovertheArkofthetestimony,from
betweenthecherubimshespakeuntohim.Butitisnotdeclaredinwhat
consisteththepreeminenceofthemannerofGod'sspeakingto
Moses,abovethatofhisspeakingtootherprophets,astoSamuel,
andtoAbraham,towhomhealsospakebyavoice,(thatis,by

vision)unlessthedifferenceconsistintheclearnessofthevision.
Forfacetoface,andmouthtomouth,cannotbeliterallyunderstood
oftheinfiniteness,andincomprehensibilityoftheDivinenature.
13.Andastothewholedoctrine,Iseenotyet,buttheprinciples
ofitaretrueandproperandtheratiocinationsolid.ForIground
thecivilrightofsovereigns,andboththedutyandlibertyofsub
jects,upontheknownnaturalinclinationsofmankind,anduponthe
articlesofthelawofnatureofwhichnoman,thatpretendsbut
reasonenoughtogovernhisprivatefamily,oughttobeignorant.
Andforthepowerecclesiasticalofthesamesovereigns,Igroundit
onsuchtexts,asarebothevidentinthemselves,andconsonantto
thescopeofthewholeScripture.Andthereforeampersuaded,that
hethatshallreaditwithapurposeonlytobeinformed,shallbe
informedbyit.Butforthosethatbywriting,orpublicdiscourse,or
bytheireminentactions,havealreadyengagedthemselvestothe
maintainingofcontraryopinions,theywillnotbesoeasilysatisfied.
Forinsuchcases,itisnaturalformen,atoneandthesametime,
bothtoproceedinreading,andtolosetheirattention,inthesearch
ofobjectionstothattheyhadreadbefore:ofwhich,inatime
whereintheinterestsofmenarechanged(seeingmuchofthat
doctrine,whichservethtotheestablishingofanewgovernment,
mustneedsbecontrarytothatwhichconducedtothedissolutionof
theold,)therecannotchoosebutbeverymany.
14.InthatpartwhichtreatethofaChristiancommonwealth,
therearesomenewdoctrines,which,itmaybe,inastatewherethe
contrarywerealreadyfullydetermined,wereafaultforasubject
withoutleavetodivulge,asbeinganusurpationoftheplaceofa
teacher.Butinthistime,thatmencallnotonlyforpeace,butalso
fortruth,tooffersuchdoctrineasIthinktrue,andthatmanifestly
tendtopeaceandloyalty,totheconsiderationofthosethatareyet
indeliberation,isnomore,buttooffernewwine,tobeputintonew
casks,thatbothmaybepreservedtogether.AndIsuppose,that
then,whennoveltycanbreednotrouble,nordisorderinastate,
menarenotgenerallysomuchinclinedtothereverenceofanti
quity,astopreferancienterrors,beforenewandwellprovedtruth.
15.ThereisnothingIdistrustmorethanmyelocutionwhich
neverthelessIamconfident(exceptingthemischancesofthepress)
isnotobscure.ThatIhaveneglectedtheornamentofquoting
ancientpoets,orators,andphilosophers,contrarytothecustomof
latetime,(whetherIhavedonewellorillinit,)proceedethfrommy[395]

Page474

judgment,groundedonmanyreasons.Forfirst,alltruthofdoctrine
dependetheitheruponreason,oruponScripturebothwhichgive
credittomany,butneverreceiveitfromanywriter.Secondly,the
mattersinquestionarenotoffact,butofright,whereinthereisno
placeforwitnesses.Thereisscarceanyofthoseoldwriters,that
contradictethnotsometimesbothhimself,andotherswhichmakes
theirtestimoniesinsufficient.Fourthly,suchopinionsasaretaken
onlyuponcreditofantiquity,arenotintrinsicallythejudgmentof
thosethatcitethem,butwordsthatpass(likegaping)frommouth
tomouth.Fifthly,itismanytimeswithafraudulentdesignthat
mensticktheircorruptdoctrinewiththeclovesofothermen'swit.
Sixthly,Ifindnotthattheancientstheycite,tookitforanorna
ment,todothelikewiththosethatwrotebeforethem.Seventhly,it
isanargumentofindigestion,whenGreekandLatinsentences
unchewedcomeupagain,astheyusetodo,unchanged.Lastly,
thoughIreverencethosemenofancienttime,thateitherhave
writtentruthperspicuously,orsetusinabetterwaytofinditout
ourselvesyettotheantiquityitselfIthinknothingdue.Forifwe
willreverencetheage,thepresentistheoldest.Iftheantiquityof
thewriter,Iamnotsure,thatgenerallytheytowhomsuchhonour
isgiven,weremoreancientwhentheywrote,thanIamthatam
writing:butifitbewellconsidered,thepraiseofancientauthors,
proceedsnotfromthereverenceofthedead,butfromthecompe
tition,andmutualenvyoftheliving.
16.Toconclude,thereisnothinginthiswholediscourse,norin
thatIwritbeforeofthesamesubjectinLatin,*asfarasIcan
perceive,contraryeithertotheWordofGod,ortogoodmanners
ortendingtothedisturbanceofthepublictranquillity.ThereforeI
thinkitmaybeprofitablyprinted,andmoreprofitablytaughtinthe
Universities,incasetheyalsothinkso,towhomthejudgmentofthe
samebelongeth.ForseeingtheUniversitiesarethefountainsof
civil,andmoraldoctrine,fromwhencethepreachers,andthegen
try,drawingsuchwaterastheyfind,usetosprinklethesame(both
fromthepulpitandintheirconversation)uponthepeople,there
oughtcertainlytobegreatcaretaken,tohaveitpure,bothfromthe
venomofheathenpoliticians,andfromtheincantationofdeceiving
spirits.Andbythatmeansthemostmen,knowingtheirduties,will
bethelesssubjecttoservetheambitionofafewdiscontented
persons,intheirpurposesagainstthestateandbethelessgrieved
withthecontributionsnecessaryfortheirpeace,anddefenceand

thegovernorsthemselveshavethelesscause,tomaintainatthe
commonchargeanygreaterarmy,thanisnecessarytomakegood
thepublicliberty,againsttheinvasionsandencroachmentsof
foreignenemies.
17.AndthusIhavebroughttoanendmyDiscourseofCiviland
EcclesiasticalGovernment,occasionedbythedisordersofthe
presenttime,withoutpartiality,withoutapplication,andwithout
otherdesignthantosetbeforemen'seyesthemutualrelation
betweenprotectionandobedienceofwhichtheconditionofhuman[396]
nature,andthelawsdivine,(bothnaturalandpositive)requirean
inviolableobservation.Andthoughintherevolutionofstates,there
canbenoverygoodconstellationfortruthsofthisnaturetobeborn
under,(ashavinganangryaspectfromthedissolversofanold
government,andseeingbutthebacksofthemthaterectanew)yet
Icannotthinkitwillbecondemnedatthistime,eitherbythepublic
judgeofdoctrine,orbyanythatdesiresthecontinuanceofpublic
peace.AndinthishopeIreturntomyinterruptedspeculation*of
bodiesnaturalwherein,(ifGodgivemehealthtofinishit,)Ihope
thenoveltywillasmuchplease,asinthedoctrineofthisartificial
bodyitusethtooffend.Forsuchtruth,asopposethnoman'sprofit,
norpleasure,istoallmenwelcome.
Finis

Page477

EXPLANATORYNOTES
3SidneyGodolphin:161043,RoyalistmemberoftheLongParliamentand
poet,killedinaskirmishin1643towhichHobbesalludesin4of'AReview
andConclusion'whichendsLeviathan.InhiswillGodolphinleft200to
Hobbes.HisbrotherFrancis,160567,towhomHobbes'sdedicatoryletteris
addressed,alsoa'King'sMan',wasgovernoroftheScillyIslesduringthefirst
civilwar.
7lifeisbutamotionoflimbs:thesignificanceofHobbes'scasuallyreductionist
definitionoflife(cf.VI.58)iseasilyoverlooked.Heistakingitthatlife,or'the
soul'inahumanbeing(see,forexample,XLIV.15),justistheabilitytomove
(cf.Plato,TheLaws,x.8959).ThusinsevenwordsHobbesdisposesofthe
wholeCartesianproblemofhowthesoulmovesthebody.ButittakesHobbes
inPart4ofLeviathanmuchmorethansevenwordstoreconcilethereduction
ofsoulstolife,andlifetomovement,withtraditionalChristianviewsabout
lifeandresurrection.
Leviathan:Hobbes'scelebratedtitle,whichcapturesinasinglewordhis
comparisonofthestatetoavastlivingorganism,isdrawnfromthebookof
Job,ch.41,inparticularthelasttwoverses,whichHobbesrendersinXXVIII.
27as'Thereisnothingonearth,tobecomparedwithhim.Heismadesoas
nottobeafraid.Heseetheveryhighthingbelowhim,andiskingofallthe
childrenofpride.'Perhapsbecauseofthetradition(visible,forexample,in
Aquinas'scommentsonJob)ofassociatingLeviathanwiththeDevil,inXVII.
13Hobbesremarks,'ThisisthegenerationofthatgreatLEVIATHAN,orrather
(tospeakmorereverently)ofthatMortalGod,towhichweoweunderthe
ImmortalGod,ourpeaceanddefence.'Thename'Leviathan'usedtoreferto
thestatereappearsseveraltimes,forexampleXXI.5andXXIII.2.
notbyreadingofbooks:thesayingismerelyquotedhere,butHobbes'santipa
thytoAristotleinparticular,andthescholasticbooklearningofuniversitiesin
general,asopposedtothenewsciencesofmechanicsandoptics(based,ashe
wouldhaveit,ontheparadigmofgeometry),isfrequentlyevidentinLevia
thanandfullydevelopedinXLVI.Hisattitudewasdefinitivelyanticipatedby
Galileoinhis'ThirdLetteronSunspots'toMarkWelsherinDecember1612.
'Theywishnevertoraisetheireyesfromthosepagesasifthisgreatbookof
theuniversehadbeenwrittentobereadbyAristotlealone,andhiseyeshad
beendestinedtoseeforallposterity.'
9OfSense:thischapterwillbebetterappreciatedifreadinconjunctionwithch.
IIofHobbes'sfirstmajororiginalwork,TheElementsofLaw(PartI,Human
NaturePartII,DeCorporePolitico).TheElementsofLawwascirculatedina
numberofmanuscriptcopiesfrom1640onwards,andthetwoPartswere

printedseparately,asiftheyweredistinctworks,inLondonin1650,almost
certainlywithoutHobbes'sknowledge(seetheWorld'sClassicsedition,Ox
ford,1994).Indeed,Chs.IVofLeviathanshouldeachbestudiedinconjunc
tionwiththecorrespondingchapters,namelyIIVI,oftheElements.Hobbes's
ThomasWhite'sDeMundoExamined,ch.XXX,alsotreatsthesametopicsas
thechaptersofLeviathandowntoaboutCh.VII.
9Ihaveelsewherewritten:seeElementsofLaw(HumanNature),ch.II,and,on
optics,theTractatusOpticusinMarinMersenne'sUniversaeGeometriaeSyn
opsis(1644).
endeavour:thisisakeyconceptforHobbes.InDeCorpore,XV.2(first
publishedin1655)hedefinesendeavour(orconatus)as'motionmadeinless
spaceandtimethancanbegiventhatislessthancanbedeterminedorassignedby
expositionornumberthatis,motionmadethroughthelengthofapoint,andinan
instantorpointoftime'.SeealsoElementsofLaw(HumanNature),VII.12,
White'sDeMundoExamined,XIII.2,andLeviathan,VI.12.Ontheonehand
Hobbes'sconceptisamongthefirststirringsoftheideathatledLeibnizand
Newtontothedifferentialcalculus.Ontheotherhand,andinthecontextof
thephysiologyandmechanisticpsychologyofLeviathan,itreferstomotion
toominuteortooquicktobeperceived:inmoderntermssomething,for
example,liketheimpulsesalongnervefibres.
fancy:fromtheGreekphantasausedbyHobbestomean(ashere)the
percipient'sinternalexperienceofanexternalobjector(asinII.2)the
percipient'simaginings.SuccinctobjectionstoHobbes'saccountofpercep
tioncanbefoundinD.D.Raphael,Hobbes:MoralsandPolitics(London,
1977),634.
11Thatwhenathing...assentedto:evenclosertoNewton'sdefinitiveformula
tionoftheLawofInertiaisHobbes'swordinginDeCorpore,VIII.19:
'Whatsoeverisatrestwillalwaysbeatrest,unlesstherebesomeotherbody
besidesit,whichbyendeavouringtogetintoitsplacebymotion,suffersitno
longertoremainatrest....Inlikemanner,whatsoeverismovedwillalways
bemoved,excepttherebesomeotherbodybesideit...'.
13Formypart...Ithinkmyselfawake:Hobbesissettingouthissolutiontoan
enduringphilosophicalproblemonceaseparationiseffectedbetweenmy
internalideaX,andtheexternalrealitythatsupposedlycausesmetohavethe
ideaX,awakingideaandadreamideawouldappeartohavethesamestatus
fromwithinthepercipient.Hobbesrobustlypushesthewholeissueasideby
pointingtoanasymmetrybetweendreamingandwaking.
14commonlyrelatedbyhistorians:seetheconcludingparagraphsofPlutarch's
'LifeofJuliusCaesar',andchs.xxxviandxlviiiofhis'LifeofBrutus'.
thereligionoftheGentiles:anyreligionnotoftheJudaeoChristianspecies,but
inHobbes'swritingsparticularlythepolytheisticreligions(whichhealsocalls
'thereligionoftheheathen')ofGreeceandRome,latercalled'paganism'from

Page479

theirlongsurvivalamongpagani(villagers)andcountrydistricts.Seealsonote
top.404andCh.XLVasawhole.
ghostly:religiousorordainedpersonsbutHobbesisalreadyusingtheoldterm
withmorethanatraceofderisiveirony.Hisextendedcomparisonofthe
RomanChurchwiththeKingdomofFairiesisreservedforXLVII.2133.
15OftheConsequence...Imaginations:consequenceintheliteralsenseoffollow
inginorderoneafteranother.Thischapterisconsiderablyenhancedbya
priorreadingofElementsofLaw(HumanNature),IV.
Notevery...indifferently:Hobbesisanearlycontributortothesubjectwhich
inlaterwriters(particularlyDavidHartley,170557,andDavidHume,1711
76)isinvestigatedas'theassociationofideas'.Thekeyquestioniswhyand
how'Noteverythoughttoeverythoughtsucceedsindifferently'.
17thesevenwisemen:sagesofthesixthcenturyBC.Listsofthesevenwere
constructedbyPlato(seeProtagoras,343ab)andPlutarch(seeMoralia,
'TheDinneroftheSevenWiseMen')amongothers.Thenameswereoften
associatedwithparticularwiseaphorisms.BothPlato'sandPlutarch'slists
includeChilon(fl.590BC),towhomisattributedthemaxim'Considerthe
end'.
aspanielrangesthefield:intheseventeenthcenturyspanielswerestilluseful
huntingdogs,nottheunfortunatepetsofmoderninventionwithearsdesigned
tocollectmud,ratherthannosestodetectgame.
19Whatsoeverweimagineisfinite:thisapparentafterthoughttothechapter
containsapotentiallydevastatingargumentagainstmakingGodthesubjectof
anycomprehensibleorcoherentstatementwhatsoever.Hobbesreturnstothe
matterseveraltimesinLeviathan,notablyinXI.25,XXXI.1333,XXXIV.
4,XLV.1415,andXLVI.223.ButitisinElementsofLaw(HumanNature),
XI.24,thathemostclearlyassertsthatwehavenopossibleunderstandingof
thelanguagebymeansofwhichweattempttotalkaboutGod.InWhite'sDe
MundoExamined,XXX.33,Hobbesremarks:'thewayinwhichGodunder
standspassesourunderstanding.Yetwemustbelieve[thatheunderstands]as
faithfullyaswebelievethatheexists.'
Nomantherefore...thesameplaceatonce:Hobbes'sharmlessandabstract
assertionofwhat,onthefaceofthings,looklikeuniversallyagreedprinciples
ofcommon(andnotsocommon)sense,isgivenspecificcontentlateronfor
exampleinXLVI.1921,whereheattacksThomistic(andarguablyorthodox)
accountsofthesoul.
22therebeingnothing...butnames:Hobbesistakingadecisivepositioninrela
tiontothelongrunningphilosophicaldebateaboutwhatuniversalnameslike
'man,horse,tree'arenamesof.IntheviewHobbesisrejecting(originally
associatedwithPlato),universalsdonotnameanyonethinginourexperience,
buttheydoname,orarethepropernamesof,somerealentityor'form'
existinginsomeworld,althoughnottheworldaccessibletosense.This

doctrineHobbeswillnothaveatanyprice.Hismostvigorousrejectionofitis
inElementsofLaw(HumanNature),V.6.Thereasonswhyherejectsit
becomeevidentlaterinLeviathan,e.g.XLVI.1617.
23abirdinlimetwigs:possiblyareferencetoHobbes'sownactivitiesatOxfordin
catchingbirds.SeeJohnAubrey's'BriefLife'intheWorld'sClassicsedition
ofTheElementsofLaw,237.
definitions:foranaccountofwhatHobbesmeansbydefinitionseemyIntro
duction,pp.xxiixxiv,andDeCorpore,VI.14.
24science:foracleardiscussionofHobbes'sapparently'conventionalist'account
ofscience,seeT.Sorell,Hobbes(LondonandNewYork,1986),inparticular
pp.4550.SeealsoLeviathan,V.17,VII.4,and,forHobbes'snearidentifica
tionof'philosophy'with'science',XLVI.1,andnotetop.441.
Forwords...ifbutaman:Hobbesisthinkingofreasoningasasortofaddition
andsubtractionofconceptionsfromagivenconception.SeeV.12.'Thomas'
isStThomasAquinas,c.122574,leadingphilosopherofmedievalWestern
ChristianityandmentorofRomanorthodoxy.
26conception:atermHobbesusestoinclude(a)thecontentsofourmindswhen
andhowevertheyareactuallybeingcausedbyexternalobjectsactingthrough
oursenses,and(b)thosecontentsastheycanreturntousinmemories,
dreams,imaginations,andthelike,and(c)whateveritiswehavewhenwe
understandaname(anddonothavewhenwefailtounderstandaname).In
senses(a)and(b)conceptionsareoftenspokenofbyHobbesas'fancy'.Sense
(c),obviously,butnonetooprecisely,relatedto(a)and(b),isthefocusof
Hobbes'sremarksinthisparagraph.A'name',asHobbesexplainedinEle
mentsofLaw(HumanNature),V.2,is'thevoiceofaman,arbitrarilyimposed,
foramarktobringtohismindsomeconceptionconcerningthethingonwhich
itisimposed'.
27foronemancalleth...anotherstupidity,&c.:Hobbespublishedamagnificent
translationofThucydides'HistoryofthePeloponnesianWarin1629.Inhis
laterwritingsheoftenquotesfrom,alludesto,orusestheHistory,especially
fortheconfusionsitattributestodemocracy.Inthepresentcasecompare
Hobbes'swordswiththeHistory,iii.82:'Thereceivedvalueofnamesim
posedforsignificationofthings,waschangedintoarbitrary.Forinconsiderate
boldness,wascountedtrueheartedmanliness:providentdeliberation,ahand
somefear...',etc.
29anyfree...byopposition:Hobbes'searliestaccountofwhatconstitutesafree
orvoluntaryaction(andwhyitmakesnosensetoargueaboutafreewill)can
befoundinElementsofLaw(HumanNature),XII.15.Itslatercontinuation
isinhiscontroversywithBishopBramhall(seetheMoleswortheditionof
Hobbes'sEnglishWorks(1839),iv.22978andvol.v).Hispositionisthatitis
nonsensetotalkaboutafreewill.Butitissignificanttotalkaboutafreeaction
whentheactionproceedsfromthepassionswhicharethewill(fear,anger,

Page481

love,andthelike)andwhentheactionitselfisnotconstrainedbyexternal
physicalforce.InLeviathanseeVI.53,XIV.8,XXI.14,etal.
30Cicerosaith...ofphilosophers:seeDeDivinatione,ii.119(Loeb,p.505).The
quotationismuchtoHobbes'staste:seeXLVI.11.
31namesthatsignifynothing:theexamplesthatfollowaredrawnfromtheology.
Hobbesarguesseriouslyaboutsuchinsignificantnamesinanumberofplaces
inLeviathan,forexampleVIII.27,XXXIV.2,andXLVI.1630.Oneofthe
instanceshehasalreadygiven,'incorporealsubstance',IV.21,isofmajor
philosophicalandreligiousinterestandhereturnstoitfrequentlyinhisworks,
forexampleinAnAnswertoBishopBramhall(EnglishWorks,iv.3834).
32ignesfatui:uselessfires.
331:paragraphs13ofthechaptershouldbereadinconjunctionwithElements
ofLaw(HumanNature),XII.
34endeavour:seenotetop.9.
appetiteofexcretion,andexoneration:desiretoridthebodyofwasteproducts,
andtoemptythebowels.'Excretion'and'exoneration'arenearlysynonyms.
3567:thesetwoparagraphsareoftheutmostimportanceinunderstanding
Hobbes'smoralphilosophy.Theyassert,inthelightofthepreceding
andsucceedingphysiologicalaccountsofaversionsanddesires,thatwhat
eachindividualcallsgoodandevilwhenheorsheisnotamemberofa
civilsocietyrelatesonlytothatindividual'spersonalaversionsanddesires.
Suchisthe'natural'conditionofmankind.Thematterhadearlierbeen
deployedinElementsofLaw(HumanNature),VII.Butitisnottheendof
thestorysincethe'natural'conditionofmankindis,becauseoftheformation
ofcivilsocietiesinwhichtheindividualisacitizen,nottheusualcondition.
SummariesofHobbes'scompletedthesiscanbeseeninXV.40andXLVI.
32.
asIhavesaidbefore:seeI.4.
36onerationsandexonerations:loadings(aswithfoodanddrink)andunloading(of
same)bythebody.
14:thepassionsdefinedin1448haveabrilliantportrayalinElementsof
Law(HumanNature),IX.21,whereHobbescomparesthelifeofmantoa
race:'Butthisracewemustsupposetohavenoothergoal,nornoother
garland,butbeingforemost.Andinit.'
37Fearof...superstition:thisapparentlyoutofplaceandsarcasticreferenceto
religionhasbeenusedtoillustrateHobbes'sestrangementfromconventional
views,anestrangementthatmightamounttoconcealedatheism.Butsee
Leviathan,XI.26,andmyIntroduction,pp.xxxvixl.
40commonlybytheSchools:see,forexample,Aquinas,SummaTheologiae,1a,

43conscience:Hobbeswilllaterbemuchconcernedwiththreatstotheintegrityof
thestateresultingfromindividualsfollowingtheirprivateconscienceinde
fianceofthecivillaw.Hencehisconcerntodowngradeconsciencefromthe
lawofGodwritteninmen'shearts(ofthesortStPaul,Romans2:15,appeals
to:'[TheGentiles]showthatwhatthelawrequiresiswrittenontheirhearts,
whiletheirconsciencealsobearswitness...')totheratherthinoutcomein
ElementsofLaw(HumanNature),VI.8,thatconscienceisaman'sopinionof
thetruthofhisownevidence.
44IfLivysay...butLivy:notethattheverbformHobbesusesissubjunctive:'if
Livyweretosay...'.Livy(Romanhistorian,59BCAD17)infactdidnotsay
Godmadeacowspeak,butmerely'Thatacowhadspokenathingwhich
hadfoundnocredencetheyearbeforewasnowbelieved'(iii.10,Loeb,ii.
35)or'Prodigieswerereportedthatyear...thatinCampaniaacowspoke'
(xli.13,Loeb,xii.223).
isfaithinmenonly:Hobbesisarguinginthelightofexperienceofthepolitical
problemscausedbybeliefinthosewhoclaimeddivineauthorityfortheir
subversiveopinions.Thushearguesthattobelieveordoubtapreacher(or
Livy)istotrustin(ornot,asthecasemaybe)aman,nottohaveevidencefor
oragainstthecontentofwhatthemanasserts.
51Therewasonce...bythetragedy:thetragedyAndromedawasbyEuripides.
'Accident'inHobbes'sretellingofthisanecdotemeansanunforeseeableand
nonnecessaryconsequence.TheanecdotecanbefoundinLucian'sdelight
fullyreadable'HowtoWriteHistory'(Loeb,vi.3).
thestory:toldbyAulusGellius,AtticNights,xv.10(Loeb,iii.85)andby
PlutarchintheMoralia,'TheBraveryofWomen:TheWomenofMiletus'
(Loeb,iii.509).
demon:theGreekword
doesnotcarrythesenseof'malignantsuper
naturalbeing',butonlyofanindwellingspiritorminordivinity.SeeHobbes's
laterdiscussioninXLV.34.
52whereitissaid:Hobbes'shundredsofcitationsfromtheBibleare,incommon
withotherquotations,printedinitalicsintheHeadedition,andIhave
retainedthisconventionthroughoutthepresenttext.Onemightexpect
HobbestoquotefromtheAuthorizedVersion(theKingJamesBibleof1611),
buthiswordingoftendiffersfromit,andsuggeststhatheistranslatingfrom
anoriginaltext,probably(andsometimesexplicitlyinthecaseoftheOld
Testament)fromtheVulgate,thestandardLatinversionundertakenbySt
Jerome(c.342420).
neartodirectatheism:near,becauseGodandhumansoulsarecommonly
spokenofas'spirits'.ForHobbes,thisisnottosaywhatGodis,butsimply
thatheexists(seeXXXIV.4).InElementsofLaw(HumanNature),XI.4,
Hobbesremarks:'Bythenameofspiritweunderstandabodynatural,butof
suchsubtiltythatitworkethnotonthesensesbutthatfillethuptheplace

Page483

whichtheimageofavisiblebodymightfillup.'Thisatleastseemstooffer
somewaypasthisemphaticdenialsthatGodorhumansoulscanbeintelligibly
spokenofas'incorporealsubstances'.SeeLeviathan,VIII.27,XII.7,etal.
53leavingtheworld...naturalreason:Hobbes'sunequivocalandnowalmost
universallyacceptedclaimthatscriptureisconcernedwithilluminatingthe
KingdomofGod(howeverthatmaybeunderstood),notwithcommunicating
theconclusionsofnaturalscience,wasoneofthepointsincontentionbetween
Galileo(whomHobbeshadmet)andtheRomanChurch.SeeGalileo's'Letter
totheGrandDuchessChristina'(1615)inDiscoveriesandOpinionsofGalileo,
ed.StillmanDrake(NewYork,1957),1813.
54Suarez'...ofGod:FranciscodeSuarez(15841617),Jesuitand'modern'
AristotelianregardedasanauthoritybytheRomanChurchandbysome
Protestants.
OftheSeveralSubjectsofKnowledge:Hobbes's'knowledgeoffact'iswhatwe
knowimmediatelyfrompresentorpastexperiencetogetherwiththe'register'
orrecordsofsuchexperience.His'science',the'consequencesofoneaffirma
tiontoanother',fromtheexamplegiven,mightappeartobeonlygeometry,
arithmetic,formallogic,orotherdeductivesystems.However,onexamina
tion,scienceturnsouttobeallclaimstoknowledgewhichresultfrom,orform
partof,anybodyoffactsthatcanbestructureddeductively.ButHobbes's
accountofscienceisnoteasytograsp.Seenotetop.24.
61Mordecai:aJewishexileatthecourtofXerxeswhoattainedanimportant
palaceposition.SeeEsther6:112.
62tobedescended...isdishonourable:Hobbes,amanofrespectablebutrelatively
obscureparentage,veryhonourablysetsaspringtocatchhimself.
63ahymnofHomer:theanecdotederivesfromTheHomericHymns,iv,'To
Hermes'(Loeb,Hesiod,pp.3634).
histories:particularlyThucydides,HistoryofthePeloponnesianWar,i.56:
'FortheGreciansinoldtime,andsuchbarbariansasinthecontinentlived
nearuntothesea,orelseinhabitedtheislands,afteroncetheybegantocross
overonetoanotherinships,becamethieves...',etc.(Hobbes'stranslation).
64ConstantinetheGreat:seenotetop.347.
Selden'smostexcellenttreatise:JohnSelden'sTitlesofHonour(1614).Hobbes
sentSelden(15841654)apresentationcopyofLeviathan,andtheybecame
firmfriends.
65Norcanamananymorelive:cf.VIII.16.ItisoneofHobbes'smostchallenging
assertionsthatmanisarestless,unsatisfiablecreaturewhosesearchforpower
(inthespecialsensedefinedinX.1andusedinXI.2)endsonlyatdeath.Note
thatiflifeisthemovement(seenotetop.7)whichisdesires,senses,imagin
ation,etc.,itisatfirstdifficulttounderstandwhat'life'asoulcouldhaveapart
fromthebody.HobbesgraspsthenettleinCh.XXXVIII:thesoulislife

67pleasuretothesense...theimagination:thisisliterallytrueinviewofHobbes's
earlieridentificationofimaginationwithdecayingsense.SeeII.2.
69strong:theBeareditionhasoldhere,whichmaymakeeasiersensetothe
modemreader.
70publicans,thatistosay,farmers:taxgatherers,thatistosaythosetowhomsuch
collectingisfarmedout(whopayafixedsumtothestateandgatherwhatthey
can).
23:thislittleparagraphhasalltheingredientsforthesortofscepticismwith
regardtoreportedmiraclesthatreceivedsuchcelebratedexpressioninsect.X
ofDavidHume'sEnquiryconcerningHumanUnderstanding(1748).Butsee
XXX.3andXXXVII.
71yetnothaveanidea:seenotetop.19.
72oldpoetssaid:quitealotofclassicalwritersobservedthis,butamongpoetsitis,
Ithink,onlydevelopedatlengthinLucretius,OntheNatureoftheUniverse,
forexamplei.6279.ButLucretiusisfarmoreconcernedtoresistthefear
causedbyreligionthantoanalysethefearwhichcausesit.SeealsoStatius,
Thebaid,iii.661,andPetronius,poem3(Loeb,p.343).
74astheAthenians...anotherScipio:thefirstexampleismentionedby
Thucydides,iii.7thesecondisinPlutarch'sLives,'CatotheYounger',58
(Loeb,viii.375).Inbothinstancesitwasfeltthatbetterluckmightresultfrom
theleadershipofsomeonebearinganameparticularlyassociatedwithsuccess.
75accidents:inphilosophicalterminologyanaccidentwasapropertywhicha
thingmightormightnothavewithoutceasingtobethatthing.Forexample,
amancouldbehealthy,ornot,withoutceasingtobeaman.
76consecrated:Hobbes's'religionoftheGentiles'thepolytheisticreligionsof
classicalGreeceandRomedidnot'consecrate'thingstogodsinthesensein
whichChristianity'consecrated'buildingsorpersons.Thegodshadplaces
wheretheyabode,andthenaturalworldwasfullofhiddenlife,partsofit
beingintrinsicallyspecialtosuchlife,andthus'holy'.ForHobbes'sremarks
onChristianconsecration,seeXLIV.11.
77Nostradamus:MicheldeNostredame,150366,Frenchphysicianandastro
logerwhosetwocollectionsofpredictions,theCenturies,expressedinobscure
(asusual)andambiguous(asalways)quatrainsofverse,achievedgreatfame
(whichhasenduredevenuntoitsapotheosisinafilmof1995).
NumaPompilius:secondkingofRome,supposedly715673BC:seeLivy,
HistoryofRome,1.xix(Loeb,i.69).
78andMahomet...adove:itisactuallyclaimedthatMahometreceivedhis
revelationsdirectlyfromtheAngelGabriel.Thestoryaboutthedoveis
whollyapocryphalbutHobbesmighthaverepliedthatabirdatleasthasa

Page485

pretended'speech'ofabodilessspiritthathasnomeansofspeech(concerning
whichthewordsofJeremiah5:21mightbereversedtoexpressthephysical
andperhapsconceptualimpossibility:'speechhavetheybuttonguesnotsight
havetheybuteyesnot').
thesamethings...bythelaws:anearlyexampleofthiscanbeseeninthe
speechrecordedbySextusEmpiricusinAgainstthePhysicists,i.54(Loeb,iii.
312)andattributedbyhimtothesophistpoliticianCritias(c.460400BC).
ButofcoursethesameviewappliesinChristiancommonwealthswhen(as
Hobbesisabouttoargue)naturallawsorthelawsofGod,andparticular
formulationsoftheselaws,areembodiedinthecivillaw.
theangerofthegods:onceagainHobbesiseitherdeliberatelyorthoughtlessly
attributingactivitiestopaganswhichattachaswell,orbetter,toChristians,as
hehimselfwastoexperience.In1666,afterthedivineangershowninthe
plagueof1665andthefireofLondonin1666,theJournaloftheCommons,on
17October,recordstheorder'thattheCommitteetowhichtheBillagainst
AtheismandProfanenessiscommitted,beempoweredtoreceiveinformation
touchingsuchbooksastendtoatheism,blasphemyandprofaneness,oragainst
theessenceandattributesofGod,andinparticularthebookpublishedinthe
nameofone[Thomas]White,andthebookofMrHobbes,calledthe'Levi
athan',andtoreportthematterwiththeiropiniontotheHouse'.
butthatoftheJews:theJewishreligionwastoleratedwithintheRoman
Empire,andaprohibitionbyHadrianofcircumcisionistheonlyknown
Romanactspecificallyagainstthereligionassuch,althoughtherewereother
occasionalmovesagainstproselytizingJews.
82andthosenot...ofreformation:theReformationwentfurthestinChurches
organizedaccordingtoCalvinistprinciples,particularlythePresbyterian
Church.ThesewordsareomittedinthewrittencopyofLeviathan,wherethe
sentenceconcludes:'onwhomwhenmenbycommonfrailtyarecarriedto
executetheiranger.Theybeardownnotonlyreligionwhichtheyreduceto
privatefancybutalsothecivilgovernmentthatwouldupholditreducingit
tothenaturalconditionofprivateforce.'
848:thisparagraph,andtheonefollowing(whichconcludeswiththemost
quotedsentenceinallEnglishphilosophy),isthecentralstatementofthefirst
moveinHobbes'spoliticaltheory:thatunrestrictedindividualfreedom(i.e.
therightofnature)meansthewarofeachagainsteverymancf.XXI.8.
Lethimthereforeconsider:itisaboldorunworldlyhumanbeingthatcannot
stillrecognizethefearsHobbesdescribesandtheprecautionshelists.
85therewasnever...ofwarasthis:Hobbesmaywellberight,althoughhis
account,ashesays,dependsnotuponwhateverwasactual,butonwhat,given
humannatureasitreallyis,wouldbeactualintheabsenceofaneffective
sovereignpower,andalmostisactualincivilwars,whencivilsocietybreaks
down.Butthereisatleastoneancientreport,givenbySextusEmpiricus

(secondcenturyAD).HavingquotedOrpheus,'atheologian',totheeffectthat
'Therewasatimewheneverymanlivedbydevouringhisfellows',Sextus
continueswithanaccountofhowthestateofwarwasdeliberatelycontrivedin
thePersianEmpire:'theshrewdPersianshavealawthatonthedeathoftheir
kingtheymustpractiselawlessnessforthenextfivedays...inordertolearn
byexperiencehowgreatanevillawlessnessis...sothattheymaybecome
moretrustyguardiansoftheirkings'(AgainsttheProfessors,ii.33Loeb,iv.
2057).Inmoregeneraltermsthenotionofastateofwar,orsomethinglike
it,wherethereisnolaw,isveryancient.See,forexample,Cicero,ProSestio,
92(Loeb,p.159).
87generalruleofreason:thisfundamentallawofnature,'seekpeace'(asHobbes
paraphrasesit),togetherwiththesecond,thatweshouldnotseektomaintain
ourrightstoallthings,aredifferentinkindfromthoselawsthatHobbes
derivesfromtheminCh.XV.Thetwofundamentallawsaretheconditions
thatreasonshowstobenecessaryforavoidingthestateofwar.Inboth
ElementsofLaw(HumanNature),XIV.14andXV.2,andDeCive(I.15and
II.13)Hobbestreatsthesetwolawsseparatelyfromthederivedlaws,
althoughinbothDeCive,II.3,andLeviathan,XIV.5,thereisanassumption
thatthesecondlawcanbederivedfromthefirst,andneednotberegarded
asanindependentconditionfortheavoidanceofthestateofwar.InDeCive
(II.1)Hobbesexplainsthat'Byrightreasoninthenaturalstateofmen,
Iunderstandnot,asmanydo,aninfalliblefaculty,buttheactofreasoning,
thatis,thepeculiarandtrueratiocinationofeverymanconcerningthose
actionsofhiswhichmayeitherredoundtothedamage,orbenefitofhis
neighbours.'
Thisisthatlaw...nefeceris:forthe'GoldenRule',seeMatthew7:12,or
Luke6:31:'Andasyewouldthatmenshoulddotoyou,doyealsotothem
likewise.'Hobbessetsthisinacontextinwhichothersadopttowardsmethe
samerule.TheGospelsdonotseemtoexpectsuchreciprocation,although
turningtheothercheekcancertainlybeassociatedwithvasterbenefitsthan
merelyavoidingahereandnowstateofwar.The'lawofallmen'thatHobbes
citesinLatinistheconverseoftheGoldenRule.Itis'donotdotootherswhat
youwouldnotwishtobedonetoyou'.SeealsoXXVI.13.
88voluntaryact:fromhisaccountsofhumanphysiologyHobbesassertsthe
generalizationthat,asamatteroffact,whateveramandoesvoluntarily(or
'freely',seenotetop.29)willhaveasitsobjectsomegoodtohimself.See
ElementsofLaw(HumanNature),VII,XII,andparticularlyXVI.6:'For
bynecessityofnatureeverymandothinallhisvoluntaryactionsintendsome
gooduntohimself.'Andagain,DeCive,I.7:'everymanisdesirousofwhatis
goodforhim,andshunswhatisevil...andthishedoth,byacertainimpul
sionofnature,nolessthanthatwherebyastonemovesdownward.'Thisisthe
positionsometimescalled'psychologicalegoism'.SeeLeviathan,XV.16,and
myIntroduction,pp.xxviiixxxi.

Page487

91meritumcongrui,andmeritumcondigni:thedistinctioncanbefoundin
Aquinas'sSummaTheologiae,1a2ae,quest.114,a.3.Meritumcongruiisa
benefitinkeepingwithorinproportiontoone'sdeservingmeritumcondigniis
abenefitwithoutlimitgrantedbysomeoneelse,forexamplebyGodplacing
oneinastateofeternalbliss.
92TomakecovenantwithGod:foradiscussionofcovenantsseeElementsofLaw
(HumanNature),XV.914.Foraseventeenthcenturyclaimtocovenantwith
God,seetheScottishNationalCovenantof1638,whichspeaksofChristians
'whohaverenewedtheirCovenantwithGod'andcallsuponGod'towitness'
thedeclaration.HobbesseemstohavelessdifficultywiththeOldTestament
covenantbetweenGodandtheJews:seeXXXV.2.
9329:theparagraphisimportantwhenreadinconjunctionwith4asitsets
somelimittowhatamangrantstoLeviathan,thestate,whenheagreesto
restricthisfreedominordertoavoidthestateofwar.SeealsoXXVIII.2.
96justiceis...hisown:HobbesreturnstothephraseoritslikeinXXVI.4,XXX.
12,etal.ItisoriginallydrawnfromPlato,Republic,I.331eand332c,andthe
ideaisdevelopedinAristotle,NicomacheanEthics,v.1.SeealsoAquinas,
SummaTheologiae,2a2ae,quest.58,a.1.
Thefoolhathsaid...justice:HobbesalludestoPsalm14:'Thefoolhathsaid
inhisheart,thereisnoGod'(repeatedinPsalm53:1).
ThekingdomofGod...violence:Hobbesseemstobeparaphrasingthesome
whatenigmatictextofMatthew11:12:'AndfromthedaysofJohntheBaptist
untilnowthekingdomofheavensufferethviolence,andtheviolenttakeitby
force.'
Coke's:SirEdwardCoke,15521634,Englishlawyer.HisInstitutesofLaw,
publishedbetween1628and1644,beganwithacommentaryonatextbookon
tenurebySirThomasLittlejohn.SeealsoXXVI.11and24.
986:in68Hobbesturnstowhatwillbeoneofhisprimaryconcernsinthe
laterPartsofLeviathan,namely,underwhatconditions,ifany,canreligious
beliefandconcernsjustifydisobediencetoaworldlysovereignpower.Cf.8
withCh.XXXVIII.
99manners:thesensehere,andinmostothercontextsinLeviathan,is'customary
modeofbehaviour,whatisusuallydoneorhabituallypractised'.
writers:possiblyAquinas,SummaTheologiae,2a2ae,quest.61,or,moregen
erally,Aristotle,NicomacheanEthics,v.34.
103asacquiredbylot:thesecondborninafamilywouldnotnormallythinkoftheir
sibling'sprimogenitureasjustliketossingacointodecidewhoinheritsthe
familyproperty:butthatiswhatHobbessayshere,andmoreclearlyin
ElementsofLaw(HumanNature),XVII.35.
105inforointerno:literally'intheinternalforum'.SeemyIntroduction,p.xxxiv,

106OfPersons...Personated:thischaptermayseemlegalisticandrelativelyunin
teresting.Hobbesisattemptingtoclarifyconceptswhichwillbeofmuch
significanceinhislaterarguments.
107Cicerousethit:DeOratore,ii.102(Loeb,p.275).
andsometimeswarrant:thesewordsareaddedinthelargepapercopies
andrepresentoneofthetinyhandfulofchangeswhichmightberegarded
asadjustingthemeaning,howeverslightly.Foranother,seenoteto
p.109.
108hocdicit...dicitDominus:'Mosessaysthis...theLordsaysthis.'
109onthedayofPentecost:wordsoccurringonlyinlargepapercopies.Thelast
sentencein12seemstoimplythehereticalviewthatthethreepersonsofthe
Trinityarenotcoeternalandcoequal,forwhichBishopBramhall,referring
primarilytoXLII.3,reprovedHobbes.SeeTheCatchingoftheLeviathan
(London,1658),'senttothepress...asanappendixtoBramhall's
CastigationsofMrHobbes'(London,1657),4734.
111OftheCauses...Commonwealth:cf.DeCive,V.
Andinallplaces...honour.cf.Thucydides,History,i.5,whereThucydides
describestheplunderandpiracyofancienttimes'itbeingamatteratthat
timenowhereindisgrace,butrathercarryingwithitsomethingofglory'.
113byAristotlenumbered:thereferenceistothePolitics,i.2:'Nowthereasonwhy
manismoreofapoliticalanimalthanbeesoranyothergregarious
animals...isspeech...and...asenseofgoodandevil,ofjustandunjust
andtheassociationoflivingbeingswhohavethissensemakesafamilyanda
state.'SeealsoAristotle'sHistoryofAnimals,i.1(488a813)andcf.Hobbes's
DeCive,V.5,andElementsofLaw(HumanNature),XIX.5.
114conform:theprintedHeadandBeartextshad'perform',whichmakesbad
sense.TheHead'slistoferratachangesitto'form'.Thelargepapercopies
have'conform'.
115OftheRights...byInstitution:someofthematerialinthischapterisusefully
augmentedbyreadingDeCive,VI.
116anewcovenant...withGod:seenotetop.92.
118whoshall...bepublished:Hobbes'sdefenceofstatecensorshipwillmake
modernliberaldemocratswinceyetthosesameliberaldemocratswilltake
Hobbes'sviewaboutwhen,where,andtowhom'opinionsanddoctrines'
aboutrace,sex,and,toalesserextent,religioncanbecommunicatedifthe
opinionsarejudgedbytheliberaldemocratsto'incitehatred',i.e.be'repug
nanttopeace'inpreciselyHobbes'ssense.
119Theserules...arethecivillaws:Hobbes'sidentificationofmorallawswith

Page489

120Thesearetherights...sovereignty:evidentlytheserights,ifvestedinaking,
wouldresolveintheking'sfavouralmostallthatwasdisputedbetween
CharlesIandhissubjects.Thusthefutureking,CharlesII,readinghis
manuscriptcopyLeviathan,wouldhavebeenquitegratified,butfortheclause
thatfollows:'man,orassemblyofmen'.Hobbes'spersonalsympathywas
almostcertainlywithmonarchy,butheregularlywritesofthe'manoras
semblyofmen'inwhomthesovereignpowerresides.Hispoliticaltheoryis
thuscompatiblewithsupportforanyestablishedsovereignpowerthatcan
stopthewarofeverymanagainsteveryman.Seealsonotetop.468.
121akingdom...cannotstand:Mark3:24.SeealsoMatthew12:25andLuke11:
17.
thiscivilwar.thisisHobbes'sfirstexplicitreferencetothecivilwarsthatform
thehistoricalbackgroundtoLeviathan.ThefirstwasbetweenkingandParlia
ment,16426thesecondbetweentheParliamentaryarmyandScottish,Irish,
andRoyalistgroups.ItendedwiththebattleofWorcesterin1651.
123OftheSeveral...Power:cf.ElementsofLaw(DeCorporePolitico),XXIV,and
DeCive,VIIandX.
monarchy...democracy...aristocracy:Hobbesisemployingtheinfluential
classificationsetupbyAristotleinPolitics,iii.7.SeealsoPolybius,History,VI.
iiiix(Loeb,iii.27191).
128Ephori:ephors,thefiveorsoseniormagistrateselectedannuallybythecitizens
ofSpartatoadvise(andineffectcontrol)theking.
133paternal:formoreontherightsofwomenandtherelationsbetweenparents
andchildrenseeElementsofLaw(DeCorporePolitico),XXIII,andDeCive,
IX.
inhistory:see,forexample,QuintusCurtius,HistoryofAlexander,vi.5(Loeb,
ii.47).
134aswhen...subjects:anexamplefamiliartoHobbeswouldhavebeenMary
QueenofScotsmarryingtheEarlofBothwellin1567.
136servants:incontexttheHebreworiginal(ebed)signifiessomethingcloserto
'slaves'.SamueliswarningtheJewsagainsthavingaking.
139Liberty:seenotetop.29.
140noliberty...inclinationtodo:essentiallythesameaccountoflibertyreappears
inDavidHume'sEnquiryconcerningHumanUnderstanding(1748),sect.VIII,
pt.I:'Byliberty,then,wecanonlymeanapowerofactingornotacting,
accordingtothedeterminationofthewillthatis,ifwechoosetoremainatrest,
wemayifwechoosetomove,wealsomay.'
aswhen...shouldsink:theexampleisdrawnfromAristotle'sNicomachean

happensalsowithregardtothethrowingofgoodsoverboardinastormforin
theabstractnoonethrowsgoodsawayvoluntarily,butonconditionofits
securingthesafetyofhimselfandhiscrewanysensiblemandoesso.Such
actionsthen,aremixed,butaremorelikevoluntaryactions...'(W.D.Ross's
translation).
140Andtherefore...norless:DavidHumesuggests(seenotetop.119)thatsuch
necessityandlibertyisareasonforholdingGodmorallyresponsibleforman's
actions.
142Jeptha:seeJudges11:1940.
byDavid:see2Samuel11.
Aristides...Hyperbolus:Aristides(died468BC)wasanAthenianpolitician,
banishedbetween485and482.HyperboluswasanotherAthenianpolitician:'a
lewdfellow'accordingtoThucydides(History,viii.73).
145otherwisethereis:thisclause(and1115ingeneral,togetherwith21)opens
awiderscopeforcivildisobediencethanasovereignmightapprove.
150lettersbepatent:'letterspatent'(elsewhereinCh.XXIIsimplyreferredtoas
'letters')arepubliclyavailabledocumentsissuedbyamonarchorgovernment
inordertorecordacontract,authorizeanaction,orconferarightorprivilege.
9:theeffectofthisparagraphistoestablishtheimportantdistinctionbe
tweentherealpersonofthesovereign(monarchormemberofthesovereign
assembly)andtheartificialmanorLeviathanwhoseheadheortheyrepresent.
Theformerissubjecttothelaw.Thelattercannotbesinceitisthelaw.See
XXIX.9.
157byobligation:copiesoftheHeadandBeareditionsthatIhaveseenhave'not'
infrontofthesewordslargepapercopiesomitit.Thewrittencopyalsoomits
it.
justice...withoutmoney:Hobbes'srealismseemstorefertothefamiliarhigh
costsoflegalrepresentation,nottobribery.
158&c.:thewrittencopyomits'&c.'andreads'Independents',i.e.thevarious
fragmentaryreformedsectsthatbrokeawayfromthePresbyterians.
161Deigratia...voluntateregis:'bythegraceofGodandthekingorbythe
providenceofGodandthewilloftheking.'
ifthepleawerepublic:thisphraseoccursonlyinthelargepapercopies.
164Letthecivillaw...anotherman's:Cicero,ProCaecina,xxv.73and70respect
ively(Loeb,pp.171and167).
165inanotherplace:itisnotclearwherethisotherplacemightbeinLeviathan.

Page491

anceofHobbes's,andheasksafterHarveyinaletterofSept./Oct.1655.See
Letter74inTheCorrespondenceofThomasHobbes,ed.NoelMalcolm
(ClarendonPress,Oxford,1994).
counsels,andcommands:seealsoElementsofLaw(DeCorporePolitico),XXIX.
16,andDeCive,XIV.12.Hobbes'sdistinctioncanbeseenatworkin,for
example,Leviathan,XXV.10,XXVI.2,andXLIII.5.
17110:Hobbes'sdistinctionbetweenOldTestamentcommandsandNewTes
tamentcounselsisdubiousinviewofthenumerousbenefitstheIsraeliteswere
supposedtoloseiftheydisobeyedGod'scommands.
172experience:seeII.4andIII.610.
175OfCivilLaws:muchofthischapterisofprimaryinteresttojuristsand
constitutionallawyers,butnotetheidentificationofnaturallawwithcivillaw,
andtherelationtodivinelawdiscussedin8,13,369.
179SirEdwardCoke:seenotetop.96.
185agreatlawyer:againCoke.ThequotationisfromtheInstitutesofLaw,PartI,
paragraph709.
188Justinian:482565,EasternRomanEmperor(atConstantinople)52765.In
529thefirstCodexJustinianuswasissuedaformulationofallvalidimperial
lawsfromHadrianonwards.Otherdefinitivecodificationsoflawfollowed.In
533hislawyers,actingonJustinian'sinstructions,producedasystematic
elementarytreatiseoflaw,theInstitutions.
189howcanaman...bythedeclarer?:thisispreciselythequestionansweredwith
greatconfidencebyLocke,Clarke,andmanyothersafterandbeforeHobbes
byreferencetotheperformanceofmiraclesandthefulfillingofprophecy.But
Hobbesissurprisinglycautiousaboutgivingtheiranswer.SeeChs.XXXII
andXXXVIII.
193thefirstmotionsofthemind...besins:cf.XIII.10.Hobbesispresumably
thinkingofsuchpreceptsasMatthew5:28:'whosoeverlookethonawomanto
lustafterherhathcommittedadulterywithheralreadyinhisheart',andthe
(conspicuouslyCalvinist)theologyofsininthoughtandfeelingbasedupon
suchtextsasthis.
194alterthereligionthere:Hobbespresumablyacceptsthattheargumentcouldbe
turneduponallChristianmissionariesinstateswithanestablishednon
Christianreligion.
199astheStoics...maintained:acardinal(andparadoxical)teachingoftheStoics
wasthatallcrimeswereequal.See,forexample,Cicero,DeFinibus,iv.23
and28(Loeb,pp.371,385),StoicParadoxes,paradoxiii,andPlutarch's
Moralia,'OnCommonConceptions',forageneralcritiqueoftheStoic
position.

212Ofthose...aCommonwealth:muchofthechapterisineffectananalysisofthe
sourcesoftheEnglishcivilwar.Behemoth,Hobbes'sfullaccountoftheseand
ofrelatedevents,waswritten16678andofficiallypublishedin1682.
214Solon...wasmad:seePlutarch'sLives,'Solon',viii(Loeb,i.421).
6:theargumentin68,thatprivateopinionofgoodandevil,private
conscience,andprivatereligiousinspiration,arecalculatedtodestroythebody
politic,laysoutthegroundformuchofwhatHobbesistodiscussinChs.
XXXXLIII.
215subjecttothecivillaws:thelogicofHobbes'sargumentisimpeccable,butitis
notthedirectioninwhichtheEnglishconstitutionwent,nordoesitseem
compatiblewithXXII.9.
216Lacedemonians:Spartans.Spartawasakingdom(regulatedbycustomand
advisers)Athensademocracy.
218punishments...rewards:seeXXXI.1,andXXXVIII,whereHobbesdirectly
confrontstheissue.
219Sometimes...athird:Hobbesislistingtheconflictingforceswhichledtocivil
warinEngland.
225likethefoolish...newman:Hobbesalsousesthistastyillustrationofhis
argumentinElementsofLaw(DeCorporePolitico),XXVII.15.Peliaswas
responsibleforsendinghisnephewJasontofetchtheGoldenFleece.The
unfortunaterejuvenationwasattemptedbyPelias'daughtersafterJason's
returnwithMedea,andathersuggestion.
Nonhabebis...areGods:presumablyHobbesquotestheVulgateLatinto
emphasizetheforceofthewordalienus'strange','other','alien'.'Another
place'isPsalm82:6.
238cannotsin:theargumentintheparagraphisleftunresolved.Theproblemof
sufferingdoesdeterthefaithofbothphilosophersand'thevulgar',andJob
givesnorealanswertoitinaffirmingmerelythatGoddoesthesethingsinthe
mysteryofhispower.
240Fourthly...honour.thebestknownandmostinfluentialviewofthiskindisto
befoundinthewritingsofEpicurus(341c.270BC)andhisfaithfulexponent
Lucretius(c.95c.54BC),forbothofwhomthegodsexist,buttakenocareof
man.SeeJohnGaskin(ed.),TheEpicureanPhilosophers(LondonandVer
mont,1995),Introductionandpp.423,2345.Platoidentifiessuchaviewas
onevarietyofatheismatthebeginningofLaws,x.
245mayfallinto...clear:thefutureCharlesII,intowhosehandsHobbesdid
indeedputafinemanuscriptcopyofLeviathan,maywellhavefoundthework
clear,buthecouldscarcelyhavejudgeditshort.Hobbes'shopewasdashedby
the'interested'interpretationofClarendonandotherRoyalistswhichresulted

Page493

247Part3:thematerialinthesetwelvechaptershasnocounterpartintheElements
ofLawanddoesnotsystematicallycorrespondwithchs.XVIXVIIIofDe
Cive,althoughindividualtopicscanberelated(seeHowardWarrender's
marginaliainhistextoftheEnglishversionofDeCive,ClarendonPress,
Oxford,1983).ChapterXXXIIsetsoutinbriefHobbes'smainpurposes,and
XXXIIIexaminesthevalidityofthebiblicalcanon(whythey,andnoother
books,canbetakenascanonical).Laterchaptersexamineanddefine,usually
inasomewhatreductionistwaybutalwayswithbiblicaljustification,suchkey
religiousconceptsas'body','spirit'(XXXIV),'kingdomofGod'(XXXV),
'prophecy','wordofGod'(XXXVI),'miracle'(XXXVII),'hell','resurrec
tion'(XXXVIII),and'church'(XXXIX).Theremainingfourchaptersde
velopindetailHobbes'ssystematicreductionandregulationoftheclaimsof
Churchesorreligiousbeliefstodirectpoliticalpower,ortoprovideoccasions
fortheoverthrowofsovereignpower.
248pretend:inHobbes'susagesomethinglike'presentforconsideration',but
alreadywithovertonesof'makeitappear(deceptively)that...'.
Tosay...Godspaketohim:thismuchquotedaphorism,togetherwithan
otherin3,thedefinitionofsuperstitionetc.inVI.36,etal.canreadilybe
usedtodisplayHobbes'sdistasteformanyaspectsofreligion.Buttaken
literallyandincontexttheycanalways(just!)besquaredwithpossibleinter
pretationofbiblicalsources.Indeed,A.P.Martinich(TheTwoGodsofLevia
than,Cambridge,1992)arguesthatHobbesisareligiousreformer,nota
concealedatheist.SeemyIntroduction,pp.xxivxxviii.
252St.Jerome:c.342420,authoroftheauthoritativetranslationoftheBibleinto
LatinknownastheVulgate.Seenotetop.52.
Josephus:ADc.37c.101,Jewishhistorianandwriteronreligion,governorof
Galilee,andfriendofVespasian(evenaftertheJewishrebellion).Forhisviews
onthecanonoftheOldTestamentseeContraApionem,i.3941(Loeb,i.179).
256PtolomaeusPhiladelphus:secondPtolemytoruleEgyptafterthedivisionofthe
empireofAlexandertheGreatonhisdeathin323BC.PtolemyIIreignedfrom
285to246BC.HeextendedthelibraryatAlexandriaand,itisbelieved,caused
theHebrewBibletobeputintoGreekbyseventytranslators'the
Septuagint'.
257(afterSt.Peter):thelargepapercopiesdonotprintthisparentheticalreference
totheprimacyofStPeter.
258Philo:c.30BCAD45,prolificauthorofworksonphilosophicalreligioninthe
HellenisticJewishtradition.
261body:cf.DeCorpore,VIII.1:'that,whichhavingnodependenceuponour
thoughtiscoincidentorcoextendedwithsomepartofspace'.
Fortheuniverse:cf.thedefinitivestatementofwhatIhavecalledoneworld
realism(seeIntroduction,p.xxi)inXLVI.15.SeealsoWhite'sDeMundo
Examined,XXVII.6.

261idols:HobbesisdeliberatelyoverlappingtheGreekphilosophicalandthe
JewishChristianuseofthisterm.Intheformersenseitmeansamentalimage
orconceptionasopposedtoathinginexternalreality(whethersuchanidolis
sometimesoralways'false',andinwhatsense'false',isamajorphilosophical
question).Inthelattersenseitmeansaphysicalimageorrepresentationofa
falsegodusedasanobjectofworship.ForHobbes'sfulldiscussionseeXLV.
1420.
262Godisincomprehensible:seenotetop.19.
264spirits,bythewordghosts:thesoundnessofHobbes'sviewwasbelatedlyrecog
nizedbythelatetwentiethcenturychangeinmostlitaniesfromspeaking
aboutthe'HolyGhost'tospeakingaboutthe'HolySpirit'.
266supernaturally:noteHobbes'stendencytousethiswordtobridgegapsinwhat
maybeintelligibleintermsofhisoneworldrealism.Cf.XXIX.8.
268impatible:incapableofexperiencingsufferingorinjury.HereandinXLIV.33
Hobbesisassertingtheconclusion,obvioustoallbuttheologians,thatifan
entityistoburn,itmustinsomewaybecorporeal.
277commemoration:Hobbes'sProtestantcredentials(possiblyforatimeinques
tioninthe1640s)areconfirmedbyincidentalremarkswhichemphasizethe
Eucharistasanactofremembranceratherthanoftransubstantiation.His
intenselyarguedanddocumentedattackonpapalclaimsisreservedforXLII,
andPart4ofLeviathan.
2829:theproblemofhowGodshouldspeakwithoutthemechanismforso
doingisaseriousissueofbiblicalinterpretationwhichspillsoverinto
crucialphilosophicalquestionsabouthowabodilessentitycouldact
atallinoruponaworldinwhichallthatisreal,inHobbes'snow
commonlyusedanalysis,isspaceandmovingbodies.Hobbes'susual
letoutisthatwesayGod'speaks'inordertodohimhonour.Butonexami
nationthis'speaking'reducestotheway'whatsoeveritbe'thatGod
makesusunderstandhiswill.However,someofthesewaysaresuspect,
ornotuniquetowhatsoeverGod'sgenuinecommunicationsare(see
XXXII.6).Hence(see11below),whenGod'speaks'indreams,
visions,etc.,thesespeakingsmustineverytrueprophetbe'supernatural'.
Butseenotetop.166,andobservethat,attheendof14below,Hobbes
seemstoadmitthatthemannerofGod'sspeakingis'unintelligible'.
SeemyIntroduction,p.xxii,fortherelationbetweenHobbes'sphilosophical
oneworldrealism,andhisacceptanceofapparentlyincompatiblemattersof
faith.
286asitis...byavoice:thesewordsonlyappearinlargepapercopies.Inthe
Headeditiontheyarereplacedbyjustthreewords:'isnotintelligible'.
289JesusistheChrist:thisisthecentralandminimumaffirmationwhichHobbes
requiresoftheChristianforsalvation.Itismuchinevidenceinthelater

Page495

lengthinElementsofLaw(DeCorporePolitico),XXV.67,andDeCive,
XVIII.59.
296Andwhen...ofGod:notetheextremelytoughcriteriawhichacontemporary
eventwouldhavetosatisfyinordertobeamiracle.Intheeighteenthcentury,
thebiblicalmiraclesweretobetestedinasimilarway.
2971:theopeningparagraph(cf.XLIII.2)makesabundantlyclearHobbes's
politicalconcernsincuffingdowntheinfluenceswhichasupposedfuturelife
canexertuponwhatwedointhislife.Hisdiscussionisarguablyconsistent
withapossibleinterpretationofscripturebutitdiminishesthescaleofthe
horror(seenotetop.416).Hall(1114)isnothellfire.Resurrectionison
earth.Theseconddeath(forsinners)isnoteternaltorment,andsoon.
298theplacewherein:cf.XLVI.15,whereitisstronglysuggestedthatwhatisno
where(hasnoplace)isnothing.Consistentwithhisoneworldrealism,and
withhiscitationofbiblicaltexts,Hobbesthusmakestheunexpectedclaimthat
eternallifeissomethinginorofthisworld,even,particularly,'onearth'.
299coelumempyreum:celestialspace,thelimitlessskythoughtofastheabodeof
God.SeeAquinas,SummaTheologiae,1a,quest.61,a.4,andquest.66,a.3.
300resurrectionofthebody:Hobbesisstrenuouslyconcernedtoemphasizewhat
manybelieversdonotseemtonotice(althoughtheyaffirmitregularlyinthe
Apostles'Creed),namely,thattheChristianbeliefisinresurrectionofthe
humanpersonasabodyincorruptible.Theorthodoxbeliefisnotinanimma
terialIknownotwhatexistingasasoul(where'soul'isunderstoodmoreasa
ghostthanasthelifeofthebodythatHobbesreferstoin,forexample,XLIV.
15).Cf.1Corinthians15:3554andAugustine,CityofGod,xiii.23.
302Bispatet...Olympum:'[ThenTartarusitself]yawnssheerdownstretching
intothegloomtwiceasfarasinyonsky'supwardviewtoheavenlyOlympus.'
305aslongastheworldlasts:this,andtheearlierphrase'aslongastheworld
stands',arethereadingsoftheBearandOrnamentseditions.TheHead
editionandthewrittencopyhave'forever'inbothplaces.Ihavehereandhere
aloneinthepresenttextpreferredtheusuallylessreliablereadingsoftheBear
andOrnamentssincetheyhavethesoundofHobbes'sintentions:thisworld,
whateveritseternity,istheplaceofafuturelifeorseconddeath.Seenoteto
p.417forasimilardivergenceoftexts.
310[247],[248]:thesepagenumbersarerepeatedintheHeadedition.
312OftheRights...ofJudah:Ch.XLisalmostentirelybiblicalexegesis.Its
significanceinHobbes'soveralltheorycanbeidentifiedin1314.
321[261]:intheHeadedition,pagenumbers25760inclusivedonotoccur.
Nothingappearstohavebeenomittedeitherdeliberatelyoraccidentallyfrom
thetext.

'thatthekingdomofChristisnotofthisworld:thereforeneithercanhis
ministers...requireobedienceinhisname'.
323itismanifest...saidit:thesewordsoccuronlyinthelargepapercopies.
330CardinalBellarmine:Robert,15421621.Althoughmentionedhere,Hobbes
returnstohispublishedworkatlengthin81135ofthepresentchapter.
BellarmineenteredtheJesuitorderin1560andwasmadeacardinalin1599.
HismagisterialdefenceoftheRomanChurchagainsttheProtestant,
DisputationesdeControversiisChristianaeFidelAdversusHuiusTemporis
Haereticos,appearedbetween1581and1592.AnopponentofJamesI
oftheUnitedKingdom,andofGalileo,heisHobbes'smainadversaryinPart
3ofLeviathan.ThestructureofHobbes'sargumentisclearlyoutlinedin
56.
347thelibrary...Alexandria:seenotetop.256.
Constantinetheemperor:AD285337,knownas'theGreat',graduallyconsoli
datedhispowerintheRomanEmpireafter316,andfrom324reunitedthe
wholeEmpireunderhisownhand.HecausedConstantinopletobeestab
lishedin326andwasbaptizedonhisdeathbed,havingfavouredChristianity
fromabout306onwards.
351sintvobis...venerandi,etc.:'thesebooksaretobeveneratedbyallofyou,
clergyandlaity'wordsfromtheApostolicConstitutions,supposedlybyClem
ent(endoffirstcenturyAD)butnowthoughttohavebeenwrittenaboutAD
350.
355AmmianusMarcellinus:33095hisHistoryofRome,originallyfromAD96,
survivesfortheyearsafter353.Ammianuswasapagan,butwithoutanimosity
toChristians.ThereferenceistotheHistory,XXVII.iii.1215(Loeb,iii.19
21).
366foraChurch...samething:thisexpressesthemainconclusionofthechapter
sofar,and81couldeasilyhavemarkedthestartofaseparatechapterof
intensecriticismoftheargumentsofBellarmine.Theseareopposedtothe
conclusionreachedbyHobbes,andHobbesisattackinghismostformidable
opponentinthecontinuationofthischapter.
371judgmentsareinfallible:theformalclaimtoanddefinitionofexcathedrain
fallibilitywasnotmadeuntil1870.ItwasdisputedthenasHobbesdisputedit,
andremainsacrucialpointofdisagreementbetweentheRomanChurchand
virtuallyallotherChristiandenominations.
379delanacaprina:'concerningthefluffonagoat',i.e.concerningtrivialities.
381archical...cratical...didactical:leadershiporessentialseniority...ruleby
power(autocratical)...teaching.

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Julian(Julianus),thehighlyeducatedNeoplatonist,whofavouredtheancient
ritualsbutsanctionedreligioustoleration.
40022:thisparagraphdrawsthevitalpoliticalandreligiousconclusionofPart3:
beliefthatJesusistheChrist,andthesalvationthatresultsfromit,cannotbe
destroyedbyobeyingeventhewrongheadedreligiousdirectionsofaChris
tiansovereignpower,becauseforGodthewilltodorightisasgoodasthe
rightthingdone.'Therecanthereforebenocontradictionbetweenthelawsof
God,andthelawsofaChristiancommonwealth.'
40123:thisparagrapharguesineffectthesameconclusionforthenonChristian
sovereign,sincebeliefishiddenandinviolate,andbiblicaldirectionsindicate
thattheChristianshouldobservethelawsofthesecularstate.
404Fourcausesofspiritualdarkness:thesearesuccessivelyexaminedinChs.
XLIVXLVII.Thesecondcause,'thedemonologyoftheheathenpoets',
showsamuchmoreactivefearanddislikeofclassicalpaganismthanislikely
tobeencounterednow.
405obediencetothePope:atthispointthewrittencopyofLeviathanhasareference
inHobbes'shand:'VidePontific.Greg.13.fol.'InnocentIIwasPope1198
1216.Hemadeseriousandmuchresented(e.g.byKingJohnofEngland)
attemptstoenforcepapalsuperiorityovermostoftherulersofWestern
Europe,andpresidedoverthefourthLateranCouncilin1215.GregoryIX
wasPope122741.Hetoobelievedinpapalauthorityoversecularrulers,and
issuedadeclarationconcerningheresy(madeattheLateranCouncil)ina
numberofdecretals(papaldecrees,whichincollectedformbecomepartofthe
canonlaw)fromwhichHobbesherequotes.Therightofanexternalpowerto
invalidatetheallegianceofcitizenstothesovereignpoweroftheircommon
wealthwouldevidentlysubvertthewholepoliticaltheoryofLeviathan.
40912:thequotationsinthisparagraphareHobbes'stranslationsfromtheLatin
oftheRomanformofservice.TheTridentineandSalisburybaptismalrituals
areverysimilar.TheAnglicanformavoidedtheexorcismand'conjuring'.
conjure:changebytheinterventionofasupernaturalpower.TheLatinhas
'Exorcizote,creaturaaquae...',etc.
asperges...hyssopo:Psalm51:7:'Sprinkleme,Lord,withhyssop[andIshall
beclean].'
410reptileanimaeviventis:theLatinhereandintherestoftheparagraphisfrom
theVulgate.ThewordanimaisnotoriouslydifficulttorenderintoEnglish.
Althoughcommonlyrendered'soul',themeaningisindeedusuallynearerto
'life'.TheHebrewwordsinGenesisarenepheshhayyah,alivingbeing.
Hobbes'sargumentinthisparagraphisinaccordwithmodernscholarship.
411substancesdistinctfloratheftbodies:classicalmythologydoesindeedseemto
representthisviewinahaphazardway,andthecommonconceptionofim
mortality(iftherestillisone)maywellberepresentedbyHobbes'sparaphrase

otherwritings)gaveseriousphilosophicalvoicetothenotionofpersonsas
thinkingsubstances.In1637,attheendofPartVoftheDiscourse,hecom
mentson'thereasonswhichgotoprovethatoursoulisinitsnatureentirely
independentofbody,andinconsequencethatitisnotliabletodiewithit'.See
alsothe'ThirdSetofObjections'(particularlyObjectionII)whichHobbes
contributedtoDescartes'sMeditationsandwhichwereprintedinthefirst
editionin1641togetherwithDescartes'ssomewhatfrostyreplies.
412Beza:TheodoreBeza,15191605,convertedtoCalvinismin1549,andbe
cameCalvin'sprincipalacademicassociateatGenevain1559.Thenotestohis
translationoftheNewTestamentarereferredtobyHobbeshereandin
XLIV.40.
414treadingon...emperors:Hobbesalludestothestorythatin1177,when
BarbarossakneeledinsubmissionbeforePopeAlexanderIII,thePopeputhis
footontheEmperor'sneckandspokethewordsHobbesquotes.
416Also,itseemethhard...andmore:Hobbesisactivelycontributinghereand
elsewhere(seenotetop.297)tohumanizingtheterribleHellofmedieval
Christianity.SeeD.W.Walker,TheDeclineofHell(UniversityofChicago
Press,1964).
417forever:theBearandOrnamentseditionsread'totheendofthisworld'cf.
notetop.305.Thewrittencopyhas'forever'.
425thosethatconsider...reallywithoutus:thewrittencopyreplacesthesewords
withthefollowing:'othermenthatbusyinthepursuitofpower,honorand
themeanstosatisfyandsecure,theiranimalappetites,haveeithernoleisure,
ornowilltolookafteranysoremoteacauseofthattheylookfor,asthis
ofknowingthenatureoftheirownfancy,isthecausethatallnations
haveconceivedthatthoseimages,whicharemadebysense,arethingsreally
existentwithoutus.'
Hesiod:fl.c.700BC.HisTheogonydealswiththeoriginandgenealogiesofthe
gods,andthegenesisofearth,sea,sky,andothergreatbeingsoftheworld.
439thesenate...sanctity:seeLivy'sHistory,i.16(Loeb,i.59).
440Caligula:emperorAD3741.Hobbes'sanecdoteisinSuetonius,Livesofthe
Caesars,iv.13(Loeb,i.421).
441Caracalla:sonoftheemperorSeptimiusSeverus,andemperor21117,distin
guishedonlyforgivingrightsofcitizenshiptoallfreeinhabitantsofthe
RomanEmpire.
ByPhilosophy:inmoderntermsitwillbeclearthatHobbesisdefiningnot
philosophybutscience.AfurtherattemptatdefinitioncanbefoundinDe
Corpore,I.2.

Page499

forandagainstjusticebetweenmenandbetweenstates.SeeCicero,De
Republica,iii.58(Loeb,p.193,andfurtherreferencestoLactantius).
445asCicerosaith:DeDivinatione,ii.119(Loeb,p.505).
446definitions:definitionsofthe'mostuniversal'names,ofthesortHobbespro
ceedstoFist,aremainlydealtwithbyHobbesintheearlychaptersofDe
Corpore.
15:theimportanceofthisparagraphasastatementofHobbes'sfundamental
ontologicalprinciplescanscarcelybeoverstated.
448elsewhere:forexample,IV.
449nomoresoul...thoseparts:cf.Aquinas,SummaTheologiae,1a,quest.76,a.8.
howfirecanburnsouls:seenotetop.268.Aquinasattemptsasolutiontothe
probleminSummaTheologiae,Supp.quest.70,a.3.
450incomprehensiblenature:seenotetop.19.
45232:seenotetop.35.
453thethirtytyrants:in404BCattheconclusionofthePeloponnesianWarbe
tweenAthensandSparta,anadministrationofthirtyantidemocratssubservi
enttoSpartaruledAthensforabouteighteenmonths.
456men:themaninparticulartowhomHobbesisalludingisprobablyGalileo,but
therewereothers:forexample,GiordanoBrunowasburnedatthestakein
1600for(amongotherheresies)championingCopernicus,andLucilioVanini
hadhistonguecutout(andsufferedothertortures)beforebeingburnedin
1619forsimilarandadditionalhereticalviews.
iftheybetrue:theargumentispotentiallyambiguous.Itseemstoassertmerely
thelogicalprinciplethatnotrueproposition(includingthoseinastronomy
andphysics)canbecontrarytoanyothertrueproposition(includingthosein
religion).Butthiscouldbemeanttosuggestthatifapropositioninphysicsetc.
isestablishedastrue,thenareligion(orreligiousproposition)whichiscon
trarytoitcannotalsobetrue.
457Ciceromakethhonourablemention:seeProRoscioAmerino,xxxi(Loeb,p.199).
461Frederic...PopeAdrian:theEnglishmanNicholasBreakspearbecamePope
AdrianIVin1154.In1155theEmperorFrederickIheldthePope'sstirrupas
hemounted,therebymakinghimselfthePope'sinferior.
462crossandpile:headsandtails.
468bookslatelyprinted:seetheentrybyQuintinSkinnerinG.E.Aylmer(ed.),
TheInterregnum:TheQuestforSettlement,164660(LondonandBasingstoke,
1972).Thisessayalsoexaminestheproblemofobediencetodefactosovereign

versionappearedinLondonin1651,beforeLeviathan,andwhileHobbeswas
stillinParis.
myinterruptedspeculation:DeCorporewasfirstpublishedinLatinin1655.The
EnglishversionappearedasElementsofPhilosophy,theFirstSectionconcerning
Body,in1656.Hobbeshadreachedch.XIIIbymid1645,andwasworkingon
itwithdifficultyin1646:'ThereasonwhyIamtakingsolongoverthefirst
sectionofmy[DeCorpore]ispartlylaziness,butmostlythefactthatIfindit
difficulttoexplainmymeaningstomyownsatisfaction...However,Idonot
doubtthatIshallfinishitbeforetheendoftheyear,providedIliveandamin
goodhealth'(Letters,p.133).Intheeventhehadbecomeatutorinmathemat
icstothefutureCharlesIIbyOctober1646,andinAugust1647became
exceedinglyillwith'averysevereandcontinuousfever'.
475