BROWN BEAR (Ursus Arctos) MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN SLOVENIA

BROWN BEAR (Ursus arctos) MANAGEMENT
STRATEGY IN SLOVENIA
-1-
CONTENTS:
I. Purpose of the strategy

II. Basic principles and aims of the strategy
III. Legal basis
1. Legal regulations providing for protection of bears in Slovenia
2. International agreements providing for protection of bears
3. European Union regulations providing for protection of bears
IV. Brown bear – facts important for understanding the strategy

1. Historical facts
2. Natural properties
3. Biological and ecological data for the brown bear
4. Threat to the brown bear in Slovenia
5. Brown bear – humans and their property
6. Review and analysis of bear culls over the last five years
7. Situation regarding feeding of bears
V. Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears with humans

1. Brown bear areas in Slovenia by level of protection
2. Guidelines for determining measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears
with humans
2.1. Monitoring brown bears
2.2. Guidelines for bear culling
2.2.1. Defining culls
2.2.2. Planning culls
2.2.3. Permitting culls
2.2.4. Performing culls
2.2.5. Extent and deployment of bear culls
2.2.6. Bear culling counter to the strategy, plans and permits
2. 3. Guidelines for bear feeding
3. Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears in the different habitat areas
3. 1. Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears with humans in the central
area
A. Bear culling
B. Bear feeding
C. Local residents and use and activities in terms of coexistence of bears with humans:
C.1. Local residents
C.2. Farming
C.3. Forestry
C.4. Tourism, recreation, forest fruit gathering
-2-
C.5. Building of infrastructural and other structures and their use
C.6. Military and police activities
3.2. Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears with humans in the
marginal area
A. Bear culling
B. Bear feeding
C.2. Farming
3. 3. Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears with humans in the transit
area
A. Bear culling
B. Bear feeding
C.2. Farming
3. 4. Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears with humans in the area of
exceptional bear presence
A. Bear culling
VI. Mechanisms to implement measures for protection and coexistence of

brown bears with humans
1. System of compensation payments
2. Subsidising farm activities
3. International funding
4. Protected natural areas
5. Public information and awareness raising about brown bears and the importance of their
protection
VII. Involvement of Slovenia in international efforts to conserve the brown

bear
-3-
BROWN BEAR (Ursus arctos) MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN
SLOVENIA
I. Purpose of the strategy
A modern strategy of managing wildlife must proceed from scientifically grounded ecological
principles and function through carefully considered, mutually complementary legislative and
administrative measures in the cultural, sociological and economic fields with the intention of
conserving wild animals and their natural habitat, and must facilitate for such animals the life
in nature which is rightfully theirs and ensure all the various benefits which humans may
expect from this part of living nature. In order for the strategy to be successful, there must be
measures deriving from the strategy that are adapted to the ecological properties of the
environment and to the historically determined social and economic conditions in Slovenia.
The purpose of the brown bear (Ursus arctos) management strategy in Slovenia is to
determine the goals, orientation and measures for protection of the species and its habitat, and
measures which will allow the coexistence of humans with bears.
II. Basic principles and aims of the strategy
In contrast to the once customary and nowadays outmoded system of management, modern
management of wildlife species based on ecological principles cannot be limited simply to
animal species or even to just a small part of these species, separate from everything in nature
which affords such species their existence. Indeed modern management must embrace all the
flora and fauna which are naturally linked into specific habitat groups and are in close mutual
connection and interdependence in their environment. In this kind of integrated approach, all
the measures of modern management are aimed at taking full account of the natural laws
which in such habitat groups determine and balance the relationships between individual
species and individual parts of these groups.
The actual implementation of a system of co-naturally managing wild animals and their
habitats in everyday living practice, based on ecosystemic principles, must be made possible
through progressive legislation that observes the modern perception of ecological science.
Brown bear – living being and biological species
• Bears, like the other freely occurring plant and animal species in Slovenia’s territory, have
the right to life, for ecological and ethical reasons.
• Large predatory wild animals, which include bears, are an important component of
biodiversity – in themselves and for the role they play at the top of the food pyramid.
-4-
Brown bear – humans
• The brown bear is an animal species that requires a large habitat area, and also inhabits
areas where humans live. There are almost no areas without a human presence. Bears may
even prey on domestic animals, and are potentially dangerous to humans. Protection and
conservation of the brown bear are therefore possible only in coexistence with humans
and by ensuring the measures which make this possible.
The aims of the strategy are:

* long-term conservation of the brown bear species in Slovenia, including
its habitat and
* ensuring coexistence of humans and bears.
III. Legal basis
1. Legal regulations providing for or having an influence on the protection

of bears in Slovenia
• National Environmental Protection Programme, adopted in the National Assembly

in 1999 (Official Journal of the Republic of Slovenia – Ur. l. RS – no. 83/99)
The National Environmental Protection Programme, which is based on Article 47 of the

Environmental Protection Act, provides for activities in the field of environmental protection
and sustainable use of the natural wealth for a period of at least 10 years. Based on an analysis
of environmental problems and taking into account Slovenia’s strategic advantages within the
entire European area, four priority aims have been identified: improving the state of the
aquatic environment, establishing up to date forms of waste management, preservation of
biodiversity and genetic resources and strengthening the institutions of environmental
protection on all levels. For the preservation of biodiversity, two specific goals have been
identified: preventing a reduction of biodiversity on the level of ecosystems (and habitat
types), species (and habitats) and genomes (and genes) and preventing any further
threat to the balance of nature through inappropriate exploitation of animal and plant
species. The National Programme sets out that in line with the Programme supplementation
must be made of national programmes and strategies in areas of individual activities that have
an influence on the environment and for individual components of the environment. In the
part relating to preservation of biodiversity, the National Environmental Protection
Programme is applied as a National Nature Protection Programme. Animal species,
including the brown bear, are treated as components of biodiversity.
• Nature Conservation Act (Ur. l. RS, no. 56/99)

Within the area of preservation of biodiversity, the Nature Conservation Act provides for the
general protection of all wild plant and animal species, prohibiting any reduction in the
number of plants or animals of individual populations, any threat to their habitats or
deterioration of their living conditions to such an extent that the species is endangered (Article
14).
-5-
In the event of a species being endangered, the Government passes an act to protect the
species (Article 81). The Act also prescribes that the Government must identify ecologically
important areas that are also the habitats of endangered or internationally protected species,
and ensure their protection (Article 32). The Act provides measures and mechanisms for
protection of areas that are important for preservation of biodiversity (articles 31, 45 – 53, 84
– 90).
As for damage caused by animals of protected species, in the event that damage cannot be
prevented through preventive protective measures for securing property, the measure of
reducing populations of protected species may also be implemented, as determined by the
minister (Article 92).
• Decree on the protection of endangered animal species (Ur. l. RS, no. 57/93)
The brown bear is a protected species in Slovenia. Any kind of encroachment upon the natural
development of the species is prohibited, although hunting of bears may be permitted in
exceptions by the minister responsible for agriculture and forestry (Article 5). Articles 6 and 7
of the decree also permit the exception of other encroachments upon the natural development
of bears, where this involves professionally substantiated reasons or where this is unavoidably
necessary for ecological, economic or hygienic and sanitary reasons. In view of the fact that
the Protection, Breeding and Hunting of Game and Management of Hunting Grounds Act
(Official Journal of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia – Ur. l. SRS – no. 25/76) defines bears
as a game species, permits for such encroachments may be issued by the minister responsible
for agriculture and forestry.
• Forests Act (Ur. l. RS, no. 30/93)

This act sets out the protection, cultivation, exploitation and use of forests and the disposal of
forests as a natural wealth, with the aim of ensuring the sustainable and optimal functioning of
forests as ecosystems and the fulfilment of their functions. The basis for the management of
forests is provided by the Programme of Forest Development in Slovenia (Ur. l. RS, no.
14/96) and the forest management plans; these plans are commercial forestry plans for areas
and economic units, forest cultivation plans and hunting and breeding plans for areas (Article
6). The forest management plans set out the conditions for harmonised use of forests and
encroachment upon forests and the forest environment, the necessary extent of cultivation and
protection of forests, the highest possible level of their exploitation and the conditions for
managing fauna (Article 8). Forests which in severe ecological circumstances protect
themselves, their land and lower lying land, and forests in which any other ecological function
is especially emphasised (hydrological, biotopic or climatic) are declared protected forests
(Article 43).
• Protection, Breeding and Hunting of Game and Management of Hunting Grounds

Act (Ur.l. SRS, nos. 25/76 and 29/86).
Under this act game is defined (Article 3) as specific freely ranging wild animals, which have
been, are or may become a subject of hunting. As part of the natural fauna, game is state
property and as a resource of public importance it enjoys special protection as provided by
this act.
The basic principle of the act is that all game, irrespective of the species, size etc, is equally
important in the environment, and every type of game deserves specific protection. For this
reason the act no longer speaks of protected and non-protected game, for practically all game
enjoys a certain protection, with differences lying only in the extent and form of this
protection.
A special regime is applied to bears (Article 13, paragraph 2), which may be hunted from 1
October to 30 April, specifically in an area determined by the minister responsible for
-6-
agriculture, forestry and food, while outside this area they may be hunted all year. The act
also envisages exceptions to these rules going both ways. This may be in a shortening of the
open season, prohibition of hunting or the reverse. Here the rule applies (article 11) whereby
in the wild it is not permitted to reduce the number of any species of game to the extent that
its existence might be endangered; the number itself is not defined, for this depends on the
species of game and the environment in which it lives. But the act does provide (Article 14)
that exceptions are possible in the case of suppressing infectious diseases, to prevent damage,
for research purposes or for other general needs.
• Ordinance on the area in the Socialist Republic of Slovenia in which bears are
protected (Ur. l. SRS, no. 29/66)
This defines the boundaries of an area, chiefly in the Notranjska and Kočevsko regions, in
which bears are protected. (In line with hunting legislation bears are hunted during the open
season, if this is permitted by a decision from the minister of agriculture, forestry and food.)
• Agriculture Act (Ur. list RS, no. 54/00)

Article 30 of this Act defines the areas with restrictions on the scope of agricultural activities
(areas with special natural limitations – areas where the preservation of farming activities is
needed for environmentally friendly development of the countryside and preservation of the
cultural landscape), and Article 31 provides support for environmentally friendly agricultural
activities (ensuring farm biodiversity; preservation and encouragement of environmentally
friendly technology in farm activities; conservation of environmentally sensitive areas; and
preventing agricultural land from reverting and becoming overgrown). For the preservation of
farm biodiversity the minister publishes a list of native sorts of agricultural crops and animal
breeds, and based on the degree to which they are endangered, for each native sort of
agricultural crop and animal breed the minister decrees measures for their conservation and an
obligatory genetic reserve, and in Article 93 the public service of a gene bank is provided.
2. International agreements providing for protection of bears
• Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats – the

Berne Convention (Act Ratifying the Convention on the Conservation of European
Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Ur. l. RS, MP no. 17/99)
The aims of the convention are the conservation of European wild flora and fauna and their
natural habitats. The brown bear is included among the animals in addendum II, which covers
highly endangered animal species. The provisions of Article 4 of this convention bind
signatories to the conservation of habitats, especially those of the wild animal species
specified in addendum II. Moreover, it requires from signatories the special protection of
species set out in addendum II, with Article 6 prohibiting all forms of intentional hunting and
capture and intentional killing. Article 9 provides that every signatory may make exceptions
to the provisions of these articles, but under the condition that there is no other satisfactory
solution and that such exception will not threaten the survival of the animal population in
question.
In accordance with Article 9, Slovenia has made exceptions regarding the protection of brown
bears, wolves and lynxes.
On the basis of the Berne Convention, and under the aegis of the Council of Europe, an action
plan has been drawn up. This is the Action Plan for the Conservation of the Brown Bear in
Europe (Ursus arctos) - Swenson J.E. et al, Nature and environment, No. 114, Council of
-7-
Europe Publishing, Strasbourg: October 2000. For Slovenia the following action plan has
been envisaged:
4.1.1.: Formulate an action plan on the basis of the adopted Berne Convention.
4.1.2.: Set up a state body for management of the brown bear, and formulate a management
plan (states which share common bear populations formulate management plans through
mutual cooperation).
4.1.3.: Protect bears in law. Bears should have the status of game only in cases where there is
a proven thriving population and hunting is used only to achieve the aims set out in the
management plan.
4.3.1.: Identify areas with a temporary and potential bear presence, in terms of the suitability
and importance of potential habitats for bear management.
4.3.2.: Define, preserve and re-establish communications (corridors) between dispersed
populations.
4.3.3.: Assess the influence of existing and planned infrastructural structures on bear habitats
and possible mitigating measures for their negative influences.
4.3.4.: Oversee or prohibit harmful human influences in the central bear habitat area and in
corridor areas.
4.3.4.: Formulate a system of compensation for damage caused by bears.
4.4.1.: Link the system of compensation to investment in preventive protection measures on
individual farms and animal breeding stations.
4.4.2.: Oversee and guide hunting where this activity is used as one of the tools for achieving
aims in the brown bear population.
4.4.3.: Prevent bears from having access to rubbish dumps and organic waste tips.
4.4.4.: Abandon the kind of feeding of bears which might cause them to develop an
attachment to humans or to such access to food.
4.5.1.: Reduce to a minimum the creation of difficulties with bears via points 4.4.1, 4.4.5 and
4.7.1 of the Action Plan.
4.5.2.: Remove problematic bears from the population, where prior attempts to resolve the
problems with them have proved unsuccessful.
4.6.1.: Recognise and include representatives of public opinion and all interested parties in
bear management plans.
4.6.2.: Set up a permanent advisory body which will communicate with local residents in
connection with their needs and actions linked to bears.
4.7.1.: Organise promotional campaigns on the subject of the brown bear, specially arranged
for different target groups.
4.8.1.: Become involved in coordinated and joint scientific research into brown bears on the
European level.
4.8.2.: Coordinate the collection of necessary data for monitoring the management and
biological state of bear populations in European countries.
• Alpine Convention – Protocol on implementation of the Alpine Convention of 1991 on

nature protection and landscape management (Act Ratifying the Convention on the
Protection of the Alps (Alpine Convention), Ur. l. RS 19/95 MP 5; the Protocol on nature
protection and landscape management has not yet been ratified)
The Protocol on implementation of the Alpine Convention of 1991 on nature protection and
landscape management binds every signatory to take all the necessary measures for the
protection, management and where needed also the renewal of Alpine nature and landscape,
as well as of the wild animal and plant species, their diversity and habitats, observing
ecologically acceptable use. Paragraph one of Article 14 binds the signatories to take
-8-
appropriate measures whereby they can ensure the existence of wild animal and plant species
in their diversity and at a satisfactory population level, which they will effect by providing
sufficiently large habitat areas. Article 15 prohibits hunting, seizure, harming, killing and
particularly during their breeding, maturing and hibernation, disturbance of specific animal
species, as well as any kind of other encroachment upon the life of animal species that are on
the list. Within two years of the entry into force of the protocol the signatories will specify the
animal and plant species marked out for the aforementioned measures. Signatories may
envisage exceptions to the above provisions, for scientific purposes, protection of wild fauna
and flora or of the natural environment, health and public safety and for the prevention of
major economic damage, particularly in agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, fisheries and
water management.
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora –

CITES, Washington Convention (Act Ratifying the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, amendments to the convention and addenda
I, II, III in IV to the convention, Ur. l. RS, MP no. 31/99)
The brown bear is listed in addendum II to the Convention on International Trade in

Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, which includes all those species which are not
at this moment threatened with extinction, but which could become thus endangered if strict
regulations governing trade in individuals were not applied so that their exploitation can be
prevented. According to the provisions of the convention, importation of individuals of
species listed in addendum II is possible only through the prior submission of a CITES export
permit issued by the exporting country. Bears were also the main theme at the 10th meeting of
the conference of signatories in Harare (Zimbabwe), where proposed measures were adopted
for protection of bears and trade in them, and the signatories were called upon to take
immediate steps and visibly reduce the illegal trade in bear parts and products made from
them.
• Convention on Biological Diversity, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 (Act Ratifying the

Convention on Biological Diversity, Ur. l. RS, MP no. 7/96)
This convention is a global regulation which deals in its entirety with the preservation of
biological diversity on the world level, and with the sustainable use of natural resources. It
binds countries to incorporate the principles of nature protection into all sectors which have
any influence at all on nature. It deals with biodiversity on three levels: genetics, species and
ecosystems. In order to achieve the goals of protection it sets out various measures, including
the establishing of protected areas, renewal of damaged or destroyed habitats for species,
consideration of aspects of preserving biodiversity in the adoption of state decisions, verifying
the harmful influences of encroachments on biodiversity, establishing stimulative measures
with the intention of preserving biodiversity, enabling research activities, informing the public
of the importance of preserving biodiversity and more. Individual species are not dealt with in
the convention.
3. European Union regulations providing for protection of bears

• Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild
Fauna and Flora – the FFH directive
The brown bear is categorised in addenda II and IV and identified as a priority species.
Addendum II lists the species for the conservation of which the European Union demands
special responsibility. The most binding protection is required for all species which are
-9-
identified as priority. Species listed in addendum II must be conserved through the
establishing of special areas of conservation (SAC) which can potentially, according to
European Union-level evaluation, be incorporated into the Natura 2000 network.
Strict protection for the species listed in addendum IV is defined in Article 12. There is a
prohibition on all forms of intentional hunting or killing of individual animals in the
wild, or the causing of any disturbance to them, trade in them or deterioration of the
quality of their habitat.
Exceptions allowing variance from the prescribed species protection regimes (Article 16)
are possible only if the favourable state of the species is not threatened, in the following
cases:
• If an encroachment is in the interest of protecting the wild fauna and flora and conserving
natural habitats,
• In order to prevent serious damage to crops, livestock, forests, fish farms or processing
plants and waters, and to other types of property,
• In the interest of public health and public safety or for other vital, publicly important
reasons, including social or economic reasons, and in the case of beneficial and very
important effects for the environment,
• For research and educational purposes, for re-establishing species and for the needs of
breeding and husbandry,
• Under strictly overseen conditions, in order selectively and in a limited extent to permit
the culling or raising of specific subjects listed in addendum IV, with the limited number
being determined by the competent national authorities.
In respect of exceptional variances from the protection regimes, member states must submit to
the Commission every two years a report on the reasons for the exception, together with a
description of the circumstances and scientific data taken into consideration, plus the means,
preparations and methods for hunting or killing, the competent authority which sets out and
verifies the conditions, the body carrying out the exceptional encroachment, measures of
oversight employed and the results obtained.
In its negotiating positions for accession to the European Union (January 2000) Slovenia
presented its method employed to date for culling bears as being in accordance with
Article 16, and committed itself to a similar manner of bear management in the future.
• European Parliament Resolution on the protection of the brown bear (Ursus arctos)
in the Community (A3-0154/94)
This European Parliament resolution relates exclusively to protection of the brown bear and
contains recommendations and an appeal to all member states to abandon policies and
projects which would in future further reduce the number of brown bears in the wild. The
negative effects of all projects that are already under way or concluded and are negatively
influencing brown bear populations, should be reduced by means of financing a renewal of
habitats and populations. The resolution calls specifically on the European Council and the
European Commission to apply the aforementioned recommendations as part of its
negotiations with associate members and with states wishing to join the European Union.
- 10 -
IV. Brown bear – facts important for understanding the
strategy
1. Certain data from the biology and ecology of the brown bear
Systematics
The brown bear (Ursus arctos L.) is a representative of the class of mammals (Mammalia),
the order of carnivores (Carnivora) and family of bears (Ursidae), and of all the species of
bears in the world, it is the most widespread. In addition to the brown bear, there are seven
other various types of bear in existence, of which the best known are the panda (Ailuropoda
melanoleuca), the polar bear (Ursus maritimus) and the black bear or baribal (Ursus
americanus).
Diet
The brown bear is an omnivore, like the majority of bears, and only one ‘relative’ of the
brown bear – the polar bear – is primarily and distinctly a meat-eating species. The major
portion of the brown bear’s diet is of plant origin (and in some seasons as much as 95%),
although it also requires an appropriate amount of protein food. Such food is provided chiefly
by insects (ants, bees, wasps and other) and their larvae and pupae, other invertebrates,
rodents and carrion. In exceptions it preys upon larger animals (in deep snow ungulates and
sick animals). It preys opportunistically on livestock, especially sheep, goats and pigs. It also
finds food at unmanaged rubbish dumps. It eats high-protein food mainly in the spring
months, while between early summer and winter it eats primarily plant food. In the autumn
months, when it accumulates the necessary fat for hibernation (increasing its body weight by
up to 20%), it is especially dependent on fruit and the produce of forest trees (acorns, beech
nuts, chestnuts and so forth) and also on maize at wild boar feeding points. The fact that the
brown bear is an omnivore is also borne out by its teeth and alimentary canal. As for their
weight, brown bear males in Slovenia reach up to 300 kg, and in exceptions a little more,
while adult females are on average smaller and lighter, weighing up to 180 kg.
Breeding
Male bears can mate with several females and vice versa in the period from the middle of may
to July. Bears have low reproductive potential, with females becoming sexually mature only
at four years, and they bear young usually only every other year. Female bears are known to
be very attentive mothers, vigorously defending their young from any threat. They bear their
young (1 to 3, rarely more) as a rule in the lair, between December and February, and the
weight of the young at birth is just a few hundred grams. The survival rate of infant bears in
Slovenia is assessed as being high.
Hibernation
Bears usually sleep through the winter months (December to April), although this is not true
hibernation. In the late autumn they seek out a suitable shelter or lair, although some bears are
active all winter, especially when there is an adequate and constant supply of food. The lair
might be a hole dug in the ground, but most often bears make use of natural caves, such as
between rocky boulders, and often also in large fallen tree trunks or rocky overhangs. The
time when hibernation (a more appropriate term would be napping) starts depends primarily
on continuously low temperatures in a specific period, and less or even not at all on the depth
of snow cover (although both are causally linked), while the time when bears leave their lairs
- 11 -
is dependent equally on a lasting rise in the outside temperature. Only females with young
born that winter leave the lair relatively late, and some only in the second half of May.
Activity
Bears can be active all day, and their level of activity depends on the conditions in their
surroundings, the abundance of food and human activities. Every day (especially at night)
bears may travel great distances, as much as tens of kilometres. The surface area of the
territory which adult animals claim differs, with grown females covering up to 100 square
kilometres, and adult males covering several times that. The size of territory can differ
between individual areas; territories may also partly overlap. Younger females may form part
of their area in what is termed a maternal area, while males are much more mobile and move
away from their parents’ territory.
Habitat requirements
From the above it follows that in order to satisfy their basic needs (shelter, food, breeding)
bears require an appropriate and sufficiently large habitat (a habitat with appropriate features,
such as a complex of dense forest areas with a large share of deciduous trees, a suitable share
of old and young forest (especially for day cover), an appropriate share of forest glades and
clearings with plants bearing forest fruits (raspberries, cranberries, strawberries, blueberries),
and sufficient natural caverns, removed from any human activity, suitable for lairs.
Minimum viable population

Conservation of the brown bear species depends on the conservation of a population that is at
least large enough to balance out losses caused by deviations from the equal gender structure
and unforeseeable events in the environment, and to maintain an adequate genetic diversity
(minimum viable population). A brown bear population this size requires a large habitat area
for its existence. In the event of the population size falling below the minimum, the species
starts to die out. The minimum viable brown bear population is assumed to be more than 1000
animals. (Viability of the Slovenian portion of the brown bear population can only be ensured
as part of the entire Dinaric population.)
2. The brown bear in Europe

In the past, the brown bear was settled across the entire territory of Europe (except for the
large islands such as Ireland, Iceland, Corsica and Sardinia), but today it has disappeared from
most areas. As the human population increased, suitable habitats were lost through the
reduction of forests and intensive agricultural use of the environment, as well as through
intensive hunting of the brown bear itself. Today across the whole of Europe the bear
population is around 50,000 (of which around 14,000 are outside Russia), in a territory
covering 2.5 million km2 (800,000 km2 outside Russia). Population densities vary and depend
on access to food, extent of bear culling and the trend of growth or decline in the population.
The greatest concentration of bears is in Romania (100-200 bears/1000 km2) and in the
countries of the Dinaric Alps, while it is significantly less (0.5-1 bears/1000 km2) in the area
of Finland and Norway. In Central and Western Europe only isolated bear populations have
survived, these being in the Cantabrian Mountains, the Pyrenees, the Appenines – Abruzzi,
the Alps around Trentino, the eastern Alps – Dinaric – Shar – Pindus ranges, the Rhodope and
Stara Planina in Bulgaria, the Carpathians and Scandinavia.
Slovenia lies on the north-western edge of the dense Dinaric brown bear population. The
eastern Alpine-Dinaric population is made up of animals inhabiting the forested areas from
the eastern Alps in Austria and north-eastern Italy in the north, via the Dinaric Alps to the
- 12 -
Pindus Mountains of Greece to the south, covering the following countries: Italy, Austria,
Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, FR Yugoslavia, Albania and Greece.
The bears which migrate from Slovenia towards the north and west are the only potential
source for re-establishing their natural settlement of the Alpine Arc.
3. The brown bear in Slovenia – in the past and today

In Slovenia the Dinaric population of the brown bear represents the westernmost part of the
brown bear's territory in Central Europe. In this area the bear population has been maintained
owing to the suitability of the habitat – extensive, dense forests covering the hilly and intricate
terrain of the High Karst – and also, importantly, because the Slovenians are well-disposed to
the existence of this species.
It should not be overlooked that when elsewhere in Europe, including in Italy, the bear was
being hunted down as a harmful predatory beast and there was a prize on its head, in
Slovenian territory it already enjoyed a certain amount of protection. Ever since 1890, over
the large forest estates in the south-western part of Slovenia and in the neighbouring Gorski
Kotar of Croatia, the bear was protected as an especially valuable species of game. It was only
certain individual bears that had caused damage which were culled, while the majority,
particularly females with young, were protected and fed at feeding points maintained
especially for bears. Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary, bears were seriously
threatened by the agrarian reform and redistribution of large estates begun in Yugoslavia. For
this reason an ordinance was published in 1935, prohibiting the hunting of bears in the part of
Slovenia’s territory in what were then the administrative regions of Kočevje, Črnomelj, Novo
mesto, Logatec and Ljubljana. In this way, bear numbers increased again, and the number of
bears in Slovenia was estimated to be around 80 animals in 1940. After the war, since 1945
bears have been protected by hunting legislation. Up until the beginning of the 1950’s, bears
were not hunted, but later the culling of individual bears that had caused damage and
threatened residents was approved by the competent ministry. In 1966 hunting was permitted
in an area determined by the then Republic Secretary in an ordinance. At this time came the
first human victim, and encroachment on the bear population began with regular culls.
Particularly after 1960, the number of bears grew rapidly, rising to around 450 to 550 animals
today, inhabiting an area of something over 530,000 ha of forest terrain in the High Karst.
The core spread of the brown bear in Slovenia, where it is permanently present in more or
less considerable numbers, is in the area of southern and partly central Slovenia. This covers
Kočevsko, Notranjska and the Krimsko – Mokrško hills, the Trnovski gozd forest, Nanos,
Hrušica, part of the Idrija hills and part of Dolenjska.
The suitability of habitats in this area is defined by: extensive forest areas, an interwoven
mosaic of forest and clear areas, a relatively high surface area that is overgrown, low
settlement density and concentration of human residents in larger settlements away from the
forest, favourable food and safety conditions, traditional coexistence of the brown bear with
humans and established tolerance in their mutual relations.
From this core area, bears migrate in varying directions:

- Northwest towards Idrija and Cerklje, into Jelovica and the Julian Alps. Individual
animals roam into Italy and Austria. One branch of the northwest route leads via
Vremščica towards Italy.
- Into the west, settling in the area between Brkini, Vremščica, Slavnik and the border with
Croatia.
- 13 -
- To the north they cross the Krka and Sava rivers and continue their journey across the
Zasavje hills into Menina and on towards the Savinja Alps. In the area between Jezersko
and Solčava they cross the Austrian border and continue on into Carinthia. Some
individuals wander even as far as Pohorje.
- Towards the northeast individual animals venture to Gorjanci, and southeast into Bela
Krajina.
The number of bears in Slovenia is based on estimates obtained from monitoring, and
ranges between 450 and 550 animals.
4. Threat to the brown bear in Slovenia

In the red list of endangered mammals in Slovenia (Varstvo narave, 1992) the brown bear is
defined as a (V) vulnerable species.
According to the IUCN definition, vulnerable species are those for which it is probable that in
the near future they will enter into the category of affected species if the factors of threat
continue unabated.
Main factors of threat to the brown bear:

- Changes to their habitat from new and more intensive human activities in the
environment, including the spread of settlements into natural areas, an increase in tourism
and recreational activities and construction of transport infrastructure, especially
motorways, which cut through the historical communications between forest ecosystems
and prevent or hinder links between population groups, and other roads which give
humans greater access to wilderness areas,
- Fear of local residents over the return of bears to their historical habitats in the sub-Alpine
and Alpine areas,
- Encroachments on the population that have changed the age and gender structure.
5. Brown bear – humans and their property

Bears are essentially timid animals that generally avoid encounters with humans. They never
prey upon humans for food, and will only attack them if they feel threatened.
The following situations are known to possibly provoke a bear attack:

- if a human approaches a female bear with young, or gets between the female and her
young,
- if a human surprises a bear in a situation where its only exit is in the direction of the
human, especially if it is wounded or in its lair,
- if a human encounters exceptional individual bears which differ from the general
behaviour of the species and have a high critical tolerance distance from humans (the
distance at which the bear still tolerates the approach of a real or suspected attacker),
especially if the human is accompanied by a dog.
Since bears have very good senses of smell and hearing, they generally avoid humans, so
encounters with bears are rare, even in areas where they are relatively numerous. In the past,
bears have attacked humans very rarely. More common are attacks on domestic animals. The
number of attacks on domestic animals and the damage caused has been systematically
monitored since 1994. According to data from the Forest Institute of Slovenia (2001), the
- 14 -
numbers of cases involving injury caused by bears and the amount of damages paid out (in
000 SIT) from 1994 to 2000 are as follows:
Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

Injury cases – 7* 57 45 81 105 138 139
no.
Damages (000 837 2,827 6,140 9,725 28,913 23,922 12,614
SIT)**
* The number of attacks in 1994 is not accurate, because not all attacks were reported, owing to people being
unaware of the possibility of receiving damages payments.
** The damages in SIT are not comparable, since the compensation for one domestic animal between 1994 and
1997 was only a half to a third of what it was after 1998.
In the period analysed the most common prey was small cattle (97 % sheep and goats), with
the remaining animals attacked being bees, a horse, beef cattle and a pig.
Given the open and often unsupervised pastures, damage is consequently highest in the
Alpine area, that is, outside the core area of bear presence. In 1997 56 % of all damages paid
were in this area, and in 1998 as much as 84 %. This indicates that a score or so of bears
caused four times as much damage as several hundred bears in the area of core spread.
This confirms the fact that bears are food opportunists, and the type and extent of damage
they cause therefore depend on the opportunity of easy access to food.
For the damage caused by bears, the injured party is paid compensation from national budget
funds. The method for payment of compensation has not been entirely worked out, so the
amount of compensation is not determined in a standardised way. Compensation is also paid
for missing animals.
6. Review and analysis of bear culls over the last five years
In the game breeding areas (GBA) where bears are permanently present (the Kočevsko and
Bela Krajina GBA, Notranjska GBA, Krim GBA, part of the Novo mesto GBA, part of the
Coastal-Karst GBA, part of the Dolomite GBA, part of the Soča GBA and part of the Idrija
GBA) the average number of bears culled annually over the last five years (from 1 April
1994 to 31 March 2000) is 45, and in the rest of Slovenia it is 2. Out of a total of 287 bears
culled, 250 were shot, 5 were captured live, and 32 were run over or died of other causes.
Review of culled bears in the six hunting years (1 April to 31 March of the following calendar
year) from 1994 to 2000 by sex and weight:
No. culled BY SEX BY WEIGHT

bears
All Slovenia Males females unknown Up to 100 101-150 kg Over 150 unknown TOTAL
* kg kg *
94/95 19 20 2 23 11 6 1 41
95/96 23 8 1 16 9 6 1 32
96/97 29 17 1 28 16 3 - 47
97/98 29 20 - 32 13 4 - 49
98/99 37 21 4 29 20 9 4 62
- 15 -
99/00 33 23 - 40 5 11 - 56
Total 94/99 170 109 8 168 74 39 6 287
Proportion 61 39 - 60 26 14 - 100
(%)
* unknown categories by sex and weight are the result of incomplete records kept by the hunting ground
managers;
An analysis of the bear cull yields the following findings:
• The assessment is that the bear cull was lower than the population growth; in the areas
where they were once rare, bears are now more common, and their density has also
increased in the core presence area.
• The cull is dominated by bears up to 100 kg in body weight (in 60 % of all the verifiable
cull), but the share of culled bears between 101 and 150 kg and over 150 kg (40 % of all
the verifiable cull) is much too high, especially since the first weight category (up to 100
kg) is dominated by animals over 70 kg (50 %). Given the correlation between weight and
age, the assessment is that the natural age composition of the population has changed, and
there is a trend towards younger to medium-aged, non-mature animals, which are also
those most responsible for conflict situations in the environment.
• In terms of gender structure, the period of five years is clearly dominated by the culling of
males rather than females (61%:39%). The natural gender structure of the population has
therefore probably been considerably altered.
7. Situation regarding feeding of bears

Some 80 to 100 feeding stations have been set up to feed bears, but not all of them are
regularly supplied. The majority are located in the core spread area. Bears also come
opportunistically to some feeding points intended for other wildlife species.
V. Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears

with humans
Based on the fundamental principles and aims of brown bear management, measures are
determined for protection and coexistence of brown bears with humans.
The measures for protection of brown bears are:
• Prevention and restriction of encroachments and activities in their habitats,

• Improvement of the quality of their habitats,
• Culling bears on the basis of biological and ecological facts, and not for trophies or
economic reasons.
The measures for coexistence of humans with brown bears are:
• Carrying out preventive and protective measures for preventing or limiting damage,
- 16 -
• Limiting the spread of brown bears into areas where there are high expectations of
conflict with humans,
• Ensuring rapid payment of compensation in cases where damage could not be
prevented,
• Informing people about the biology and ecology of the brown bear, recommended
behaviour upon encountering bears, immediate presence of bears and so forth,
• Help to local residents in the event of threat,
• Feeding which does not produce dependence and tie bears to humans, and which
keeps bears away from settlements.
1. Brown bear areas in Slovenia by level of protection
The brown bear habitat is the part of Slovenia’s territory where living conditions are suitable
for it.
In order to coordinate the protection of brown bears with human use and activities in the
physical environment, and in view of the EU requirements for a definition of special
protection areas, the bear habitat has been divided or zoned into four areas:
• central,
• marginal,
• transit and
• area of exceptional bear presence.
In the central area, in order to prevent conflict with humans, sub-areas of dense human
settlement have been identified.
2. Guidelines for determining measures for protection and coexistence of

brown bears with humans
The culling of a certain number of bears in Slovenia is a necessity which allows the
conservation of bears in the wild, in coexistence with humans. All encroachments on the bear
population by shooting are planned, professionally substantiated and overseen. We may
therefore assert that the management of the bear population in Slovenia is based on a
responsible and professional approach. This is also borne out by the facts in nature, such as
the numerous and thriving bear population in the wild, its spread to marginal areas of the
central area and the transiting of bears to neighbouring Alpine countries.
Managing the brown bear population, which numbers between 450 and 550 animals, demands
an entirely different approach and measures compared to protection of the dwindling
remnants of the numerically much smaller bear populations still eking out an existence here
and there in Western Europe. In the concern for conserving the remainder of such numerically
small populations, such as are found in Italy’s Trentino or in the French Pyrenees, and which
amount to only some 10 individuals, the attention given to conserving every individual animal
is understandable. In such circumstances the culling of bears is certainly impermissible, just
as in Slovenia’s circumstances, from the aspect of bear conservation a complete ban on
culling would also be entirely inappropriate. This is the conviction of all the European experts
who deal with issues of bear conservation and who have a full professional grasp of these
issues.
- 17 -
2.1. Monitoring brown bears
Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears with humans are carried out on the
basis of annual monitoring, which covers the entire territory of Slovenia and focuses on a
systematic collection and analysis of data on observed bears, including organised counting
and culls, data on habitats and changes to them, on damage caused and other conflict cases
with humans, and other factors important for understanding the current situation.
Measure:
• setting up permanent systematic monitoring of brown bears for the entire population
in Slovenian territory, and continuing with research into their biology and ecology.
2.2. Guidelines for bear culling

The culling of bears is an exceptional encroachment on the population, and is done in such a
way and to such an extent that it does not endanger the species or human coexistence with
bears.
2.2.1. Defining culls
Culling is:
• The shooting of a specific number of bears with the intention of facilitating coexistence
with humans, such that the population density is kept at a level suitable for the features of
the habitat, taking into account human use and activities,
• The exceptional shooting of bears which directly threaten humans and their property,
• Capturing live bears for transfer and release in the wild or for settlement in another
location in the wild,
• Capturing isolated young or injured bears for transfer,
• Losses from being run over or from other cause of death.
2.2.2. Planning culls
The planning of culls embraces all the above-listed forms of removing bears. They are
planned for the entire population in the territory of Slovenia, although particularly in
individual areas of habitat, for the calendar year. The cull plan takes into account not just
the annual shooting but also possible exceptional shootings, the capture and transfer of live
animals, road kills and other losses, separately for the central area and the other areas
(marginal, transit and exceptional bear presence areas).
Owing to predicted losses, exceptional shootings and capture of live animals for transfer,
the culling plan sets out the overseeing of the period and area of the cull, with the
intention of not exceeding the total number planned for the cull.
In the event of non-completion of culls planned for the marginal, transit and exceptional
bear presence areas, they are NOT completed in the central area.
The structure of the cull by weight is planned taking account of the fact that a bear’s body
weight in spring is more than 20% less than it is in autumn.
- 18 -
A draft plan for the bear cull is drawn up each year by the state authorised professional public
institute (the ZGS).
The draft cull plan is studied by an interdepartmental expert committee, composed from the
ministries competent for hunting, agriculture and nature protection, and this committee
formulates a proposed cull plan. It is compulsory for the proposed plan to be observed in the
preparation of hunting and breeding plans and annual plans for game management, and in
their implementation. The state authorised professional public institute, in cooperation with
hunting organisations, regularly and currently monitors culls and maintains an up to date
receival and dissemination of information on the cull.
2.2.3. Permitting culls
On the basis of the expert cull proposal the ministry competent for hunting, in agreement with
the ministry competent for nature protection, permits the cull. The period and spatial
deployment of the cull must be such that unforeseen exceptional shootings may be carried out
within the framework of the permitted cull. Exceptional shootings, which cannot be carried
out as part of the permitted annual cull, must be granted permission in each case individually.
2.2.4. Performing culls
• The shooting of a specific number of bears with the intention of facilitating

coexistence with humans is carried out in such a way that the population density is kept
at a level suitable for the features of the habitat, taking into account human use and
activities. It is carried out in the period from 1 October to 30 April. It is performed by
state authorised professionally qualified organisations (hunting and game breeding
associations). The extent and structure of the shooting by weight differ in the various bear
habitat areas, and are always based on the results of monitoring and professional findings.
• Exceptional shooting of bears is carried out in cases where bears directly threaten
humans, that is, when they attack humans, when they remain for longer periods in the
direct vicinity of human dwellings or in cases where they attack domestic animals. A
view on the necessity for exceptional shooting is given by the authorised professional
public institute. Exceptional shooting is possible at any place and time, irrespective of
weight structure. In the event of essential shooting of a female bear with young, it is
always the young that are shot first and only then the mother. The culling is performed by
a state authorised professionally qualified organisation or emergency team. Exceptional
shooting is performed in a legally provided manner. If an exceptional shooting has been
carried out in self-defence, in other words in a case of actual attack by a bear on a human,
the state authorised professional public institute gives an opinion on this.
• The capture and transfer of live bears is carried out for release in the wild or
resettlement to another location in the wild, in the event of a bear threatening humans in a
specific location, and resettlement is an appropriate solution. The capture and transfer of
live bears is performed by a state authorised professionally qualified team or by the state
authorised professional public institute.
• The capture and transfer of isolated young and injured bears, with the intention of
temporarily caring for them in a refuge, and where this is a sensible solution, is carried out
by a state authorised professionally qualified team or the state authorised professional
public institution.
- 19 -
• Tasks associated with losses of bears from being run over or from other causes of
death are carried out by state authorised professionally qualified organisations, public
institutes or by an authorised emergency team.
2.2.5. Extent and deployment of bear culls
The extent and deployment of bear culls are aligned with the intention of defining areas, and
are such that in the central area the thriving bear population is maintained, while allowing its
coexistence with humans, in the marginal area the spread of bears from the central area to
other parts of Slovenia is prevented, in the transit area it allows individual bears to move
towards the Alps, if an agreement can be reached with Austria and Italy, and in the area of
exceptional bear presence it allows individual animals to appear temporarily.
2.2.6. Culling of bears counter to the strategy, plans and permits
The culling of bears in ways other than those set out above, or that are counter to plans and
permits are dealt with according to the regulations, while bears (trophies, meat, bear products)
are permanently confiscated from the perpetrator.
Measures:
• Incorporation of the above solutions into legal regulations, decisions and plans.
• Provision of the proper conditions to the authorised professionally trained team for
performing its tasks.
2. 3. Guidelines for bear feeding
Feeding stations for bears, intended to keep bears away from settlements, are maintained only
in the central area, and in such a way that they do not cause any attachment of bears to
humans. They are spaced out equally and are positioned as a rule at least 2 km from
settlements. Apart from meat – carrion and slaughterhouse waste (including remains of wild
animals) – the feeding stations are supplied in the summer especially with maize and in
autumn with fruit and grape skins. The bear feeding stations are supplied regularly.
In the positioning of feeding stations intended for other wild animal species, in the central and
marginal areas account is taken of the fact that they will also be used by bears. For this reason
they must be as far removed as possible from settlements and from the boundaries of the area,
and located relative to the bear feeding stations.
Outside the central area bear feeding stations are not installed.
Measures:
• Installing of equally spaced out bear feeding stations, as far removed as possible from
settlements, in the central area.
• Studying of the influence feeding has on the population in terms of feeding station
density, the type, quantity and period in which food is set out and other factors, and in
view of the results the determining of the number and positioning of feeding stations,
and the type, quantity and period in which food is set out.
- 20 -
3. Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears in the different
habitat areas
In the central, marginal, transit and exceptional bear presence areas, there is a differing
emphasis on protection measures for conservation of the species and measures for coexistence
of humans and bears, in respect of:
A. culling of bears,
B. feeding of bears,
C. the local residents and human use and activity in the environment, especially farming,
forestry, tourism, recreation and gathering forest and other fruits, construction and use of
infrastructure and military and police activities.
On the basis of the National Environmental Protection Programme and Article 94, paragraph
five of the Nature Conservation Act (Ur. l. RS, 56/99, 31/00), the tasks deriving from these
measures are addressed in more detail in operational programmes.
3. 1. Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears with humans

in the central area
Definition of the area: the central area is the core habitat for the brown bear, the area where
bears have been permanently present since the earliest times and where today there is a dense
population.
The purpose of defining the central area and measures within it is to conserve the brown
bear population in a favourable state, in the most natural possible gender and age structure
and in such number that allows humans to coexist with them.
Geographical definition: the area covers the broader Kočevsko area and Ribnica valley,
Notranjska and the Krimsko – Mokrško hills, part of Dolenjska and part of Bela Krajina,
Nanos, Hrušica, the Trnovski gozd forest and part of the Idrija hills.
Description of boundary: from the national border along the edge of the Snežnik plateau to
the peak of Goli vrh, from there via the peak of Ahac past Ilirska Bistrica to Šembije, then on
along the road to Pivka and to Postojna, and along the motorway to Razdrto; from Razdrto to
Pleša on Nanos, along the edge of the Nanos plateau, through the valley of Bela to Col, along
the road to Predmeja, along the edge of the Trnovski gozd forest plateau to Trnovo, and then
along the Trnovo - Lokve – Čepovan - Dolenja Trebuša road, on through the Hotenje valley
to the peak of Oblakov vrh, through the Kanomljice valley to Spodnja Idrija, from there on
along the Idrija - Hotedrščica – Godovič - Kalce – Logatec road; then from Logatec along the
railway line past Borovnica to Goričica pod Krimom, along the road past Kamnik, Podpeč
and Brest to Ig and then to Pijava Gorica and Ponova vas, from there to Spodnja Slivnica,
then via Veliko Mlačevo to Luče and the village of Krka, along the Krka river past
Žužemberk and Dvor to Soteska, from there along the road past Podturn and Črmošnjice,
from there westward to Semič and on along the railway line to Petrova vas, then via Vinska
gora to Sveti Križ and on via Cerovec, then westward from Tanča gora to Zapudje and on
along the road towards Stara Lipa, past Vinica and to the border.
State of bears: the bears in this area have been permanently present since the earliest times.
Estimates put the population density in a range from 0.5 to 1.5 bears/1000 ha. The highest
density is in Kočevsko, and this falls through Notranjska to the western High Karst area,
where it is lowest.
Size of area: 348,000 ha, of which the sections of higher density of human settlement cover
around 42,000 ha.
- 21 -
In the central area, sections of higher density of human settlement are defined. In these
sections, the protection measures are adapted in order to prevent conflict cases with humans.
In the sections of higher density human settlement there are no bear feeding stations. Shooting
determined for the central area is spread in such a way that it is higher in these sections. Bears
are driven away from these sections, regardless of their suitability for lairs. Female bears with
young which are permanently present here are isolated, captured and transferred to other
locations in the wild, or shot.
Measures for driving away, capturing or shooting bears in these sections are carried out by an
authorised team, professionally qualified authorised organisation, and in urban areas also the
police, within their powers.
A. Bear culling
Extent of cull: the culling of bears in the central area is set within a framework of 5 – 10%
(when the population is stable and balanced with its environment), and exceptionally up to
15% (in the case of imbalance with the environment) of the professionally established number
(the mean between those counted and the estimated population).
Strukture of cull by weight (guideline):

Bears up to 100 kg: 75 %, at least,
Bears 100 – 150 kg: 15%, at most,
Bears 150 kg and more: 10%, at most.
Deployment of cull: the cull is deployed according to ecologically recognised units, such that
it is higher in sections of higher density human settlement.
Method of shoooting: shooting is carried out from high hides next to maintained feeding
stations. In sections of higher density human settlement it may be carried out from high hides.
• On the basis of results from at least five years of systematic monitoring for the entire
territory of Slovenia, the extent and deployment of culling or shooting and the structure of
culling by weight, in view of the trend in numbers and age structure of the population,
may be determined differently.
B. Bear feeding
Over every 6000 to 10 000 ha one bear feeding station is regularly maintained. The feeding
stations must be spaced out equally relative to the ecologically recognised units, removed
from settlements as a rule by at least 2 km or at least 1 km from farm land, especially from
managed pastures and from the boundary with the marginal area as a rule by at least 5 km.
In areas where there is a bear feeding station, food for other wild animal species which
attracts bears (maize, grape skins and similar) is set out at the most in two places, except in
large forest complexes, where we wish through a higher density of feeding stations to keep
large plant and meat eating animals away from farm areas or areas of higher density human
settlement.
Feeding stations intended for other wild animal species which may also attract bears, must as
a rule be removed at least 2 km from settlements or from farm land, especially from managed
pastures and the boundary with the marginal area.
- 22 -
• On the basis of results from professional studies of feeding, a different density and spatial
deployment of feeding stations may be determined.
Measures:
• Setting up regular cooperation between local residents and professional public

institutes which are authorised by the state for monitoring bears.
• In the event of threat the temporary presence of an authorised team for monitoring
bears is ensured, along with immediate measures if necessary.
• The possibility is ensured of constant information by telephone in the event of threat
caused by a bear.
• Removal of all possible factors that attract bears to settlements.
• Education of people in the biology and ecology of the brown bear, advice for them on
recommended action on encountering bears, informing them of the immediate
presence of bears and so forth.
• Drawing up a programme of education for primary and secondary school students.
C.2. Farming
The process of agricultural land in Slovenia reverting to its natural overgrown state has
reached such proportions that the Brown Bear Management Strategy cannot ignore it. In
planning the Brown Bear Management Strategy in Slovenia we must also take into account
data which in the opinion of numerous experts represent the most important development
problem for this country. And in accordance with the agriculture act, biodiversity in farming
must also be preserved.
Meadows and pastures represent over a quarter of the entire land surface of Slovenia. This
land can and should be put to productive use primarily through the breeding of domestic
animals – first and foremost ruminants. But over the past forty years, many meadows and
pastures have become overgrown. In total we have lost more than 150,000 ha of farm land, or
around 4000 ha annually. Maintaining life in these areas is the primary precondition for
preventing the further reversion and overgrowing of farm land.
Owing to the unfavourable landholding structure, in the lowland areas too, animal husbandry
is of primary importance, bringing greater returns per hectare compared to the more extensive
labour involved in field cultivation. The small size of holdings and the small number of
domestic animals per farm are the well known basic problems of Slovenian agriculture.
Slovenia’s agricultural land is relatively unfavourable for cultivating and producing crops.
There are unfavourable land gradients, altitude, climate and pedological and geological
conditions (44% of the land is karstic). Some 70% of agricultural land is therefore in areas of
limited factors for farming (Plut, 1998), while the EU average is 55%. Owing to the high
proportion of these areas, 80% of settlements are in areas of limited factors for farming
(Osterc at al., 1995). In the areas of limited factors for farming the proportion of grassland is
even higher than the national average. So the raising of ruminants here is even more
important.
- 23 -
There are two characteristic processes, which while they are different, have exactly the same
ultimate consequences in the environment. While on the one hand increased urbanisation is
taking from agriculture the best quality arable land – according to estimates, as a result of
various encroachments over the last fifty years, agriculture has lost between 10 and 15% of its
land – on the other hand we are faced with the abandoning of cultivation on some land which
gradually reverts to its overgrown state.
Measures:
• In the introduction of new grazing in the central area, priority is given to beef cattle.
• For grazing of animals already present, particularly small cattle, pastures must be
protected with electric fencing preventing access by bears to the pasture, and
protected by a shepherd and / or dogs trained for this purpose.
• Agricultural land in dense forest complexes in the central area not being rented out
for the grazing of livestock.
• Apiaries protected by electric fencing.
• Proper management of unmanaged tips for organic waste, including waste from
slaughtered domestic animals.
• Raising wild animal species in pens being managed on the basis of regulations
governing nature conservation, environmental protection and protection of animals.
• Education of farmers in the living habits of bears, informing them of the immediate
presence of bears, on action in conflict cases and so forth.
C.3. Forestry
Across the highly varied, for the most part mountainous and hilly surface of Slovenia, there is
very little room for large plains. This is without doubt one of the reasons why forests cover as
much as 64% of Slovenia’s surface. It is precisely the forests, and the manner in which
forestry encroaches upon them, that determine to a decisive extent both the conservation of
many species of wild animal, and the relationship of these animal species populations to their
forest and non-forest habitat.
If we limit ourselves simply to the more highly developed wild mammals and birds, with
which humans have a number of links ranging from the emotional to the economic, we may
assert that the majority of these species centre their lives and habitat on the forest. In first
place there are without doubt the rare and endangered species, whose conservation in
Slovenia is also important for the wider European area. These are primarily wild predatory
animals which are for the most part extinct elsewhere, such as the bear (Ursus arctos), wolf
(Canis lupus), lynx (Lynx lynx) and wild cat (Felis silvestris), the capercaillie (Tetrao
urogallus), hazel grouse (Tetrastes bonasia) and at the upper limit of the forest the black
grouse (Lyrurus tetrix), and alongside many other birds the very rare species such as the black
stork (Ciconia nigra) and the white-tailed (sea) eagle (Haliaetus albicilla), which nest in the
forest. A favourable state of forest habitats is one condition for the conservation of all the
species mentioned, and also a condition for the balanced relationship of the plant-eating
ungulate game (red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)) in the forest
biocenosis.
Modern forestry is based on the principle that a forest can still be commercial if while there is
no longer an entirely natural biotope, there is still a biotope which is and must be as similar as
possible to a natural one. For this reason forestry attempts to encroach upon forests after
- 24 -
nature’s own model, in a co-natural way, so that through encroachments orientated towards
long-term effects it might conserve or re-establish forests that are as similar as possible to
natural ones, and which are not intended simply for a short-term maximum yield of timber,
but to the long-term optimum fulfilment of all the different functions the forest has in nature,
including conservation of wild animals that naturally belong in it.
Wild animals are an essential component part of all natural communities, and within them
they have an undisputed right of abode. Precisely because all the forests, even those changed
by humans, have remained close to natural communities, many native wild animal species
have also found refuge within them. The closer the forests have remained to their one-time
natural state, and the greater the contiguous surface area they cover, the greater is the number
of native animal species that have been conserved within them to the present day. Forestry,
which should stand as a truly co-natural activity, must be aware of the right of abode of all the
native animal species in the forest, and must ensure that its encroachments on the forest do
not remove their means of living.
Measures:
• In the vicinity of important parts of bear habitats (e.g. lairs), forestry work is
performed at times when it is the least disturbance for bears; in particular, where
possible work should not be performed from the beginning of December to the end of
April.
• Conserving of both productive and dead trees.
• Conserving the diverse variety of forests.
• Constructing forest infrastructure at times when this causes least disturbance to bears,
and particularly not from the beginning of December to the end of April, and removed
at least 100 m from important parts of their habitat.
Measures:
• Visitors are guided along set paths and to places that are least disturbing for bears,
and in particular suitably removed from important parts of their habitat.
• Education of visitors about the living habits of bears and the rules of behaviour on
encountering bears, and making them aware of the importance of safety.
Measures:
• No construction of public transportation infrastructural structures in a diameter of at

least 500 m from important parts of bear habitats.
• Always checking the location for siting infrastructural and other structures in terms of
the effect on important parts of bear habitats and migratory routes for individual
animals.
• Ensuring links between population groups across existing and planned roads,
motorways and railway lines.
- 25 -
C.6. Military and police activities
Measures:
- Carrying out military and police activities taking into account the central bear habitat, so
that the animals are least disturbed, and so that they are not attracted to the vicinity of
buildings by improperly managed waste tips.
3.2. Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears with humans
in the marginal area
Definition of area: the marginal area is a more or less broad belt around the central area, in
which bears are not permanently present, owing to the less favourable environment, but they
appear in this area form time to time, chiefly because of the seasonal availability of food.
The purpose of defining the area and measures within it is to facilitate the occasional
presence of bears, taking into account seasonal migrations in connection with the availability
of plant food, and at the same time to prevent the spread of bears from the central area into
other parts of Slovenia.
Geographical definition: the area covers the southern slopes of the Trnovski gozd forest and
Nanos, the Banjiška and Šentviška uplands, part of Cerkljansko and part of the Idrija area,
Brkini, the Vremska dolina valley and Vremščica, the eastern part of Bela Krajina, Gorjanci
and the north-eastern part of Suha Krajina.
Description of boundary: western marginal area: from the border with Croatia along the
railway line past Rakitovec, Zazid and Kozina to Divača, from there along the motorway
towards Sežana to Povirje, then north to Štorije, from there along the road past Jakovica to
Podnanos; from Podnanos through the valley edge of the Nanos-Trnovo plateau slope to
Solkan, then on along the Soča river to Most na Soči, following the Idrijca river to Bača pri
Modreju, on along the Bača river to Grahovo, from there along the Orehek - Cerkno -
Sovodenj - Trebija – Žiri road, then along the road past Rovte to Logatec; eastern marginal
area: from Pijava Gorica to Šmarje – Sap, then easterly along the motorway past Novo mesto
and Brežice to the border with Croatia.
State of bears: Individual animals which live temporarily in this area and then return to the
central area, or continue their journey towards the transit area, rarely wander anywhere else.
Size of area: 257,000 ha;
A. Bear culling
Extent and structure of cull: In the marginal area culling is determined relative to the trend of
population numbers in the central area (based on the results of systematic monitoring) and the
appearance of bears in the area of exceptional presence. The majority of the cull involves
animals weighing less than 100 kg.
Deployment of cull: the cull is deployed according to ecologically recognised units, such that
it is higher in sections of higher density human settlement, and less in the connecting area
between the central and transit areas.
Method of shoooting: shooting is carried out as a rule from high hides.
Females with young, which are permanently present in the marginal area, are isolated or
captured and resettled elsewhere in the wild.
- 26 -
B. Bear feeding
No feeding stations are installed for bears. Given that they may also be used by bears, feeding
stations intended for other wild animal species are placed so that they are as a rule at least 2
km from any settlement.
Measures:
• Setting up cooperation between local residents and professional public institutes

which are authorised by the state for monitoring bears.
caused by a bear.
C.2. Farming
Measures:
• Supervised grazing of livestock, especially small cattle (electric fencing, shepherds,

dogs).
• Proper management of unmanaged organic waste tips, including waste from
Measures:
Measures:
• Checking the location for infrastructural and other structures in terms of bear
migratory routes towards the Alps.
• Ensuring transit access towards the Alps across existing and planned motorways and
railways.
- 27 -
in the transit area*
Definition of area: the transit area is the area across which bears move from the central area
towards the west and north into the Alps.
The purpose of defining the area and measures within it is to facilitate for individual bears
transit into the sub-Alpine and Alpine zone. The area is not intended for permanent settlement
by bears.
Geographical definition: the north-western transit area covers the upper Soča valley, part
of the Julian Alps (the area of the Triglav National Park), Mežaklja, Jelovica and part of the
Selška valley; the northern transit area covers part of the Posavje hills, Menina, part of the
Savinja valley and part of the Kamniško-Savinjske Alps.
Description of boundary: western boundary of the north-western transit area: from
Kanal northwest to the border with Italy, then along the national border; eastern boundary of
the north-western transit area: from Trebija past Hotavlje, from there along the road to Črni
kal on Blegoš, then along the military road to the branch for Martinj vrh, onward along the
road through Prednja Smoleva to Železniki; from there along the Rudno – Dražgoše – Jamnik
road; from Jamnik along the edge of Jelovica nad Kropo and then along the edge to Babji zob
and to the village of Obrne, from there northwards over Bohinjska Bela to Krnica, along the
Bled – Jesenice road to the village of Kočna, from there along the edge of Mežaklja to
Mojstrana, then towards the north to the national border with Austria; western boundary of
the northern transit area: from Šmarje – Sap north past Podmoljnik to Podgrad, then across
the Sava river past Dolsko towards Moravče and Krašnja, from there north-westerly towards
Srednja vas to Županje njive, then to Kalški greben and on across the Kamniško – Savinjske
Alps to the national border north of Skuta; eastern boundary of the northern transit area:
from the Ljubljana – Novo mesto motorway northwards across Velika Loka, past Gabrovka to
Polšnik and on to Kisovec, then past Trojane to Šmartno ob Dreti, across Šentjanež past
Radegunda, Bele vode and Ludranski vrh, westward from Črna to Podpeca and then north to
the national border.
State of bear population: individual bears rarely come into this area and stay for a long or
even short time.
Size of area: 312,000 ha; the size of the north-western transit area is 179,000 ha, and the size
of the northern transit area is 133,000 ha.
* The transit area is not taken into account and measures implemented within it are the
same as for the area of exceptional bear presence, if the Slovenian brown bear
management strategy is not coordinated with the strategies of the neighbouring
countries, Italy and Austria. In the event of partial coordination of strategies, measures
will be partly implemented in the transit area, or will be implemented in only one of the
transit areas. Each year a position will be taken on this by the ministries competent for
nature protection, hunting and agriculture.
A. Bear culling
Bear culling is carried out only as exceptional shooting, and in the event of a bear directly
endangering humans – either by actually attacking or by staying for lengthy periods in the
direct vicinity of human dwellings and in the event of the same bear attacking domestic
animals more than once.
- 28 -
Method of shooting: shooting is carried out in all the legally provided ways, except by battue.
Females with young are isolated or captured and resettled elsewhere in the wild.
B. Bear feeding
No feeding stations for bears are installed.
Measures:
• Setting up cooperation between local residents and professional public institutes

which are authorised by the state for monitoring bears.
caused by a bear.
C.2. Farming
Measures:
• Supervised grazing of livestock, especially small cattle (electric fencing, shepherds,

dogs).
• Proper management of unmanaged organic waste tips, including waste from
Measures:
Measures:
• Checking the location for infrastructural and other structures in terms of bear
migratory routes towards the Alps.
• Ensuring transit access towards the Alps across existing and planned motorways and
railways.
- 29 -
in the area of exceptional bear presence
Definition of area: the area of exceptional bear presence is the remainder of the territory,
primarily central-northern and eastern Slovenia, where bears very rarely roam.
The purpose of defining the area and measures within it is to allow the temporary
presence of bears.
Geographical definition: the area covers the greater part of the Ljubljana basin, the eastern
and north-eastern part of Gorenjska, and north-eastern Slovenia (east of Trojane).
State of bears: individual animals appear in this area exceptionally.
Size of area: 1,109,000 ha
A. Bear culling
Bears are culled by being shot or captured for the purpose of transfer, immediately if they
cause any conflict with humans or if they remain for any length of time in the area (tracking
in one week). The method and time of culling is decided by the state authorised public
institute or emergency team.
Measures:
• Informing local residents of the biology and ecology of brown bears, on possible
encounters with bears and how to act in such encounters.
• On the appearance of a bear, ensuring the monitoring of it.
Measures in respect of use and activities are not envisaged.
VI. Mechanisms to implement measures for protection and

coexistence of brown bears with humans
1. System of compensation payments
For damage which is caused by bears to property and which can be proved, the injured party
is compensated in the shortest possible time. Funds are provided in the national budget for the
purpose of compensation payments.
The level of compensation is determined in line with the provisions of the Protection,
Breeding and Hunting of Game and Management of Hunting Grounds Act. Compensation for
damage caused must match the actual damage. The basic rule is that the injured party is not
bound to suffer any damage, if of course he has not himself contributed to such damage
through his own actions or omissions. The injured party may not demand more in
- 30 -
compensation than the actual amount of the damage. In this procedure no one may in effect
acquire unjustified wealth, nor may they themselves bear a loss.
Measures:
• Perfecting the system of compensation payment so that payment will be made quickly, a
standardised method for determining the level of compensation is formulated, and that
verifying the justification of compensation demands is ensured.
2. Subsidising farm activities

In order to carry out measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears with humans, in
the central, marginal and transit areas, subsidising of farm activities is provided.
Subsidies are provided from the national budget, especially from the funds of the Slovenian
Agricultural–Environmental Programme, and from funds intended for preventive and
protective measures. Assistance in protected areas also forms part of the Agricultural-
Environmental Programme. In order to preserve the cultivation and settlement of a special
status landscape, in the central area of large predatory species presence the Programme
envisages the measure of restructuring the raising of domestic animals. In the central area the
Agricultural-Environmental Programme should support in particular the maintenance of
grasslands, including through mowing.
The level of subsidy is formulated relative to the difficulty involved in the measures for
protection and coexistence of bears with humans.
In the central and marginal area:
• Finance is provided for the purchase and installation of preventive protection

measures (fixed and movable electric fencing) in new pastures and additional
protection in existing pastures,
• Owing to the increased work involved in implementing measures for protection and
coexistence of bears with humans, a premium is paid for the grazing of animals,
irrespective of the number of grazing animals per farm or farm operation.
• Co-financing is provided for the work of a full-time herder for herds larger than 15
head of beef cattle or larger than 120 head of small cattle.
• The work of herd dogs is reimbursed.
Payments are made in an already established manner of paying premiums for animals and
land areas and payment of funds for arranging pastures.
Measure:
• Establishing a system of subsidising farm activities which through the implementation

of the measures are adapted to coexistence with brown bears.
3. International funding
In view of the international importance of brown bear conservation in Slovenia, national

institutes and non-governmental organisations endeavour to secure funds for implementing
protection measures from foreign and international institutions, funds and projects.
- 31 -
4. Protected natural areas
Natural parks, in which large areas of nature are protected, represent one of the more
important measures for preserving biodiversity, including animal species and in this case of
course the brown bear. Since natural parks are not exclusively intended for plants and animals
and to natural processes, but also for the people who live in that area, encroachments and
activities are permitted in parks, but they are orientated towards sustainable development.
This also makes possible the internal zoning of parks and a definition of sections with
differing protection regimes.
At this time the establishing of several natural parks is in progress, and they are also defined
in the long-term spatial plan of the Republic of Slovenia. There are also three regional parks
being set up, these covering a sizeable portion of the core habitat area for large wild animals:
the Kolpa-Kočevje, Snežnik and Nanos-Trnovski gozd regional parks. The Kolpa-
Kočevje Regional Park is tied to the already established Risnjak Natural Park in
neighbouring Croatia, which is important for the protection of brown bears.
Of the established natural parks, a major part is played by the Triglav National Park,
primarily as a temporary transit habitat for brown bears. Although the main migratory routes
run further to the west from the boundary of the Triglav National Park, through the Tolmin
and Kobarid area, the protected area is important for bears transiting into the Karavanke
mountains and into Austria.
5. Public information and awareness raising about brown bears and the
importance of their protection
Providing people with information on the biology and ecology of brown bears and on the
importance of their protection is extremely important in shaping the relationship between
humans and brown bears. A situation where humans recognise the right to life of other
creatures is a precondition for the conservation of animal species, even if because of this
humans must partly adapt their way of life. In shaping such a relationship, major emphasis is
placed on educating children, general education and public information media. Reporting
about bears that is not objective, that is emotionally tainted and charged with expressions
favouring negative human actions increases people’s antipathy towards bears, and at the same
time distorts the biological facts about the species and nature.
Measure:
- Elaborating an integrated plan for providing information and raising public awareness
about brown bears and the importance of their protection, with a definition of target
audiences, the managers and methods of information and awareness provision, the
content of such information and the time and place for provision of the information.
VII. Involvement of Slovenia in international efforts to

conserve the brown bear
- 32 -
Slovenia’s territory is too small for the long-term preservation of minimum viable brown bear
populations, this being a condition for the long-term conservation of the species. Minimum
viable populations are such and of a size that they can balance out within themselves losses
owing to deviations from an equal gender structure and unforeseen events in the environment,
and that they can preserve sufficient genetic diversity. The brown bear population inhabits an
area that extends beyond Slovenia’s national border and into Gorski Kotar in neighbouring
Croatia. For this reason, protection efforts must be conducted in tandem, on the basis of a
unified and agreed strategy of protection and management.
The brown bear population in Slovenia will also play an especially important part in the
spread of bears into the Alps and further into Western Europe, if this is decided. For this
reason we must also be involved in international and European efforts to conserve the brown
bear.
Measures:
• Adopting a unified bilateral strategy for conservation of the brown bear in the territory of
Slovenia and neighbouring Croatia, and ensuring its implementation on both sides.
• Slovenia continuing to cooperate in international efforts for brown bear conservation.
- 33 -

BROWN BEAR (Ursus Arctos) MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN SLOVENIA

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

BROWN BEAR (Ursus Arctos) MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN SLOVENIA

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BROWN BEAR (Ursus arctos) MANAGEMENT

I. Purpose of the strategy

IV. Brown bear – facts important for understanding the strategy

V. Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears with humans

VI. Mechanisms to implement measures for protection and coexistence of

VII. Involvement of Slovenia in international efforts to conserve the brown

I. Purpose of the strategy

II. Basic principles and aims of the strategy

Brown bear – living being and biological species

The aims of the strategy are:

III. Legal basis

1. Legal regulations providing for or having an influence on the protection

• National Environmental Protection Programme, adopted in the National Assembly

The National Environmental Protection Programme, which is based on Article 47 of the

• Nature Conservation Act (Ur. l. RS, no. 56/99)

• Forests Act (Ur. l. RS, no. 30/93)

• Protection, Breeding and Hunting of Game and Management of Hunting Grounds

• Agriculture Act (Ur. list RS, no. 54/00)

2. International agreements providing for protection of bears

• Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats – the

• Alpine Convention – Protocol on implementation of the Alpine Convention of 1991 on

• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora –

The brown bear is listed in addendum II to the Convention on International Trade in

• Convention on Biological Diversity, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 (Act Ratifying the

3. European Union regulations providing for protection of bears

Minimum viable population

2. The brown bear in Europe

3. The brown bear in Slovenia – in the past and today

From this core area, bears migrate in varying directions:

4. Threat to the brown bear in Slovenia

Main factors of threat to the brown bear:

5. Brown bear – humans and their property

The following situations are known to possibly provoke a bear attack:

Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

No. culled BY SEX BY WEIGHT

An analysis of the bear cull yields the following findings:

7. Situation regarding feeding of bears

V. Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears

The measures for protection of brown bears are:

• Prevention and restriction of encroachments and activities in their habitats,

The measures for coexistence of humans with brown bears are:

1. Brown bear areas in Slovenia by level of protection

2. Guidelines for determining measures for protection and coexistence of

2.2. Guidelines for bear culling

2.2.1. Defining culls

2.2.2. Planning culls

2.2.3. Permitting culls

2.2.4. Performing culls

• The shooting of a specific number of bears with the intention of facilitating

2.2.5. Extent and deployment of bear culls

2.2.6. Culling of bears counter to the strategy, plans and permits

2. 3. Guidelines for bear feeding

3. 1. Measures for protection and coexistence of brown bears with humans

Strukture of cull by weight (guideline):

C.1. Local residents

• Setting up regular cooperation between local residents and professional public

C.4. Tourism, recreation, forest fruit gathering

C.5. Building of infrastructural and other structures and their use

• No construction of public transportation infrastructural structures in a diameter of at

Method of shoooting: shooting is carried out as a rule from high hides.

C.1. Local residents

• Setting up cooperation between local residents and professional public institutes

• Supervised grazing of livestock, especially small cattle (electric fencing, shepherds,