ERTH2404 Lecture 9: Volcanoes

Dr. Jason Mah

USGS

Reading assignment
Please read Kehews book to complement the material presented in this lecture: Chap. 4;

Lecture objectives
To learn the mechanics of a volcanic eruption
How do volcanoes erupt? Relationship between plate tectonics and earthquakes

To learn the relation between magma composition, eruptive style, eruption type and volcanic landforms
Eruptive styles and landforms

Volcanic hazards and mitigation

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20% of the population live near a volcano

How do earthquakes erupt?

Step 1: Melt the solid rock
What can cause solid rock to melt?
Decompression melting (decrease in P, most important) Increase in T Increase in water content

Magma rises to continental crust

How do earthquakes erupt?

Decompression melting

(oceanic)

How do earthquakes erupt?

Step 2: Fractures
Phase change from solid to liquid leads to increase in volume Fractures develop in overlying rocks
More hot material rise More rocks liquefy

How do earthquakes erupt?

Step 3: Volatiles
Volatiles gradually come out of solution Gas bubbles push magma upward

Step 4: Magma fragments

When bubbles 75% volume Powerful gas jet expels magma in the atmosphere
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How do earthquakes erupt?

Volcanic eruption: sudden occurrence of a violent discharge of volcanic materials

Eruption

Central vent

Ref.: Abbott, P.L. 2004. Natural Disasters. 4th Edition. Fig. 6.8. Shown with permission.

Conduit

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 The relationship between plate tectonics and volcanoes

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Plate tectonics
Theory of plate tectonics is central to understanding natural disasters related to the Earths internal energy
Volcanoes and earthquakes do not occur randomly
Coincide with plate boundaries

90% of volcanoes found at the edge of plates

Classic example: "Pacific Ring of Fire"

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Ring of Fire

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Plate tectonics and volcanoes

Relation between tectonic environment, magma composition and eruptive style In general:
Magma composition Basaltic Hot spots Andesitic Rhyolitic Spreading centers Basaltic Transform faults Convergent zones Andesitic Rhyolitic Environment Volume of magma 10% Eruptive style Peaceful Explosive Peaceful Explosive

80% 10%

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Hot spot volcanoes

Chain of volcanoes
Aligned in the direction of plate motion Age increasing with distance from hot spot
Oldest likely to be extinct on the seafloor

Variable eruptive style Example: Hawaii Animation 1

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Hot spot volcanoes

Ref.: Abbott, P.L. 2004. Natural Disasters. 4th Edition.Fig. 2.14. Shown with permission.

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Hot spot volcanoes

Ref.: Abbott, P.L. 2004. Natural Disasters. 4th Edition.Fig. 2.14. Shown with permission.

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Volcanoes at spreading centers

Peaceful eruptions
Magma directly derived from asthenosphere
Basaltic lava: low % SiO2 Very high T Low viscosity

Pull-apart movement of plates creates zone of low pressure

Rocks melt partially Magma rises and flows easily

Examples: volcanoes of Iceland

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Volcanoes at spreading centers

4th

Ref.: Abbott, P.L. 2004. Natural Disasters. Edition. Fig. 6.3. Shown with permission.

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Volcanoes at convergent zones

Continent-continent collision zones
Little volcanism

Subduction zones
Widespread volcanism Role of water
H20 from down going plate lowers the melting point of rock Partial melting is induced in the overlying plate Magma rises and erupts
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Volcanoes at convergent zones

Ref.: Abbott, P.L. 2004. Natural Disasters. 4th Edition. Fig. 6.3. Shown with permission.

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Volcanoes at convergent zones

Volcanic mountains formed at the edge of the continents where one plate subducts beneath another
10% of magma on the Earths surface Andesitic to rhyolitic magma

Examples:
Volcanoes of the Andes Mount Baker, Mount St. Helens (USA)
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Subduction zones
Oceanic-oceanic convergence
Oceanic-continental convergence

Examples: Japan, Aleutians

Western North and South America

Source: USGS

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 Eruption styles and their characteristics

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3 Vs
Factors controlling volcanism:
Viscosity Volatiles Volume of magma

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Viscosity
Viscosity: internal resistance of a liquid to flow
Low
Viscosity

High

Water maple syrup honey toothpaste

Most important property controlling magma behavior and, therefore, eruptive style Low Peaceful eruption
Magma Viscosity

High Explosive eruption

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Magma Viscosity
What controls magma viscosity?
% SiO2
Magma with high % SiO2 has more silicate chains, sheets and 3D structures More bounds between atoms increase viscosity

Basalt Andesite Rhyolite

Viscosity % SiO2
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Low-viscosity magmas
Tend to reach the Earths surface Erupt peacefully Characteristics:
Basaltic magma
80% of magma reaching the surface is basaltic

High T (1000-1250C) Low volatile content

At high T, volatiles escape easily
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High-viscosity magmas
Tend to form intrusive bodies When reaching the surface, erupt explosively Characteristics:
Andesitic and rhyolitic magma Low T (600-900oC) High volatile content
Volatiles are "trapped" in magma and have to burst to escape
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Viscosity and Density

Density of magma:
Magma density > crust density
Mafic magma Low viscosity

Magma density < crust density

Felsic magma High viscosity

Animation 2
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Eruptive styles and landforms

Eruption style and associated igneous rock
Eruptive style Peaceful Eruption type Icelandic Hawaiian Flood basalts Strombolian Vulcanian Plinian Caldera Magma composition Bas And Rhy

Explosive

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Eruptive styles and landforms

Magma composition Control factors Bas And Rhy Viscosity Volatiles Volume Low Low Small Low Low Large Low Low Very large Medium Medium Small Volcanic Landform Lava plateau Shield volcano Province Scoria cones

Eruption type Icelandic Hawaiian Flood basalts Strombolian

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Peaceful eruption style

Icelandic-type: small volume
Landform: lava plateau

Hawaiian-type: large volume

Landform: shield volcano

Flood basalts: very large volume

Largest volcanic events on Earth

None occured in "recent" geological time

Landform: flood basalt province
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Lava plateau
Land forming Plate boundaries diverge Basaltic lava pours peacefully from long fissures Submarine volcanic activity forming new sea floor

Ref.: Abbott, P.L. 2004. Natural Disasters. 4th Edition. Fig. 6.16. Shown with permission.

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Shield volcano

http://mail.colonial.net/~hkaiter/volcanoes.html

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Ref.: Abbott, P.L. 2004. Natural Disasters. 4th Edition. Fig. 6.16. Shown with permission.

Shield volcano

Shield volcano: Mauna Loa, Hawaii USGS

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Shield volcanoes
Peaceful lava flows
High volume
Kohala (extinct) Mauna Kea (dormant) Hualalai

Gas emissions Faults, earthquakes, tsunamis Hawaii

3 active volcanoes 1 dormant 1 extinct

Mauna Loa
Kilauea

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Kilauea
Shield volcano erupting since Jan 3, 1983
USGS

USGS, March 2008

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Kilauea
Kalapana region, Jan 1987

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Strombolian-type eruptions
"Intermediate" case
Peaceful eruptive style in convergent zone environment Mafic composition: basaltic to andesitic

Medium viscosity Medium volatiles

Gas build up Eruptions generate pyroclastic materials Lava pours out of a crater
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Strombolian-type eruptions
Small volume
Pressure accumulate quickly in subsurface Released in separate short-duration bursts
Daily activity

Bursts not strong enough to destroy the volcanic edifice

Eruptive phase of a few years duration until volcanic conduit clogged

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Strombolian-type eruptions
Scoria cone: volcano in the shape of a conical hill formed by pyroclastic debris piled up next to a volcanic vent
Also known as Cinder cone Destroyed quickly by erosion
Pyroclastic debris weak and unstable Harder volcanic conduits remain creating a volcanic neck

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Strombolian-type eruptions
Named after Stromboli volcano, Italy
Erupting for past 2400 years

USGS
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Monogenetic volcano
Monogenetic volcanic field: collection of cinder cones
El Parcutin volcano, Mexico
Grows quickly, 5 stories in a week Born, developed and died (1943-1952)

The new volcano in Mexico is a unique geological phenomenon: for, before our eyes, it has sprung into existence and has grown to a very respectable height of 1,500 feet, all within a period of 8 months.
Dr. Parker D. Trask (USGS), Science, December 1943
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El Parcutin volcano, Mexico

Ash found in Mexico City, 400 km away

Ref.: Abbott, P.L. 2004. Natural Disasters. 4th Edition. Fig. 4.5. Shown with permission.

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El Parcutin volcano, Mexico

Photo: C. Samson, Carleton U.

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El Parcutin volcano, Mexico

1. Initial period (20 Feb 18 Oct 1943)
10-19 February: underground noises, vapors 20 February: fissure 22 February: first lava flows Rapid growth of scoria cone
24 hours 72 hours 6 days 1 month 4 months 30 m 60 m 120 m 148 m 200 m
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El Parcutin volcano, Mexico

24 February 1943

26 February 1943
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El Parcutin volcano, Mexico

2. Development of the Sapichu cone (smaller cone)
Secondary conduit 18 Oct 1943 8 Jan 1944

20 February 1944

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El Parcutin volcano, Mexico

3. Reactivation of the principal cone
8 Jan 1944 12 Jan 1945

Church of San Luis Parangricutiro

20 March 1944

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El Parcutin volcano, Mexico

Church of San Luis Parangricutiro

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El Parcutin volcano, Mexico

Growth profile

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El Parcutin volcano, Mexico

4. Gradual decline in activity,
Jan 1945 Feb 1952 Erosion several cm/year

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Explosive eruptive style

Magma composition Control factors Bas And Rhy Viscosity Volatiles Volume Med/High Medium Large Med/High High Large High Low Small High High Very large Volcanic Landform Stratovolcano Lava dome Caldera

Eruptive style Explosive

Eruption type Vulcanian Plinian Caldera

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Vulcanian-type eruptions
Eruptions alternate between:
Medium/high viscosity lava of varied composition Pyroclastic material covering a large area

Often preceeding a more violent plinian-type eruption Landform: stratovolcano

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Stratovolcano
Stratovolcano: A large volcanic cone built of alternating layers of viscous lava and pyroclastic debris
Steep-sided Symmetrical Also known as stratovolcano

Surface rupture: central vent Examples: Mount Fuji, Kilimanjaro, Mount Etna
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Stratovolcano
Ref.: Kehew, A.E. 1998. Geology for Engineers & Environmental Scientists. 2nd Edition. Fig. 3.20. Shown with permission.

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Stratovolcano
Mt. St. Helens, Washington October 1, 2004

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Plinian-type eruptions
Volatile-powered vertical eruption carrying pyroclastic debris
Plume up to 50 km in the atmosphere reach stratosphere Lots of pumice

Continued development of stratovolcano

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Plinian-type eruptions
Ref.: Abbott, P.L. 2004. Natural Disasters. 4th Edition. Fig. 6.16. Shown with permission.

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Plinian-type eruptions
During final phase of eruptive sequence:
High viscosity
Lava behaves like a "paste" forming a plug in the volcanic conduit

Few volatiles remain

Landform: lava dome

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Plinian-type eruptions
Mount Vesuvius, Naples Italy
Buried Pompeii in 79 A.D. Ash 33km high 1.5M tonnes per second 16 000 deaths

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Plinian-type eruptions
Mount Vesuvius, Naples Italy
Debris/ash cloud moving at > 100 km/hr, > 100C Over 1000 casts found

http://www.nsf.gov/

www.bbc.uk

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Lava dome
Lava dome: volcanic cone with a highly viscous blob of lava forming a half-ball shape over the vent (Note: sometimes the term is only applied to the blob of lava)
Lava is too viscous to flow far from the vent In many cases, the dome continues to grow upward until it collapses
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Lava dome

Newberry Volcano, Oregon

Source: USGS

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Caldera-type eruptions
Largest explosive volcanic eruptions
Method 1 Collapse of an existing stratovolcano into the partially emptied magma chamber
Usually follows a sustained Plinian-type eruption that opened void space below the volcano Piston-like action of collapsing volcano cause very large volume of magma to flow outward as pumice-rich sheets Example: Crater Lake, animation

- OR 66

Caldera-type eruptions

Ref.: Abbott, P.L. 2004. Natural Disasters. 4th Edition. Fig. 6.30. Shown with permission.

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Caldera-type eruptions
Method 2
Cataclysmic explosion litterally blows the existing volcano apart completely
Examples: Santorini, Krakatoa

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Caldera-type eruptions
Krakatoa, Indonesia
Eruption 416AD
Created of 7km wide caldera, currently submersed Remnanents formed islands, baby volcanoes formed

Eruption 1883
Eruption heard 4800 km away Shock wave recorded around the world Destroyed baby volcanoes Generated 40 m high tsunami travelling 2.5 km inland
Approximately 35 000 people killed

Underwater caldera
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Caldera-type eruptions
Krakatoa, caldera

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 Volcanic hazards

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Volcanic hazards and mitigation

Photo: Y. Gigure. Shown with permission.

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Volcanic hazards
50-60 eruptions worldwide each year
2-3 eruptions/year in North America
Aleutian chain (Alaska)

Volcanoes become hazardous when people are in close proximity

100 000 killed in last 100 years Tendency for people to inhabit fertile soils on flanks
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Primary hazards
Primary hazards result directly from the eruption Examples:
Pyroclastic flows Volcanic gas Lava flows Pyroclastic fall (ballistic projectiles and ash)

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Pyroclastic flows
Synonym: "nue ardente" (glowing cloud) Pyroclastic flow: avalanche of hot gas, ash and rock fragments moving down the sides of a volcano
T 1000C Velocity 10 300 m/s High-density flows follow valleys Low-density, more dilute flows can move up and over ridges
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Nue ardente
One of the earliest photographs of a nue ardente. Photograph taken at Mont Pele, Martinique, on 16 December 1902 by A. Lacroix.

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Source: USGS

Pyroclastic flows
Direct effects:
Responsible for the largest number of fatalities related to volcanism Highly destructive to infrastructure due to mass, high To and great mobility

Indirect effect: fires Examples:

Pompeii (79 AD) St-Pierre de la Martinique (1902)
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Volcanic gas
Volcanic gases come out of solution and increase in volume when magma erupts
Main driving force of explosive eruptions Most abundant: H2O, CO2, SO2

Can also be present: H2S, H2, CO, HCl, HF, He Concentrated near vent Distribution controlled by prevailing wind
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Volcanic gas
Direct effects:
Heavier-than-air gas (e.g. CO2) accumulate in depressions, causing suffocation Example: Lake Nyos (Cameroon, 1986)

S, Cl, F react with water, forming poisonous acids

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Lava flows
Hazardous nature related to speed of advance Controlling factors:
Rate of lava production at the vent Slope steepness Lava viscosity
Fluid basaltic flows, km/hr Viscous andesitic-rhyolitic flows, cm/hr

Whether lava flows as a broad sheet, through a confined channel, or in a lava tube
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Lava flows
Direct effects: lava flows destroy everything in their path
Bury, crush, burn objects Most lava flows move slow enough to allow evacuation of people

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Pyroclastic falls
Ballistic projectiles: falling fragments of lapilli and scoria (particle size > 2 mm) Fall close to the volcano

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Pyroclastic falls
Photo: J. Aristimuo. Shown with permission.

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Ash fall
Volcanic ash (particle size < 2 mm)
Tiny jagged pieces of rock and glass Properties: hard, abrasive, mildly corrosive, does not dissolve in water Can be transported 100-1000s km downwind

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Ash fall
Direct effects:
Vegetation destroyed Surface water contaminated Respiratory health issues Structural damage to buildings

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Ref.: Kehew, A.E. 1995. Geology for Engineers & Environmental Scientists. 2nd Edition. Fig.3-37. Shown with permission.

Ash fall

Isopach map of volcanic ash [cm], Mount Pinatubo, Philippines

Photo: USGS

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Volcanic ash
Indirect effects:
Atmospheric dust affects aircraft engines

1982, British airways flight flew through volcanic ash and all 4 engines shut down

Eyjafjallajkull Volcano, Iceland

Eruption 14 April 2010 6 day travel ban, over 100,000 flights canceled
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Volcanic ash

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Secondary hazards
Secondary hazards result from the environment created by the volcano Hazardous conditions can persist long after eruptive phase is over Examples:
Floods: lava flows can dam rivers and modify drainage relationships Lahars Atmospheric dust
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Secondary hazards: Lahars

Lahar: type of mudflow that originates on the slopes of volcanoes when volcanic ash and debris become saturated with water and flow rapidly downslope Speed: 1 40 m/s Spread over long distances

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Secondary hazards: Lahars

Almost always occur on stratovolcanoes
Steep flanks Tall cones often snow covered Constructed of weakly consolidated material

Triggering mechanisms:
Melting of snow and ice Heavy rainfall

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Mount St. Helens, 1982 eruption

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Mount St. Helens

Mudline on tree Geologist is 6ft

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Case Study
Nevado del Ruiz volcano, Columbia Major eruption on 10 November 1985 melts ice cap
Lahar triggered, travelling at 60 km/h Town of Armero buried 23,000 fatalities

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Case Study
Could this disaster have been prevented?
Historical records: lahars in 1595 and 1845 Hazard map published one month before the disaster
But poorly distributed

Volcano awakes in 1984

Small scale volcanic activity Government is warned
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Case Study

Ref.: Kehew, A.E. 1998. Geology for Engineers & Environmental Scientists. 2nd Edition. Fig.3-36. Shown with permission.

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Case Study
Currently
500 000 people living in the region Volcano is monitored heavily Evacuation plans in place

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Tertiary hazards
Tertiary hazards result from the destabilizing long-term effects of the volcanic eruption on society
Famine
Atmospheric dust affects global climate Extensive crop damage and loss of livestock

Diseases
Breakdown of sewage and water systems

Effects of tertiary hazards can be felt several years after the eruption
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Rabaul caldera, Papua New Guinea, 1994

Shuttle photograph of eruption column (18 km above ground)

Source: USGS

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Rabaul caldera, Papua New Guinea, 1994

Ash fall from Rabual caldera

Photo: USGS

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Summary of Volcanic hazards

Ref.: Abbott, P.L. 2004. Natural Disasters. 4th Edition. Fig. 7.20. Shown with permission.

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Mitigation
Volcanic eruptions are one of the most difficult natural hazards for which to mitigate
Low frequency, high magnitude events Exact combination and timing of events difficult to predict
Especially for explosive volcanoes

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Can lava flows be diverted?

Wall building
The city of Catania successfully blocked the lava flow of Mount Etna in 1669 (USGS) But the diverted flow headed to the town of Paterno The citizens of Paterno prevented Catania from maintaining their artifical breach
www.worldatlas.com

Mt. Etna diversion, 1983

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Can lava flows be diverted?

Aerial bombing
Unsuccessful in Hawaii, Mauna Loa in 1935 and 1942
USGS

Hilo

www.pha.jhu.edu/~chiu/hawaii2001index.html

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Volcanic activity classification

Active: volcano which has erupted in historic times Dormant: volcano that has not erupted in historic time but is capable of erupting in the future Extinct: volcano that is not expected to erupt again Rather "subjective" classification including an element of prediction
Different vulcanologists use different criteria
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Canadian volcanoes?
All triangles < 2 Ma All big triangles < 10,000 years old! All due to interaction between lithospheric plates

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Garibaldi and Baker

Garibaldi area, IanC@ece.ubc.ca

Mt. Baker from the Fraser Valley

Garibaldi is dormant with seismic activity, no gas activity Hazards: lavas, ash clouds, mudflows

Active with ash explosions (1840s), abundant recent gas activity Hazards: lavas, landslides, ash clouds, mudflows
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Monitoring volcanic activity

Compilation of baseline data when the volcano is dormant
Seismic activity Thermal monitoring Sampling of gas, lavas, etc.

Warnings issued when changes occur

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Monitoring volcanic activity

USGS Volcanoes and Current Activities Alert:
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/

USGS Observatories
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/cvo/

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