ERTH2404 2013 L21 Exploration - Geophysics

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EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS
Guest Lecturer: Raymond Caron Ph.D. Candidate, M.Sc., B.Sc.H., B.Sc.

ERTH2404 Winter 2013 Exploration geophysics
Photo: C. Samson
Lecture objectives and Contents

To understand the physical concepts behind the geophysical exploration methods
What is it?
Common methods:
Seismic Gravity Magnetics
Data acquisition and processing techniques

Differences and commonalities between methods
ERTH2404 Winter 2013
Exploration geophysics
Making and interpreting measurements of physical properties of the Earth to determine subsurface conditions, usually with an economic or environmental objective
Sheriff, R.E. 1984. Encyclopedic dictionary of exploration geophysics.
What is Geophysics?
Its an applied science The use of applied physics to investigate & explain the natural world Two types of geophysics
Active-source Passive-source
What is Geophysics?
Types of geophysical methods:
Seismic shallow Seismic deep Gravity Magnetics Many other methods
EM, IP, MT, GPR
A P P P A&P A
Associated methods
DGPS, RADAR, Laser, LIDAR
What is Geophysics?
Multiple applications:
Resource exploration (oil, gas, ore, fresh water, aggregate) Science (planetary, space) War (mine detection, detection, defence) Industrial (earthquake risk, corrosion, waste management)
What is Geophysics?
Multiple platforms:
Ground (vehicles, by foot, bore-holes, UGS) Sea (boat, ship, submarine, USS) Air (aircraft, balloon, UAS) Space (satellites, probes)
Common Features
Data Acquisition
Sample rate Recording time
Signal and Noise

What isnt a signal is noise Error is noise
Instrument, position, assumptions
Signal : Noise
Stacking Averaging Subtraction Filters
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Common Features
In general:
As distance increases, resolution decreases
Tradeoff:
High frequencies provide more information Lower frequencies travel further
Information from deep targets or far targets are low in resolution.

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Exploration seismology
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Mainly based on the reflection and refraction of primary (P) waves on boundaries between different media in the subsurface
P-waves:
Are easy to generate Travel fastest Propagate in liquids and solids
Seismic Waves
= +
K=bulk modulus (fluid compression)
=shear modulus (rigidity)
=density
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Controlled approach: specialized equipment is used to generate seismic waves at pre-set times
Local scale
Applications:
most widely used method for oil and gas Scientific crustal studies (Crust, Mantle, Core) Ground water investigations
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Seismic Survey Layout
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Seismic survey layout

Source
Sharp, High-amplitude, High bandwidth Vibrosis (frequency wave-train)
Measuring (geophones & hydrophones)

High bandwidth (high sample rate) Sensitive Sturdy
Recording (computer)
Accurate (time stamp) Broadband Large hard-drive
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Seismic survey layout

Identify target Shot location Shot offset Geophone spacing Geophone coverage Data sample rate
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Seismic wave propagation & processing
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Physical properties
Seismic impedance Z [ kg/m2s]: Z=v v [m/s] : P-wave seismic velocity [kg/m3] : density
In general, harder the rock, higher Z
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Ray geometry
(Medium 1) Z1 = 1 v1 (Medium 2) Z2 = 2 v2 Z2 > Z1 2 > 1

Transmitted P
3-types of waves
1) Reflection 2) Refraction 3) Direct
22 x [m] z [m]
v1 [m/s]
v2 [m/s]
Shot-receiver distance [m] 0 1000 2000 3000
intercept 0 time 200

Two-way traveltime [ms]
400 Direct wave 600 800 1000 1200 Reflection Refraction
critical distance
crossover distance Exploration geophysics
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Seismic Assumptions
1) Density (rigidity) increases with depth.
a) Seismic wave velocity increases with depth
i. When incorrect leads to hidden layers
2) Each layer of rock (or sediment) is homogeneous.
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Sources of error
Hidden layers
Velocity inversions with depth Incorrect geophone spacing Low-sampling rate Low-impedance contrast Thin layers (also depends on depth and
Dipping layers
Skewed 2-way travel times
Edge effect
No signal
Effect of noise on seismic data With noise
Bandpass filtered
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Seismic field data acquisition
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Seismic sources
Objective: sample the subsurface at a wide range of frequencies
High frequency Low frequency high resolution deep penetration
According to Fourier decomposition:

An impulse in time is equivalent to the sum of several sine waves
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Seismic sources
Two approaches
Impulsive sources
Dynamite Hammer Waterguns, airguns
Vibratory sources: generating a sweep of sine waves increasing from 10 to 80 Hz over a few seconds
Vibroseis
most modern, fastest, and controlled method
30 Photos: C. Samson
Photo: C. Samson
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Exploration geophysics Photo: C. Samson
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Movie Link!
Start watching at 1:40
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Exploration geophysics Ref.: GLIMPCE project
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Photo: C. Samson
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Photo: C. Samson
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Gravity
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Physical basis Newtons law of gravitation

F = G m1 m2 / r
2
Force [N] of attraction between masses m1 and m2 [kg] separated by a distance r [m] G : grativational constant G = 6.67 x 10-11 N m2 kg-2
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Assumptions!
Gravitational attraction is spherical Earth is homogeneous & non-rotating Earths mass concentrated at its center (point mass)
Gravity
Constant everywhere Pointing vertically downwards towards the Earths center
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Gravitational attraction Planet Earth

The gravity method measures spatial variations in gravitational acceleration Units: [m/s2] , [cm/s2] , [m/s2] , [g.u] , [mGal]
Gravity varies because of the Earths:

Ellipsoid shape Rotation Irregular surface relief Heterogeneous subsurface density distribution
Objective: interpret these effects in terms of geology

GEOID, Ellipsoid, MSL

GEOID is the location where gravity = 9.8 m/s2
IGF
Ellipsoid = Geodetic Datum (approx. shape of the Earth)
MSL = Mean Sea Level = GEOID
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Gravity anomalies
Gravity anomalies results from the density contrast between:
a rock body of density 1 and its surroundings of density 2 = 1 - 2
Positive anomaly Negative anomaly
[kg m-3]
>0 1 > 2 <0 1 < 2
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Measuring gravity Units

Gravity anomalies due to geological sources are tiny compared to the Earths gravitational acceleration 100 ms-2 <<< g = 9.8 ms-2 5 orders of magnitude difference!
Gravity units: 1 mGal = 10-3 cms-2 1 gravity unit (g.u.) = ms-2 = 0.1 mGal
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Gravity anomalies
When several bodies are present in the subsurface, the total observed gravity is the sum of the gravities of each body
Shallow body short-wavelength anomaly Deep body long-wavelength anomaly
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Gravity field data acquisition
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Measuring gravity
The gravity method requires very precise:
Field measurements Corrections for all effects not related to subsurface density distribution
The instrument used to make gravity measurements in the field is a gravimeter
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Measuring gravity Gravimeter

Gravimeters measure:
Gravitational acceleration via the extension of a spring Relative values of gravity (i.e. difference in gravity between locations) Only the vertical component of gravity
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Gravimeter
Measuring gravity along a profile
Gravity
Ref.: Volgelsang 1995 Fig. 2.23 ERTH2404 Winter 2013 Exploration geophysics
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Photo: A. Snider
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Photo: A. Snider
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Gravity data processing
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Data reduction
Data reduction: process of correcting gravity data to isolate only the effects due to subsurface density distribution
Apply corrections for:

The mass of the Earth
International Gravity Formula (IGF)
Instrument effects
Drift
Temporal and spatial effects

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Data reduction Correcting for temporal and spatial effects

Tidal Correction - influence of solid Earth tide and oceanic tide Latitude Correction - variation with latitude Elevation Corrections
Free Air Correction - elevation above a datum Bouguer Correction - density / thickness of rocks situated between survey and reference level Terrain Correction - topographic relief
Eotvos Correction - gravimeter movement on ship / aircraft ERTH2404 Winter 2013 Exploration geophysics
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Instrument effects
During a survey, gravimeter readings tend to change gradually with time Effects corrected for by repeating measurements at base station throughout the day
Correct also tidal effects
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Drift
Causes:
Anelastic spring behavior Change in spring elastic properties with T
Ref.: Reynolds Fig. 2.14
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Drift correction
Assuming linear drift between base station readings
drift = gravity time
t0
corrected gravity = observed gravity drift * (t t0) (in this example, apply a negative correction)
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Latitude correction
Correcting for the rotation of the Earth
Centrifugal acceleration with latitude Resultant of centrifugal and gravitational accelerations, gravity is weaker. Where?
Ref.: Keary et al. Fig. 6.11
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Latitude correction
Correcting for the ellipsoid shape of the Earth
Polar radius 21 km shorter than equatorial radius Gravity 0.7% higher at the poles
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Elevation corrections
The objective is to reduce to datum an observation taken at elevation h
Free-Air Correction Bouguer Correction Terrain Correction

Ref.: Musset 2000 Fig. 8-15
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Elevation corrections Free-air correction (FAC)

Correcting for the difference in gravity between a datum and a station at an elevation h [m] FAC [mGal] = 0.3086 [mGal/m] * h [m] FAC requires precise topographic information The datum usually chosen is the mean sea level FAC > 0 for a station above the datum (h>0)
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Elevation [m]
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Difference in gravity between basement and top floor of Dunton Tower: 22 mGal
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0 3655
3660
3665
3670
3675
3680
3685
ERTH2404 Winter 2013 Gradient = 0.3067 mGal/m
Observed gravity [mGal] Exploration geophysics
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Elevation corrections Bouguer correction (BC)

Correcting for topographic mass Assumption: Topography is represented by a horizontal rock layer extending to infinity in all directions
Layer thickness = elevation Constant density BC [mGal] = 0.04191 [mGal.m2/Mg] * [Mg m-3] * h [m]
BC requires precise topo and density information On land, BC < 0

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Interpretation Bouguer anomalies (BA)

Basis for interpretation of gravity data on land and in shallow waters BA = observed gravity tidal and drift corrections - latitude correction + free-air correction - Bouguer correction + terrain correction Eotvos correction BA reflects density distribution below datum
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Gravity method Applications

Petroleum exploration - Delineation of structural trends, faults
- Mapping of salt domes
Mineral exploration - Detection of ore bodies and mass determination Hydrogeology - Aquifer location
- Mapping of soil-bedrock contact
Gravity Example 1: Continental scale surveys Satellite gravity map of Canada

July 2000 March 2002 August 2006
Ref.: N. Sneeuw, U. of Calgary (shown with permission)
Gravity Example 2: Overburden Topography
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Magnetics
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Magnetic Surveying
Oldest geophysical method (since 1640)
Used a magnet hanging from a string to find iron ore.
Aeromagnetic surveying (WWII)

Used to detect submarines Now used for surveying for:
Ore, oil, gas, science
Fluxgate magnetometer, 1965 GSC
Magnetic Surveying
Magnetic permeability
The response of a material to an external magnetic field.
A. Paramagnetic
e- are miss-aligned, small magnetisation
B. Ferromagnetic
e- spins are aligned, large magnetisation
C. Anti-Ferromagnetic
e- spins are opposite, no magnetisation
D. Ferrimagnetic E. Diamagnetic
Some e- spins are opposite, small magnetisation Unbalanced crystal lattice, e- is small and negative
There are others
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Magnetic surveying
The intensity is governed by Coulombs Law
F is the force between poles m1 and m2 is the magnetic permeability of the medium separating the poles r is the distance between the poles.
1 2 = 4 2
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Magnetization
B = your measured field (nT) H = Earths field (nT) = magnetic permeability of the subsurface (no units)
B=H
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Magnetic field data acquisition
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Magnetic anomalies
Magnetic anomalies results from the permeability contrast between rock units Assumption!
Its assumed that variations in the magnetic field are induced from Earths field, and there is NO REMNANT magnetization.
Although remnant magnetization is present.
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Measuring gravity Units

Magnetic anomalies due to geological sources are tiny compared to Earths magnetic field. In Ottawa the magnetic field ~ 60,000 nT An anomaly = 100 5000 nT
Magnetic units: Tesla (T)

Most commonly presented as nanoTesla (nT)
1nT = 10-9 T
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Measuring Magnetics
The instrument used to measure the magnetic field is a magnetometer
There are many types:
Fluxgate
Tiny, low resolution, durable
Proton-procession
Small, portable, durable
Alkali-vapour (cesium vapour)

Small, high resolution
SQUID (high & low temperature)

Very high-resolution, requires cooling
Essence of magnetics
Measure the magnetic field Subtract the modelled magnetic field of the Earth
The International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF)
Because youre only interested in local variations
Present your data

TMI = Total magnetic Intensity Gradient
X, Y, Z component
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Magnetic Surveying
What you see is what you get (for the most part)
Positive anomalies are areas of high magnetic susceptibility Negative anomalies are areas of low magnetic susceptibility. Doesnt hold true when using a moving platform (aircraft) over an area that has a rugged topography.
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Magnetic data processing
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Magnetic noise
Diurnal sources
Solar wind (solar storms) Tidal noise
Instrument noise
EM noise from electronics
Platform noise
A moving platform (airplane, ship) generate an EM field as it moves and maneuvers through the Earths magnetic field
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Magnetic noise reduction

Ground stations are used to measure the diurnal changes of the magnetic field.
Changes are subtracted from survey data.
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Corrections
Lag correction
Corrects for a moving platform
GPS says youre at x, your magnetometer is at x+2
IGRF correction
Removes the bulk of Earths magnetic field in order to isolate a regional anomaly
Subtract diurnal Level the data

So all measurements are taken at the same (or close) altitude as another measurement.
To avoid artifacts in the data due to altitude.
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References
DAndrea, W.R. 1998. Seismic and gravity prospecting Whats it all about? DeMille Technical Books. Grant, F.S. and West, G.F. 1965. Interpretation theory in geophysics. McGraw-Hill. Keary, P., Brooks, M. and Hill, I. 2002. An introduction to geophysical exploration. Blackwell Science. 3rd Edition. Samson, C. 1991. Reprocessing and interpretation of GLIMPCE marine crustal reflection seismic data from Eastern Lake Superior. Ph.D. Thesis. U. of Toronto. Samson, C., Barton, P.J., and Karwatowski, J. 1995. Imaging beneath an opaque basaltic layer using densely-sampled wideangle OBS data. Geophysical Prospecting, 43: 509-527. Sheriff, R.E. 1984. Encyclopedic dictionary of exploration geophysics. Society of Exploration Geophysicists. 2nd Edition.

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1

Guest Lecturer: Raymond Caron Ph.D. Candidate, M.Sc., B.Sc.H., B.Sc.

Lecture objectives and Contents

Data acquisition and processing techniques

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

Signal and Noise

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

Information from deep targets or far targets are low in resolution.

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

K=bulk modulus (fluid compression)

=shear modulus (rigidity)

Seismic Survey Layout

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

Seismic survey layout

Measuring (geophones & hydrophones)

Seismic survey layout

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

Seismic wave propagation & processing

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

In general, harder the rock, higher Z

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

(Medium 1) Z1 = 1 v1 (Medium 2) Z2 = 2 v2 Z2 > Z1 2 > 1

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

intercept 0 time 200

crossover distance Exploration geophysics

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

2) Each layer of rock (or sediment) is homogeneous.

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

Effect of noise on seismic data With noise

Seismic field data acquisition

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

According to Fourier decomposition:

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

Exploration geophysics Photo: C. Samson

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

Exploration geophysics Photo: C. Samson

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

Exploration geophysics Photo: C. Samson

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

Exploration geophysics Ref.: GLIMPCE project

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

Physical basis Newtons law of gravitation

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

Gravitational attraction Planet Earth

Gravity varies because of the Earths:

Objective: interpret these effects in terms of geology

GEOID, Ellipsoid, MSL

Ellipsoid = Geodetic Datum (approx. shape of the Earth)

MSL = Mean Sea Level = GEOID

ERTH2404 Winter 2013

Measuring gravity Units

ERTH2404 Winter 2013