HINTS 1. CLONING A clone is any cell or individual which is identical to another.

Cloning is the process of producing one or more genetically-identical individuals. The most common cloning method is known as "somatic cell nuclear transfer" or simply "nuclear transfer". It requires two kinds of cell: a somatic cell and an egg cell. The somatic cell is collected from the animal that is to be cloned (known as the "genetic donor"). A somatic cell is any cell other than a sperm cell or egg cell. It contains the complete DNA or genetic blueprint of the animal it came from. For cloning purposes, somatic cells are typically obtained by a routine skin biopsy performed by a veterinarian. The egg cell is collected from a female of the same species (known as the "egg donor"). In the lab, a scientist extracts and discards the nucleus of the egg cell, which is the part of the cell that contains the egg donor's genes. The scientist then inserts the somatic cell from the genetic donor into the egg and "fuses" the two with electricity. The resulting fused egg contains the genetic donor's DNA. The scientist stimulates the fused egg and activates the egg. It causes to divide just as an egg is fertilized by a sperm cell in conventional reproduction. The activated egg is then placed in a culture medium. As cellular division continues for several days, a blastocyst forms. After about a week, an embryo transfer specialist transfers the blastocyst to a recipient female ("surrogate mother") where it continues to develop. After a full-term pregnancy, the recipient gives birth to an animal that is essentially the identical twin of the genetic donor. Dolly was a female domestic sheep. It was the first mammal to be cloned from an adult somatic cell, using the on animal cloning are going on. Human cloning is prohibited for ethical reasons process of nuclear transfer. She was cloned by Ian Wilmut , Keith Campbell, and colleagues at the Roslin Institute near Edinburgh in Scotland. She was born on 5 July 1996 and she lived until the age of six. 2. ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES Artificial Satellites are man-made objects revolving around the earth. There are two types of artificial satellites - geostationary satellites and polar satellites. For geostationary satellites, period of their revolution is equal to the period of earths rotation. They revolve in the equatorial plane. Orbits in which they revolve are called geostationary orbits or parking orbits. Height of the orbit is 36000 km above the earths surface. The orbital velocity is equal to 3.08 km per sec. Geostationary satellites are used for communication purpose. The polar satellites pass over the north and south poles of the earth. The earth rotates on its axis. The polar satellites pass over the front part of the earth while revolving. They are very close to the earth. They are used by the army for the surveillance of tanks, ships, and other vehicles. They are used for weather monitoring and remote sensing. The satellites require orbital velocity to move around the earth. If the velocity is less, the satellite may hit the earth at any point. If the velocity is very high, it may move away from the

earth. This is called escape velocity. Satellites require orbital velocity to revolve around the earth. The required velocity is imparted using multi-stage rocket. After lift-up, exhaust gases build enough thrust that exceeds the rockets weight. The force of the upthrust greater than the rocket accelerates it in the upward direction. It rises vertically and rises through the denser atmosphere. In the first stage, it burns off and falls back to the earth. The rocket gets tilted now. In the second stage, it burns and attains higher velocity. The second stage gets detached. The final stage of the satellite tilts it in the horizontal direction. It gives a proper speed of 3.01 km per sec to orbit around the earth in a closed path. 3. RENEWABLE RESOURCES Energy sources like coal, gas, petrol, and diesel have a limited supply. These are called non-renewable sources. Energy sources like wind, sunlight, water, and biomass will never run out. They are the important sources of energy for the future. These are called renewable energy sources. Solar energy is produced from the suns light. Every day the sun provides energy to meet the earths needs for 27 years. The sun produces energy in the form of light. The light frees electrons in the solar cell. The electrons flow though wires in an electrical circuit to make electricity. Photovoltaic cells or solar cells are made of semiconductor materials similar to computer chips. To make more power, many solar cells are connected together in a solar panel. Photovoltaic (PV) technology converts light energy into direct current (DC) electricity, while having little impact on the environment. PV power is considered a form of renewable energy. It does not make noise. It prevents pollution. PV can be used in a wide range of products from small consumer items such as calculators and wristwatches to more complicated systems that provide power for satellites in the space. Wind energy is the worlds fastest growing energy technology. It is produced from moving air. When the wind blows, it is captured by large, free-standing wind turbines that are up to 400 feet high. The turbine blades, which are connected to the generator inside the nacelle, move fast. The generator produces electricity. Longer blades and speedier winds produce more electricity. Wind turbines are grouped on wind farms to make even more clean energy. The US has more than 6300 megawatts of wind-electricity which can power approximately 2.2 million homes. People have used falling water as an energy source since the time of the Roman Empire. The water falls. The turbines inside the power plant spin. The electricity is produced by generators at a power plant. The generator is about the size of a school bus. It has two main components: a magnet and copper wire. Hydroelectric energy is produced from falling water. It is the oldest and largest energy in the United States. It makes about 83 megawatts of electricity for approximately 31,500 homes. Higher waterfalls and faster water flows produce more electricity. Flood control, crop production, recreational activities like boating and fishing can be done at the same time. Biomass comes from plants. Biomass energy is produced using plants and waste such as trees, garbage, agricultural waste (manure), crops, wood, or paper. The United States produces 9733 megawatts of electricity from biomass including landfill gas. 1200 homes can be powered

for one year with 1 million tons of garbage. The procedure for producing biomass is simple. Plants grow. Animals eat the plants along with corn, hay, and soy and make waste (manure). The manure is baked at 100 degree F for 3 weeks. Bacteria are mixed, and the manure is kept inside a digester oven. The digester breaks it down and makes methane gas. Methane is burned in an engine to make electricity in the generator. 4. TELECOMMUNICATION Telecommunication is the transmission of information over significant distances to communicate. In earlier times, telecommunications involved the use of visual signals such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, and optical heliographs. It also includes audio messages through coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, or loud whistles. In the modern age of electricity and electronics, telecommunications now includes the use of electrical devices such as telegraphs, telephones, and teleprinters. It involves the use of radio, TV, microwave communications as well as fiber optics and their associated electronics. Orbiting satellites and the Internet are also used for telecommunication. A revolution in wireless telecommunications began in the first decade of the 20th century. It started with the pioneering developments in wireless radio communications by Nikola Tesla and Guglielmo Marconi. Marconi won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1909 for his efforts. Other highly notable pioneering inventors and developers in the field of electrical and electronic telecommunications include Charles Wheatstone and Samuel Morse (telegraph), Alexander Graham Bell (telephone), Edwin Armstrong, and Lee de Forest (radio), as well as John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth (television). Telecommunications play an important role in the world economy. The worldwide telecommunication industry's revenue was estimated to be $3.85 trillion in 2008. The service revenue of the global telecommunications industry was estimated to be $1.7 trillion in 2008. It is expected to touch $2.7 trillion by 2013. 5. CYBER REVOLUTION Cyberspace provides an alive environment for everyone to witness what is actually going on around the world. Cyber revolution is the result of an essential free-will in the Internet, as the users are free to choose their source of news. This opportunity was indeed introduced by the growth of numerous satellite TV channels. A different opportunity was introduced by the birth of Web 2.0, where people are not only users - they can play a role in this virtual world. Radio, TV, and newspapers are getting outdated. Facebook, You tube, and Wikipedia are becoming more popular. Bloggers and amateur reports are the sources of some important news. Major media are no longer the exclusive sources of breaking news. Instead, major media use the amateur reports to satisfy their audience. People are not consuming culture; they are creating their own culture in the Internet. The US president, Barack Obama, was the first politician who widely utilized the internet for the presidential campaign. But it was merely a utilization of the Internet as a broad medium. The 2009 presidential election of Iran was one of the most challenging elections in the world

history. Regardless of the political consequences, there was hot competition between two parties. Since the state TV is the only broadcasting tool in the country, the candidates paid particular attentions to the Internet as an open medium. Although it was significantly different from the Obamas campaign in 2008, both were based on a one-way concept. By the start of protests against the election results, internet usage was the subject of a real cyber-revolution. In addition, a cyber-war was started as both parties attempted to attack the other partys websites. This emphasized the necessity and importance of security in cyberspace. The interesting feature is that Iranians were the first nation who made such a cyber-revolution. News about the anti-humanitarian activities of the Sri Lankan government was circulated by the 4oD channel. Anna Hazare gains popularity through the Internet. There are bloggers who openly criticize Indian politicians. You can create your own website and voice out your opinions on any local or international issue, everything under the term cyber revolution. 6. SPACE RESEARCH World Space Week is celebrated from October 4 to 10 by the whole world. Space research is the set of scientific studies carried out in the outer space using scientific equipment. It includes the use of space technology for a broad spectrum of research disciplines, including earth science, materials science, biology, medicine, and physics. The term includes scientific payloads everywhere from deep space to low earth orbit. Space research is frequently defined to include research in the upper atmosphere using sounding rockets and high-altitude balloons. Space science and space exploration involve the study of outer space itself, which is only part of the broader field of space research. Space research emerged as a field of research based on the advancing rocket technology of the 1940s and 1950s. In 1948-1949, detectors on V-2 rocket flights detected x-rays from the sun. Sounding rockets proved useful for the studies of the structure of the upper atmosphere. As higher altitudes were reached, the field of space physics emerged with studies of aurorae, the ionosphere, and the magnetosphere. The start of satellite-based space research is the detection of the Van Allen radiation belt by Explorer 1 in 1958, four months after the launch of the first satellite, Sputnik 1. In the following year space planetology emerged with a series of lunar probes, e.g. the first photographs of the far side of the moon by Luna 3 in 1959. Dr Vikram Sarabhai is considered as the father of Indian Space Program me. India has established a strong infrastructure for executing its space research. They include: 1. facilities for the development of satellites and launch vehicles and their testing 2. launch infrastructure for sounding rockets and satellite launch vehicles 3. telemetry, tracking and command network 4. data reception and processing systems for remote sensing. Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has successfully operationalized two major satellite systems namely Indian National Satellites (INSAT) for communication services and Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources. It has activated Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching IRS type of satellites and Geostationary

Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for launching INSAT type of satellites. Aryabhatta is the first Indian satellite sent to the space. 7. POLYTHENE POLLUTION Polyethylene or polythene is the most widely used plastic. It is a petroleum product. Its primary use is within packaging (plastic bag, plastic films, geo membranes, etc.) It has an annual production of approximately 80 million metric tons. Americans use over 380 billion polyethylene bags per year. They throw away approximately 100 billion polyethylene bags per year. Of those 100 trillion plastic bags, only 1% is recycled. The low weight reduces energy use. It also reduces the cost related to transportation compared to goods made from wood or paper. Development of advanced food packaging prolongs the life of products. It reduces the amount of food disposed of by the consumer. In this respect, plastics are considered to have a favorable environmental profile. Approximately 1 billion seabirds and mammals die per year by eating plastic bags. Plastic bags are often mistaken as food by marine mammals. 100,000 marine mammals die yearly by eating plastic bags. These animals suffer a painful death. The plastic wraps around their intestines or choke them to death. Plastic bags are carried by the wind into forests, ponds, rivers, and lakes. They choke landfills too. Polyethylene is not biodegradable. Except when it is exposed to UV from sunlight, it takes several centuries until it is efficiently degraded. It causes dangerous hazards to the environment. It releases CO2 and other toxic gases when burnt. When buried, polyethylene breaks down into toxic substances which leach into the soil and enter the food chain. Polythene production contributes to air pollution and high energy consumption. Polythene is made from non-renewable resources like petrol or oil. As resources are running out, the necessity to recycle polythene has occurred. 8. FOSSIL FUELS Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years. The fossil fuels, which contain high percentages of carbon, include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Fossil fuels include the volatile materials with low carbon-hydrogen ratios like methane and liquid petroleum. They also include nonvolatile materials with almost pure carbon like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields. It can be alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane catharses. Fossil fuels are formed from the remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years. This biogenic theory was first introduced by Georg Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century.

The primary sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, and natural gas 23.0%. They amount to an 86.4% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the world. Non-fossil sources included hydroelectric 6.3%, nuclear 8.5%, and others (geothermal, solar, tide, wind, wood, waste) amounting to 0.9 percent. World energy consumption was growing about 2.3% per year. Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take millions of years to form. The reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made. The production and use of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. Renewable energy is produced to meet the increasing energy needs. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tones (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide (CO2) per year. It is estimated that our atmosphere can only absorb about half of that amount. So there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tones of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year. Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radioactive forcing and causes ozone depletion. It contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise. It causes major adverse effects around the world. 9. CLIMATE CHANGE Ever since the earth came into being there has been a climate system. The climate of a place is the average weather that it experiences over a period of time. The factors that determine the climate at a location are the rainfall, sunshine, wind, humidity, and temperature. While changes in the weather may occur suddenly and noticeably, changes in the climate take a long time to settle in and are therefore less obvious. Throughout the earth's history there have been changes in the climate. There have been well-marked cold and hot periods and all life forms adapted naturally to this change. The atmosphere surrounding the earth is made up of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and the remainder, 1%, is made up of trace gases (called so because they are present in very small quantities) that include the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, water vapour, and nitrous oxide. These greenhouse gases act as a blanket and protect it from the harmful ultra violet rays of the sun. They can also be regarded as natural controllers of the earth's temperature system. Over the last 150-200 years climate change has been taking place too rapidly and certain plant and animal species have found it hard to adapt. Continental drift, volcanoes, earths tilt, ocean currents are the natural causes for it. Human activities are said to be responsible for the speed at which this change has occurred and it is now a cause of worry to scientists. Changes in land use pattern, deforestation, land clearing, agriculture, smoke from vehicles and industries, etc. have all led to a rise in the emission of greenhouse gases resulting in global warming. Extreme weather conditions such as high temperature, heavy rainfall, floods, droughts, etc. affect crop production. Change in rainfall and snowfall patterns leads to increased droughts and floods. It causes melting of glaciers and polar ice sheets. It results in accelerated sea- level

rise. An increase in the number of cyclones and hurricanes over the last few years has been attributed to changes in temperature. Sea-level rise could have a number of physical impacts on coastal areas, including loss of land due to inundation and erosion, increased flooding, and salt-water intrusion. These could adversely affect coastal agriculture, tourism, freshwater resources, fisheries and aquaculture, human settlements, and health. Rising sea levels threaten the survival of many low-lying island nations such as the Maldives and Marshall Islands. Marine organisms are affected by this phenomenon. Tsunamis occur due to sea-level rise. 10. ECOLOGICAL THREATS The world has become a global village. When the rift between developed and developing nations is dwindling, the industrialization is widespread in every corner of the world. Industrialization, the main reason of development of a nation, is also the root of threats posing before our environment. There are a lot of ecological threats overpopulation, urbanization, deforestation, pollution, greenhouse effect, global warming, smog, acid rain, ozone depletion, toxic wastes, etc. OZONE DEPLETION The ozone layer protects the earth from the ultraviolet rays sent down by the sun. If the ozone layer is depleted by human action, the effects on the planet could be catastrophic. CFCs (Chloro Fluoro Carbons) are used in industries in a variety of ways and have been amazingly useful in many products. Discovered in the 1930s by American chemist Thomas Midgley, CFCs came to be used in refrigerators, home insulation, plastic foam, and throwaway food containers. Smoke from cars and industries also emit CFC. The production and emission of CFCs is the leading cause of ozone depletion. Every time 1% of the ozone layer is depleted, 2% more UV-B is able to reach the surface of the planet. UV-B increase is one of the most harmful consequences of ozone depletion because it can cause skin cancer. 60 million Americans born by the year 2075 will get skin cancer because of ozone depletion. A decreased ozone layer will increase rates of malaria and other infectious diseases. 17 million more cases of cataracts can also be expected. The most basic microscopic organisms such as plankton may not be able to survive. If that happened, all of the other animals that are above plankton in the food chain would also die out. Other ecosystems such as forests and deserts will also be harmed. The planet's climate could also be affected by depletion of the ozone layer. Wind patterns could change, resulting in climatic changes throughout the world. Global warming is the most dangerous effect of ozone depletion. ACID RAIN Acid rain describes rainfall with high levels of nitric and sulphuric acids. It can also occur in the form of snow, fog, and tiny bits of dry materials that settle on the earth. Rotting vegetation and erupting volcanoes release some chemicals which cause acid rain. The biggest culprit is the burning of fossil fuels by coal-burning power plants, factories, and automobiles.

When fossil fuels are burned, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides release into the atmosphere. These chemical gases react with water, oxygen, and other substances to form mild solutions of sulphuric and nitric acid. Winds may spread these acidic solutions across the atmosphere and over hundreds of miles. When acid rain reaches the earth, it flows across the surface in runoff water, enters water systems, and sinks into the soil. Acid rain makes waters acidic and causes them to absorb the aluminum that makes its way from soil into lakes and streams. This combination makes waters toxic to crayfish, clams, fish, aquatic animals, and non-aquatic birds. Leaves and roots are slightly burnt. Fruits become acidic and inedible. Buildings are corroded by the acid. Acid rain causes allergy and skin diseases in human beings. HAZARDOUS WASTE: Humans produce waste that is dumped on the environment. hazardous and dangerous to both nature and human life. Often, this waste is

Chemicals used for industrial processes often create dangerous forms of waste. The amount of these chemicals has risen heavily in the past, as more areas of the world industrialize and new products are produced. Over 80,000 different chemicals are used in industries worldwide. Often, it is difficult and expensive to get rid of these chemicals or to store them in a way that does not endanger human life or the environment. Wastes from industries are dumped into water resources causing diseases like cholera, malaria, thyroid problems, cancer, etc. Only after someone has died or become seriously ill, governments intervene and reduce the levels of dumped hazardous waste. For example, the toxic wastes from the dye factories in Tirupur district, Tamilnadu. Around the world, hundreds of millions of tons of hazardous waste are produced annually. Rather than cleaning up or storing waste more carefully, one method of reducing the hazardous waste problem may be to simply stop producing so much of it. 11. WATER RESOURCES Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. 97% of the water on the earth is salt water. Only 3% is fresh water of which slightly over two thirds is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen fresh water is mainly found as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is steadily decreasing. Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world. As the world population continues to rise, so does the water demand. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has emerged recently. During the 20th century, more than half the worlds wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems. The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as water rights.

The water resources of a region are conceived as a dynamic phase of the hydrologic cycle. They are influenced by the following groups of factors: Climatic Factors include rainfall (its intensity, duration, and distribution), snow, and evapo-transpiration. Geometric factors include the drainage area, shape, slope, and stream density. Channel characteristics are the carrying capacity and storage capacity. Lithological factors include composition, texture, sequence of rock types, and the thickness of rock formations. Physical factors consist of land use, surface infiltration conditions, soil types, etc. The physiographic features (including geological factors) influence the occurrence and distribution of water resources within a region. They also play a significant role in influencing rainfall and other climatic factors such as temperature, humidity, and wind. Rainwater harvesting is the process of accumulating and storing rainwater for reuse before it reaches the aquifer. It has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, water for irrigation, etc. Rainwater collected from the roofs of houses and ground pits can make an important contribution to the availability of drinking water. Rainwater harvesting can supplement the subsoil water level and increase urban greenery. Rainwater harvesting systems can be simple to construct from inexpensive local materials, and are potentially successful in most habitable locations. Roof rainwater can't be of good quality and may require treatment before consumption. 12. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY Nuclear energy is a curse in the disguise of a blessing! Nuclear energy is released by the splitting (fission) or merging together (fusion) of the nuclei of atoms. In nuclear fusion, two atomic nuclei fuse together to form a heavier nucleus. Nuclear fission is the breaking of a heavy nucleus into two or more lighter nuclei. Recently nuclear energy is used to produce electricity. Nuclear power is the power produced from non-explosive nuclear reactions. Nuclear power is a sustainable energy source that does not create air pollution, reduces carbon emissions, and increases energy security by decreasing dependence on foreign oil. In 2007, 14% of the world's electricity came from nuclear power. However, there are concerns about safety and radioactive waste management. Nuclear power is a potentially dangerous energy source. Radioactive waste cannot be stored safely for long periods of time. There is a continuing possibility of radioactive contamination by accident or sabotage. Exporting nuclear technology to other countries might lead to the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Nuclear reactors cannot be built fast enough to slow down climate change. Nuclear power plants convert nuclear energy into electricity by nuclear fission. They use nuclear fission reactions. Electric utility reactors heat water to produce steam. It is then used to generate electricity. India has 14 reactors in commercial operation and nine under construction. Nuclear power supplies about 3% of India's electricity. By 2050, nuclear power is expected to provide 25% of the country's electricity. India has limited coal and uranium reserves. Its huge thorium reserves - about 25% of the world's total - are expected to fuel its nuclear power program me long-term.

The US President George Bush and Indian Prime Minister Man Mohan Singh have finalized a controversial nuclear deal. According to it, India which has high energy needs will get access to the US civil nuclear technology. In turn, it will open its nuclear facilities to the US inspection. Bush said that the trade between the two countries was growing. They have planned to cooperate militarily and prevent terrorism. The US will speak with India and Pakistan to resolve the Kashmir dispute. It has joined India and criticized the human rights situation in Burma. Some are against this deal for two reasons: By signing this, India has ended its years of international isolation over its nuclear policy. By joining with the US, India can gain the hatred of the Muslim countries which are against the US already. Critics say that India has lost its traditional non-alignment policy by signing this treaty. India has separated its military and civilian nuclear facilities. 14 of 22 nuclear facilities of India are allotted for civilian use and opened for inspection. France also has signed a treaty with India. It has promised to help India fight climate change and non-proliferation efforts. On 18th May 1974, India exploded its first nuclear device code named Smiling Buddha. After about a quarter century, on Buddha Jayanti 11th May 1998, Operation Shakti was carried out. Shakti means strength' in Sanskrit. It is also the name of the Hindu Goddess of strength. Shakti was the codename for Pokhran-II. Pokhran-II refers to the test explosion of five nuclear devices in India. Three were tested on 11th May and two on 13th May 1998. The tests were conducted by India at the Pokhran test range. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and Defense Research & Development Organization (DRDO) formed the development and test teams of Pokhran-II. The Project Chief Coordinators of Pokhran-II were Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam and Dr. R. Chidambaram. Pokhran-II tests resulted in a variety of sanctions against India by a number of major states. They were followed by nuclear testing by Pakistan. India follows the US in using the nuclear power. But it does not meet the international standards in constructing the nuclear power plants. Kakrapara Atomic Power Stations (KAPS) is the safest nuclear power station. But the radiation emitted from its reactors is three times as much as the international norms. Before a few years, there was a series of defects in Rajasthan power reactor. Due to turbine blade failures, there were leaks and accidents. Nearly 300 workers have got very serious physical damage. Only three Indian nuclear reactors fall under the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) standards. Others satisfy only the national standards set by the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB). India nuclear plants are poorly built and maintained. Manufacturers cut deals with politicians in Indias Department of Energy and sell defective parts. These parts are used in building the reactors. India and Pakistan are rivals. There are many terrorist groups in India. But nuclear catastrophe is worse than Pakistans war or terrorism. Nuclear energy has its own advantages and disadvantages. India has signed agreements with the US. In spite of warnings, nuclear tests are conducted in India. Nuclear power stations are poorly constructed and maintained. Leaks are witnessed, and Indias safety is under question.

Whoever it is - scientists, politicians, or common men everybody should take responsibility to save India from nuclear disaster in the future. 13. SCIENTIFIC FARMING Scientific farming uses science and technology to improve water supplies by better irrigation and drainage system. It uses equipment like harvesters and tractors to improve farming efficiency. Biotechnology is widely used to improve plant species. Chemical fertilizers are used to increase yield per unit of land. Enriching chemical pesticides ensures a good harvest by controlling pests. In scientific farming, field works can be done effectively. It employs less farm labour. It increases the farm output. It grows more crops in better quality. It makes the plants easier to grow and yield. But it has a few disadvantages. It has to open more farmland. It may cause soil erosion and soil degradation. It may lead to desertification. It has to use more fuel, causing air pollution. It may lead to salty soil. It can make the plants and fruits less nutritious. It may affect our health, causing different diseases. Organic farming methods combine scientific knowledge of ecology and modern technology with traditional farming practices. Organic farming methods are studied in the field of agro-ecology. While conventional agriculture uses synthetic pesticides and water-soluble synthetically purified fertilizers, organic farmers are restricted by regulations to using natural pesticides and fertilizers. The principal methods of organic farming include crop rotation, green manures and compost, biological pest control, and mechanical cultivation. These measures use the natural environment to enhance agricultural productivity: legumes are planted to fix nitrogen into the soil, natural insect predators are encouraged, crops are rotated to confuse pests and renew soil, and natural materials such as potassium bicarbonate and mulches are used to control disease and weeds. Organic farmers are careful in their selection of plant breeds, and organic researchers produce hardier plants through plant breeding rather than genetic engineering. In scientific farming, a specific insecticide may be applied to quickly kill off a particular insect pest (animal). Chemical controls can dramatically reduce pest populations for the short term. Yet unavoidably killing or starving natural predator insects and animals cause an ultimate increase in the pest population. Repeated use of insecticides, herbicides, and pesticides also encourages rapid natural selection of resistant insects, plants, or other organisms, necessitating the increased use, or requiring new, more powerful controls. Such issues are carefully avoided in organic farming. While fundamentally different, large-scale agriculture and organic farming are not entirely mutually exclusive. For example, Integrated Pest Management is a multifaceted strategy that can include synthetic pesticides as a last resortboth organic and conventional farms use IPM systems for pest control. 14. THERMAL POWER PLANTS In a thermal power plant, the chemical energy stored in fossil fuels such as coal, fuel oil, natural gas is converted successively into thermal energy, mechanical energy and finally

electrical energy for continuous use and distribution across a wide geographic area. High pressure and high temperature steam raised in a boiler is expanded through a steam turbine that drives an electric generator. Coal is used as fuel for the generation of heat energy. As water in the boiler evaporates due to intense heat, it becomes high-pressurized steam. The steam passes through a conduit and forces its way through the turbine, thus rotating the turbine. (As the steam is high-pressurized, the turbine will rotate very fast. The turbine is connected to a generator via a coupler. As the turbine is rotating (from the force of the steams), electrical energy is being produced. After the steams have passed through the turbine, it enters a condenser. The condenser has got a cooling agent (namely seawater) and the steam will go through the cooling agent via a pipe. The steam thus changes back to its liquid form and returns to the boiler. The whole process repeats. Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, waste incineration plants, as well as many natural gas power plants are thermal. Natural gas is frequently combusted in gas turbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine can be used to raise steam in a combined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency. Power plants burning coal, fuel oil, or natural gas are often called fossil-fuel power plants. Some biomass-fueled thermal power plants have also appeared. Thermal Power Plant assets need to be flexible to meet rapidly fluctuating demand levels. As well, they need to remain reliable and demonstrate that every effort has been made to minimize environmental impacts and maximize efficiency. Ensuring flexible, reliable operation with minimum forced outages, implementing innovative strategies that reduce emissions and dealing with volatile power markets while achieving the lowest operating costs possible are the new industry reality. 15. NATURAL CALAMITIES A natural disaster is a consequence when a natural calamity affects humans and/or the built environment. Human vulnerability and a lack of appropriate emergency management lead to financial, environmental, or human impact. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist the disaster: their resilience. Various disasters like earthquake, landslides, volcanic eruptions, flood, and cyclones are natural hazards that kill thousands of people and destroy billions of dollars of habitat and property each year. The rapid growth of the world's population and its increased concentration often in hazardous environment has escalated both the frequency and severity of natural disasters. The tropical climate, unstable land forms, deforestation, and unplanned growth proliferation of non-engineered constructions make the disaster-prone areas more vulnerable. There is tardy communication and poor or no budgetary allocation for disaster prevention in developing countries. They suffer more or less chronically by natural disasters. Asia tops the list of casualties due to natural disasters.

Among various natural hazards, earthquakes, landslides, floods, and cyclones are the major disasters adversely affecting very large areas and population in the Indian sub-continent. These natural disasters are of (i) geophysical origin such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides and (ii) climatic origin such as drought, flood, cyclone, locust, forest fire. Though it may not be possible to control nature and stop the development of natural phenomena, efforts could be made to avoid disasters and alleviate their effects on human lives, infrastructure, and property. It is possible to reduce the impact of disasters by adopting suitable disaster mitigation strategies. Disaster mitigation mainly addresses the following: minimize the potential risks by developing disaster early warning strategies, prepare and implement developmental plans to provide resilience to such disasters, mobilize resources including communication and telemedicinal services, and to help in rehabilitation and post-disaster reduction. Disaster management involves: pre-disaster planning, preparedness, monitoring including relief management capability, prediction and early warning, damage assessment, and relief management. Disaster reduction is a systematic work which involves with different regions, different professions and different scientific fields, and has become an important measure for human and nature sustainable development. 16. ROBOTICS Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, structural disposition, manufacture and application of robots. Robotics is related to the sciences of electronics, engineering, mechanics, and software. The word robotics was first used in print by Isaac Asimov in his science fiction short story "Liar!" Most of the robots are either human controlled, operating in a static environment. There is an increasing interest in robots that can operate autonomously in a dynamic environment. These robots require some combination of navigation hardware and software in order to traverse their environment. In particular unforeseen events (e.g. people and other obstacles that are not stationary) can cause problems or collisions. Some highly advanced robots as ASIMO, EveR-1, and Mein robot have particularly good robot navigation hardware and software. Self-controlled cars, Ernst Dickmanns' driverless car, and the entries in the DARPA Grand Challenge are capable of sensing the environment well and making navigational decisions based on this information. Most of these robots employ a GPS navigation device with waypoints, radar, and sensory data such as LIDAR, video cameras, and inertial guidance systems for better navigation between waypoints. If robots are to work effectively in homes and other non-industrial environments, the way they are instructed to perform their jobs and especially how they will be told to stop will be of critical importance. The people who interact with them may have little or no training in robotics, so any interface will need to be extremely intuitive. Science fiction authors also typically assume that robots will eventually be capable of communicating with humans through speech, gestures, and facial expressions rather than a command-line interface. Although speech would be the most natural way for the human to

communicate, it is unnatural for the robot. It will probably be a long time before robots interact as naturally as the fictional C-3PO or Enthiran Chiti. Interpreting the continuous flow of sounds coming from a human, in real time, is a difficult task for a computer, mostly because of the great variability of speech. The same word, spoken by the same person may sound different depending on local acoustics, volume, the previous word, speakers nose and throat condition, etc. It becomes even harder when the speaker has a different accent. Nevertheless, great strides have been made in the field since Davis, Biddulph, and Balashek designed the first "voice input system" which recognized "ten digits spoken by a single user with 100% accuracy" in 1952. Currently, the best systems can recognize continuous, natural speech, up to 160 words per minute, with an accuracy of 95%. It is likely that gestures will make up a part of the interaction between humans and robots. A great many systems have been developed to recognize human hand gestures. Many of the robots in science fiction have a personality, something which may or may not be desirable in the commercial robots of the future. Nevertheless, researchers are trying to create robots which appear to have a personality: they use sounds, facial expressions, and body language to try to convey an internal state which may be joy, sadness, or fear. One commercial example is Pleo, a toy robot dinosaur, which can exhibit several apparent emotions. 17. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. It is defined as "the study and design of intelligent agents" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. The field was founded on the claim that the intelligence of humans can be simulated by a machine. The central problems of AI include traits such as reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception, and the ability to move and manipulate objects. General intelligence (or "strong AI") is still among the field's long term goals. Human beings solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments rather than the conscious, step-by-step deduction. AI has made some progress at imitating this kind of "subsymbolic" problem solving. The embodied agent approaches emphasize the importance of sensorimotor skills to higher reasoning; neural net research attempts to simulate the structures inside human and animal brains that give rise to this skill. Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering are central to AI research. Many of the problems machines are expected to solve will require extensive knowledge about the world. Among the things that AI needs to represent are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects; situations, events, states and time; causes and effects; knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know); etc. Natural language processing gives machines the ability to read and understand the languages that humans speak. Many researchers hope that a sufficiently powerful natural language processing system would be able to acquire knowledge on its own, by reading the existing text available over the internet. Some straightforward applications of natural language processing include information retrieval (or text mining) and machine translation.

The field of robotics is closely related to AI. Intelligence is required for robots to be able to handle such tasks as object manipulation and navigation, with sub-problems of localization (knowing where you are), mapping (learning what is around you) and motion planning (figuring out how to get there). A sub-field of AI addresses creativity both theoretically (from a philosophical and psychological perspective) and practically (via specific implementations of systems that generate outputs that can be considered creative, or systems that identify and assess creativity). The related area of computational research is Artificial Intuition and Artificial Imagination. 18. ROLE OF FIBRE OPTICS Fiber optics (optical fibers) are long, thin strands of very pure glass about the diameter of a human hair. They are used to transmit light signals over long distances. They carry digital information over long distances. They are also used in medical imaging and mechanical engineering inspection. Parts of a single optical fiber are core (thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels), cladding (outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light back into the core), and buffer coating (plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage and moisture). Hundreds or thousands of these optical fibers are arranged in bundles in optical cables. The bundles are protected by the cable's outer covering called a jacket. Optical fibers come in two types: Single-mode fibers and Multi-mode fibers. Single-mode fibers have small cores and transmit infrared laser light. Multi-mode fibers have larger cores and transmit infrared light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Some optical fibers can be made from plastic. These fibers have a large core and transmit visible red light from LEDs. The advantages of fibre optics are: less expensive, thinner, higher carrying capacity, less signal degradation, light signals, low power, digital signals, non-flammable, lightweight, and flexible. Because of these advantages, fiber optics is used mostly in telecommunications and computer networks. In medical imaging, fibre optics is used in bronchoscopes, endoscopes, and laparoscopes. In mechanical imaging, it is used in inspecting mechanical welds in pipes and engines (in airplanes, rockets, space shuttles, cars). It is used in plumbing to inspect sewer lines. 19. EXPLORATION OF MARS Since ancient times, Mars has captured the imagination of humankind, sparking an interest in scientists and artists. Over a period spanning two millennia Europeans have made many important observations of this Red Planet. The association of Mars with life was strengthened in the 19th century when the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli observed bright and dark straight-line features which he called "canali". This term was translated into English as "canal", instead of "channel", with the associated connotation of a manmade construction.

For a long time, it was popularly believed that these canals had been built by intelligent beings to form a huge irrigation network on the Red Planet. This aroused great interest even beyond the world of science inspiring visionaries, writers, and philosophers: the myth of the Martians was born. During the early part of the 20th century, the canal controversy ended when better telescopes allowed scientists a clearer view of the planet's surface. Later that century the start of the space age brought about a change in how the search for extraterrestrial life was carried out. Scientists no longer look for intelligent beings, but for evidence for the presence of water - an essential element for the formation of life - either on the surface or hidden underground. The recent detection of plumes of methane in the northern hemisphere of Mars is of great interest because of its potential biological origin, though other explanations may also be possible. Looking for evidence of extant life was one of the objectives of the Viking biology experiments in 1976. The twin landers conducted the first in-situ measurements focusing on the detection of organic compounds and life on Mars. The Viking biology package looked for signs of metabolism in soil samples. It produced very provocative results that could have been interpreted as proof of biological activity. Most scientists now believe that the results can be explained by chemical processes and they do not demonstrate the presence of life on Mars. The Exo Mars Rover will therefore include a powerful instrument to study organics and their relation to the distribution of oxidants on Mars. 20. GAS TURBINES A gas turbine is also called a combustion turbine. It is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine and a combustion chamber in-between. Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where fuel is mixed with air and ignited. In the high pressure environment of the combustor, combustion of the fuel increases the temperature. The products of the combustion are forced into the turbine section. There, the high velocity and volume of the gas flow is directed through a nozzle over the turbine's blades, spinning the turbine which powers the compressor and, for some turbines, drives their mechanical output. The energy given up to the turbine comes from the reduction in the temperature and pressure of the exhaust gas. Energy can be extracted in the form of shaft power, compressed air or thrust, or any combination of these. It can used to power aircraft, trains, ships, generators, or even tanks. Jet engines, aero-derivative gas turbines, amateur gas turbines, auxiliary power units, industrial gas turbines for power generation, compressed air energy storage, turboshaft engines, radial gas turbines, scale jet engines, micro-turbines are the different types of gas turbines. Air breathing jet engines are gas turbines optimized to produce thrust from the exhaust gases or from ducted fans connected to the gas turbines. They are otherwise called turbojets. Gas turbines are used in many liquid propellant rockets. They are used to power a turbopump to permit the use of lightweight, low pressure tanks, which saves considerable dry mass.

A turboprop engine is a type of turbine engine which drives an aircraft propeller using a reduction gear. Aero derivative gas turbines are also used in electrical power generation due to their ability to be shut down, and handle load changes more quickly than industrial machines. They are also used in the marine industry to reduce weight. Turbo shaft engines are often used to drive compression trains (for example in gas pumping stations or natural gas liquefaction plants) and are used to power almost all modern helicopters. Micro turbines are touted to become widespread in distributed power and combined heat and power applications. They are one of the most promising technologies for powering hybrid electric vehicles. They are otherwise known as Turbo alternators or Turbo-generators.