InstrumentPrinciples

Anemometer PressurePlateAnemometer
Measuresthedragthatthewindexertsonasolid body.Thesimplestformisaplateorballwhich isfreetoswingaboutahorizontalaxisaboveit's centerofgravitywhenacteduponbywindforce. Ameasureoftheangulardeflectionistaken. Thisdevicemustbekeptorientedtowardsthe windsoawindvaneortailisusuallyemployed torotateitaboutaverticalaxis. Advantages:Simple. Disadvantages:Mustbeorientedintothewind. Notveryresponsivetogusts.Hasanatural resonantfrequencywhereitflutters Keywords:pressureplateanemometer pendulumanemometernormalplate anemometerbridledcupanemometer deflectionanemometer
Figure1PendulumAnemometer

CupAnemometer
Measuresthespeedofawindpowered turbineintheformof(usuallyhemispherical) cupsmountedonradialspokes.Rotation speedcanbemeasuredbyanumberof differentmechanisms,butoftenamagnet, affixedtotheshaft,traversingpastafixed coilinducesapulseforeachrevolution,ora digitalshaftencoderisused. Advantages:Simple,omnidirectional(inone plane). Disadvantages:Movingpartswearout,slow toreacttogusts.Notsensitivetowindspeeds offractionsofameterpersecond. Keywords:cupanemometerRobinson anemometer

Figure2CupAnemometer

PropellerAnemometer
Measuresthespeedofawindpowered turbineintheformofapropellerorwind vane.Rotationspeedmeasurementscoverthe sameplethoraofmechanismsasforthecup anemometer,butinsomecasestherotation drivesageneratorwiththeoutputfromthe generatorbeingproportionaltospeed. Advantages:Simple.Compactcanbe handheld.Moreresponsivetoguststhanthe cupanemometer. Disadvantages:Movingpartswearout. Mustbeorientedintothewind. Keywords:propelleranemometerrotating vaneanemometer

Figure3PropellerAnemometer

HotWireAnemometer
Measureschangeinwireresistanceataconstant current(constantcurrenthotwireanemometer) oralternatively,thecurrentrequiredtokeepthe resistanceofawireatasetvalue(constant resistancehotwireanemometer).Fluid(wind) passingoverafinewirethatisheatedbyan electriccurrenttendstocoolthewireby convectiveheattransfer,andthuschangesthe resistance(unlessthecurrentisincreasedto compensate). Advantages:Goodspatialresolution(measures theflowinapreciselocation),usedforflow probes.Respondsquicklytochangesinflow (withappropriatecontrolcircuitry). Disadvantages:Costly,orientationsensitive, fragileandwirecanaccumulatedebrisina dirtyflow. Keywords:hotwireanemometerthermal anemometer

Figure4HotWireAnemometer

TubeAnemometer
MeasurestheheightofliquidinaJorUtube whichhasoneendbentintoahorizontal directiontofacethewindandtheotherend usuallyopenandfacingupsothatwindpassing overitwillcreateavacuumduetotheBernoulli effect. Theheightoftheliquid canbemeasuredwitha floatconnectedbya mechanicallinkageto arecordingdevice.

Figure6PitotTube

Advantages:ThePitot tubecanbeinsertedinsmallairstreams,i.e. insideducts. Disadvantages:Movingpartswearout.Liquid manometerisfragile.ThePitottubemustbe Figure5TubeAnemometer turnedintothewind. Keywords:PitottubeDinesanemometerLind'sanemometer

SonicAnemometer
Measuresthetimedifferencebetweenanultrasonic wavetraversingthroughairandareferencesignal.Air movementcausestheultrasonicwave'sphasetoadvance orretardrelativetothereference. Advantages:Nomovingparts.Cantakethousandsof measurementspersecond,handlinggustsandpeak values. Disadvantages::Costly,complex.Measuresvelocity onlyinonedirection(illustrationshowstwoorthogonal instrumentsusedtoovercomethis). Keywords:sonicanemometerultrasonic anemometeracousticanemometer

Figure7SonicAnemometer

LaserAnemometer
Bouncesalaserbeamoffairborne particles(suchasdust,pollen, waterdroplets)andmeasuresthe Dopplershift(changein frequencywithvelocity). Advantages:Nomastrequiredto measurewindvelocitiesatheights upto150m.Canmeasureflow field,notjustvelocityatapoint. Worksforanytransparent mediumcontainingparticles. Disadvantages:Costly,complex. Keywords:laseranemometer doppleranemometerlaser doppleranemometerparticle anemometer

Figure8LaserAnemometer

IonAnemometer
Measuresioncurrent.Ionizationoftheatmosphereisperformedeitherbynuclear radiationorhighfrequencydischarge(arcsandsparks). Advantages:Nomovingparts. Disadvantages:Costly. Keywords:ionanemometer

Barometer MercurialBarometer
Measurestheheightofacolumnofmercurypreparedby invertingaclosedtubefilledwithmercuryintoapoolof mercury.Avacuumiscreatedattheclosedendofthetube, andtheheightofthecolumnabovethesurfaceofthepool indicatestheairpressuredirectly.Compensationfor elevationabovesealevelisneededtoobtainreported pressure. Advantages:Accurate. Disadvantages:Environmentallyhazardous.Mustbeexactly plumb. Keywords:mercurialbarometerstickbarometerFortin barometerKewpatternbarometerwheelbarometer

Figure9MercuryBarometer

AneroidBarometer
Measuresthechangeinsizeofa partiallyevacuatedcapsule, constructedsoastomaximizethe changeinonedimensionwithchanges inairpressure.Thecapsule'length' changeisconnectedviaaleverlinkage toadialonwhichthepressureis shown Advantages:Compact,portable. Disadvantages:Inaccuraciesdueto temperature,hysteresisanddrift. Keywords:aneroidbarometer Vidiebarometer Figure10AneroidBarometer

CapacitancePressureSensor
Apressuresensormeasuringthe distancebetweentwometal plates,locatedoneithersideof achamber,bymeasuringthe changeincapacitancebetween them.Capacitanceisaninverse functionofdistancebetweenthe parallelplates. Advantages:Robust,no movingparts. Figure11CapacitancePressureSensor Disadvantages:Complex electronics. Keywords:capacitancebarometer

StrainGaugePressureSensor
Apressuresensormeasuringthe deflectionofamembraneby measuringthechangeinresistanceof anattachedstraingauge. Advantages:Robust,nomoving parts. Disadvantages:Smallsignal. Keywords:straingaugepressure sensor
Figure12StrainGaugePressureSensor

BourdonPressureSensor
Measurestheextensionofathinwalledclosed tubewithanovalcrosssectionbentlengthwise intoanarcof270to300degrees.Pressure appliedtotheinteriorofthetubetendsto distendtheflattenedtubeintoit'soriginalround shape,whichcausesthetubetostraighten slightly.Themovementofthetipofthetube candriveametermovementorbemeasured electrically. Advantages:Robust.Worksathighpressure. Disadvantages:Notsensitivetolowpressure Figure13BourdonPressureSensor differences.

Keywords:BourdonpressuresensorBourdonpressuretube

ResonantPressureSensor
Measuresthechangein frequencyofaresonantcircuit usuallyusingaquartzor ceramicpiezoelectricdevice. Advancedinstrumentsuse micromachinedorMEMS deviceswithonboard compensationandcalibration circuitry. Advantages:Accurate. Disadvantages:Costly. Keywords:resonantpressure sensorquartzresonant pressuresensorsilicon resonantpressuresensor

Figure14ResonantPressureSensor

Thermometer LiquidThermometer
Measurestheexpansionofaliquid.Themostcommonisamercury thermometerthatmeasurestheheightofathincolumnofliquidattached toamuchlargerreservoir. Advantages:Simple. Disadvantages:.Imprecise.Environmentallyhazardous. Keywords:mercurythermometer

GasThermometer
Measuresthevolumeor pressurevariationofagas. Onecommonapparatusisa constantvolume thermometer.Itconsistsof abulbconnectedbya capillarytubetoa manometer.Thebulbis filledwithagasandin thermalcontactwiththe bodywhosetemperatureis Figure15 tobemeasured.Areservoir Mercury ofmercuryisraisedor Thermometer loweredsuchthatthe volumeofthegasinthebulbremains constant.Thepressureofthegasinthe bulbcanbeobtainedbymeasuringthe leveldifferencehofthemanometer.

Figure16GasThermometer

Advantages:Accurate. Disadvantages:Bulky. Keywords:standardthermometerconstantvolumethermometer

MetalThermometer
Measuresthethermal expansionofametal.A bimetallicstripbends differentiallywith pressure. Advantages:Passive. Disadvantages: Inaccurate. Keywords:bimetalic strip

Figure17BimetallicStrip

ResistanceThermometer
Measuresthechangeinresistanceofanobject.Specially constructedsemiconductordevicescalledthermistorsarethe mostpopular.OlderResistanceTemperatureDetectors (RTD)devicesuseaplatinum,ornickelalloy(withironand copper),woundasafinewirecoil. Advantages:. Disadvantages:. Keywords:platinumRTDthermistor

Figure18Thermistors

ThermocoupleThermometer
Measuresthevoltageproducedbythecontactoftwo dissimilarbonded(welded)metalwires(Seebeck effect).Sometimesapairofwiresjoinedatbothends isused,whereoneendisheldatareference temperature.Thebimetallicjunctiondevelopsasmall voltagethatvarieswithtemperature. Advantages:Inexpensive.Widetemperaturerange. Disadvantages:Smallvoltage(comparabletoparasitic voltagesoftheconnectionstothemeasuring instrument). Keywords:thermocouple

Figure19Thermocouple

OpticorPyrometricThermometer
Measurestheenergyabodyradiates. Infraredradiationisusuallymeasured. Theradiationvariesasthe4thpowerofthe temperatureofabody.Thermaldetectors anddirectquantumdetectorsareused. Theformerconverttheradiationintoheat whilethelatterconvertradiationdirectly toelectronicsignals(illustrated). Advantages:.Remotesensing. Disadvantages:Shinyobjectsaredifficult Figure20PyrometricThermometer tomeasure. Keywords:infraredthermometeropticalthermometerpyrometer

CapacitanceThermometer
Measuresthechangeincapacitancewithtemperature. Advantages:. Disadvantages:. Keywords:

SemiconductorThermometer
MeasuresthevoltageacrossaPNjunction,oftenwith clevercircuitryandintegratedonachiptoprovidea linearoutputwithtemperature. Advantages:Inexpensive.Fairlyaccurate. Disadvantages:Somecircuitsaresubjecttosupply voltagechanges.Devicecharacteristicsvaryfrompart topart. Keywords:proportionaltoabsolute temperature+currentsource

Figure21PNJunctionThermometer

PrecipitationGauge(Ombrometer,Pluviometer,Udometer, Disdrometer) GraduatedCylinderRainGauge

Measurestheaccumulation(height)of precipitationinanopentoppedcylindrical container.Operatorrecordstheaccumulation andemptiesthecylinder.Normallyithasa funnelshapedaccumulatoratthetoptogather precipitationfromagreaterareathanthecylinder area. Advantages:Simple Disadvantages:Operatorinterventionrequired. Keywords:graduatedcylinderraingauge
Figure22GraduatedCylinderRainGauge

TippingBucketRainGauge
Measuresthenumberoftimesorfrequencythata bucketorpairofbucketsfillswithwaterand overbalances. Advantages:simple Disadvantages:Movingparts Keywords:tippingbucketraingaugetipping bucketprecipitationgauge

Figure23TippingBucketRainGauge

WeighingPrecipitationGauge
Measurestheweightofaccumulated precipitationinabucket.Thebucket emptiesbyevaporation. Advantages:Nomovingparts. Disadvantages:Complex.Subjectto debris(dirt,leaves)andwind. Keywords:weighingprecipitation gaugevibratingwireraingauge

Figure24WeighingRainGauge

OpticalPrecipitationGauge
Aninfraredorvisiblelightoptical deviceisusedtomeasuretherain dropsize,fallvelocityandintensity. Basically,beamsofradiationare interruptedbyraindropsorvideo imagesareanalyzed.Structured illumination(lightbeamsformedinto sheetsorcones)isoftenused. Advantages:Accurate Disadvantages:Complex. Keywords:opticalspectro pluviometeropticaldisdrometer
Figure25OpticalRainGauge

Hygrometer WetAndDryBulbPsychrometer
Measuresthetemperaturedepressionofawet objectduetoevaporation.Awetanddry bulbpsychrometerorhygrometerconsistsof twoordinarythermometers,onecalledthe drybulbmeasuressimpleairtemperature, whilethesecondthermometerhasit'sthe workingend(bulb)enclosedbyafabric sleevewhichiskeptwetwithdistilledwater fromareservoir.Byreadingthe temperaturesofthedryandwetbulb,arecord oftheamountofcoolingduetoevaporation Figure26Wet&DryBulbPsychrometer ofwaterfromthewetbulbisobtainedintermsofdegreesdepressionorloweringofthe wetbulbthermometertemperaturebelowthatofthedrybulbthermometer.Thehigher therelativehumiditythelowerthewetbulbdepression(closertojusttheair temperature).Usingpsychrometricformulasortables,thesetemperaturescanbeusedto computethehumidity. Advantages:Simple. Disadvantages:Doesn'tworkmuchbelowthefreezingpoint.Requiresthereservoirto bekeptfull. Keywords:slingpsychrometeratmometerclayatmometerevaporationpan evapotranspirometerLivingstonspherePicheevaporimeterradioatmometer

HairHygrometer
Measuresthechangeinthelengthofhumanhair.Thehair actshygrometricallyduetothediffusionequilibriumbetween itswatercontentandthewatervapourcontentofits environment. Advantages:Simple. Disadvantages:Temperaturesensitive.Fragile. Keywords:hairhygrometerhumanhairhygrometer hygroscope

Figure27HairHygrometer

CapacitanceHygrometer
Measuresthechangeofcapacitanceassociatedwithachangeofdielectricconstant betweencapacitorplates.Dielectricmaterialssuchaspolymers,silicageloralumina desiccantareusedtoamplifythemoisturecontentmeasurement.Usuallyoneplateofthe capacitorisporoustoallowfastequilibrationbetweenthemoisturelevelofthedielectric andtheair. Advantages:Nomovingparts. Disadvantages:Complexelectronics. Keywords:capacitancehygrometer

ChilledMirrorHygrometer
Measuresthetemperatureatwhich vaporbeginstocondenseona chilledsurface.Themirroris constructedfromamaterialwith goodthermalconductivitysuchas silverorcopper,andproperly platedwithaninertmetalsuchas iridium,rubidium,nickel,orgold topreventtarnishingandoxidation. Themirrorischilledusinga thermoelectriccooleruntildewjust beginstoform.Asophisticated Figure28ChilledMirrorHygrometer controlsystemmonitoringthe reflectedlightmaintainsthemirrortemperatureatthedewpoint.Atemperaturesensor embeddedinthemirrormonitorsthemirrortemperatureattheestablisheddewpoint. Advantages:Accurate. Disadvantages:Complexelectronics.Requiresairflowoverthesurface. Keywords:chilledmirrorhygrometer

ElectrolyticHygrometer
Measurestheelectrolysis(ofwaterintooxygenandhydrogen)current.Sincetwo electronsarerequiredforelectrolysisofeachwatermolecule,theelectrolysiscurrentisa measureofthewaterpresentinthesample.Ifthevolumetricflowrateofthesamplegas intotheelectrolysiscelliscontrolledatafixedvalue,thentheelectrolysiscurrentisa functionofwaterconcentrationinthesample. Advantages: Disadvantages:Requiresflowintotheelectrolysiscell. Keywords:electrolytichygrometer

ImpedanceHygrometer
Thisinstrumentmeasuresthewatercontentofasamplebymeansofaprobewhose electricalimpedanceisafunctionofthevaporpressureofmoistureinthefluid. Impedanceistheapparentoppositiontotheflowofalternatingcurrent.Theprobe consistsofanaluminumstrip,whichisanodizedtoformaporouslayerofaluminum oxide.Athincoatofgoldisappliedoverthealuminumoxide.Leadsfromthegoldand aluminumelectrodesoftheprobeconnectthesensingelementtothemeasuringcircuitry. Watervaporpenetratesthegoldlayerandequilibratesonthealuminumoxide.The numberofmoleculesadsorbedtothealuminumoxideisafunctionofthewatervapor pressureinthesample. Eachwatermoleculeadsorbedcontributesadistinctincrementtothetotalconductivityof thealuminumoxide.Thetotalprobeimpedance,thereciprocalofprobeconductivity,is thusameasureofwatervaporpressureinthesample.Watervaporpressureofagas sampleuniquelydeterminesthedewpointtemperatureandmoisturecontentofthe sample.Theoutputisnormallycalibratedtotheseunitssincetheyaremoreconvenientto usethanvaporpressure. Advantages:Accurate. Disadvantages:Costlyprobes.Complexelectronics Keywords:impedancehygrometer

PiezoelectricHygrometer
Measuresthechangeinfrequencyofanoscillatingcrystal.Thecrystalissensitivityto depositsofforeignmaterialonitssurface.Commerciallyavailablecrystalswillshowa frequencychangeof2000cyclespersecond(cps)permicrogramofmaterialdeposited. Formoisturemeasurement,thequartzcrystalsarecoatedwithahygroscopicmaterialand exposedtothesample;waterfromthesampleisabsorbedbythecrystalcoating,thus increasingthetotalmassanddecreasingtheoscillatingfrequencyofthecrystal.Inorder tomeasurechangesofdecreasingmoistureconcentrationandtosimplifythefrequency measurement,twocrystalsareused.Onecrystalisexposedtowetsampleandtheother toadryreferencegasforashortperiod.Thensampleandreferencegasflowsare switchedsothatmoistureisabsorbedbyonewhilebeingdesorbedbytheothercrystal. Sampleswitchingiscontrolledbyacycletimerintheinstrument.Thefrequency differencebetweenthetwocrystalsisinproportiontotheirmassdifferenceandthe moisturecontentofthegas. Advantages: Disadvantages:Referencedrysamplerequired. Keywords:piezoelectrichygrometer

HeatAdsorptionHygrometer
Measurestheheatgeneratedbyamaterialadsorbingwater.Theprocessofadsorption anddesorptioninvolvesanexchangeofenergy.Duringadsorption,energyisreleasedto andduringdesorptionenergyisremovedfromtheenvironment.Whenwetgasispassed

throughacolumnofadsorbent,whichselectivelyadsorbsmoisture,thetemperaturerise duetoheatliberationisinproportiontotheamountofmoistureadsorbed.Otherfactors whichaffecttheheatofadsorption,suchasthenatureoftheadsorbentandoperating temperature,areselectedtomaximizetheheatofadsorption. Advantages: Disadvantages: Keywords:heatadsorptionhygrometer

InfraredAbsorptionHygrometer
Waterabsorbselectromagneticradiationintheinfrared(IR)regionofthespectrum. Specifically,infraredradiationof1.4and1.93micronwavelengthisabsorbedstrongly bywater.Bymeasuringtheattenuation(decreaseoflightintensity)ofabeamofthis wavelengthasitpassesthroughasample,themoisturecontentofthesamplecanbe determined.However,otherfactorssuchasreflectionanddispersionoftheradiant energywillcontributetotheattenuation.Therefore,itisnecessarytoeithercalibrate thesefactorsoutofthemeasurement,ortouseareferencewavelengthwhichisnot absorbedbymoisturebutisaffectedbyallotherfactorstothesameextentasthe measuringwavelength.Thedifferenceinattenuationofthemeasurementandreference wavelengthisthenafunctionofmoisturecontentonly. Advantages: Disadvantages: Keywords:infraredabsorptionhygrometer

MicrowaveAbsorptionHygrometer
Inthemicrowavefrequencybandof20to220Hz(Kband),thewavelengthisabout13 to15mm.Inthisfrequencybandmoisture(freewater)ismostspecific,asitisonlythe watermoleculethatproducesmolecularresonance.Themicrowaveradiationcanbe guidedbywaveguidesorbetransmittedthroughtheprocessstreamfromsourceto receiver. Theprincipleofoperationofthisinstrumentisthesameasthatoftheinfraredabsorption hygrometer;namely,selectiveabsorptionofelectromagneticenergybymoistureinthe sample.However,inthiscase,radiantenergyinthemicrowavelengthisused.A transmitterprovidesamicrowavebeam,whichcaneitherbetransmittedthroughor reflectedbythesamplematerial.Thereceivingunitsenseswaveattenuationandphase shiftandprovidesareadout.Theunitsensesthemassofmoistureinthebeampathso thatthereadoutisnormallyintermsofthemassofmoistureperunitvolume.However, withcalibration,readoutinweightpercentcanbeachieved. Severalprobeconfigurationsarepossibledependingontheapplication.Ontypehasthe transmittingandreceivingprobesweldedintoasectionofpipe.Internally,Teflon contactsthesample.Thistypeofarrangementcanbeusedtoadvantageonslurriesand pastessincetherearenoobstructionstoflow.Theunitsdescribedabovemeasurethe attenuationbymoistureofamicrowavebeaminthesample.Thereflectancetypeunit containsthesourceanddetectorinonehousing.Ratherthandetectingthetransmitted

microwaveenergy,thisdesignmeasurestheamountofenergyreflectedbythesample. Theprobeofthereflectanceunitdoes,however,requirecontactwiththeprocess material. Advantages: Disadvantages: Keywords:microwaveabsorptionhygrometer

Radiometer(Pyranometer,Pyrheliometer) CadmiumSulfidePhotocell
MeasuresthechangeinresistanceofCadmiumSulfidewith lightexposure. Advantages:Inexpensive($.52). Disadvantages:Slowresponse.Limitedspectralresponse. Keywords:CdSphotocellCadmiumSulfidephotocell

Photodiode

Figure29CdSPhotocell

Measuresthecurrentproducedbycharge carrierierscreatedbyradiationinaPNjunction. Therearealargenumberoftypesof photodiodesbasedonmaterial,fabrication process,configuration,andsoon. Advantages:Inexpensive.Fast.Goodspectral response. Disadvantages:UVsensitivedetectors(200 390nmwavelengthor290325nmforamore limiteddefinitionofUV)areexpensive. Keywords:siliconcarbidephotodiode,SiC photodiodesiliconphotodiode,germanium Figure30Photodiode photodiodeindiumgalliumarsenidephotodiodeGaAlAsphotodiode

Phototransistor
Measuresthecurrentproducedbychargecarrieriers createdbyradiationinaPNjunction.Unlikea photodiode,phototransistorshavecurrentgain.Three commontypesarebipolar,photodarlingtonandphoto fieldeffecttransistors. Advantages:Largegain(suitableforlowlightlevels). Disadvantages::Slow.Canbesaturatedbytoomuch light. Keywords:phototransistorphotodarlingtonphoto FET

Figure31Phototransistor

Photomultiplier
Measuresthevoltageproducedbyphoton amplificationinavoltageladderspecially constructedinanevacuatedtube. Advantages:Low(electronic)noise.Very largegain(suitableforextremelylowlight levels). Disadvantages::Highvoltagepower supplyrequired.Poorredsensitivity.Cost. Canbesaturatedbytoomuchlight. Keywords:photomultipierPM Figure32Photomultiplier photomultipiertubePMT

Thermopile
Measurestheheatgeneratedbyradiation strikinga(usuallylarge)arrayof thermocouples.Manythermocouplesareused toincreasethesensitivity.Oftenablack absorptionmaterialcoversthehotjunctions. Advantages:Widespectralresponse. Disadvantages::Costly. Keywords:thermopile
Figure33Thermopile