Theory of Elastic Waves

Theory of Elasti
Waves
Gerhard Mller
Editors
Mi hael Weber - GFZ & Universitt Potsdam
Georg Rmpker - Universitt Frankfurt
Dirk Gajewski - Universitt Hamburg
Germany
tew_2007.ps + tew_2007.pdf
Prefa e
When Gerhard Mller hose to leave us on 9 July 2002 be ause of his illness, we
lost a tea her and olleague. Part of his lega y is several le ture notes whi h he
had worked on for more then 20 years. These notes have be ome the ba kbone
of tea hing seismi s and seismology at basi ally all German universities. When
asked some years before his death if he had onsidered to translate "Theorie
Elastis her Wellen" into English and publish it as a book, his answer was "I
plan to do it when I am retired". We hope that our eort would have found his
approval.
We would like to thank R. and I. Coman (Universitt Hamburg) for preparing a
rst, German draft in LATEX of this s ript, A. Siebert (GFZ Potsdam) for her
help in preparing the gures and our students for pointing out errors and asking
questions. We would like to thank A. Priestley for proof-reading the s ript and
turning Deuts hlish into English and K. Priestley for his many omments.
We thank the GFZ Potsdam and the Dublin Institute for Advan ed Studies for
their support during a sabbati al of MW in Dublin, where most of this book
was prepared. We would also like to thank the GFZ for ontinuing support in
the preparation of this book.
M. Weber
G. Rmpker
D. Gajewski
Potsdam, Frankfurt, Hamburg

January 2007
This le an be downloaded from
http://gfz-potsdam.de/mhw/tew/
tew _2007.ps(64MB) + tew _2007.pdf (3.5MB)

3
Prefa e of the German Le ture Notes

This s ript is the revised and extended version of a manus ript whi h was used
for several years in a 1- to 2-semester le ture on the theory of elasti waves
at the universities of Karlsruhe and Frankfurt. The aim of this manus ript is
to give students with some ba kground in mathemati s and theoreti al physi s
the basi knowledge of the theory of elasti waves, whi h is ne essary for the
study of spe ial literature in monographs and s ienti journals. Sin e this is
an introdu tory text, theory and methods are explained with simple models
to keep the omputational omplexity and the formulae as simple as possible.
This is why often liquid media instead of solid media are onsidered, and only
horizontally polarised waves (SH-waves) are dis ussed, when shear waves in
layered, solid media are onsidered. A third example is that the normal mode
theory for point sour es is derived for an ideal wave guide with free or rigid
boundaries.
These simpli ations o asionally hide the dire t onne tion to
seismology. In my opinion, there is no other approa h if one aims at presenting

theory and methods in detail and introdu ing at least some aspe t from the
wide eld of seismology. After working through this s ript students should, I
hope, be better prepared to read the advan ed text books of Pilant (1979), Aki
and Ri hards (1980, 2000), Ben-Menahem and Sing (1981), Dahlen and Tromp
(1998), Kennett (2002) and Chapman (2004), whi h treat models as realisti ally
as possible.
This manus ript has its emphasis in the wave seismi treatment of elasti body
and surfa e waves in layered media. The understanding of the dynami properties of these two wave types, i.e., their amplitudes, frequen ies and impulse
forms, are a basi prerequisite-requisite for the study of the stru ture of the
Earth, may it be in the rust, the mantle or the ore, and for the study of
pro esses in the earthquake sour e. Ray seismi s in inhomogeneous media and
their relation with wave seismi s are dis ussed in more detail than in earlier
versions of the s ript, but seismologi ally interesting topi s like eigen-modes of
the Earth and extended sour es of elasti waves are still not treated, sin e they
would ex eed the s ope of an introdu tory le ture.
At several pla es of the manus ript, exer ises are in luded, the solution of these
is an important part in understanding the material. One of the appendi es tries
to over in ompa t form the basi s of the Lapla e and Fourier transform and
of the delta fun tion, so that these topi s an be used in the main part of the
s ript.
I would like to thank Ingrid Hrn hen for the often tedious writing and orre ting of this manus ript.
Gerhard Mller
Contents
1 Literature
2 Foundations of elasti ity theory
11
2.1
Analysis of strain
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
2.2
Analysis of stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.3
Equilibrium onditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.4
Stress-strain relations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
2.5
Equation of motion, boundary and initial ... . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.6
Displa ement potentials and wave types
34
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 Body waves
39
3.1
Plane body waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
3.2
The initial value problem for plane waves
40
3.3
Simple boundary value problems for plane waves
3.4
Spheri al waves from explosion point sour es
3.5
Spheri al waves from single for e and dipole ...
3.6
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
43
. . . . . . . . . . .
45
. . . . . . . . . .
49
3.5.1
Single for e point sour e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.5.2
Dipole point sour es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
Ree tion and refra tion of plane waves ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.6.1
Plane waves with arbitrary propagation dire tion . . . . .
62
3.6.2
Basi equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
3.6.3
Ree tion and refra tion of SH-waves
. . . . . . . . . . .
66
3.6.4
Ree tion of P-waves at a free surfa e . . . . . . . . . . .
76
CONTENTS
3.6.5
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
Ree tion and refra tion oe ients for layered media . .
Ree tivity method: Ree tion of ...
84
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
3.7.1
Theory
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
3.7.2
Ree tion and head waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
3.7.3
Complete seismograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
Exa t or generalised ray theory - GRT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
3.8.1
In ident ylindri al wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
3.8.2
Wavefront approximation for
3.8.3
Ree tion and refra tion of the ylindri al wave . . . . . . 103
3.8.4
Dis ussion of ree ted wave types
UR
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Ray seismi s in ontinuous inhomogeneous media . . . . . . . . . 113

3.9.1
Fermat's prin iple and the ray equation
3.9.2
High frequen y approximation of the equation of motion . 119
3.9.3
Eikonal equation and seismi rays
3.9.4
Amplitudes in ray seismi approximation
. . . . . . . . . . 114
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
. . . . . . . . . 123
WKBJ method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

3.10.1 Harmoni ex itation and ree tion oe ient . . . . . . . 126
3.10.2 Impulsive ex itation and WKBJ-seismograms . . . . . . . 131
4 Surfa e waves
4.1
135
Free surfa e waves in layered media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

4.1.1
Basi equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.1.2
Rayleigh waves at the surfa e of an homogeneous half-spa e138
4.1.3
Love waves at the surfa e of a layered half-spa e
4.1.4
Determination of the phase velo ity of surfa e waves from
. . . . . 142
observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.1.5
The group velo ity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.1.6
Des ription of surfa e waves by onstru tive interferen e

of body waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.2
Surfa e waves from point sour es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

4.2.1
Ideal wave guide for harmoni ex itation . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.2.2
The modal seismogram of the ideal wave guide
4.2.3
Computation of modal seismograms with the method of

stationary phase
4.2.4
. . . . . . 167
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Ray representation of the eld in an ideal wave guide
. . 173
CONTENTS
A Lapla e transform and delta fun tion

A.1
A.2
179
Introdu tion to the Lapla e transform
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
A.1.1
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
A.1.2
Denition of the Lapla e transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
A.1.3
Assumptions on F(t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
A.1.4
Examples
A.1.5
Properties of the Lapla e transform
A.1.6
Ba k-transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
A.1.7
Relation with the Fourier transform
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
. . . . . . . . . . . . 181
. . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Appli ation of the Lapla e transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

A.2.1
Linear ordinary dierential equations with onstant oef ients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
A.2.2
A.3
Partial dierential equations
The delta fun tion
(t)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
(t)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
A.3.1
Introdu tion of
A.3.2
Properties of
A.3.3
Appli ation of
A.3.4
Duhamel's law and linear systems
A.3.5
Pra ti al approa h for the onsideration of non-zero initial
(t)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
(t)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
values of the perturbation fun tion F(t) of a linear problem205
B Hilbert transform
209
B.1
The Hilbert transform pair
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
B.2
The Hilbert transform as a lter
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
C Bessel fun tions
215
D The Sommerfeld integral
219
E The omputation of modal seismograms
221
E.1
Numeri al al ulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
E.2
Method of stationary phase
E.3
Airy phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Index
226
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
Literature
The following list ontains only books, that treat the propagation of elasti
waves and a few text books on ontinuum me hani s. Arti les in journals are
mentioned if ne essary. Their number is kept to a minimum.
A henba h, J.D.: Wave propagation in elasti solid, North-Holland Publ. Comp.,

Amsterdam, 1973
Aki, K. and P.G. Ri hards: Quantitative seismology - theory and methods (2
volumes), Freeman and Co., San Fran is o, 1980 and 2002
Ben-Menahem, A. and S.J. Singh: Seismi waves and sour es, Springer, Heidelberg, 1981
Bleistein, N.:
Mathemati al methods for wave phenomena, A ademi Press,
New York, 1984

Brekhovskikh, L.M.: Waves in layered media, A ademi Press, New York, 1960
Brekhovskikh, L., and Gon harov, V.: Me hani s of ontinua and wave dynami s, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1985
Budden, K.G.: The wave-guide mode theory of wave propagation, Logos Press,
London, 1961
Bullen, K.E., and Bolt, B.A.:
An introdu tion to the theory of seismology,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985

Cagniard, L.: Ree tion and refra tion of progressive waves, M Graw-Hill Book
Comp., New York, 1962
ervn, V., I.A. Molotov and I. P en k:
Ray method in seismology, Univerzita
Karlova, Prague, 1977

Chapman, Ch.: Fundamentals of seismi wave propagation, Cambridge University Press, 2004
9
10
CHAPTER 1.
LITERATURE
Dahlen, F. A. and J. Tromp: Theoreti al global seismology, Prin eton University, Prin eton, New Jersey, 1998
Ewing, M., W.S. Jardetzky and F. Press:
Elasti waves in layered media,
M Graw-Hill Book Comp., New York, 1957

Fung, Y.C.: Foundations of solid me hani s, Prenti e-Hall, Englewood Clis,
N.Y., 1965
Grant, F.S. and G.F. West: Interpretation theory in applied geophysi s, M GrawHill Book Comp., New York, 1965
Hudson, J.A.: The ex itation and propagation of elasti waves, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980
Kennett, B.L.N.:
The seismi wave eld (2 volumes), Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 2002

Landau, L.D. and E.M. Lifs hitz: Elastizittstheorie, Akademie Verlag, Berlin,
1977
Love, A.E.H.: A treatise on the mathemati al theory of elasti ity, 4th edition,
Dover Publi ations, New York, 1944
Pilant, W.L.: Elasti waves in the Earth, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1979
Riley, K.F., M.P. Hobson and S.J. Ben e: Mathemati al methods for physi s and
engineering, A omprehensive guide, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
2nd edition, 2002
Sommerfeld, A.: Me hanik der deformierbaren Medien, Akad. Verlagsgesells haft,
Leipzig, 1964
Tolstoy, I.: Wave propagation, M Graw-Hill Book Comp., New York, 1973
Tolstoy, I. and C.S. Clay: O ean a ousti s-theory and experiment in underwater
sound, M Graw-Hill Book Comp., New York, 1966
White, J.E.: Seismi waves-radiation, transmission and attenuation, M GrawHill Book Comp., New York, 1965
Chapter 2
Foundations of elasti ity

theory
Comments
In this hapter symboli and index notation is used, i.e., a ve tor (symboli
f ) is also written as fi ( omponents f1 , f2 , . . . , fn ), the lo ation ve tor
(symboli
x ) as xi ( omponents x1, x2, x3 ), and a matrix (symboli a) as aij
notation
(i
= line index = 1, 2, . . . , m, j = row index= 1, 2, . . . , n).

aij with the ve tor fj is the ve tor
gi =
n
X
aij fj
The produ t of matrix
(i = 1, 2, . . . , m).
j=1
summation onvention = SC )
A short notation for this is (
gi = aij fj .
In the following text, if a produ t on the right o urs in whi h there is a repeated
index, this index takes all values from 1, 2, ..., n (usually n = 3) and all produ ts
are summed.
If the symboli notation is simpler, e.g., for the ross produ t of two ve tors or
for divergen e or rotation, the symboli notation is used.
11
12
CHAPTER 2.
FOUNDATIONS OF ELASTICITY THEORY
2.1 Analysis of strain

2.1.1 Components of the displa ement ve tor
Consider a body that is deformed by an external for e. Before deformation, the
xi and the innitesimal lose point Q has the

xi + yi . The omponents of yi are assumed to be independent
variables; this is why dxi was not used. After deformation, P has been displa ed
by the displa ement ve tor ui to P', and Q has been displa ed to Q' by the
point
has the lo ation ve tor
lo ation ve tor
ve tor (expansion up to linear terms)
zi = ui + dui = ui +
ui
yj
xj
(SC).
Fig. 2.1: Neighbourhood of P and Q before and after deformation.
Ve tor
zi
des ribes (for variable
in the neighbourhood of
P ) the hanges near
due to the deformation. In general, these hanges onsist of: a translation,
a rotation of the
whole
region around an axis through
and the a tual de-
formation, whi h hanges the length of lines (rotation and deformation will be
dis ussed later in more detail)
zi = ui + dui =
ui
translation
ij
ij
ij
=
=
ij yj
deformation
ij yj
rotation

1 ui
1 ui
uj
uj
,
ij :=
+
2 xj
xi
2 xj
xj
ji
ji
( 11 = 22 = 33 = 0) .
(2.1)
(2.2)
(2.3)
2.1.
The matri es
and
13
ANALYSIS OF STRAIN
ij
ij
and
ij
are
tensors of 2nd degree. ij is symmetri due to (2.2)

ij is alled deformation tensor and ij
is anti-symmetri due to (2.3).
is alled
rotation tensor.
2.1.2 Tensors of 2nd degree

A tensor of 2nd degree,
transforms ve tor
yi
tij ,
transforms a ve tor into another ve tor (e.g.,
into the deformation part of
dui ;
ij
another example of this is
the inertial tensor transforms the ve tor of the angular velo ity into the rotation
impulse ve tor (rotation of a rigid body)). If the oordinate system is rotated,
the tensor omponents have to be transformed as follows to yield the original
ve tor
t,kl
amn
=
=
aik ajl tij

cos mn
(SC twi e)
(see sket h).
(2.4)
t,kl = Tensor omponent in the rotated oordinate system (dashed line in sket h).
Fig. 2.2: Coordinate system of tensors of 2nd degree.
For a ertain orientation of the rotated system, the non-diagonal elements
t12 , t13 , t21 ,
... vanish. These oordinate axis are alled
main axes
of the tensor,
and the tensor is in diagonal form. In the diagonal form, many physi al relations
be ome simpler. Certain ombinations of tensor omponents are independent
of the oordinate system of the tensor. These are the three
T3
invariants (T1 , T2 ,
are the diagonal elements of the tensor in diagonal form). More on tensors
an be found in, e.g., Riley, Hobson and Ben e.
14
CHAPTER 2.
I1 =
I2 =
I3 =

t11 t12 t13

t21 t22 t23

t31 t32 t33
t11 + t22 + t33
= T1 T2 T3
(determinant)
= T1 + T2 + T3
(tra e)
t11 t22 + t22 t33 + t33 t11

t12 t21 t23 t32 t31 t13
= T1 T2 + T2 T3 + T3 T1 .
2.1.3 Rotation omponent of displa ement

The rotation omponent of displa ement follows from
0
12
13
12 y2 + 13 y3
13
y1

23 y2 = 12 y1 + 23 y3 =
y
13 y1 23 y2
0
y3
12
0
23
with
u.
= (23 , 13 , 12 ) =
2

y des ribes an innitesimal rotation of the region of P around
an axis through
P with the dire tion of . The rotation angle has the abso
lute value and is independent of

y (show). A prerequisite is that is
Ve tor
innitesimal. A su ient ondition for this is that

ui

xj 1
for all
and
j.
(2.5)
2.1.4 Deformation omponent of displa ement

After separating out the rotation term, only the deformation term is of interest
sin e it des ribes the for es whi h a t in a body. The deformation is des ribed
ompletely by the six omponents
ij
whi h are, in general, dierent.
These
dimensionless omponents will now be interpreted physi ally.

The starting point is
dui = ij yj ,
i.e., we assume no rotation.
a) During this transformation, a line remains a line, a plane remains a plane, a

sphere be omes an ellipsoid and parallel lines remain parallel.
Deformation omponents 11 , 22 , 33
Coordinate origin at P and spe ial sele tion of Q : y1 6= 0, y2 = y3 = 0.
b)
2.1.
15
ANALYSIS OF STRAIN
2
Q
du 2
y1
du 1
Fig. 2.3: Sket h for deformation omponents.
du1
11 y1
du2
du3
=
=
21 y1
31 y1 = 0
(assumption :
31
not the relative hange
du1
y1 is the relative hange in length in dire tion 1 (
in length of
, see also d). Stret hing o urs if 11 >
11 =
11 < 0.
PQ
Similarly,
22
and
33
and shortening if
are the relative length hanges in dire tion 2 and
3.
)
= 0).
Shear omponents 12 , 13 , 23
Fig. 2.4: Sket h for shear omponents.
Q1 Q1 : du2
Q2 Q2 : du1
=
=
21 y1 = 12 y1
12 y2
16
CHAPTER 2.
du2
y1
du1
tan
y2
tan
This means,
right angle at
12
12
12 .
is the angle around whi h the 1- or 2-axis is rotated.

is redu ed by
after deformation (sin e
212 .
13 , 23
or
The
If the parallelogram is not in the 1-2 plane
33
is non-zero), these statements hold for
the verti al proje tion in this plane.

Similar results hold for
d)
13
23 .
and
Length hanges of distan e P Q
P Q.
Fig. 2.5: Sket h for length hanges of distan e
PQ =
P Q
l0 =
l=
(
3
X
3
X
i=1
3
X
yi2
)1/2
2
(yi + ij yj )
i=1
yi2
+ 2ij yi yj +
)1/2
3
X
i=1
i=1
=
2
(ij yj )
)1/2
The 1st, 2nd and 3rd term require SC on e, twi e and three times, respe tively.
The 3rd term ontains only squares of
innitesimal strain theory
ij
and an, within the framework of
treated here, be negle ted relative to the 2nd term
(the prerequisite for this is (2-5))
2.1.
17
ANALYSIS OF STRAIN

12
2
1
l = l0 1 + 2 ij yi yj
= l0 + ij yi yj .
l0
l0
Relative length hanges
yi yj
l l0
= ij 2 = ij ni nj (SC
l0
l0
ni =
Approa hes for
yi
= unit
l0
twi e; quadrati form in
ve tor in dire tion of
nite strain theory
nk )
yi .
exist (see, e.g., Bullen and Bolt). Su h a
theory has to be developed from the very start. Then, for example, the simple
separation of the rotation term in the displa ement ve tor, whi h is possible
for innitesimal deformations, is no longer possible. The deformation tensor
ij
also be omes more ompli ated.

e)
Volume hanges ( ubi dilatation)
V ontaining point P surfa e

S. After deformation, for whi h we assume without loss of generality that
P remains in its position, volume V is hanged by V .
We onsider a nite (not innitesimal) volume

with
Fig. 2.6: Sket h for volume hanges.
V =
un df.
Transformation of this surfa e integral with Gauss' law gives
V =
u dV,
18
CHAPTER 2.
and the relative volume hange an be written as
V
1
=
V
V
Into the limit
V 0
(shrinking to point
lim
V 0
This limit is alled
u dV.
(2.6)
P ), this be omes
V
= .
V
ubi dilatation.
From (2.6) with (2.1), it follows that
u1 u2 u3
+
+
= 11 +22 +33
=
u :=
x1 x2 x3
For
>0
the volume in reases, for
<0
(tra e
of the deformation tensor).
the volume de reases.
2.1.5 Components of the deformation tensor in ylindri al and spheri al oordinates

P
z
Fig. 2.7: Cylindri al oordinates
u =
rr
zz
2r
r, , z .
(ur , u , uz )
ur
r
1 u ur
+
r
r
uz
z
u
u
1 ur
+
r
r
r
2.1.
19
ANALYSIS OF STRAIN
2rz
2z
ur
uz
+
z
r
1 uz
u
+
.
z
r
The omponents refer to the lo al Cartesian oordinate system in P.
P
r
Fig. 2.8: Spheri al oordinates
r, , .
u = (ur , u , u)
ur
rr =
r
1 u ur
+
=
r
r
1 u
ur
cot
=
+
+
u
r sin
r
r
u
u
1 ur
+
2r =
r
r
r
u
u
1 ur
+
2r =
r sin
r
r
cot
1 u 1 u
+
u .
2 =
r sin
r
r
Exer ise 2.1

How does a re tangular ube with edges parallel to the main axis system of the
deformation tensor deform (length of edges a, b, )? Conrm the equation
= 11 + 22 + 33
20
CHAPTER 2.
Exer ise 2.2

Split the deformation tensor into one part that is pure shear (no volume hange)
and another part that is pure volume hange (no shear).
Exer ise 2.3:

Derive the omponents of the deformation tensor in ylindri al oordinates.
Hint:
yi =yi +du i
Q
u+du
i
i
P
ui
yi
Q(r+dr, +d ,z+dz)
P(r, ,z)
Fig. 2.9: Displa ement ve tors to be used.
With respe t to the lo al Cartesian oordinate system in P, it holds that
y1
y2
y3
=
=
=
dr
rd
dz
Determine rst the ylindri al oordinates of
u1
u2
u3
=
=
=
P'
and
ur
u
uz .
Q'
under the ondition of
innitesimal displa ement and deformation. Then give the omponents of the
, similar to
ve tor y = yi + dui in the lo al Cartesian oordinate system of
i
the denition of
yi ,
in the system of
allows the derivation of ve tor
dui
P.
P'
This requires linearisation. This then
in the form
dui = vij yj
and the determination of tensor
part of
vij .
The deformation tensor is the symmetri
vij
ij =
1
(vij + vji ).
2
2.2.
21
ANALYSIS OF STRESS
2.2 Analysis of stress

2.2.1 Stress
body for es
In a deformed body, a volume element is subje t to
to volume, e.g., gravity, entrifugal for e, inertial for e) and to
(proportional
surfa e for es,
whi h originate from neighbouring volume elements (proportional to surfa e).

The later is the topi here. We onsider a body
K2
a deformed body
(see Fig.
2.10).
K2
If
assume a new equilibrium onguration.

for es through
K1 .
on
P f (f =surfa e
To bring
tra tion.
K1
This indi ates that
K2 . P
within
will, in general,
K2
S.
has exerted
Ersatz
for es
with the dimension for e/surfa e is
Its dire tion and size depend on:
1. The lo ation of the surfa e element

2. Its normal dire tion
Fig. 2.10: Body
K1
The omponent of
The omponent of
(dened as the dire tion pointing
within a deformed body
parallel to
tra tion).
out
of
K1 ).
K2 .
n is alled normal tra tion (= pull
perpendi ular to
tra tion or thrust tra tion.

If
with the surfa e
ba k to its original form,
element) have to be applied on
The same for es were exerted by

alled
K1
K1
is removed,
or pressure
is alled tangential tra tion, shear
P is known everywhere in the body and for all dire tions

n , the stress within
the body is known. For this, six fun tions must be known.
2.2.2 Stress tensor pij

We onsider a body in an innitesimal tetrahedron
ABCD
the tra tion of the three sides
are known.
ABD, ABC, and ACD
and assume, that
22
CHAPTER 2.
Fig. 2.11: Innitesimal tetrahedron
ABCD.
From this, we will ompute the tra tion tensor
of
BCD. Be ause the tetrahe-
dron is small, all tra tions are onstant over their orresponding surfa es. The
normal dire tions and surfa es are
ABD : negative 2-dire tion, f2

ABC : negative 3-dire tion, f3
ACD : negative 1-dire tion, f1
BCD:
n = (n1 , n2 , n3 ), f
fj = f nj .
We assume that the for es and tra tion ve tors on
known for the
positive
(2.7)
ABD, ABC
and
ACD
are
2-, 3- and 1-dire tion, respe tively
ABD: P2 f2 ,
P2 = (p21 , p22 , p23 )
ABC: P3 f3 ,
P3 = (p31 , p32 , p33 )
P1 = (p11 , p12 , p13 ).

ACD: P1 f1 ,
This means that nine fun tions
pij
are known. After negle ting the body for es
(whi h de rease faster then the surfa e for es for a shrinking tetrahedron), the
for e balan e at the tetrahedron an be written as
Pj fj + P f = 0.
With (2.7), it follows (SC)
P = Pj nj .
(2.8)
2.3.
23
EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS
Therefore, it is su ient to know the tra tion ve tors of three perpendi ular
surfa e elements to determine the tra tion ve tor for an arbitrarily oriented
surfa e element.
omponent of
In index notation, (2.8) an be written as (note:
P , Pj
Pj
is a
is a ve tor)
P1 = p11 n1 + p21 n2 + p31 n3 .

In general, it holds that
The nine fun tions
pij
Pj = pij ni .
form the
(SC)
stress tensor.
oordinate system. The omponents
It is valid for a ertain right-angle
pi1 , pi2 , pi3
give the tra tion ve tor for a
surfa e element, the normal of whi h is in the dire tion of the positive i-axis.
pii (e.i., p11 , p22 ,
or p33 ) is the normal stress, the two other omponents are the
tangential stresses, respe tively. As will be shown in the next se tion (see also
exer ise 2.6), the stress tensor is symmetri , i.e.,
pij = pji.
Therefore,
Pj = pji ni
or in the usual notation
Pi = pij nj .
(2.9)
In general, the stress tensor has six independent omponents.
Exer ise 2.4

a) Give the stress tensor for hydrostati pressure
p.
b) Give the stress tensor for the interior of an innite plate whi h is xed at
one side (bottom), whereas at the other side (top) the shear tra tion
a ts
everywhere in the same dire tion.
Exer ise 2.5
P is the tra tion

n.
P n = P
Show that if
holds that
for dire tion
n,
and
for the dire tion
n,
it
2.3 Equilibrium onditions

The equilibrium onditions for a nite volume
in a deformable body require
that the resulting for e and the resulting angular moment vanish
24
CHAPTER 2.
P df = 0
F dV +
S
V
Z
Z
x P )df = 0
(
x F )dV + (
Z
(resulting
(resulting
for e)
(2.10)
moment)
(2.11)
S
V
dV
O
F=
Fig. 2.12: Finite volume
where
df
in a deformable body.
body for es in luding inertial for e (dimension:
for e/ volume =
for e density) and
P=
tra tion ve tor on
(normal
towards the outside).
Equation (2.10) gives the equation of motion of the elasti ontinuum. For ea h
omponent (only Cartesian omponents an be used)
Fi dV +
Pi df =
Fi dV +
pij nj df = 0.
pij nj an be understood as the normal omponent Pin of the tra tion Pi =

(pi1 , pi2 , pi3 ) relative to the ith-dire tion. Appli ation of Gauss' theorem gives
Z
Pin df =
(Fi + Pi )dV = 0.
Pi dV,
therefore,
This holds for every arbitrary volume
Fi +
V. Therefore, the integrand has to vanish
pi1
pi2
pi3
+
+
=0
x1
x2
x3
2.3.
25
EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS
or
Fi +
with the omponents of
pij
=0
xj
(SC)
F : Fi = ddtu2i + fi
The rst term is the inertial for e;
fi
( = density).
ontains all other body for es. Within the
framework of the theory of innitesimal deformation, the impli it dierentiation

d
dt an be repla ed by the lo al dierentiation, i.e., partial dierentiation t
dA
A
A xi
A
=
+
dt
t
xi t
t
Then, this gives the
equation of motion
At rest, normally
(A = innitesimal
pij 6= 0
parameter, e.g.
ui ).
(SC)
2 ui
pij
+ fi .
=
2
t
xj
(2.12)
and the remaining stress is alled the initial stress.
It exists, when obje ts omposed of materials with dierent thermal expansions

oe ients are ooled, or by the self- ompression of obje ts in their own gravity
eld (in this ase the initial stress is the hydrostati pressure). Assume that for
(0)
(0)
a body at rest pij = pij and fi = fi . Then (2.12) holds and
(0)
pij
(0)
+ fi = 0.
xj
(2.13)
The pre-stressed body will be deformed by time-dependent body for es (e.g., an

earthquake in the Earth's rust). In the ase of a su iently small additional
stress (and only then), the following separation is valid
(0)
(0)
(1)
fi = fi
pij = pij + pij
(1)
+ fi .
With (2.13), it follows from (2.12), that
(1)
pij
2 ui
(1)
+ fi .
2 =
t
xj
This means that the displa ement
ui
from the pre-stressed state depends only
pij
pij = 0 and
on the additional stress and the additional body for es. In the following,
and
fi
in (2.12) will always be understood in that sense, i.e., at rest
26
CHAPTER 2.
fi = 0 .
This assumption is su ient for the study of elasti body and surfa e
waves in the Earth. In the ase of normal modes and tides, where large depth
pij
ranges and even the whole Earth moves,
in (2.12) is the omplete stress
tensor, in luding the hydrostati ontribution.
In this ase,
fi
represents all
external for es, in luding the gravitational for e of the Earth itself. The reason
for this is that, in this ase, be ause of the large size of the hydrostati pressure
during deformation, the hange of this pressure annot be negle ted. A simple
example is seen in the the radial modes of a sphere whi h have
larger
periods if
hydrostati pressure and gravitational for e are in luded.
Exer ise 2.6

Derive the equation of motion without assuming the symmetry of the stress
tensor
pij ;
then derive this symmetry from the moment equation (2.11). Hint:
In the rst part, use the stress ve tor in the form
Pi = pji nj
instead of (2.9). In
the se ond part, write (2.11) by omponents and use the result of the rst part.
2.4 Stress-strain relations

2.4.1 Generalised Hooke's Law
If a body in an unperturbed onguration shows a deformation asso iated with
a length hange, this body is under stress. This means that in ea h point of the
body a relation between the omponents of the stress tensor and the deformation
tensor exists
pij = fij (11 , 12 , . . . , 33 ; a1 , a2 , . . . , an ).

As indi ated, other independent parameters
an o ur. Generally,
with
pij
< < t.
at time
ak ,
(2.14)
su h as time and temperature,
an depend on the previous history at times
If, for example, a beam has suered extreme bending
in the past, its behaviour will be dierent. The general study of (2.14) and a
orresponding lassi ation of materials as elasti , plasti and vis o-elasti ,
is the topi of
rheology.
is su ient, namely that
kl
et .
For seismology, generally the most simple form of (2.14)
pij
at a point depends only on the present values of
at that point. In this ase, from
kl = 0
, it follows
pij = 0,
i.e., deformation
eases instantly if the stress eases. This means
pij = fij (11 , 12 , . . . , 33 )

fij (0, 0, . . . , 0) = 0.
If these onditions hold, this state is alled
deformation,
pij
is a linear fun tion of all
ideal elasti ity.
kl
(2.15)
Under innitesimal
(expansion of (2.15) at
kl = 0
2.4.
27
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS
pij
cijkl kl
cijkl
elasti ity onstants.
Linear elasti ity theory
(SC
twi e)
(2.16)
studies elasti pro esses in bodies under the following
assumptions:
1. The deformations are innitesimal.

2. The stress-strain relations are linear.
The important assumption is 1.
The well-known
Hooke's Law,
for the stret hing of a wire or the shearing of a
ube, is a spe ial ase of (2.16). Equation (2.16) is, therefore, alled generalised
Hooke's law.
Its range of appli ability has to be determined by experiments
or observation. The relation in the following sket h holds, for example, for the
stret hing of a wire. Between
unit of the ross se tion
p11
E=
orresponds to (2.16) (
and
the relation between for e per square
and the relative hange in length
11
is linear and
Young's modulus).
Fig. 2.13: Sket h for the stret hing of a wire.
Between
and
the relation is no longer linear but still orresponds to ideal
elasti behaviour, i.e., if

Beyond
p11
is redu ed to zero, no deformation
11
remains.
irreversible deformation o urs (plasti behaviour, ow of material).
Finally the wire ruptures.
28
CHAPTER 2.
The tensor of 4th degree cijkl has 81 (9 x 9 =) omponents. Due to the symmetry
of the deformation and stress tensors, only 36 (6 x 6 =) omponents are independent from ea h other. Sin e the elasti deformation energy (= elasti energy
per unit volume) is onserved, this number redu es further to 21 omponents
(see, e.g., pg. 268-269 in Sommerfeld). This is the maximum number of elasti ity onstants an
anisotropi
body an have. For spe ial forms of anisotropy,
and espe ially for isotropy, this number redu es further. For isotropi bodies
whi h do not have preferred dire tions, only two elasti onstants remain. The
stress-strain relations
(2.16) an then be written as
pij = ij + 2ij
where
and
(2.17)
are Lams elasti ity onstant and elasti ity parameter, respe -
tively (both of whi h an be spatially dependent),
= 11 + 22 + 33 is the ubi dilatation, and

1 for i = j
: is the Krone ker symbol
ij =
0 otherwise
or unit tensor
2.4.2 Derivation of (2.17)

We hoose the main axis system of the stress tensor as the oordinate system,
whi h under isotropy is identi al to that of the deformation tensor. We, furthermore, have the main stress and deformation omponents
main deformations
E1 , E2 , E3 ,
P1 , P2 , P3
and the
respe tively, whi h have a linear relation. In the
isotropi ase, this be omes
The oe ient of
E2
and
P1
aE1 + b(E2 + E3 )
P2
P3
=
=
aE2 + b(E1 + E3 )
aE3 + b(E1 + E2 ).
E3
in the equation for
P1
have to be the same, sin e
for an isotropi body the main axes 2 and 3 ontribute equally to the main stress
P1 .
The same holds for the other two equations. From this, it follows that
Pi
where the onstants
= (a b)Ei + b(E1 + E2 + E3 )
= 2Ei + (E1 + E2 + E3 ),
and
(2.18)
b have been repla ed by the Lam parameters and
respe tively. This shows that (2.17) for the main axis oordinate system has
no shear omponent of the deformation tensor and no shear stress.
2.4.
29
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS
Using (2.4) for the transformation of tensor omponents, the stress and deformations omponents in any oordinate system an be given as
p11
a211 P1 + a221 P2 + a231 P3
p22
p12
=
=
a212 P1 + a222 P2 + a232 P3

a11 a12 P1 + a21 a22 P2 + a31 a32 P3
p23
a12 a13 P1 + a22 a23 P2 + a32 a33 P3
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
11
= a211 E1 + a221 E2 + a231 E3

.
.
.
12
= a11 a12 E1 + a21 a22 E2

+a31 a32 E3
(2.19)
For the dire tional osines it holds that
aik ail = kl
(SC).
Using (2.18) in the left equation of (2.19) and using the equations on the right
gives
p11
211 + (E1 + E2 + E3 )
p22
p12
=
=
222 + (E1 + E2 + E3 )
212
p23
223
.
.
.
The relations for shear stress already have the nal form; those for the normal
stress an be brought to the nal form with the tensor invariants
11 + 22 + 33 .
Expressing
kl
E1 +E2 +E3 =
This on ludes the proof of (2.17).

in terms of the derivative of the displa ement ve tor, (2.17) an
be written in Cartesian oordinates as
pii
pij
u1
u2
u3
ui
+
+
) + 2
x1
x2
x3
xi
ui
uj
= (
+
)
(i 6= j).
xj
xi
= (
(no
SC!)
Equation (2.17) also holds in urved, orthogonal oordinates, like ylinder and
spheri al oordinates, respe tively, if the deformation tensor is given in these
oordinates ( ompare se tion 2.1.5).
pij
refers then to the oordinate surfa es
30
CHAPTER 2.
of the orresponding system.
Finally, it should be noted that
pij
is usually
understood as a stress added to a pre-stressed onguration.

The assumption that ro ks and material of the deep Earth are isotropi is often valid. The rystals whi h make up the ro k building minerals are, on the
other hand, mostly anisotropi , but if they are randomly oriented, the material
appears ma ros opi ally isotropi .
2.4.3. Additions
Thermo-elasti stress-strain relations
These are examples of relations in whi h stress not only depends on deformation, but also on other parameters, e.g., temperature ( = volume expansion
oe ient,
T T0
= temperature hange)
2
pij = ij + 2ij ( + )(T T0 )ij .
3
Relation between and and other elasti ity parameters

E = Young's modulus
= Poisson's ratio
k = Bulk modulus
= Rigidity
E=
(3 + 2)
+
=
In ideal uids
0.5.
2(+)
E
(1+)(12)
2
k =+
3
E
.
=
2(1 + )
= = 0, there is no resistan e to shearing.
Then
k=
and
Within the framework of elasti ity theory, uids and gases behave identi-
ally, but the bulk modulus of uids is signi antly larger than that of gases.
Their Poisson's ratio
lies between -1 and 0.5; negative
pare Exer ise 2.8). For ro ks,
is usually lose to 0.25;
values are rare ( om = 0.25 means = .
Exer ise 2.7

Derive the formula for k. k is dened as the ratio
a body is under pressure
< 0.
in an experiment in whi h
from all sides and has the relative volume hange
Des ribe the deformation and the stress tensor and then the stress-strain
relation.
2.5.
31
EQUATION OF MOTION, BOUNDARY AND INITIAL ...
Exer ise 2.8

E
p11
Derive the formula for
and .
is dened as the ratio
11 and is the
22
ratio
in an experiment, in whi h a wire or rod is under extension for e p11
11
in the 1-dire tion (11 = extension, 22 = perpendi ular ontra tion, 33 =
?, p22 =?, p33 =?).
Pro eed as in exer ise 2.7. What is the meaning of
< 0?
2.5 Equation of motion, boundary and initial onditions

2.5.1 Equation of motion
pij ,
Using (2.17) in the equation of motion (2.12), whi h depends on
this equa-
tion only depends on the omponents of the displa ement ve tor
If
and
2 ui
t2
xj (ij
+ 2ij ) + fi
h
ui
()
+
= x
xj xj +
i
uj
xi
i
+ fi
(2.20)
are independent of lo ation (homogeneous medium) it follows that

2
2 ui 2 ui
u3
u1 u2
ui
2 ui
+ fi
+
+
+
+
+
+
2 =
t
xi
x21
x22
x23
xi x1
x2
x3
2 ui
(2.21)
2 = ( + )
+ 2 ui + fi .
t
xi
This is the
equation of motion for homogeneous media
In symboli notation
in Cartesian oordinates.
( =
u)
2 ui
= ( + )
u + 2
u + f.
t2
This is only valid for Cartesian oordinates.

In Cartesian oordinates
(2.22)
u is the ve tor (2 u1 , 2 u2 , 2 u3 ).
2
u =
u
u.
2
(Verify that in urved orthogonal oordinates (2.23)
denes
and it is not identi al with the ve tor, whi h results from the
on the omponents.) Inserting (2.23) in (2.22) gives
(2.23)
u,
2
2
appli ation of
the ve tor
32
CHAPTER 2.
2
u
= ( + 2)
u
u + f.
2
t
(2.24)
This form of the equation of motion is independent of the oordinate system.

It is the starting point for the following se tion: a ording to se tion 2.3,
ontains only the body for es whi h a t in addition to those of the for es at rest.
2.5.2 Boundary onditions

On a surfa e in whi h at least one material parameter
or
is dis ontinuous,
the stress ve tor, relative to the normal dire tion of this surfa e, is ontinuous.
To show this, onsider a small at ir ular ylinder of thi kness 2d whi h en loses
the boundary between the two media.
The sum of all for es a ting on the
ylinder (body for es in the interior and surfa e for es on its surfa e) has to be
zero.
2d
Medium 1
Medium 2
-P 2
P1
n
-n
P2
Fig. 2.14: Cir ular ylinder of thi kness 2d en losing the boundary between two
media.
In the limit
d 0,
only the surfa e for es on the top and bottom surfa e
f ,
have to be onsidered
P1 f + (P2 )f = 0.
From this, it follows that
P1 = P2 .
tangential stress are ontinuous.
This means that at boundaries
normal and
For the displa ement, it holds that at a solid-solid boundary, all omponents
are ontinuous (no sliding possible). At a solid-liquid or liquid-liquid boundary
only the normal displa ement is ontinuous.
Example:
z = 0.
ux , uy , uz , and the stresses are pxx , pyy , pzz , pxy , pxz , pyz .
boundary onditions z = 0 for the dierent ombinations of half-spa es are
A body onsists of two half-spa es, separated by a plane at
The displa ements are

The
2.5.
solid
uid
uid uid
solid rigid
uid rigid
solid va uum
uid va uum
solid
solid
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
ux , uy , uz , pxz , pyz , pzz ontinuous

uz , pzz ontinuous, pxz = pyz = 0
uz , pzz ontinuous
ux = uy = uz = 0
uz = 0

pxz = pyz = pzz = 0
free surfa e
pzz = 0
If at a surfa e with the normal ve tor
Pi ),
ni ,
the stress is not zero (stress ve tor
(r)
(r)
the stress ve tor in the body has to a quire this boundary value
pij nj = Pi .
pij
33
EQUATION OF MOTION, BOUNDARY AND INITIAL ...
(2.25)
are the boundary values of the omponents of the stress tensor at the sur-
fa e, and they an be al ulated from (2.25).
Example:
P (t)
on a plane surfa e. For the ase of pressure
P(t)
....x=0
x
Fig. 2.15: Pressure on a plane surfa e.
n = (1, 0, 0) = (n1 , n2 , n3 )
P = (P (t), 0, 0) = (P1 , P2 , P3 )
Equation (2.25) yields
(r)
pi1 = Pi
or
p11 = pxx = P (t)

p12 = pxy = 0
p13 = pxz = 0
for
x = 0.
Similarly, displa ements an be pres ribed on the surfa es of a body.
34
CHAPTER 2.
2.5.3 Initial onditions

The initial onditions pres ribe the spatial distribution of ertain parameters,
in our ase the displa ement
ui (x1 , x2 , x3 , t) and the parti le velo ity ui /t for
t=0
ui
(x1 , x2 , x3 , 0) = f2 (x1 , x2 , x3 ).
t
ui (x1 , x2 , x3 , 0) = f1 (x1 , x2 , x3 ),
The general wave propagation solution is an initial and a boundary problem,

i.e., in addition to the equation of motion, the boundary and initial onditions
have to be satised. Normally in seismologi al appli ations
f1 = f2 = 0 ,
and
no spe ial initial onditions have to be satised. The main problems are then
to onsider the boundary onditions.
2.6 Displa ement potentials and wave types

2.6.1 Displa ement potentials
A ve tor
an, in general, be des ribed as
u = +
where
s alar potential
is a
and
ve tor potential.
(2.26)
In our ase, where
is
is
a displa ement eld, both are alled displa ement potentials. (Do not onfuse
them with the
is alled
given,
elasti
potential, i.e., the elasti deformation energy.)
ompression potential
and
and
shear potential.
If the ve tor
an be omputed ( ompare exer ise 2.9)
u
r
1
dV
3
4
r
Z
u
r
1
dV.
=
3
4
r
=
Ve tor
(with absolute value r) points from the volume element
point where
For
and
dV
to the
are omputed. The integration overs the whole volume.
there is the additional requirement that
= 0.
(2.27)
has to be determined in Cartesian oordinates.
(2.28)
2.6.
DISPLACEMENT POTENTIALS AND WAVE TYPES
in (2.26) is alled
ompressional part
of
u.
35
It is free of rotation and
url. A ording to se tion 2.1.4, the volume elements suer no rigid rotation,
but only a deformation, whi h, in general, onsists of a volume hange and a
shear omponent (in the sense of exer ise 2.2; se tion 2.1).
In the main axis
system of the deformation tensor, only volume hanges o ur ( ompression or

dilatation).
The ontribution
in (2.26) is alled
shear omponent.
It
is free of divergen e and sour e ontributions; the volume elements suer no

volume hange, but shear deformation and rigid rotation.
Similarly to (2.26), the body for e
in (2.24) an be split into
f = + .
Do not onfuse the ve tor potentials
and
(2.29)
Using (2.26) and (2.29) in (2.24) gives
#
2
2
= ( + 2) 2 + + .
2 +
t
t2
"
(2.30)
We try now to equate all the gradient terms and also, separately, the rotation
terms of this equation.
If the resulting dierential equations an be solved,
(2.30) and, therefore, (2.24) are satised. This leads to
2

2 ( + 2)2
=0
t
#
"
= 0.
2 +
t
Sin e the ontent of the square bra kets has to vanish
1 2
=
2
2
t
+ 2
2
1
2
=
t2
2 =
+ 2
2 =
(2.31)
and have to be determined from f using (2.27). If no
body for es a t, = 0 and = 0. The equation for is an inhomogeneous
wave equation. In Cartesian oordinates the omponents of give also inhoThe potentials
mogeneous wave equations due to (2.23) and (2.28). In other oordinates, the
equations for the omponents of
look dierent ( ompare exer ise 2.10).
36
CHAPTER 2.
Both simpli ations used are, as experien e has shown, justied. The problem
an, therefore, be solved either via (2.24) or (2.31). In more ompli ated ases,
(2.31) is easier to solve. In this ase, the boundary onditions for displa ement
and stress have to be expressed as those for
and
2.6.2 Wave types

The general dis ussion of the dierential equations (2.31) shows that they have
solutions whi h orrespond to
waves
(for details, see se tion 3.1). Perturbations
ompressional
in the ompressional part of the displa ement ve tor propagate as

1/2
with the velo ity = (( + 2)/)
through the medium. Perturba1/2
.
tions in the shear part propagate as shear waves with the velo ity = (/)
waves
Thus, we have found the two basi wave types, whi h an propagate in a solid
medium. For ro ks, it usually holds that = . In this ase, it follows that
/ = 31/2 . In liquid or gases, only ompressional waves (
) an
sound waves
propagate sin e
= 0.
Often ompressional waves are alled

alled
transverse waves.
longitudinal waves
and shear waves are
The displa ement ve tor in a longitudinal wave is par-
allel to the propagation dire tion and perpendi ular to it in a transverse wave.
A ompressional wave is, in general, primarily longitudinally polarised, and a
shear wave is primarily transversely polarised. The identi ation is, therefore,
not fully valid.
There exist spe ial ases in whi h a ompressional wave is
transversal and a shear wave is longitudinal (see se tion 3.5.1 and exer ise 3.5
in hapter 3).
The seismologi al names for ompressional and shear waves are
S-waves, respe tively.
P-waves
and
This indi ates that the P-wave is the rst wave arriving
at a station from an earthquake (P from primary), whereas the S-wave arrives

later (S from se ondary).
In a homogeneous medium, ompressional waves and shear waves are
de oupled,
i.e., they propagate independently from ea h other. This no longer holds for inhomogeneous media in whi h
point to point.
and/or
and, therefore,
and
vary from
But in this ase, usually two wave types propagate through
the medium, and the travel times of their rst onsets are determined by the
velo ity distribution of
and
respe tively. The faster of the two waves is no
longer a pure ompressional wave but ontains a shear omponent. The slower
wave is, orrespondingly, not a pure shear wave but ontains a ompressional
ontribution.
This be omes plausible if one approximates an inhomogeneous
medium by pie e-wise homogeneous media. Satisfying the boundary onditions

at the interfa es between the homogeneous media usually requires, on
both sides,
the existen e of ompressional and shear waves. Details on this will be given
in se tion 3.6.2.
Compressional and shear waves whi h are de oupled in ho-
mogeneous se tions of the medium, reate ree ted and refra ted waves of the
other type, respe tively, at interfa es. This hange in wave type o urs ontinuously in ontinuous media and is stronger the stronger the hanges in
, ,
2.6.
DISPLACEMENT POTENTIALS AND WAVE TYPES
and/or
37
per wave length are. The theory for ontinuous inhomogeneous media
is mu h more ompli ated then the theory for pie e-wise homogeneous media.
Media in whi h
and
depend only on
one
oordinate, e.g., depth, an,
for many seismologi al appli ations, be approximated by layers of homogeneous

media. For su h ongurations, ee tive methods for the use of omputers exist.
Exer ise 2.9

Show (2.27) by omparing (2.26) with the equation
a =
a
a
2
and onsider, that the Possion equation
nates) the solution
a =
4
2
a =
u
has (in Cartesian oordi-
u dV.
r
Exer ise 2.10

Write (2.26) in ylindri al oordinates
(r, , z) under the ondition that the
- omponent of
u is zero (r =
medium is ylindri ally symmetri , and the
z = 0).
What is the form of (2.31) for vanishing body for es?
Exer ise 2.11

Show that in a liquid with onstant density , but variable ompressional module
2
k and pressure p, satises the wave equation 2 p = 12 t2p with spatially varying
1/2
sound velo ity = (k/)
.
Hint: Derive from the equation of motion (2.12) without body for es, the equa
u /t2 = p and apply then the divergen e operation i.e. (p =
2
tion
k
u ).
38
CHAPTER 2.
Chapter 3
Body waves
3.1 Plane body waves
The most simple types of waves an be derived, if for an unbounded medium
(full-spa e), solutions of the equation of motion are determined whi h depend
only on
one
spatial oordinate. For example, we look for a solution of (2.21)
or (2.24) in the form of

depends only on
form of
on
u = (ux (x, t), 0, 0),
and the time
u = (0, uy (x, t), 0),
i.e.,
t.
i.e.,
points in
x -dire tion
and
Alternatively, we look for a solution in the
points in
y -dire tion and depends also only
and . In the rst ase, it follows from (2.21) for
2 ux
1 2 ux
= 2
,
2
x
t2
2 =
fi = 0
+ 2
,
and in the se ond ase,
1 2 uy
2 uy
=
,
x2
2 t2
These are
one dimensional wave equations.
2 =
In the following, we onsider the
general form
1 2u
2u
=
.
x2
c2 t2
(3.1)
The most general solution of this equation is
u(x, t) = F (x ct) + G(x + ct),

39
(3.2)
40
CHAPTER 3.
where
F(x)
and
G(x)
BODY WAVES
are any twi e dierentiable fun tions ( he k that (3.2)
solves (3.1)). Another form is

x
x
u(x, t) = F t
+G t+
.
c
c
(3.3)
The rst and the se ond term in (3.2) and (3.3) have to be interpreted as waves
propagating in the positive and negative
the rst term in (3.3) for
x = x1
x -dire tion, respe tively.
For example,
an be written as

x1
= F1 (t).
u(x1 , t) = F t
c
For another distan e
x2 > x1

x2 x1
x2 x1
x2
x1
=F t
= F1 t
.
u(x2 , t) = F t
c
c
c
c
t at distan e x2 the same ee ts o ur as at distan e

t (x2 x1 )/c. This orresponds to a wave whi h has
x2 in the time (x2 x1 )/c. The propagation velo ity is,
This means that for time
x1
at the earlier time
travelled from
therefore,
x1
The
to
wavefronts
of this wave, i.e., the surfa es between perturbed
and unperturbed regions, are the planes
x=
onst. Therefore, these are
plane
waves. If G(x) in (3.2) or G(t) in (3.3) are not zero, two plane waves propagate
in opposite dire tions.
In the ase of
u = ux , we have a longitudinal wave (polarisation in

u = uy , we have a transverse wave
of propagation); in ase of
perpendi ular to the dire tion of propagation).

Harmoni waves an be represented as
the dire tion

(polarisation
h
x i
u(x, t) = A exp i(t ) = A exp [i(t kx)]
c
A=
Amplitude (real or omplex), = angular frequen y = /2 = freT = 1/ = period, k = /c= wavenumber and = 2/k = wave length.
Between c, and the well-known relation c = holds. The use of the omwith
quen y,
plex exponential fun tion in the des ription of plane harmoni waves is more
onvenient than the use of the real sine and osine fun tions. In the following,
only the exponential fun tion will be used.
3.2 The initial value problem for plane waves

We look for the solution of the one-dimensional wave equation (3.1) whi h satises the initial onditions
3.2.
THE INITIAL VALUE PROBLEM FOR PLANE WAVES
u(x, 0) = f (x)
41
for displa ement and
u
(x, 0) = g(x)
t
for parti le velo ity.
This is an initial value problem of a linear
ordinary
dierential equation, e.g.,
the problem to determine the movement of a pendulum, if initial displa ement
t=0, it also holds that
and initial velo ity are given. We start from (3.2). For
F (x) + G(x)
= f (x)
(3.4)
= g(x).
(3.5)
cF (x) + cG (x)
Integrating (3.5) with respe t to
x, gives
F (x) G(x) =
1
c
g()d.
(3.6)
From the addition of (3.4) and (3.6), it follows that
1
F (x) =
2

Z
1 x
f (x)
g()d ,
c
and from the subtra tion of these two equations that
G(x) =
1
2

Z
1 x
f (x) +
g()d .
c
1
1
u(x, t) = {f (x ct) + f (x + ct)} +
2
2c
x+ct
g()d.
xct
This solution satises the wave equation and the initial onditions ( he k). We
will dis uss
two spe ial ases.
3.2.1 Case 1
g(x) = 0,
i.e., the initial velo ity is zero. Then
u(x, t) =
1
{f (x ct) + f (x + ct)} .
2
42
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
Two snap shots (Fig. 3.1) for t=0 and for t>0, illustrate this result.
u(x,0)
f(x)
t=0
ct
ct
u(x,t)
f(x-ct)
f(x+ct)
t>0
Fig. 3.1: Snap shots of two plane waves.
Two plane waves propagate from the point of ex itation in both dire tions with
the velo ity
t=0.
A pra ti al example is a stret hed rope with the form
f (x)
for
3.2.2 Case 2
f (x) = 0, i.e., the initial displa ement is zero. Furthermore, we assume g(x) =
V0 (x). (x) is Dira 's delta fun tion (see appendix A.3). g(x) orresponds to
an impulse at x = 0. V0 has the dimension of velo ity times length. Then
u(x, t) =
The sket h (Fig.
V0
2c
x+ct
()d.
xct
3.2) shows the value of the integrand and the integration
interval for a xed point in time
t>0
and for a lo ation
x > 0.
3.3.
SIMPLE BOUNDARY VALUE PROBLEMS FOR PLANE WAVES
43
Fig. 3.2: Value of the integrand and the integration interval of u(x,t).
Only when the integration interval in ludes the point
= 0,
does the integral
be ome non-zero. Then it always has the value of 1
u(x, t) =
H(t)
is the
V0
2c H(t
xc )
for x>0
V0
2c H(t
+ xc )
for x<0
Heaviside step fun tion, H(t) = 0 for t < 0, H(t) = 1 for t 0.
The displa ement jumps at
t = |x| /c
from zero to the value
V0 /2c.
3.3 Simple boundary value problems for plane

waves
The simplest boundary value problem is to determine the displa ement within
a half-spa e for a time dependent pressure
half-spa e. Sin e the displa ement
P (t)
only has an
at the surfa e
x = 0
x- omponent, ux
of this
and sin e
is the only expli it spatial oordinate, the one-dimensional wave equation (3.1)
for a plane ompressional wave is appli able
1 2 ux
2 ux
= 2
.
2
x
t2
The solution for the ase onsidered here is

x
ux (x, t) = F t
,
44
CHAPTER 3.
sin e a wave an only propagate in + -dire tion.
Fun tion
BODY WAVES
F (t)
has to be
determined from the boundary ondition that the stress ve tor adapts without
jump to the imposed stress ve tor at the free surfa e
x = 0 ( ompare (2.25) and
in se tion 2.5.2)
pxx = P (t)
and
pxy = pxz = 0
The stress-strain relation (2.17) gives rst, that
for
pxy
x = 0.
and
pxz
are zero everywhere
in the medium, and se ond that
pxx = ( + 2)
For
x = 0,

ux
x
x
+ 2
= F t
.
=
F t
x
it follows that
F (t) = P (t)
and after integration
1
F (t) =
For this, we assumed that
1
P ( )d =
P (t) = 0
for
t < 0.
P ( )d.
o
Then, the displa ement an be
written as
1
u(x, t) =
tx/
P ( )d.
The displa ement is proportional to the time integral of the pressure on the
surfa e of the half-spa e. If a short impulse
ux (x, t) =
P0
P (t) = P0 (t)
a ts, it follows that,
P0
x
.
H t
has the dimension pressure times time (see also appendix A, se tion A.3.1).
t = x/, all points in the half-spa e are displa ed instantly by

P 0 / in +x-dire tion and remain xed in this position. For P 0 = 1 bar se =
9.81 Nse / m2 106 dyn se / m2 , = 3 g/ m3 and = 6 km/se the displa e-
At the time
ment is approximately 0.5 m.
This boundary value problem is simple enough so that it ould be solved dire tly
with the equation of motion (2.21) or (2.24). One ould have also worked with
3.4.
45
SPHERICAL WAVES FROM EXPLOSION POINT SOURCES
displa ement potentials
and
and their dierential equations (2.31) (show).
Exer ise 3.1

The tangential stress
T (t)
a ts on the surfa e of a half-spa e.
What is the
displa ement in the half-spa e? Appli ation: The tangential stress on the rup6
2
ture surfa e of earthquakes is 50 bar = 50 10 dyn/ m (stress drop). What is
3
the parti le velo ity (on the rupture surfa e) for ( = 3 g/ m , = 3.5 km/se )?
Exer ise 3.2

An elasti layer of thi kness H overlies a rigid half-spa e. Pressure
P (t)
a ts on
the top of the elasti layer. What is the movement in the layer? Examine the
ase
P (t) = P 0 (t).
Exer ise 3.3

Solve the stati problem of exer ise 3.2 ( onstant pressure
P1
on the surfa e).
3.4 Spheri al waves from explosion point sour es

In the previous se tions, we onsidered innitely extended waves.
They are
an idealisation, be ause they annot be produ ed in reality sin e they require

innitely extended sour es. The most simple wave type from sour es with -
spheri al waves, i.e., waves whi h originate at a point (point

sour e ) and propagate in the full-spa e. Their wavefronts are spheres.
In the most simple ase, the displa ement ve tor is radially oriented and also
radially symmetri relative to the point sour e, i.e., the radial displa ement on
nite extension are
a sphere around the point sour e is the same everywhere. If a spheri al explosion in a homogeneous medium far from interfa es is triggered, the resulting
displa ement has these two properties. Therefore, we all these
sour es.
explosions point
The results derived with the linear elasti ity theory an only be applied
to spheri al waves from explosions in the distan e range in whi h the prerequisites of the theory (innitesimal deformation, linear stress-strain relation) are
satised. In the
plasti zone, the shattered zone and the non-linear zone
(this is
a rough lassi ation with in reasing distan e from the entre of the explosion)
these requirements are not met.
For a nu lear explosion of 1 Megaton TNT
equivalent (approximately mb = 6.5 to 7.0), the shattered zone is roughly 1 to

2 km wide.
We plan to solve the following boundary problem: given the radial displa ement
at distan e
for
r = r1
from the point sour e
U (r1 , t) = U1 (t), we want to nd U (r, t)
r > r1 .
We start from the equation of motion (2.24) with
f = 0.
This is how the
problem is solved in appendix A (appendix A.2.2) using the Lapla e transform.
46
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
Here, more simply, the displa ement potential from se tion 2.6 will be used. In
this ase, the shear potential is zero, sin e a radially symmetri radial ve tor
an be derived solely from the ompressional potential
(r, t) =
U (r , t)dr .
In spheri al oordinates (r, , ), it holds that
=
For
1
r , r , r sin
the wave equation with
2 =
=0
= (U (r, t), 0, 0).
an by written a ording to (2.31) as
2 2
1 2
1 2 (r)
+
= 2 2
=
2
2
r
r r
r r
t
2 (r)
1 2 (r)
= 2
.
2
r
t2
(3.7)
In the ase of radial symmetry, the wave equation an be redu ed to the form
of a one-dimensional wave equation for Cartesian oordinates for the fun tion
r,
1 2u
2u
=
,
x2
2 t2
.
The most general solution for (3.7) is ,therefore,
(r, t) =
r
r o
1n
F (t ) + G(t + ) .
r
This des ribes the superposition of two ompressional waves, one propagating
outward from the point sour e and the other propagating inwards towards the
point sour e. In realisti problems, the se ond term is always zero and
(r, t) =
Fun tion
potential.
F (t)
is often alled the
1
r
.
F t
r
ex itation fun tion
The wavefronts are the spheres
(3.8)
or redu ed displa ement
r = onst.
The potential as a
fun tion of time has the same form everywhere, and the amplitudes de rease
with distan e as
1/r.
The radial displa ement of the spheri al wave onsists of
two ontributions with dierent dependen e on
3.4.
SPHERICAL WAVES FROM EXPLOSION POINT SOURCES
U (r, t) =
1
r
r
1
.
= 2F t
F t
r
r
47
(3.9)
These two terms, therefore, hange their form with in reasing distan e. Generally, this holds for the displa ement of waves from a point sour e. The rst
term in (3.9) is alled
near-eld term sin e it dominates for su iently small r.

far-eld term and des ribes with su ient a ura y the
The se ond term is the
displa ement for distan es from the point sour e whi h are larger then several
F (t) = eit ). That means there the displa ement
wave lengths (show this for

redu es proportional to
1/r.
From the boundary ondition
r = r1 ,
it follows that
1
1
r1
r1
2F t
= U1 (t).
F t
r1
r1
We hoose the origin time so that
U1 (t) only begins to be non-zero for t = r1 /.
It, therefore, appears as if the wave starts at time t = 0 at the point sour e

r
(r = 0). If U 1 t 1 = U1 (t), it holds that U 1 (t) is already non-zero for t > 0.
r
With = t 1 , it follows that
1
1
F ( ) + 2 F ( ) = U 1 ( ).
r1
r1
(3.10)
The solution of (3.10) an be found with the Lapla e transform (see se tion
A.2.1.1 of appendix A).
Sin e the riterion (A.16) of appendix A is satised for all physi ally realisti displa ements
U 1 ( ),
1
r1
F (+0) of F ( ) is zero. Therefore,

F ( ) f (s) and U 1 ( ) u1 (s) gives
the initial value
transformation of (3.10)with
s
1
+
r1
f (s) = u1 (s)
f (s) = r1
With
s+
r1
1
1
u1 (s)
s + r1
(3.11)
e r1
(see appendix A, se tion A.1.4), and using on-
volution (see appendix A, equation A.7), the inverse transformation of (3.11)

reads as
F ( ) = r1
From this, it follows
U 1 ()e
r ( )
1
d.
48
CHAPTER 3.
F ( ) = r1 U 1 ( ) + 2
The radial displa ement for
U (r, t) =
with the
r1
r
r > r1
BODY WAVES
U 1 ()e r1 ( ) d.
then an be written using (3.9) as

Z

1
1
( )
d
U 1 ( ) +
U 1 ()e r1
r
r1
0
retarded time = t r .
(3.12)
This solves the boundary problem.
Appli ations
1.
U1 (t) = U 0 t
r1
The dimension of
U0
, i.e., U 1 (t) = U 0 (t).

is time times length. Equation (3.12) is valid also in
this ase (see appendix A)

1
r1
1
r
1
U (r, t) = U 0 ( ) +
e
H( ) .
r
r
r1
=0 (t=r/)
Fig. 3.3: U(r,t) as a fun tion of time.
2.
U1 (t) = U0 H t
r1
The dimension of
U0
U (r, t)
=
=
=
, i.e. U 1 (t) = U0 H(t).

is length. From (3.12), it follows

h r i=
r1
1
1
1 r
H( )
e r1
U0 H( ) +
e 1
r
r
r1
=0
n
r

o
r1
1
r
U0 H( ) 1 +
1 1e 1
r
r
n

r1
r1 r o
r1
U0 H( )
+ 1
e 1
.
r
r
r
3.5.
SPHERICAL WAVES FROM SINGLE FORCE AND DIPOLE ...
49
r1
r U0
r12
U0
r2
=0
Fig. 3.4: U(r,t) as a fun tion of time.
Exer ise 3.4

r1
a ts in a spheri al avity with radius r1 .
What is the dierential equation for the ex itation fun tion F (t) (analogue to
Pressure
P (t)
P (t) = 0 for t <
3.10)? In the ase of radial symmetry, the radial stress

radial displa ement
prr
is onne ted to the
as (show)
prr = ( + 2)
U
U
+ 2 .
r
r
Whi h frequen ies are preferably radiated (eigenvibrations of the avity)? This
an be derived / seen from the dierential equation without solving it ( ompare
to the dierential equation of the me hani al os illator, see appendix A.2.1.1).
Solve the dierential equation of
P (t) = P 0 (t r1 /).
3.5 Spheri al waves from single for e and dipole

point sour es
3.5.1 Single for e point sour e
A single for e in the entre of a Cartesian oordinate system a ting in z-dire tion
with a for e-time law
K(t)
has the for e density ( ompare appendix A.3.3)
f = (0, 0, (x) (y) (z) K(t)) .
50
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
z
K(t)
Fig. 3.5: Cartesian oordinate system with for e-time law
The separation
f = +
(x, y, z, t) =
=
(x, y, z, t) =
=
K(t).
is possible with the help of (2.27)
Z Z Z +
1
1
(z )()()()K(t)ddd
3
4
r
K(t)z
,
r2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2
4r3
(3.13)
Z Z Z +
1
1
{(y ), x , 0} ()()()K(t)ddd
3
4
r
K(t)
(3.14)
(y, x, 0).
4r3
If (3.13) and (3.14) are used in the dierential equation (2.31) of the displa e-
0 and that for x

hold; the same is
= (x , y , z )
z =
y , due to (2.23) and (2.28), the following wave equations
true for the ompression potential
ment potentials, it follows that for the shear potential

and
1 2
2 t2
1 2 x
2 x 2
t2
1 2 y
2 y 2
t2
2
=
=
=
K(t)z
42 r3
K(t)y
4 2 r3
K(t)x
.
4 2 r3
The solution of the inhomogeneous wave equation
3.5.
51
2 a
1 2a
= f (x, y, z, t)
c2 t2
an for vanishing initial onditions, be written as
1
a(x, y, z, t) =
4
ZZZ
1
f
r

r
ddd
, , , t
c
(3.15)
with
r2 = (x )2 + (y )2 + (z )2 .
Equation (3.15) is
Kir hho's Equation
for an innite medium. It is the ana-
logue to the well-known Poisson's dierential equation whi h is also a volume

integral over the perturbation fun tion ( ompare exer ise 2.9). Equation (3.15)
an also be omputed in non-Cartesian oordinates, something we now use.
Appli ation of the wave equation for

(r , , ) relative to point P . is dened,
Cartesian oordinate system (x, y, z ).
We introdu e the spheri al oordinates

see sket h, via an additional
Fig. 3.6: Additional Cartesian oordinate system (x, y, z ).
The
x-axis of
then in the
OP. The z -axis is

OP. Then the z, -axis has
of this oordinate system is identi al to the line
in the plane dened by the
zand -axis
x y z -system
and the line
the dire tion of the unit ve tor
n = (cos , 0, sin ) =
1 )

z2 2
z
.
, 0, 1 2
r
r
52
CHAPTER 3.
Ve tor
from
to
BODY WAVES
an be written in the same system as
r = (r r cos , r sin sin , r sin cos ).

These two ve tors are needed later. Equation (3.15) an for
then be written
as
and
1
(x, y, z, t) =
16 2 2
We still must express
r2

K t
r3
r
2
0
in terms of
r ,
and
r2 sin d d dr .
1

z
z2 2
= r n = (r r cos ) + 1 2
r sin cos
r
r
= r2 + r2 2rr cos
(rule
of osine).
This gives
(x, y, z, t) =
1
16 2 2
Z Z Z
0

z 1
r
r

cos + r 1
r3 1 +
r 2
r2

r
r sin d d dr .
K t
The part of the integrand with
cos does
z2
r2
21
sin cos
3
2 rr cos 2
not ontribute to the integration over

2 . With a = r/r and
The other part has only to be multiplied by
(1 a cos ) sin
(1 + a2 2a cos )
3
2
d =
=
=
=
=
=
1 + a2 2a cos
2a sin d
(1+a)2
1 + 21 (u 1 a2 )
3
2au 2
(1a)2
u
du
1
4a
(1+a)2
(1a)2
1
1
u2
1 a2
3
u2
du

du
o(1+a)2
1
1 n 1
2u 2 + 2(a2 1)u 2
4a
(1a)2
1
{1 + a |1 a|}
2a

1
1
1
(a + 1)(a 1)
+
2a
1+a 1a

2 f or 0 < a < 1
0 f or a > 1
3.5.
53
it follows that

Z r
z
r
dr
r
K
t
42 r3 0
Z r
z
K(t ) d.
4r3 0
(x, y, z, t) =
=
The wave equations for
and
are solved in a similar fashion. Therefore,
it is possible to write the potentials of the single for e point sour e as
(x, y, z, t)
x (x, y, z, t) =
y (x, y, z, t)
z (x, y, z, t)
with
r2
4r3 0 K(t ) d
r
R
x
K(t
)
d
4r 3 0
2
2
2
x +y +z .
z
4r 3
K(t ) d
Before we derive the displa ements, we hange to spheri al oordinates

relative to the single for e point sour e
K(t)
P
r
Fig. 3.7: Spheri al oordinates
(r, , ).
(3.16)
(r, , )
54
CHAPTER 3.
= r sin cos
= r sin sin
= r cos .
In spheri al oordinates, the shear potential has no

and for the
- omponent
BODY WAVES
r- and - omponent (show),
it holds that
x sin + y cos .
x
Fig. 3.8: x-y-plane of Fig. 3.7.
This gives
(r, , t)
(r, , t)
cos
4r 2
sin
4r 2
This equation does not depend on
u = +
The
K(t ) d
K(t ) d.
(3.17)
displa ement ve tor
an be written in spheri al oordinates (show) as
ur
1
r
0.
r sin (sin )
1
r r (r )
(3.18)
3.5.
55
This shows that the
P -wave following from is not purely longitudinal, but it

(in u ). Similarly, the S -wave following from
ontains a transverse omponent
is not purely transverse sin e ur ontains a shear omponent. The rst term
in u and the se ond in ur are near eld terms ( ompare exer ise 3.5). Here
we ompute only the far-eld terms of ur and u (only dierentiation of the
integrals in(3.17))
ur
u
cos
42 r K
sin
4 2 r K
t

(longitudinal P wave)
(transversal
The far-eld displa ements have, therefore, the form of the for e
with
1/r.
and the
(3.19)
S wave).
K(t) de reasing
The single for e point sour e has dire tionally dependent radiation,
far-eld radiation hara teristi s
are shown in Fig. 3.9.
Fig. 3.9: Far eld radiation hara teristi s of single for e point sour e.
The radiation hara teristi s (P- and S-waves) are ea h two ir les. Those for
2
2
the
-waves have a radius whi h is / larger then those of the P-waves. If
the
S
radiation angle is varied for xed r, the displa ements ur are proportional
to the distan e
OP 2 .
OP 1 ,
and the displa ements
The sign of the displa ement
radiation ir le to the se ond.

from that shown in Fig.
ur
are proportional to the distan e
hanges in transition from the rst
P-
The full 3-D radiation hara teristi s follows
3.9 by rotation around the dire tion of the for e.
S -wave is radiated in
P -wave is radiated (but
Within the framework of the far-eld equations (3.19), no

the dire tion of the for e, and perpendi ular to it, no
ompare exer ise 3.5).
The pra ti al use of the single for e point sour e, a ting perpendi ular on the
free surfa e, is that it is a good model for the ee t of a
by
vibro-seis
and often also for
explosions
drop weight, ex itation
detonated lose to the surfa e.
omplete solution requires the onsideration of the ee ts of the free surfa e,
but that is signi antly more ompli ated. Furthermore, the dieren es to the
56
CHAPTER 3.
full-spa e models for all
P -waves
and for
S -waves,
BODY WAVES
for radiation angles smaller
then 30 to 40 degrees, are small, respe tively.
Exer ise 3.5

Compute the omplete displa ement (3.18) using (3.17) and examine in parti 0
ular, the dire tions = 0 and = 90 . Whi h polarisation does the displa ement ve tor have, and at whi h times are arrivals to be expe ted? Compute for
K(t) = K0 H(t)
the stati displa ement
(t > r/).
3.5.2 Dipole point sour es

A for e dipole an be onstru ted from two opposing single for es whi h are
dipole with
moment for whi h the line onne ting the for es is perpendi ular to the dire tion
of the for e. The onne ting line for a "dipole without moment " points in the
a ting on two neighbouring points. Fig. 3.10 shows, on the left, a
dire tion of the for e.
Fig. 3.10: Single ouple and double ouple onstru ted from single for es.
Two dipoles with moment for whi h the sum over the moments is zero (right
in Fig. 3.10), are a good model for many earthquake sour es, i.e., in the ase
where the spatial radiation of earthquake waves of su iently large wave length
is similar to that of a double ouple model. The a tual pro esses a ting in the
earthquake sour e are naturally not four single for es. Usually, the ro k breaks
along a surfa e if the shear strength is ex eeded by the a umulation of shear
shear rupture ).
stress (
Another possibility is that the shear stress ex eeds the
stati fri tion on a pre-existing rupture surfa e. Sour e models from single for es
and dipoles are only
equivalent point sour es.
In the following, we derive the far-eld displa ement of the single ouple model
and give the results for the double ouple model.
ouple (with
x0 6= 0)
in Fig.
We start from the single
3.11 and ompute rst from (3.19) the
P -wave
3.5.
displa ement of for e
K(t)
with
x0 )2 + y 2 + z 2
ux
uy
=
uz
Cartesian
z
42 r 2 K
omponents

r
57
cos = z/r, r2 = (x
(x x0 )/r
y/r
z/r.
P(x,y,z)
y
r
K(t)
x0
x
-K(t)
Fig. 3.11: Single ouple model.
The displa ements

a tion shifted by
ux , uy , uz
of for e
K(t) with the two neighbouring points of

ux , uy , uz
an be determined using the Taylor expansion of
at the sour e oordinate
x0
and trun ating after the linear term. This leads, for
example, to
ux

ux
= ux +
.
x0
The single ouple displa ement then follows by superposition
ux = ux + ux =
ux
.
x0
To obtain the far-eld displa ement requires only the dierentiation of the for e
K(t r/) with respe t to r, and additional dierentiation r/x0 = (x

x0 )/r. The other terms with x0 ontribute only to the near eld, the amplitude
of whi h de reases faster then 1/r. This leads to
ux =

z
r 1 (x x0 ) x x0
.
42 r2

r
r
58
The
CHAPTER 3.
y-
and
z -displa ement
ux
uy
uz
As expe ted, the
are treated similarly. Therefore,
z(xx0 )
= 4
t
3 r3 K
P -displa ement

r
(x x0 )/r
y/r
z/r.
K(t),
(3.20)
of the single ouple is also longitudinal.
The for e dipole is dened stri tly by the limit

taneous in rease of
BODY WAVES
so that
0,
ombined with a simul-
lim K(t) = M (t)
0
remains nite (but non-zero).
M (t)
is alled
moment fun tion
of the dipole
with the dimensions of a rotational moment.

From (3.20) with
P -wave
z/r = cos
(x x0 )/r = sin cos ,

r-dire tion is
and
it follows that the
displa ement of the single ouple in
ur =
r
cos sin cos
.
t
M
43 r
In on luding, we now assume that
u =
x0 = 0.
For the
S -wave,
it follows similarly

sin sin cos
r
.
t
M
4 3 r
As for the single for e, the azimuthal omponent is zero. The following shows
the results for the single ouple and the radiation in the
z
P
y
r
Fig. 3.12: Single ouple in the x-z-plane.
x z -plane (y = 0)
3.5.
ur
2 cos
t
= sin8
3r M
sin2 cos
4 3 r M

t
59
(3.21)
= 0.
S
+ - P
- +
Fig. 3.13: Far eld displa ement of a single ouple.
0
The ratio of the maximum S -radiation (for = 90 ) to the maximum P
0
radiation (for = 45 ) is about 10, if 3. The radiation hara teristi s
in planes other then
y = 0
cos .
z=0
P.
Plane
x=0
is a
is one only for
follow from the one shown by multipli ation with
nodal plane
for
P-
as well as for
The far-eld displa ements for a double ouple in the
z
P
y
r
Fig. 3.14: Double ouple in the x-z-plane.
the plane
xz -plane are (see exer ise
3.6)
S -radiation;
60
CHAPTER 3.
ur
2 cos
sin4
t
3r M

2 cos
M t
cos4
3r
cos sin
4 3 r M

t r .
one
The moment fun tion in (3.22) is that of
ouple. The radiation hara teristi s in the
BODY WAVES
(3.22)
of the two dipoles of the double
x z -plane
are shown in Fig. 3.15.
- P
S
x
Fig. 3.15: Far eld displa ement of a double ouple.

The
P -radiation
of the double ouple has the same form as that of a single
S to P is
x = 0 and
ouple but is twi e as large; the ratio of the maximum radiation of

now about 5 (for
z = 0.
The
S -wave
An (innitesimal)
pla ement in
z -dire tion,
3). P -nodal
planes are the planes with
has no nodal planes, but only nodal dire tions (whi h?).
shear rupture,
x-dire tion
either in the plane
or in the plane
and perpendi ular to it. If, by using the
z = 0
with relative dis-
with relative displa ement in
radiates waves as a double ouple, i.e., (3.22) holds. A shear rup-
ture or earthquake, therefore, radiates no

of the
x = 0
P -waves in the dire tion of its rupture
distributions of the signs of rst motion
wave, the two nodal planes have been determined, the two possible rup-
ture surfa es are found. The determination of the
P -nodal plane of earthquakes
3.5.
fault plane solution ),
61
is an important aid in the study of sour e pro esses as
well as the study of large-s ale te toni s of a sour e region. Often the de ision
between the two options for the rupture surfa e an be made based on geologi al
arguments.
The moment fun tion of an earthquake with a smooth rupture, is, to a good
approximation, a step fun tion with non-vanishing rise time
M0 ,
the
moment
and nal value
of the earthquake (see Fig. 3.16). The far-eld displa ements
are then, a ording to (3.22), one-sided impulses.
M
M0
Fig. 3.16: Moment fun tion and far-eld displa ement of a smooth rupture.
Propagation ee ts in layered media, e.g., the Earth's rust, an hange the
impulse form. In reality, the displa ements look very often dierent, relative to
the one shown here, due to ompli ated rupture pro esses.
Exer ise 3.6

Derive the double ouple displa ement
ur
in (3.22) from the orresponding single
ouple displa ement in (3.21). Use equation (3.20) in Cartesian oordinates.
62
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
3.6 Ree tion and refra tion of plane waves at

plane interfa es
3.6.1 Plane waves with arbitrary propagation dire tion
In se tions 3.1 to 3.3 plane waves travelling in the dire tion of a oordinate axis
were used. In the following, we need plane waves with an arbitrary dire tion of
propagation. They an be des ribed by the following potentials
!#
x k
A exp i t
"
!#
x k
B exp i t
n.
"
Their variation with time is also harmoni .
(3.23)
(3.24)
This assumption is su ient for
n are onstant unit ve tors,

B are onstant, k and
x is the lo ation ve tor, is the angular frequen y and i the imaginary unit.
and the omponents of satisfy the wave equation (please onrm)

most on lusions.
2 =
and
1 2
,
2 t2
2 j =
1 2 j
2 t2
(Cartesian
oordinates).
Sin e, a ording to (3.23) and (3.24), the movement at all times and lo ations
is non-zero, the wavefronts an no longer be dened as surfa es separating
undisturbed-disturbed from disturbed regions.
fronts as
We, therefore, onsider wave
x k /c) with c = or c = .
surfa es of onstant phase (t
These
surfa es are dened by
d
dt
x k
t
c
= 0.
k,
whi h also gives the dire tion of propagation. The wavefronts

move parallel with respe t to themselves with the phase
k multiplied by the wavenumber / or / , is alled the

velo ity . Ve tor
wavenumber ve tor.
The polarisation dire tion of the ompressional part
They are perpendi ular to ve tor
"
!#
i
x k
= A exp i t
k
(3.25)
3.6.
63
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF PLANE WAVES ...
is longitudinal (parallel to
k)
and that of the shear omponent
"
!#
i
x k

= B exp i t
k
n
(3.26)
(rot(f
n) = f
n
n f ) is transversal (perpendi ular to k ).
From (3.26), it follows, that for , without loss of generality, the additional
ondition of orthogonality of k and n an be introdu ed. (Separation of n in
omponents parallel and perpendi ular to k ).
3.6.2 Basi equations

We onsider a ombination of two half-spa es whi h are separated by a plane
at z = 0. The ombination is arbitrary (solid-solid, solid-va uum, liquid-liquid,
...). We use Cartesian oordinates as shown in Fig. 3.17.
Fig. 3.17: Two half-spa es in Cartesian oordinates.
The
y -axis
points out of the plane. The displa ement ve tor is
u = (u, v, w),
and its omponents are
independent of y , i.e., we treat a plane problem in whi h
on all planes parallel to the
x z -plane,
the same onditions hold. The most
simple way to study elasti waves, under these onditions, is to derive

but not
v,
from potentials. Writing
u = +
by omponents,
u =
v
x
z
3
1
z
x
2
+
,
z
x
and
64
CHAPTER 3.
it is obvious that for

o ur in
u and w.
BODY WAVES
v two potentials 1 and 3 are required, and these do not

v , it is better to use dire tly the equation of motion (2.21)
For
without body for es, whi h under these onditions be omes a wave equation
2 v =
The
The
1 2v
.
2 t2
basi equations, therefore, are, if instead of 2
boundary onditions
2 v
1 2
2 t2
1 2
2 t2
1 2v
2 t2
2
2
+ 2
2
x
z
u =
x .
is used
on the surfa e
z=0
(3.27)
(3.28)
between the half-spa es requires
ontinuity of the stress omponents
pzz
pzx
pzy
w
w

u + 2
= 2 + 2
z
z

w u
+
x
z
v
,
z
or
2
2 t2
+ 2
pzz
pzx
2

+
= 2 xz
pzy
= v
z .

2

z2
2
z 2
2
x2
2
xz
(3.29)
Whi h of the displa ement omponents is ontinuous depends on the spe ial
ombination of the half-spa es.
3.6.
65
v with and exists via the boundary onditions and,

u and w, it follows, that the S -waves, the displa ement of whi h
is only horizontal (in y -dire tion: SH-waves ), propagate independently from the
P -waves, following from , and the S -waves, following from , that also have
a verti al omponent (in z -dire tion: SV-waves ). If a SH-wave impinges on an
Sin e no onne tion of
therefore, with
interfa e, only ree ted and refra ted

If, on the other hand, a
and refra ted
SH-waves
P (SV )wave
o ur, but no
P- or SV-waves.
intera ts with an interfa e, ree ted
SV (P )waves o ur, but no SH -waves o ur.
These statements
hold, in general, only for the ase of an interfa e between two solid half-spa es.
SH- nor SV-waves propagate; in a va uum a rigid half-spa e,
In liquids, neither
or no waves propagate at all. Correspondingly, the situation is even more simple

if su h half-spa es are involved.
The
de oupling
of
P-SV-
SH-waves
and
z = onst
the simple ase of an interfa e
holds for plane problems not only in
between two homogeneous half-spa es,
but also in the more ompli ated ase of an inhomogeneous medium, as long
as density, wave velo ity, and module are only fun tions of
z.
and
One on-
sequen e of this de oupling is that in the following, ree tion and refra tion
of
P - and SV-waves an
SH-waves.
S-wave of arbitrary polarisation in its
be treated independently from that of the
Furthermore, it is possible to disse t an
SV- and SH- omponent and to study
their respe tive ree tion and refra tion
independently from ea h other.

In ea h ase, we assume for the in ident plane wave a potential
the form of (3.23) or (3.24), respe tively, (in the se ond ase
y - omponent ).
In ase of a
SH-wave, we assume that v
an equation in the form of (3.23) with

is part of the dire tion ve tor
instead of
Fig. 3.18: In ident plane wave and angle of in iden e
k = (sin , 0, cos ).
or
in
has only the
an be des ribed by
The angle of in iden e
(3.30)
66
CHAPTER 3.
For the ree ted and refra ted wave an ansatz is made with
A and B, respe tively, and dierent
dire tion ve tors
k.
BODY WAVES
dierent amplitudes
The relation between
the new dire tion ve tors and (3.30) is via Snell's law. The relation between
the displa ement amplitudes of the ree ted and the refra ted wave with the
in ident wave, is alled
ree tion oe ient
and
refra tion oe ient,
respe -
tively, and it depends on the angle of in iden e and the material properties in
the half-spa es.
for
Rpp , Rps , Bpp , Bps , Rss , Rsp , Bss , Bsp will be the oe ients
and bss those for the SH-waves. The rst index indi ates
P-SV-waves, rss
the type of in ident wave, the se ond the ree ted and refra ted wave type,
respe tively.
We dis uss, in the following, only relatively simple ases, for whi h illustrate
the main ee ts to be studied.
3.6.3 Ree tion and refra tion of SH-waves

Ree tion and refra tion oe ients
The displa ement
v0
of the in ident
SH-wave in y -dire tion is

cos
sin
x
z .
v0 = C0 exp i t
1
1
v0
(3.31)
v1
z=0
2
1,1 ,1
2,2,2
v2
z
Fig. 3.19: In ident, ree ted and dira ted SH-waves at a plane interfa e.
The
ansatz for the ree ted and refra ted SH-wave as plane waves with ree tion
1 and the refra tion angle 2 , respe tively, and the same frequen y as
angle
the in ident wave is
ree tion
v1
refra tion
v2

cos 1
sin 1
x+
z
C1 exp i t
1
1

sin 2
cos 2
C2 exp i t
x
z .
2
2

(3.32)
(3.33)
3.6.
The unknowns are the angles

and the refra tion oe ient
The
67
1 and 2 , the
bss = C2 /C0 .
ree tion oe ient
rss = C1 /C0
boundary onditions require at z = 0 the ontinuity of displa ement (that is
a reasonable requirement) and ontinuity for the normal and tangential stresses.
This leads to
v0 + v1 =
1 z
(v0 + v1 ) =
The stress omponents
pzz
and
pzx
v2
2
2 v
z
for
z = 0.
(3.34)
are zero everywhere, sin e no
P- and/or SV-
wave o ur. Insert (3.31), (3.32) and (3.33) into (3.34). From the rst boundary
ondition this leads to

sin
sin 1
sin 2
C0 exp i t
x +C1 exp i t
x
= C2 exp i t
x .
1
1
2
(3.35)
We plan to nd solutions
C1
and
and
v2
C2
v1
and
v2
of the problem, for whi h the amplitudes
are independent of lo ation, sin e only then an we be sure that
are solutions of the orresponding wave equation.
C1
and
C2
v1
be ome
only independent of lo ation if in (3.35)
sin 1
sin 2
sin
=
=
,
1
1
2
(3.36)
sin e only then the exponential term an be an elled. Equation (3.36) is the
well-known
Snell's Law
angle of in iden e
whi h states that the ree tion angle
and that for the refra tion angle
is equal to the
is
2
sin 2
.
=
sin
1
With (3.35), this leads to
C2 C1 = C0 .
The se ond boundary ondition in (3.34) gives

cos
cos 2
cos 1
1 i
C0 +
C1 = 2 i
C2 .
1
1
2
With
1 =
and
1,2 /1,2 = 1,2 1,2 ,
it follows that
(3.37)
68
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
1 1 cos (C1 C0 ) = 2 2 cos 2 C2

or
2 2 cos 2
C2 + C1 = C0 .
1 1 cos
(3.38)
From (3.37) and (3.38) follow the ree tion and refra tion oe ients
C1
C0
C2
=
C0
rss =
bss
1 1 cos 2 2 cos 2
1 1 cos + 2 2 cos 2
21 1 cos
.
1 1 cos + 2 2 cos 2
(3.39)
(3.40)

12
22
2
cos 2 = (1 sin 2 ) = 1 2 sin
.
1
1
2
For
perpendi ular
in iden e (
rss =
In this ase,
rss
and
two half-spa es. For
bss
(3.41)
= 0)
1 1 2 2
1 1 + 2 2
and
bss =
21 1
.
1 1 + 2 2
impedan es 1 1 and 2 2 of the

= /2), rss = 1 and bss = 0. The
depend only on the
grazing
in iden e (
absolute value of the amplitude of the ree ted wave is never larger then that of
the in ident wave; that of the refra ted wave an be larger if
for
If
2 2 < 1 1
(e.g.,
= 0).
rss
is negative, this means that in one point of the interfa e the displa ement
y -dire tion, if the displa ement ve tor

+y -dire tion. For impulsive ex itation (see also
ve tor of the ree ted wave points in

of the in ident wave points in
later), this means that the dire tion of rst motion of the in ident and the
ree ted wave are opposite.
The following gure shows
1 /2 > 1
and
1 = 2 .
|rss |
as a fun tion of
for dierent velo ity ratios
3.6.
Fig. 3.20:
|rss |
as a fun tion of
69
for dierent velo ity ratios.
Total ree tion

If
2 < 1 , as in Fig. 3.20, cos 2 is real for all angles of in ident , the same
rss and bss . Total ree tion,, i.e., |rss | = 1, is then only possible for
is true for
grazing in iden e.
If
2 > 1 , cos 2
is only real as long as
=< = arcsin
1
.
2
is the riti al angle (or limiting angle of total ree tion ). A ording to (3.41),
= is onne ted to the ase with grazing propagation of the wave in the
se ond half-spa e (2 = /2).
> , cos 2 be omes imaginary, or, to be more exa t, negative imaginary
and positive imaginary for negative , sin e only then v2 for
z + remains limited. rss and bss be ome omplex. v1 and v2 still solve
If
for positive
the wave equations and satisfy the boundary onditions, even when posing the
ansatz (3.32) and (3.33) have not expli itly been hosen in omplex form. The
ree tion oe ient an then be written as
= exp 2i arctan ab
rss
aib
a+ib
1 1 cos
2 2
22
12
sin2 1
12
||
(3.42)
70
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
It has the absolute value 1 and a phase that depends on the angle of in iden e.
Its sign hanges with the sign of the frequen y.
Values of
3.21 for a few ombinations.
Fig. 3.21:
|rss |
as a fun tion of
1 / sin .
are shown in Fig.
for dierent velo ity ratios.
The refra ted wave propagates for

lo ity
|rss |
>
parallel to the interfa e with the ve-
Its amplitude is not only ontrolled by
by the exponential term whi h depends on
z.
bss , but is also ontrolled
The amplitude of the refra ted
wave de ays, therefore, exponentially with in reasing distan e from the interfa e
inhomogeneous
or
boundary layer wave ).

"
||
v2 = bss C0 exp
2
It follows that (please he k)
22
sin2 1
12
21 #

sin
x .
z exp i t
1
Other ases
The treatment of the ree tion of plane
liquids
P -waves
at an interfa e between two
gives similar results to the one dis ussed above (see also exer ise 3.9).
If the interfa e between two
solid half-spa es
is onsidered, the omputational
eort is signi antly larger, sin e now ree ted and refra ted
SV -waves have to
be in luded. We, therefore, skip the details. The absolute value of the ree tion
oe ient
Rpp
is shown in Fig. 3.22.
3.6.
| R pp |
| R pp |
1
sin =
2 < 1 < 2
/2
= 0, Rpp =
|Rpp |
for
SV -wave
SV -wave
1
sin =
2
1 < 2 < 2
Fig. 3.22: Absolute value of the ree tion oe ient
For
71
/2
Rpp .
2 2 1 1
2 2 +1 1 ( ompare also exer ise 3.9).
< < /2
is smaller then 1 for two reasons. First, the ree ted
also arries energy; se ond, for the ase on the left of Fig.
all
3.22, a
propagates in the lower half-spa e for

, and, similarly, for the
ase on the right of Fig. 3.22, for < . <

is the
whi h exists only for
= arcsin
For angles
larger then
total ree tion o urs.

transported in the
se ond riti al angle
1 < 2 < 2
1
1
> = arcsin .
2
2
the se ond energy loss is no longer possible, and
The ree ted energy is then, to a smaller part, also
SV -wave.
Some numeri al results for ree tion and refra tion oe ients for a
P-SV- ase
are given in Fig. 3.23 (model of the rust-mantle boundary (Moho) with 1 =
6.5km/sec, 1 = 3.6km/sec, 1 = 2.8g/cm3, 2 = 8.2km/sec, 2 = 4.5km/sec, 2
3.3g/cm3).
72
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
Fig. 3.23: Absolute value of ree tion and refra tion oe ients
and
Rpp , Rps , Bpp
Rss .
Transition to impulsive ex itation

The transition from the harmoni ase, treated up to now, to the impulse ase,
an be done with the
(3.31), the
SH-wave
Fourier transform
v0 = F
( ompare appendix A.1.7). Instead of
sin
cos
t
x
z
1
1
3.6.
73
may impinge on the interfa e, and we disse t

integral in
partial vibration
F (t)
F ()
Z +
1
F ()eit d
2
Z +
=
F (t)eit dt
F (t)
with the aid of the Fourier
F (t).
Fourier transform of
We then study, as before, ree tion and refra tion of the
partial waves

1
sin
cos
dv0 =
F () exp i t
x
z d
2
1
1
and then sum the ree ted partial waves to derive the ree ted
v1 =
1
2
SH -wave

cos
sin
x+
z d.
rss F () exp i t
1
1
(3.43)
As long as the ree tion oe ient rss is frequen y independent (whi h is the
2 < 1 or for < with 2 > 1 ), it an be moved before the
ase for
integral, thus, yielding
v1 = rss F

sin
cos
t
x+
z .
1
1
The ree ted impulse has, in this ase, the same form as the in ident impulse.
The amplitude ratio of the two impulses is equal to the ree tion oe ient.
rss ,
2 > 1 .
Then
a ording to (3.42), be omes dependent from

One then has to pro eed dierently.
We disse t
for
>
rss
into real and
with
imaginary parts
rss
R() =
I()
R() + iI()
a2 b 2
a2 + b 2
2ab
2
a + b2
||
(b
for
> 0).
A ording to (3.43), it holds that
1
v1 = R()F ( ) + I()
2
i
F ()ei d
||
(3.44)
74
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
with
=t
sin
cos
x+
z.
1
1
I() in (3.44)
(i/ ||) F ().
The fun tion, with whi h
is multiplied, an be written, here via
its Fourier transform, as
This is a simple
lter
of fun tion
F ( )
in
+900
( ompare general omments on lters in appendix A.3.4). Ea h frequen y
F ( ) keeps its amplitude, but its phase is hanged. The phase hange is
0
for > 0 and 90 for < 0. This orresponds to a Hilbert transform and is
shown in appendix B. The fun tion with whi h I() in (3.44) is multiplied is,
therefore, the Hilbert transform FH ( ) of F ( )
1
FH ( ) = P
1
F (t)
dt =
t
ln |t| F ( t)dt.
indi ates the main value (without the singularity at
form of
FH ( )
t = ),
(3.45)
and the se ond
follows from the rst by partial integration. Thus,
v1 = R()F ( ) + I()FH ( ).
(3.46)
Due to the se ond term in (3.46), the form of the ree ted wave is
from that of the in ident wave. Fig. 3.24 shows the
0
waves and angle of in iden e from 0 to 90 .
SH-
For pre- riti al angles of in iden e
< = 480 ,
results
dierent
of the ree tion of
the ree tion has the form of
the in ident wave with positive and negative signs. Beyond the riti al angle,
0
in the range of total ree tion, impulse deformations o ur until at = 90 the
in ident wave form appears again, but with opposite sign ( orresponding to a
0
0
ree tion oe ient rss = 1). The phase shift of rss at = 55 is about 90 ,
with the onsequen e that
R() 0.
The ree tion impulse for this angle of
in iden e is, therefore, lose to the Hilbert transform
FH ( )
of
F ( )
(the exa t
Hilbert transform is an impulse that is symmetri with respe t to its minimum).
3.6.
Fig. 3.24: Ree tion of
SH-waves for dierent angle of in iden e .
75
76
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
Exer ise 3.7:

Whi h sign does the ree tion oe ient
rss
have in Fig. 3.20 and Fig. 3.21, in
the regions where it is real?
Exer ise 3.8:

Determine the angle of in iden e for whi h
rss
Brewster angle),
is zero (
give the onditions under whi h this a tually happens ( ompare

3.24).
400
and
in Fig.
Exer ise 3.9

Compute the ree tion and refra tion oe ients for a plane surfa e between
two liquids and for a plane harmoni longitudinal wave under angle of in iden e
impinges. Give, qualitatively, the trend of the oe ients for 1 = 2 with
1 > 2 and 1 < 2 . Hint: Use an ansatz for the displa ement potential in
the form of (3.31) to (3.33) and express the boundary onditions via potentials
as dis ussed in se tion 3.6.2.
3.6.4 Ree tion of P-waves at a free surfa e

Ree tion oe ients
P-waves from a free surfa e is of pra ti al imP -waves from earthquakes and explosions propagate
The study of the ree tion of

portan e for seismology.
through the Earth and impinge at the seismi station from below.
tal and verti al displa ement are modied by the free surfa e.
ree ted
P-
and
S -waves
Horizon-
Furthermore,
are ree ted downwards and re orded at larger dis-
tan es, sometimes with large amplitudes. It is, therefore, useful and ne essary
to know the ree tion oe ient of the Earth's surfa e. For the moment, we
negle t the layered nature of the rust in our model, thus, only giving a rst
approximation to reality.
Based on the omments given at the end of se tion 3.6.2, we sele t the following
ansatz for the potentials
in ident
P wave
0
ree ted

sin
cos
A0 exp i t
x
z
(3.47)

sin 1
cos 1
A1 exp i t
x+
z
(3.48)

sin 1
cos 1
B1 exp i t
x+
z .
(3.49)
P wave
1
ree ted
SV wave
1
3.6.
Fig. 3.25: In ident
77
P-wave and ree ted P- and S-wave .
The boundary onditions at z = 0 require vanishing normal and tangential stress

pzz = pzx = 0. No boundary onditions for the displa ement exist. With (3.29)
and = 0 + 1
( = 1 = y omponent of ), it follows that

2 2
2 1
1 2
(
+
)
+
(
+
)
+
0
1
0
1
2 t2
z 2
xz
2
2 1
2 1
2
(0 + 1 ) +
xz
x2
z 2
z=0
z = 0. (3.51)
(3.50)
As in the last se tion, Snell's law follows from the boundary onditions
sin 1
sin 1
sin
=
=
.

sin < .
1 = and 1 = arcsin
(3.52)
With (3.47), (3.48), (3.49) and
2
=
=
=
+ 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
(3.50) leads to
1
(A0 + A1 ) (i)2
2
"

2

#
2 2
i
i
i
+ 2
(A0 + A1 )
cos + B1 sin 1
cos 1
= 0.
2 2
Then
78
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES

22 2
sin 1 cos 1
cos2
A0 + A1 + 2
B1
(A0 + A1 )
= 0.
2 2
2
2
with
1+
2 2
cos2 =
2 2 2
=
=
=
and
2
2
>2
2

2 2
1
+
cos
2 2 2 2 2
2

2 2
2
sin
2 2 2 2 2
2

2
2
2
sin
2 2 2 2
2 sin2
2
, it follows that
2 sin2
2 sin 1 cos 1
(A0 + A1 )
B1 = 0.
2
2
From this
( 2 sin2 )
1 B1
A1
2 sin ( sin2 ) 2
= 2 sin2 .
A0
A0
(3.53)
Equation (3.51) then gives

i
i
i
i
cos + 2A1 sin
cos
2A0 sin

2
2
i
i
+B1 sin 1 B1
cos 1
=0
or
sin2 1 cos2 1
2 sin cos
(A0 A1 ) +
B1 = 0.
2
2
Equation (3.52) then gives
2 sin cos
B1
A1
+ 2 sin2
= 2 sin cos .
A0
A0
(3.54)
3.6.
79
From (3.53) and (3.54), it follows that the amplitude ratios are
1
2
4 sin2 cos sin2 2 2 sin2
A1
=
2
1
A0
4 sin2 cos sin2 2 + 2 sin2
(3.55)

4 sin cos 2 sin2
B1
=
1
2 .
A0
To derive displa ement amplitudes (that is how the oe ients
(3.56)
Rpp
and
Rps
in
se tion 3.6.2 were dened) from the ratios of potential amplitudes given here,
P -wave is
PP -ree tion
we use (3.25) and (3.26). The displa ement amplitude of the in ident
i
i
A0 ; that of the ree ted P -wave is A1 .
This then gives the
oe ient (see also (3.55))
Rpp =
A1
.
A0
(3.57)
Equation (3.26) gives the displa ement amplitude of the ree ted
i
B1 .
Thus, the
PS -ree tion oe ient is (see also (3.56))

Rps =
Rpp
and
Rps are real
and
is always positive. For

and only a
B1
.
A0
and
2,
Rpp = 1
Fig. 3.26: Ree tion and refra tion oe ients of
(3.58)
frequen y independent for all angles of in ident . Rps
=0
P -wave is ree ted.
of in iden e
SV -wave as
and
Rps = 0,
respe tively,
P-waves for dierent
angles
80
CHAPTER 3.
The meaning of the
negative signs
BODY WAVES
in the ree tion oe ients be omes lear, if
the displa ement ve tor of the in ident and ree ted waves are represented via
(3.25) and (3.26)
u0
u1
u 1

sin
cos
i
k0
0 = A0 exp i t
x
z

i
sin
cos
1 = A0 Rpp exp i t
x+
z
k1

sin 1
cos 1
i
x+
z
k1
n.
= A0 Rps exp i t
Fig. 3.27: Polarity of ree ted
Rpp < 0,
P- and SV-waves.
therefore, means that if the displa ement of the ree ted
P -wave in a
= 0) points in the dire tion of k 1 , the in ident wave
points in the dire tion of k 0 . For Rps < 0, the displa ement of the ree ted SV

wave would, for su h an in ident wave, be pointing in the dire tion of k 1
n.
point on the interfa e (z
These onne tions be ome more obvious if we go from the harmoni ase to
the
impulsive ase
( ompare se tion 3.6.3, transition to impulse ex itation).
For the problem studied, the ree tion oe ients are frequen y independent.
Therefore, the ree ted waves have always the same form as the in ident wave
u0
u1

sin
cos
= F t
x
z k0

cos
sin
x+
z k1
= Rpp F t
(3.59)
(3.60)
3.6.
In the ase
u 1

sin 1
cos 1

Rps F t
x+
z k1
n

sin .
arcsin
(3.61)
Rpp < 0, if the rst motion of the in ident P -wave is dire ted towards
z = 0, this also holds for the ree ted SV -wave and the ree ted
the interfa e
P -wave;
81
otherwise, the rst motion of the ree ted
the interfa e. Fig. 3.28 shows the ase for
P -wave
points away from
Rpp < 0.
Fig. 3.28: Denition of the rst motion of ree ted
P- and SV-waves.
Displa ements at the surfa e

Finally, we ompute the resulting displa ement at the free surfa e (z=0) in
whi h the three waves (3.59), (3.60) and (3.61) superimpose.
Horizontal displa ement

u =
u =
fu ()
and
(positive in
Rps cos 1 ] F
[(1 + Rpp ) sin +

sin
fu ()F t
x

sin
x
t
1
4 sin cos sin2 2
2
1
Verti al displa ement
x -dire tion):
(positive in
z -dire tion):
[(1 Rpp ) cos +
Rps sin 1 ] F

sin
t
x
(3.62)
82
CHAPTER 3.
w
fw ()
BODY WAVES

sin
= fw ()F t
x

2 cos 2 sin2
2 .
1
The ampli ation fa tors (or transfer fun tions of the surfa e)
respe tively, are given in Fig. 3.29 for the ase
(3.63)
fu () and fw (),
= 3.
Fig. 3.29: Transfer fun tions of the free surfa e.
linearly polarised wave with the apparent velo ity / sin propapolarisation angle , (see Fig. 3.30), is not identi al
to the angle of in iden e . is also alled the apparent angle of in iden e.
Therefore, a
gates at the surfa e. The
= arctan
u
w
12
2 sin sin
.
= arctan
2 sin2
2
3.6.
Fig. 3.30: Polarisation angle
and angle of in iden e
()
O
Fig. 3.31: Qualitative relationship between
83
and

= arctan
(0)
2
1
2 ( 1) 2
2
In ident SV -wave
SV -wave, instead of the P -wave onsidered up until now, impinges on the
P -wave is ree ted for angles of in iden e > = arcsin ,
but only an SV -wave (|Rss | = 1) is ree ted. This follows from onsiderations
similar to that for an in ident P -wave. For < , the displa ement at the
free surfa e is linearly polarised, but for > , it is polarised ellipti ally.
If a
free surfa e, no
84
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
SV
This property is observed:

-waves from earthquakes for distan es smaller
0
then about 40 are ellipti ally polarised, but are linearly polarised for larger
distan es.
Fig. 3.32: Polarisation of
SV -waves from earthquakes .
3.6.5 Ree tion and refra tion oe ients for layered media
Matrix formalism
In the last two se tions, we studied the ree tion and refra tion of plane waves at
one interfa e.
The ree tion and refra tion oe ients depend, then, mainly on
the properties of the half-spa es and the angle of in iden e. Only if the riti al
angle is ex eeded, a weak frequen y dependen e o urs: the sign of the phase
(the oe ients be ome omplex) is ontrolled by the sign of the frequen y of
the in ident wave ( ompare se tion 3.6.3). The frequen y dependen e be omes
mu h more pronoun ed when the ree tion and refra tion of plane waves in
layered media is onsidered (two or more interfa es). Then,

interferen e phenomena o ur and for spe ial frequen ies (or wave
lengths) onstru tive or destru tive interferen es o ur.
a (sub-parallel)
generally,
Here, we will study the ree tion and refra tion of
liquid layers between two liquid half-spa es.
P -waves
from a pa ket of
The orresponding problem for
SH -
waves in solid media an be solved similarly. There is a lose similarity between
P -waves
SH -waves in layered solid media. The

P-SV-waves in solid media (possibly with interspersed liquid layers)
in layered liquid media and
treatment of
is, in prin iple, the same, but the derivation is signi antly more ompli ated.
In all these approa hes, a
matrix formalism
is used, whi h is espe ially ee tive
for implementing on omputers.

We hoose the annotation of the liquid-layered medium as given in Fig. 3.33.
3.6.
85
Fig. 3.33: Liquid-layered medium with n layers.

The displa ement potential
in the
j -th
layer
(j = 1, 2, . . . , n)
satises the
wave equation
2 j
1 2 j
2 j
+
= 2
.
2
2
x
z
j t2
Solutions of this equation, whi h an be interpreted as harmoni plane waves,
have the form
exp [i (t kj x lj z)]
with
kj2 + lj2 = /2j ,
where
kj
is the
horizontal, lj
respe tively.
We assume positive frequen ies
wavenumbers
kj .
the
verti al wavenumber,
and non-negative horizontal
Then, we an disregard the sign + of
kj x,
sin e it orre-
sponds to waves whi h propagate in -x-dire tion. This is not possible for our
sele tion of the in ident wave, (see Fig.
3.33).
The two signs of
lj z
have to
be kept, sin e in all layers (ex ept the n-th) waves propagate in + - and in
-z -dire tion.
We then ome to the
z1
Bn
potential ansatz
(3.64)
Aj exp [i (t kj x lj (z zj ))]

+Bj exp i t kj x + lj (z zj )
z2 = 0,
0.
(3.66)
kj2 + lj2 = kj2 + lj2 =
2
2j
(3.65)
86
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
In (3.64), we have assumed, for the moment, that the wavenumbers of the waves
propagating in +z- and -z-dire tion are dierent. Furthermore, we have repla ed
by
z zj .
This does not hange the meaning of the terms but simplies the
omputations.
The part
A1 exp [i (t k1 x l1 z)] of 1
( ompare, e.g., (3.47)). This means that

of in iden e
will be interpreted as in ident
k1
P -wave
and l1 are onne ted with the angle
as
k1
l1
sin
cos .
B1 exp [i (t k1 x + l1 z)] of 1 is
ered half-spa e z > 0. We want to ompute
the refra tion oe ient Bpp (again dened
The part
amplitudes )
Rpp
B1
A1
Bpp
1
n
The boundary onditions for the interfa es
(3.67)
the wave ree ted from the laythe ree tion oe ient
as the ratio of the
An
A1 .
Rpp
and
displa ement
(3.68)
z = z 2 , z3 , . . . , zn
require ontinuity
pzz = 2 =
of the verti al displa ement /z and of the normal stress

2 /t2 . For z = zj , this gives
j
z
j1
z
and
2 j
t2
j1
From the rst relation, it follows that (the phase term
2 j1
t2 .
eit
is negle ted in the
following sin e it an els out),

lj Aj exp [ikj x] + lj Bj exp ikj x
The se ond relation gives

j Aj exp [ikj x] + j Bj exp ikj x
Both equations hold for
= lj1 Aj1 exp [i (kj1 x lj1 dj1 )]

+ lj1
Bj1 exp i kj1
x + lj1
dj1 .
=
+
j1 Aj1 exp [i (kj1 x lj1 dj1 )]

j1 Bj1 exp i kj1

x + lj1
dj1 .
j = 2, 3, . . . , n, and dj1 = zj zj1 (d1 = 0).
As before,
we require that the exponential terms depending on

must an el, leading to
kj = kj = kj1 = kj1
. This, then, gives (with (3.67))
3.6.
87
kn = kn = kn1
= kn1 = . . . = k1 = k1 =
This is an alternative form of
lj
Snell's law.
! 12
! 21
2j
2
.
1 2 sin
1
2
k12
2j
= lj =
sin .
1
=
j
(3.69)
If sin > 1 /j , lj is imaginary (and even negative imaginary ), only then for
j = n is the amplitude of the potentials limited for z . This leads to the
following system of equations, whi h onne ts Aj and Bj with Aj1 and Bj1 ,
respe tively
Aj Bj
Aj + Bj

lj1
Aj1 eilj1 dj1 Bj1 eilj1 dj1
lj

j1
Aj1 eilj1 dj1 + Bj1 eilj1 dj1 .
j
In matrix form, this an be written as (please he k)
Aj
Bj
where
mj

eilj1 dj1
lj1 j + lj j1
=
l
2lj j
j1 j + lj j1

Aj1
Bj1

Aj1
= mj
Bj1
is the
(lj1 j + lj j1 )e2ilj1 dj1

(lj1 j + lj j1 )e2ilj1 dj1
(3.70)
layer matrix.
Repeated appli ation of (3.70) gives
An
Bn
=
=
=
On omputers, the produ t
mn mn1 . . . m3 m2

A1
M
B1

A1
M11 M12
.
B1
M21 M22
of the layer matri es
qui kly and e iently. First, the angular frequen y
A1
B1
mn to m2 an be determined
and the angle of in iden e
88
CHAPTER 3.
are given; then, the
lj 's
BODY WAVES
are determined with (3.69), and the matri es are
multiplied. This gives the elements of
An = M11 A1 + M12 B1
M.
and
From
Bn = M21 A1 + M22 B1
with (3.66), it follows that
M21
B1
=
A1
M22
The ree tion oe ient
Rpp
and
M12 M21
An
= M11
.
A1
M22
Bpp
of the layered

M12 M21
M11
.
M22
(3.71)
and the refra tion oe ient
medium, therefore, an be written a ording to (3.68) as
Rpp =
M21
M22
and
1
n
Bpp =
Two homogeneous half-spa es

In this very simple ase, it follows (with
M = m2 =
1
2l2 2
d1 = 0)
l 1 2 + l 2 1
l1 2 + l2 1
that
l1 2 + l2 1
l 1 2 + l 2 1
and, therefore, a ording to (3.71)
With
Rpp
Bpp
l1 =
l2 1 + l1 2
l 2 1 + l 1 2
1 (l1 2 + l2 1 )2 (l2 1 l1 2 )2
2l1 1
1
.
=
2
2l2 2 (l2 1 + l1 2 )
2 l2 1 + l1 2
cos
and l2
refra tion), it follows that
Rpp
Bpp
( ompare with exer ise 3.9). For
22
21
12
sin2
=
cos 2 (2 =angle
2 2 cos 1 1 cos 2
2 2 cos + 1 1 cos 2
21 1 cos
2 2 cos + 1 1 cos 2
= 0 ( 2 = 0),
it follows that
of
3.6.
89
21 1
.
2 2 + 1 1
(3.72)
These are equations that also hold for an interfa e between two
solid half-spa es.
Rpp =
2 2 1 1
2 2 + 1 1
and
Bpp =
Lamella in full-spa e
We limit our study here to
verti al ree tions
from a lamella.
1 ,1
z 2= 0
2,2
d 2= d
z
3=1 ,3= 1
Fig. 3.34: Lamella of thi kness d.

In this ase,
n = 3, l1 = l3 = /1
and l2
= /2 .
Then with (3.70) and
d1 = 0,
d2 = d
m2
2
22
2
21
i d
1 e
m3 =
22
with
1 1
2 2 and
=
d
ei 2
M = m3 m2 =
4
We now ompute the
2 2
1 1
2
1
21
+
+
1+
1 +
1 +
1 +
1
2
1
2
21 + 12
2
1
1 + 2

1 +
1+
(1 + )e2i 2
2i d
(1 + )e 2
(1 + )2 (1 )2 e2i 2
2i d
1 2 + ( 2 1)e 2
ree tion oe ient Rpp
2 1 + (1 2 )e2i 2
2i d
(1 )2 + (1 + )2 e 2
(a ording to (3.71))
M21
1 e2i 2
(1 2 )(1 e2i 2 )
=
= R0
d
2i
2i d
M22
2
(1 )2 (1 + )2 e 2
1 R02 e
1
2 2 1 1
.
=
1+
2 2 + 1 1
with
R0
1
. This leads to
Rpp
(3.73)
90
R0 ,
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
a ording to (3.72), is the ree tion oe ient of the interfa e
relatively small ree tion oe ients

the Earth
(|R0 | < 0.2),
R0 ,
z = 0.
For
whi h are typi al for dis ontinuities in
one an write as a good approximation

2i d
2
Rpp = R0 1 e
.
Dis ussion of Rpp
(3.74)
Rpp , in the form of (3.73) or (3.74), is zero for angular frequen ies , for whi h
2 d2 is an even multiple of . With the frequen y and the wave length in
the lamella (2 = ), the ondition for destru tive interferen e is
1
3
d
= , 1, , 2, . . .
2
2
(3.75)
The lamella has to have a thi kness of a multiple of the half wave-length so
that in ree tion destru tive interferen e

refra tions show onstru tive interferen e.
A ording to (3.74),
multiple of
Rpp
is maximum
Then
o urs with
Rpp = 0.
(|Rpp | = 2 |R0 |)
if
2 d2
In this ase
is an uneven
d
1 3 5 7
= , , , ,...
4 4 4 4
In this ase, the waves interfere
for refra tion.
The periodi ity of
Rpp ,
(3.76)
onstru tively for ree tion
and
destru tively
visible in (3.75) and (3.76), holds generally so

2
Rpp + n
= Rpp (),
d
n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
impulP -wave has the verti al
To on lude, we dis uss how the ree tion from a lamella looks for an
sive ex itation.
w0 = F t
displa ement w1 of
displa ement
verti al
We assume
that
the verti ally in ident

w1 =
with
Rpp ()
z
1
and that
F ()
is the spe trum of
F (t).
The
the ree ted wave is then ( ompare se tion 3.6.3)
1
2
Rpp ()F ()e
i t+ z
(3.77)
from (3.73). In pra tise, integral (3.77) is omputed numeri ally,
sin e fast numeri al methods for
Fourier analysis
the spe trum from the time fun tion (
F ()
from
exist and omputation of
F (t))
and
Fourier synthesis,
i.e., omputation of the time fun tion from its spe trum (w1 from its spe trum
3.6.
Rpp ()F ()eiz/1 ).
form (FFT).
Su h numeri al methods are known as
91
Fast Fourier trans-
Insight into the pro esses o urring during ree tion, the topi of this hapter,
2
an be a hieved as follows: we expand (3.73) (whi h due to R0 < 1 always
onverges)and get
Rpp ()

X
n

2d
2d
i
i
2
2
R02 e
= R0 1 e
n=0
i 4d
2d
i
2
3
2
2 R
e
= R0 R0 1
0 1 R0 e
i 6d
2
...
R05 1 R02 e
R02
(3.78)
Substitution of this into (3.77) and taking the inverse transform of ea h element
gives
w1

z
z
2d
2
= R0 F t +
(3.79)
R0 1 R0 F t +
1
1
2

z
z
4d
6d
R03 1 R02 F t +
R05 1 R02 F t +
...
1
2
1
2
The rst term is the
ree tion from the interfa e z = 0.
expe ted, is the ree tion oe ient
R0
Its amplitude, as
of this interfa e.
The se ond term
des ribes a wave whi h is delayed by twi e the travel time through the lamella,
thus, orresponding to the
ree tion from the interfa e z = d.
the expe ted size; the ree tion oe ient of this interfa e is
Its amplitude has
R0 .
The produ t
z = 0 for waves travelling in +z

2
and zdire tion, 21 1 /(2 2 + 1 1 ) and 22 2 /(1 1 + 2 2 ), is 1 R0 . In
of the ree tion oe ients of the interfa e
multiple
ree tions within the lamella (with three and ve ree tions, respe tively). The
terms in (3.79) orrespond to the rays shown in Fig. 3.35.
the same way, the third and fourth term of (3.79) an be interpreted as
z=0
z =d
Fig. 3.35: Ree ted and multiple ree ted rays in a lamella.
Equation (3.79) is a de omposition of the ree ted wave eld in (innite many)
ray ontributions. It is fully equivalent to (3.77).
92
CHAPTER 3.
The approximation (3.74) for
BODY WAVES
Rpp () orresponds to the trun ation of the exn = 0 and, therefore, the limitation on the
the interfa es z = 0 and z = d, respe tively (and
pansion in (3.78) after the term for

two
primary ree tions
negle ting
R02
from
relative to 1).
Exer ise 3.10

Show that for the refra tion oe ient in (3.71), it holds that
Bpp =
1 detM
n M22
with
detM =
l 1 1
.
l n n
Apply this formula in the lamella, in ases in whi h (3.75) and (3.76) hold.
Exer ise 3.11

The
P -velo ity
2 > 1 .
of the lamella is larger then that of the surrounding medium:
Does then total ree tion o ur? Dis uss this qualitatively.
3.7 Ree tivity method: Ree tion of spheri al

waves from layered media
3.7.1 Theory
The results of se tion 3.6.5 an, with relative ease, be extended to the ex itation
by spheri al waves. For simpli ation of representation, we again assume that
we deal, at the moment, only with
P -waves in liquids.
Fig. 3.36: Explosive point sour e over liquid, layered medium.
3.7.
93
REFLECTIVITY METHOD: REFLECTION OF ...
The spheri al waves are ex ited by an explosion point sour e lo ated at hight
above the layered medium.
The displa ement potential of this sour e for
harmoni ex itation is ( ompare se tion 3.4)
1e =
with
R2 = r2 + (z + h)2 .
z -axis,
in the
t R
(3.80)
Be ause of the symmetry under rotation around the
r
j -th layer is
ylindri al oordinates
potential
1 i
e
R
and
are used.
The wave equation for the
1 j
1 2 j
2 j
2 j
+
=
.
+
r2
r r
z 2
2j t2
(3.81)
Elementary solutions of this equation are (please he k)
J0 (kr) exp [i (t lj (z zj ))]
with
( ompare se tion 3.6.5 for notation).
2
k 2 + lj2 = 2 , lj =
j
J0 (kr)is
the
2
k2
2j
Bessel fun tion
! 12
(3.82)
of rst kind
and zeroth order ( ompare appendix C).
ikj x i(tlj (zzj ))

Equation (3.82) is an analogue to the solutions e
e
of the wave
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
equation j /x + j /z = (1/j ) j /t dis ussed in the last hapter.
In (3.82), the index
of the horizontal wavenumber
has been dropped, sin e
is a parameter over whi h one an integrate (furthermore, it was shown in
se tion 3.6.5 that all
kj 's
are identi al).
With (3.82), the fun tions
f (k)J0 (kr)ei(tlj (zzj )) dk
(3.83)
are also solutions of (3.81) if the integral onverges.
Thus, we ome to the
potential ansatz
j =
o
n
J0 (kr) Aj (k)ei(tlj (zzj )) + Bj (k)ei(t+lj (zzj )) dk.
(3.84)
Note the lose relation of (3.84) to (3.64). Whether this ansatz a tually has a
rstly, if 1e
se ondly, if j
solution, depends
from (3.80) an be represented in the integral
form (3.83) and
in (3.84) satises the boundary onditions for
z = z2 , z3 , . . . zn .
94
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
The rst requirement is satised sin e the following integral representation is
Sommerfeld integral, ompare appendix D)
valid (
1 i
e
R
t R
J0 (kr)
k i(tl1 |z+h|
e
dk.
il1
(3.85)
We, therefore, an interpret the rst part
J0 (kr)A1 ei(tl1 z) dk
(3.86)
of
(with
z1 = 0)
as the in ident wave (see also se tion 3.6.5)
1r ).
part is the ree ted wave
1e
(the se ond
We have to ompare (3.85) and (3.86) for
lo ations in whi h the spheri al wave passes on in iden e at the interfa e
h < z 0.
A1 (k) = (k/il1 )eil1 h .
i.e., for
The
|z + h| = z + h
In this ase,
boundary onditions
for the interfa es an be taken from se tion 3.6.5. The
potentials (3.84) are dierentiated under the integral.

from the boundary onditions is only satised
The identity following
for all r,
if the integrands are
identi al. This leads to the same system of equations for

in se tion 3.6.5, i.e., (3.70).
wavenumbers
lj
Aj (k)
).
and
and
Bj (k)
as
In ontrast to the previous se tion, the verti al
have to be onsidered now as fun tions of
angle of in iden e
z = 0,
and the omparison gives
(and not of the
are onne ted via
k=
sin .
1
(3.87)
Rpp = B1 /A1 = M21 /M22 has

and angle of in iden e
introdu ed via (3.87): Rpp = Rpp (, k).
Following se tion 3.6.5, the ree tion oe ient
been omputed as a fun tion of the angular frequen y
;;
then the dependen e on
The se ond part of
1r
1 ,
=
=
an be
the ree ted wave, an then be written as
Z0
0
J0 (kr)A1 (k)Rpp (, k)ei(t+l1 z) dk

k
J0 (kr)Rpp (, k)ei(t+l1 (zh)) dk.
il1
The orresponding verti al displa ement is
1r
= eit
w1r (r, z, , t) =
z
kJ0 (kr)Rpp (, k)eil1 (zh) dk
and the horizontal displa ement (with
J0 (x) = J1 (x))
(3.88)
3.7.
95
1r
= eit
u1r (r, z, , t) =
r
k 2
J1 (kr)Rpp (, k)eil1 (zh) dk.
il1
(3.89)
The integrals in (3.88) and (3.89) are best omputed numeri ally, espe ially,
solid
in the ase of many layers. For

the ree tion oe ient
and
w1r
and
u1r
Rpp (, k)
ompressional part of the ree tion from the

shear part, similar results hold, whi h only
des ribe only the
layered half-spa e
z 0.
For the
now ontain the ree tion oe ients

The transition to
media, (3.88) and (3.89) also hold, but
is more ompli ated than for liquid media
Rps (, k).
impulse ex itation
1e =
1
F
R

R
t
1
instead of (3.80) is relatively simple (see se tion 3.6.3). If

of
F (t),
F ()
is the spe trum
it holds that
1e =
1
2R
F ()e
i t R
d.
The orresponding displa ements of the ree ted wave are
W1r (r, z, t)
U1r (r, z, t)
with
w1r
from (3.88) and
u1r
1
2
R +
F ()
w1r (r, z, , t)
u1r (r, z, , t)
(3.90)
from (3.89). The integrals in (3.88) and (3.89),
Fourier transforms of the displa ement.

The numeri al omputation of (3.88), (3.89) and (3.90) is alled the Ree tivity
method ; it is a pra ti al approa h for the omputation of theoreti al seismograms
of body waves. With it, the amplitudes of body waves from explosions and
earthquakes an be studied, thus, progressing beyond the more lassi al travel
time interpretation.
multiplied by
F (),
are, therefore, the
3.7.2 Ree tion and head waves

An example for theoreti al seismograms is given in Fig. 3.37 (from K. Fu hs:
The ree tion of spheri al waves from transition zones with arbitrary depthdepended elasti moduli and density. Journ. of Physi s of the Earth, vol. 16,
Spe ial Issue, S. 27-41, 1968). It is the result for a simple model of the rust,
assumed to be homogeneous.
The point sour e and the re eivers are at the
Earth's surfa e; the inuen e of whi h has been negle ted here. The transition
96
CHAPTER 3.
Mohorovii-zone,
of the rust to the upper mantle (

order
dis ontinuity,
short
BODY WAVES
Moho )
is a rst
i.e., the wave velo ities and the density hange abruptly
(for a dis ontinuity of 2nd order these parameters would still be ontinuous, but
their derivative with depth would have a jump).
Fig. 3.37: Syntheti seismogram for ree tion and refra tion from a 1st order
dis ontinuity (from K. Fu hs, 1968, Journ. of Physi s of the Earth).
ree tion from the Moho. For distan es from the

riti al point r = 74.91 km, orresponding to the riti al
angle of in iden e , the rst onset is the head wave with the apparent velo ity
The dominant wave is the
sour e beyond the
of 8.2 km/se . Its amplitude de ays rapidly with in reasing distan e, and its
form is the time integral of the ree tion for r < r . For pre- riti al distan e
r,
the form of the ree tion is pra ti ally identi al to that of the in ident wave.
At the riti al point, it begins to hange its form. This was already dis ussed
in se tion 3.6.3 in terms of the properties of the ree tion oe ient for plane
waves (this holds for
P-
and
SH-waves, respe tively).
impulse form is roughly opposite to that for

sin e the ree tion oe ient
to
Rpp
For large distan es, the
r < r .
This is also expe ted,
for the angle of in iden e
= /2
is equal
(for liquids, this follows from the formulae given in se tion 3.5.6). The
amplitude behaviour of the ree tion is relatively similar to the trend of the
absolute value
|Rpp |
of the ree tion oe ient, if
|Rpp |
is divided by the path
3.7.
97
length and if one onsiders the verti al omponent (see, e.g., Fig.
3.22 and
orresponding equations). The main dis repan ies are near the riti al point.
A ording to
|Rpp |,
the ree ted wave should have its maximum dire tly at the
riti al point, whereas in reality, it is shifted to larger distan es. This shift is
larger, the lower the frequen y of the in ident wave.
Fig. 3.38: Ree tion amplitude versus oset as a fun tion of frequen y.
The onsideration of this shift is important when determining the riti al point
from observed ree tions, e.g., in ree tion seismi s.
3.7.3 Complete seismograms

Fig. 3.39 shows the
SH -seismograms
potential of the ree tivity method.
This shows omplete
for a prole at the surfa e of a realisti Earth model.
The
sour e is a horizontal single for e at the Earth's surfa e, a ting perpendi ular
to the prole. The dominant period is 20 se . The most pronoun ed phases are
the dispersive Love waves (for surfa e waves, see hapter 4), whose amplitudes
are mostly lipped.
(mantle wave
and
The propagation paths of the largest body wave phases
SS, ore ree tion S S
and dira tion at the ore
Sdif f
are
also sket hed.) A detailed des ription of the ree tivity method is given in G.
Mller: The ree tivity method: A tutorial, Journ. eophys,., vol. 58, 153-174,
1985.
98
CHAPTER 3.
Fig. 3.39: Complete
SH -seismograms for a
BODY WAVES
prole at the surfa e of a realisti
Earth model.
3.8 Exa t or generalised ray theory - GRT

We ontinue the hapter on elasti body waves with the treatment of ree tion
and refra tion of
ylindri al waves
radiated from a
line sour e
and ree ted
and refra ted at a plane interfa e whi h is parallel to the line sour e.
This
problem is more simple and less pra ti al than the ase onsidered in se tion
3.7 of a point sour e over a layered medium. On the other hand, we will learn
a totally dierent way of treating wave propagation whi h leads to relatively
simple
analyti al
(and not only numeri ally solvable) results. This is the main
aim of this se tion. This method, originally developed by Cagniard, de Hoop

and Garvin (see, e.g., W.W. Garvin: Exa t transient solution of the buried line
sour e problem, Pro . Roy. So . London, Ser. A, vol 234, pg. 528-541, 1956),
an also be applied for layered media and be modied for point sour es.
In
that form it is, similar to the ree tivity method, usable for the omputation of
theoreti al body-wave seismograms in the interpretation of observations.
3.8.
99
EXACT OR GENERALISED RAY THEORY - GRT
Again, we limit ourselves to treat the problem of a
liquid
model (see Fig. 3.40),
sin e we an then study the main ideas with a minimum of omputation.
Fig. 3.40: Explosive line sour e in a liquid medium.
We work with the displa ement potentials
(1e =
in ident, 1r
ree ted
P wave)
1 = 1e + 1r in half-spa e 1
2 in half-spa e 2. The three
and
potentials satisfy the wave equations
2 1e,r =
1 2 1e,r
,
21 t2
2 2 =
1 2 2
.
22 t2
(3.91)
s2
2 ,
22
(3.92)
The Lapla e transform of these equations gives
2 1e,r =
s2
1e,r
21
and
2 2 =
where 1e , 1r and 2 are the transforms of 1e , 1r and 2 , respe tively, and

s is the transform variable (see appendix A). We assume that the P -wave starts
at time t =0 at the line sour e. Therefore, the initial values of 1e , 1r and 2 ,
and their time derivatives for
t= +0, are zero outside the line sour e.
The time
derivatives have to be onsidered in the se ond derivative with respe t to
in
(3.91).
3.8.1 In ident ylindri al wave

First, we have to study the in ident wave. Sin e the line sour e is explosive and
has, therefore, ylindri al symmetry around its axis, it holds that
2 1e =
with
R2 = x2 + (z + h)2 .
2 1e
1 1e
s2
+
1e
=
R2
R R
21
(3.93)
The solution of (3.93), whi h an be interpreted as a
ylindri al wave in +R dire tion, is
100
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
R
1
1e = f (s) K0 ( s),
s
1
(3.94)
where f (s) is the Lapla e transform of an arbitrary time fun tion

K0 ( R1 s) is one of the
of zeroth order.
modied Bessel fun tions
Proof: Using the substitution x = R
s
1
F(t)
and
, (3.93) an be expressed as the dierential
equations of the modied Bessel fun tion
x2
dy
d2 y
+x
(x2 + n2 )y = 0.
2
dx
dx
In the ase onsidered here,

linear solutions,
K0 (x)
and
n =0.
The dierential equation has two independent
I0 (x),
respe tively. For real
x, Fig.
3.41 shows their
qualitative behaviour.
3
I0 (x)
2
1
K 0 (x)
0
1
Fig. 3.41: Behaviour of linear solutions
This shows that only

for
x .
K0 (x)
Referen e :
K0 (x)
and
I0 (x).
is a possible solution, sin e
I0 (x)
grows innitely
M. Abramovitz and I.A. Stegun: Handbook of Mathe-
mati al Fun tions, H. Deuts h, Frankfurt, 1985).

Taking the inverse Lapla e transform of (3.94) in the time domain, and using
the orresponden e
1
K0
s
f (s) F (t)
(F (t) 0 for t < 0)

R
0
for
t < R/1
s
cos h1 ( R1 t ) for t > R/1

1
with a typi al behaviour of the solution given in Fig. 3.42;
3.8.
101
R/ 1
Fig. 3.42: Behaviour of the solution.
the potential an be written as
1e =
R/1
By varying
F(t),
F (t ) cos h1 (
1
)d
R
(t R/1 ).
(3.95)
the ylindri al wave an be given dierent time dependen-
ies. Equation (3.95) is the analogue to the potential
1e =
1
RF
spheri al wave from an explosive point sour e.

In the following, we treat the
ee ts an be studied.
spe ial ase F (t) = (t),
R
1
of a
for whi h all important
If realisti ex itations have to be treated, the results
for the potentials and displa ements of the ree ted and dira ted waves, respe tively, derived with time dependent
realisti
F(t).
For
F (t) = (t),
have to be onvolved with
F (t) = (t)
1e = cosh1 (
1 t
),
R
and the orresponding radial displa ement in R-dire tion is
UR =
1e
=
R
t
R
t2
Fig. 3.43: Displa ement in R dire tion.
R2
21
1/2
(t >
R
).
1
(3.96)
102
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
The orresponding point sour e results are
1e
UR

1
R
H t
R
1

1
R
R
1
1e
.
t
= 2H t
R
R
1
R1
1
Fig. 3.44: Displa ement in R dire tion.
3.8.2 Wavefront approximation for UR

If we write (3.96) as
UR =

R t+
R
1
t
1/2
R
1
1/2 ,
R
and onsider values of t near , we nd the approximation
1
UR
1/2
(2R1 )
1
t
R
1
1/2 .
(3.97)
t is to R/1 , and, therefore,

wavefront approximation. It is more a urate for large R, and it
is, therefore, also the far-eld approximation of the ylindri al wave.
Within the framework of the wavefront approximation (3.97), the impulse form
This approximation is more a urate the loser

this is alled
of the ylindri al wave is independent from R, and its amplitude is proportional

1/2
to R
. Both statements be ome espe ially obvious if (3.97) is onvolved
with realisti ex itation fun tions
integrable.
F (t).
The singularity in (3.96) and (3.97) is
3.8.
103
3.8.3 Ree tion and refra tion of the ylindri al wave

The oordinates most appropriate for the study of ree tion and refra tion are
the Cartesian oordinates
and
z.
Equation (3.92), then, takes the form
s2
2 2
+
= 2 .
2
2
x
z
2
Appropriate elementary solutions have the form cos(kx) exp(imz) with k +
2
2
2
m = s / . From these elementary solutions, more ompli ated solutions in
integral form (similar to se tion 3.7.1) an be onstru ted
f (k) cos(kx)eimz dk,
rstly, the potential (3.94) of the in ident

se ondly, the boundary onditions for z = 0. Spe i ally, we use the
with whi h we an try to satisfy

wave, and
following ansatz
1e
1r
m1,2
For
K0
R
0
R
0
s2
= i k 2 + 2
1,2
R
1 s
A1 (k) cos(kx)eim1 z dk
B1 (k) cos(kx)eim1 z dk
A2 (k) cos(kx)eim2 z dk
!1/2
(negative
(z > h)
(3.98)
imaginary for positive radi ands).
in (3.94) an integral representation, similar to (3.85) for the spher-
i al wave, an be found. With this
1e
(with
f(s)=1, sin e F (t) = (t)) it follows
that
1e
1
=
s
1

k2
A omparison with
s2
21
1e
1/2

1/2 #
s2
2
cos(kx) exp |z + h| k + 2
dk.
1
"
from (3.98) for
A1 (k) =
z>-h
gives
eim1 h
.
ism1
(3.99)
104
CHAPTER 3.
The boundary onditions for
BODY WAVES
z= 0 are ( ompare se tion 3.6.5)
2
(1e + 1r ) =
,
z
z
2 2
2
(
+
)
=
.
1e
1r
2
t2
t2
The Lapla e transform gives
(1e + 1r ) =
,
z
z
1 (1e + 1r ) = 2 2 .
From (3.98), it follows that
m1 (A1 (k) B1 (k))

1 (A1 (k) + B1 (k))
=
=
m2 A2 (k)
2 A2 (k),
and from this
B1 (k) = Rpp (k)A1 (k)
and
A2 (k) = Bpp (k)A1 (k)
.
Thus,
2 m 1 1 m 2
2 m 1 + 1 m 2
Rpp (k) =
The potentials
1r
and
1r
2
=
=
and
Bpp (k) =
21 m1
.
2 m 1 + 1 m 2
(3.100)
are, therefore,
Z0
A1 (k)Rpp (k) cos(kx)eim1 z dk

A1 (k)Bpp (k) cos(kx)eim2 z dk.
w and u of the verti al and horizontal displa ement W
U, respe tively, an, in general, be written as w =

z and u = x
The Lapla e transforms

and
and spe i ally

w1r
=
u1r
w2
=
u2
R
0
R
0
Rpp (k)
sim1
Bpp (k)
sim1

im1 cos(kx)
eim1 (hz) dk
k sin(kx)

im2 cos(kx)
ei(m2 z+m1 h) dk.
k sin(kx)
(3.101)
3.8.
105
transformed ba k.
This is impossible
These Lapla e transforms must now be
with (A.9) in appendix A. One, rather, uses an approa h that is based in transforming (3.101) several times with fun tion theory methods until the integrals
are of the form
w
u
The inverse
W (t)
U (t)
= Z(t)
R
0
Z(t)est dt.
an then be identied
(3.102)
dire tly.
positive
real s, i.e., we do not onsider the whole onvergen e half-plane of the Lapla e
An important limitation has to be mentioned rst: we only onsider

transform, but only the positive real axis.
This simplies the omputations
signi antly, without limitation of its generality, sin e the Lapla e transform is
an analyti al fun tion.
It is, therefore, determined in the whole onvergen e
half-plane by its values on the real axis, where the integral (3.101) is real.
With
cos(kx) = Re(eikx )

w1r
=
u1r
w2
=
u2
Re
Re
R
0
R
0
and
sin(kx) = Re(ieikx ),
(3.101) an be written as

m1
ei(kx+m1 (hz)) dk
k
m2
Bpp (k)
ei(kx+m1 h+m2 z) dk
sm1
k
Rpp (k)
sm1
The next step is a hange of the integration variables
u=
m1,2
=
=
with
m1,2
u -axis.
!1/2
2
1/2
s
i s2 u2 + 2
= is u2 + 2
1,2
1,2
1/2
s u2 2
= sa1,2
1,2
1/2
(3.104)
The transformed integration path is, therefore, in the sheet of the

of the square root
the sheet with
The
gives
a1,2 = u2 2
1,2
plane
(3.103)
ik
s
so that the integration path is now along the positive imaginary

transformation of the square root
a1,2 ,
a1,2 u).
in whi h
a1,2 u
for
|u|
Riemann
holds (and not in
Introdu ing (3.104) in (3.100), gives
106
CHAPTER 3.
2 a1 1 a2
2 a1 + 1 a2
Rpp (u) =
With
k = isu
w1r
u1r
w2
u2
and
dk = isdu,
= Re
and
= Re
21 a1
.
2 a1 + 1 a2
(3.105)
it follows from (3.103)
+i
Rpp (u)
Bpp (u) =
BODY WAVES
+i
Bpp (u)
i
au1
i aa21
au1

es(uxia1 (hz)) du
(3.106)
es(uxia1 hia2 z) du.
(3.107)
These expressions already have a ertain similarity with (3.102) sin e s only
o urs in the exponential term. The next step is, therefore, a new hange in the
integration variable
in (3.106)
t = ux ia1 (h z)
(3.108)
t = ux ia1 h ia2 z.
(3.109)
in (3.107)
From both equations,
has to be determined as a fun tion of
be inserted in (3.106) and (3.107), respe tively.
and has to
This will be dis ussed later
in more detail. At the same time, the integration path has to be transformed
a ordingly. For
u = 0,
it follows from (3.108) and (3.109), respe tively, that
t(0) =
t(0) =
t0
t0
The transformed integration paths
C1
=
=
hz
1
h
z
1 + 2 .
(3.110)
C2 (for
u +i, they
(for (3.106)) and
spe tively, start on the positive real t-axis. For
(3.107)), reapproa h an
asymptote in the rst quadrant whi h passes through the entre of the oordinate system and has the slope
tan = x/(h + z)
tan = x/(h z)
(for the ase (3.109)).
(for the ase (3.108)) and
In (3.108),
is always negative in
(3.109) always positive. The transformed integration paths are shown in Fig.
3.45.
3.8.
107
Fig. 3.45: Transformed integration paths.
In the ase of the ree ted wave (left in Fig. 3.45),

in the ase of the refra ted wave,
C1
C1
is part of a hyperbola;
is part of a urve of higher order whi h is
similar to a hyperbola. We then get
w1r
u1r
w2
u2
= Re
Rpp (u(t))
Bpp (u(t))
C1
= Re
C2
The last step is now to deform the paths
Cau hy's integral
C1
du st
e dt
dt
(3.111)
ia2 (u(t))
a1 (u(t))
a1u(t)
(u(t))
du st
e dt.
dt
(3.112)
a1u(t)
(u(t))
and
C2
towards the real axis a -
ording to
. The path C1,2 an now be repla ed by the path
C 1,2 + C1,2
in Fig. 3.46 if no poles of the integrands in (3.111) and (3.112) are
lo ated inside the two paths.
Im t
C1,2
C1,2
C1,2
t0
Fig. 3.46: Integration paths in the omplex plane.
Re t
108
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
bran h points
This is satised be ause the only singularities of a1 and a2 are the

1
and u = 2 , respe tively, and these bran h points are integrable
singularities and not poles. Finally, the ontribution of the urve C1,2 goes to
u = 1
1
zero if its radius be omes innite. Thus,
w1r
u1r
"
hz
1
Re Rpp (u(t))
hz
1
w2
u2
a1u(t)
(u(t))
[0] est dt
"
+ z
2
h
z
1 + 2
#
du st
e dt
dt
(3.113)
Re Bpp (u(t))
h
1
ia2 (u(t))
a1 (u(t))
a1u(t)
(u(t))
du st
e dt
dt
[0] est dt.
(3.114)
In these expressions, only the real part of the square bra kets has to be onsidst
ered sin e e
is real and the integration is only over real . The addition of the
se ond integral with vanishing ontribution was only done for formal reasons, to
allow integration over
from 0 to
a ording to (3.102).
Equation (3.113) and
(3.114) have, therefore, the standard form of a Lapla e transform, from whi h
the original fun tion an be read
dire tly.
W1r and U1r of

(hz)/1 . This is
The displa ements
the ree ted wave are, therefore, zero between the time 0 and
not surprising sin e
(h z)/1
is the travel time from the sour e perpendi ular
down to the ree ting interfa e and ba k to level
of the sour e. This time
is, therefore, smaller, or at most equal, to the travel time of the rst ree ted
onsets at this point. For
W1r
U1r
with
u(t)
t > (h z)/1
"
= Re Rpp (u(t))
h/1 + z/2
are zero, and for
W2
U2
u(t)
a1u(t)
(u(t))
du
dt
(3.115)
from (3.108).
Similarly, the displa ements
with
it holds that
W2 and U2 of the dira ted wave

t > h/1 + z/2 , it holds that
"
= Re Bpp (u(t))
ia2 (u(t))
a1 (u(t))
a1u(t)
(u(t))
du
dt
for
0 t <
(3.116)
from (3.109).
All that is needed to al ulate these relatively simple

solutions of (3.108) and (3.109), with respe t of
algebrai fun tions, is the
as a fun tion of real times
3.8.
109
t > t0
du
dt . In the ase of
(from (3.110)) and the knowledge of the derivative
(3.108), this is very easy sin e here
u(t) =
x
2t
R
x
2t
R
R = x2 + (h z)2
1/2
hz
2
R
hz
i 2
R
t21 t2
an be given expli itly
21
for
1
2 2
t2 t1
for
t t1 =
R
1
(3.117)
t > t1 .
is the distan e of the sour e point from its mirror image,
i.e., from the point with the oordinates
a ording to
hz
1
x = 0
and
z = +h; t1 = R/1
is,
Fermat's prin iple, the travel time of the a tual ree tion from the
interfa e. The urve of
u(t)
is given in Fig. 3.47. The derivative
omputed dire tly from (3.117). It has a singularity at
Fig. 3.47: The path of
u(t)
du/dt
in the omplex plane.
In the ase of the refra ted wave,
u(t)
has to be omputed numeri ally with a
similar urve as for the ree ted wave (Fig. 3.47).
Fig. 3.47: The path of
u(t)
an be
t = t1 .
for the refra ted wave in the omplex plane.
110
CHAPTER 3.
The numeri al omputations of

a large eort.
u(t),
BODY WAVES
and its derivative, are possible without
In the following se tion, we fo us on the ree ted wave using
(3.115) and (3.117).
3.8.4 Dis ussion of ree ted wave types

We assume that the
P -velo ity
in the lower half-spa e is larger than that of
2 > 1 . First, we onsider

u(t1 ) = x/(R1 ) < 1
2 . Sin e x/R = sin (=
means that sin < 1 /2 = sin ( = riti al angle
the upper half-spa e ontaining the line sour e;

re eivers
P (x, z)
for whi h
angle of in iden e), this
of in iden e), and this implies
pre- riti al in iden e of the ylindri al wave.
Fig. 3.49: Sket h for line sour e and its mirror point.
In this ase,
1
u(t) for t < t1 is smaller than 1
2 and, thus, even smaller than 1 .
a1 (u(t)) and a2 (u(t)), a ording to (3.104), are positive imaginary,

Rpp (u(t)), a ording to (3.105), is real. Sin e du/dt is real for the times
Therefore,
and
onsidered, it follows with (3.115) that the real part of the square bra kets for all
t < t1
is zero. For
t > t1 , u(t)
be omes omplex, and the real part is non-zero.
Not surprisingly, the displa ement, therefore, starts at

If
1 < 2 ,
t = t1 .
this argument holds for arbitrary re eiver lo ations in the upper
half-spa e.
If
u(t1 ) = x/(R1 ) > 1

2 ,
the
head wave
angle of in iden e is larger than the angle ,
as the rst onset. In this ase, a2 (u(t)) be omes

u(t2 ) = 1
2 . The same does not hold for
a1 (u(t)). Thus, Rpp (u(t)) has non-zero real and imaginary parts for t > t2 , and,
1
in (3.108), it
therefore, (3.115) is already non-zero for t > t2 . Putting u = 2
follows that
and we expe t a
real at the time t2 whi h is dened via
t2 =
x
2 21
+ (h z)(2
1 2 ) < t1 .
2
3.8.
111
This is the arrival time of the head wave as expe ted a ording to Fermat's
prin iple for the ray path from Q to P(x,z) in Fig. 3.50.
Fig. 3.50: Path of head wave from sour e Q to re eiver P.
Considering this ase at time
t = t1 , we expe t,
due to the sudden hange in the
u(t) propagates, signi ant hanges in the displa ement (3.115),

ree tion proper gives a signi ant signal, and this is something
urve on whi h
i.e., that the
whi h indeed an be observed.

Our derivation has shown that the head wave, and also the ree tion, an be
derived from the potential
1r , i.e., no separate des ription was ne essary for the
head wave. If we had studied solid media, we, possibly, ould have identied
a se ond arrival whi h is an additional interfa e or boundary wave (
to
onversion) ( ompare, e.g., the work by Garvin quoted earlier). In se tion 3.7
(see head wave in Fig.
3.37), we en ountered a similar situation in that the
head wave was in luded in the solution. Both methods (ree tivity method in
se tion 3.7 and GRT this se tion) give a omplete solution unless simpli ations
for numeri al reasons are introdu ed.
Fig. 3.51: Sket h of the displa ement (in horizontal and verti al dire tion) for
pre- riti al (left) and post- riti al (right) in iden e, respe tively.
112
For
CHAPTER 3.
t ,
BODY WAVES
the limit of the displa ement is non-zero, as for the ase of the in-
ident wave ( ompare (3.96)). The singularities at
t = t1
are always integrable.
Therefore, onvolution with a realisti ex itation fun tion
F(t)
is always possi-
ble. On the right side of Fig. 3.51, the displa ement starts before the ree tion
proper arriving at
t1 .
Fermat's prin iple, therefore, does not give exa tly the
arrival time of the rst onset in the ase where the ree tion is not
arrival.
the rst
3.9.
113
RAY SEISMICS IN CONTINUOUS INHOMOGENEOUS MEDIA
Fig. 3.52: Theoreti al seismograms (verti al displa ement) for a rustal model.
1 = 6, 4km/s, 2 = 8, 2 km/s, 1 = 3, 0 g/ m3 , 2 = 3.3 g/ m3 ,
Parameters:
h
= 30
km, z
= 30
km.
On the left, the exa t seismograms (GRT) and
on the right a wavefront approximation is shown.
From G. Mller:
Exa t
ray theory and its appli ation to the ree tion of elasti waves from verti ally
inhomogeneous media, Geophys. Journ. R.A.S. 21, S. 261-283, 1970.
For realisti
F(t),
this dis repan y is usually small. A full example using the
theory of this se tion, is given in Fig. 3.50b. For a des ription of the dierent
wave types
et ., see also se tion 3.7.2.
In the ase of a layered medium with
more than one interfa e, the wave eld an
be broken into separate ray ontributions, as was done for the lamella in se tion
3.6.5. For ea h ray ontribution, a formula of the type of (3.115) or (3.116) an
be given, whi h an ontain head or boundary wave ontributions. This is the
reason for the name "exa t or generalised ray theory". Another ommon name
is the "Cagniard-de Hoop-method".
Exer ise 3.12:

Give wavefront approximations for the ree ted wave and head wave, i.e., expand (3.115) around the arrival times
wave), respe tively.
t1
(of the ree tion) and
Distinguish between
slowly
(of the head
t = t1 and t = t2 , respe tively, and

t t1 , t1 t and t t2 , respe tively.
an be repla ed by their values for

varying terms, whi h depend on
t2
varying ontributions, whi h
rapidly
3.9 Ray seismi s in ontinuous inhomogeneous

media
With the ree tivity method and the GRT, we have dis ussed wave-seismi
methods, whi h if applied in
ontinuous inhomogeneous
media (in our ase ver-
ti ally inhomogeneous media), require a segmentation in homogeneous regions

(in our ase homogeneous layers).
Wave-seismi methods for ontinuous in-
homogeneous media, without this simplied representation of real media, are

often more ompli ated ( ompare example in se tion 3.10). In this se tion, we
will now sket h the
ray-seismi (or ray-opti al) approximation
of the wave the-
ory in inhomogeneous media. We will also show that it is the
approximation
high frequen y
of the equation of motion (2.20) for the inhomogeneous elasti
ontinuum. We restri t our dis ussion again to a simplied ase, namely the
propagation of
SH -waves
in a two-dimensional inhomogeneous medium.
velo ity
and shear modulus
displa ement omponent is in the
depend
The
y -dire tion where density , S only on x and z. The only non-zero
sour e is assumed to be a line-sour e in the
y -dire tion v = v(x, z, t).
114
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
3.9.1 Fermat's prin iple and the ray equation

Fermat's prin iple states that the travel time of the (SH -)wave from the sour e
Q to an arbitrary re eiver P along the seismi ray is an extremum and, therefore, stationary, i.e., along ea h innitesimally adja ent path between P and Q
(dashed in Fig. 3.53) the travel time is either larger or smaller.
Fig. 3.53: Ray with extremum path and innitesimally adja ent ray.
In most ases, the travel time along a seismi ray is a minimum, but there
are also ases, where it is a maximum (e.g., the body waves PP, SS, PKKP).
If we des ribe an arbitrary path from
{x = x(p), z = z(p)},
ds =
We onsider now
many
p = p1
p = p2
at
and
to
via a
the element of the ar length
"
dx
dp
2
Q
P, respe tively.
su h paths from
at
dz
dp
2 # 21
to
parameter representation
an be written as
dp.
(3.118)
P. They all have the same value

p annot be identi al to
Therefore,
s ; p ould, for example, be the angle between the line onne ting the oordinate
x- or z-axis. The seismi ray is the
entre to the point along the way and the

path for whi h
T =
p2
(x(p), z(p))
p1
"
dx
dp
2
dz
dp
2 # 12
dp =
p2
p1

dx dz
x, z, ,
dp
dp dp
dz
dx
= x ,
= z
dp
dp
is an extremum.
The determination of the seismi ray has, therefore, been
redu ed to a problem of
equations
al ulus of variations.
F
d F
=0
x
dp x
and
This leads to the
F
d F
= 0.
z
dp z
Euler-Lagrange
3.9.
115
This gives then, for example,
1
x +z 2
x
2
Division by
(x2 + z 2 )1/2 ,
square bra ket with
1
(x, z)

d
1
x
= 0.
dp (x, z) (x2 + z 2 ) 12
multipli ation of nominator and denominator of the
dp, and use of (3.118) gives

d
ds
1 dx
ds
=
x

1
.
(3.119)
d
ds
1 dz
ds
=
z

1
.
(3.120)
Similarly,
Equations (3.119) and (3.120) are the

the parameter representation
of the ray. With
dierential equations of the seismi ray in
{x = x(s), z = z(s)} where s
is now the ar length
dz
dx
= sin ,
= cos
ds
ds
(= angle of the ray versus the
z -dire tion), it follows that

sin

cos
d
ds
d
ds

1

.
1
(3.121)
1
0
dx
ds dz
11
00
00
11
00
11
11
00
Fig. 3.54: Ray in x-z oordinate system.
These two equations an now be onverted into another form of the ray equation
(show)
116
CHAPTER 3.
=
ds
This dierential equation for

the ray path. The inverse of
sin
(s) is
d/ds
cos
z
x
BODY WAVES
(3.122)
well suited for numeri al omputations of
1

ds
= sin
cos
r=
d
z
x
is the
radius of the urvature of the ray.
(3.123)
The ray is urved strongly (r is smaller)
where the velo ities hange strongly ( large).
Spe ial ases

a)
onst.
From (3.122), it follows that
b)
= (z)
d/ds = 0.
(no dependen e on
The ray is straight.
x)
The rst equation in (3.121) gives, after integration,
sin
= q = const
Snell's law)
along the whole ray (
sour es and re eivers at the level

apex
S. The ray parameter q
velo ities
(0)
where
z=0
is the
(3.124)
ray parameter
is onne ted to the take-o angle
at the sour e and the turning point
q=
zs
z
Fig. 3.55: Ray in 1-D medium.
(zs ),
00000
11111
P
00
11
00
11
11
00
S
1
0
0 ,
the seismi
respe tively, via
sin 0
1
=
.
(0)
(zs )
11111
Q 00000
z=0 0
1
of the ray. For
the ray is symmetri with respe t to its
3.9.
zs
A turning point depth

distan e
117
(z) < (zs ) for all z < zs . For

z = 0, it holds (using (3.124))
is only possible if
in whi h the ray reappears at level
that
(q) = 2
dx = 2
zs
tan dz = 2q
zs
0
2 (z) q 2
21
dz.
(3.125)
The ray's travel time is
T (q) = 2
ds
=2
zs
dz
=2
cos
zs
1

2 (z) 2 (z) q 2 2 dz.
Equations (3.126) and (3.127) are parameter representations of the
urve of the model.
(3.126)
travel time
An example for ray paths and travel time urves in a model
with a transition zone is given in Fig. 3.56.
Fig. 3.56: Ray paths and travel time urves in a model with a transition zone.
The
slope
of the travel time urve is (show)
dT
= q.
d
= a + bx + cz
(linear dependen e from
In this ase, it follows from
(3.127)
and
z)
118
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
c sin b cos
d
=
ds
and by dierentiation with respe t to
s ( and are fun tions of s
via
and
z)
c cos + b sin d c sin b cos

d2
=
(b sin + c cos ) = 0.
ds2
ds
2
This implies
d/ds
is a onstant and, therefore, the urvature radius along the
The ray is, therefore, a ir le, or a se tion of it.
whole ray.
from (3.123) if
Its radius
0 .
to the take-o angle
follows
equal
M, the entre of the ir le, an be found from
as
is hosen identi al to the value at the sour e Q and
shown in Fig. 3.57.
Fig. 3.57: Ray paths in a model with a linear velo ity law in x and z.
The travel time from
T =
with
An
ds
=
Q
1
to
is
d
= c2 + b
c sin b cos
= arctan(b/c).
arbitrary
velo ity law
(x, z),
1
2 2
i
h
tan (12)
h
i
ln
tan (0 )
2
given at dis rete points
(xn , zn )
in a model,
an linearly be interpolated pie e-wise between three neighbouring points. Then

the laws derived here an be applied. The ray then onsists of several se tions of
ir les, and at the transition between two regions with dierent linear velo ity
laws, the tangent to the ray is ontinuous.
A orresponding travel time and
plotting program is, for many pra ti al appli ations, already su ient.
Exer ise 3.13

a) Show that point M is on the line
= 0.
b) Derive the formula for T given above.
3.9.
119
3.9.2 High frequen y approximation of the equation of

motion
The equation of motion for inhomogeneous, isotropi media (2.20) an for
SH -
wave propagation in two-dimensional media without volume for es, be simplied

to
2v
=
t2
x

v
.
x
z
z
(3.128)
For the time harmoni ase we use the ansatz
v(x, z, t) = A(x, z) exp [i (t T (x, z))] .

This is an ansatz for
expe t that amplitude
(3.129)
high frequen ies sin e only for su h frequen ies an we

A(x,z) and travel time fun tion T(x,z) to be frequen y
independent in inhomogeneous media. In homogeneous media far from interfa es, this is true for all frequen ies as long as one is a few wavelengths away
from the sour e. Using (3.129) in (3.128), and sorting with respe t to powers of
it follows that
( "
+iA
T
x
2
T
z
2 #
2

T
T
2T
T
ln A T
ln A T
+
+
+
+
+
2
x x
z z
x2
z 2
x x
z z

2
A A
A 2A
(3.130)
= 0.
+
+
+
x x
z z
x2
z 2
For su iently high frequen ies, the three terms of this equation are of
dierent
magnitudes. To satisfy (3.130), ea h term has then to be zero independently,
espe ially the rst two terms
2
2
T
1
T
+
=
x
z
2

ln A T
T
ln A T
T
2
=
+
2 T.
x x
z z
x x
z z

(3.131)
(3.132)
Eikonal equation, and it ontains on the right side the

S -velo ity = (/)1/2 . After solving the Eikonal, T is
transport equation (3.132), and ln A and A are determined.
Equation (3.131) is the

lo ation-dependent
inserted in in the
This, in prin iple, solves the problem. The frequen y-independent third term
120
CHAPTER 3.
in (3.130) will usually not be zero with
from (3.132).
BODY WAVES
Solution (3.129) is,
therefore, not exa t, but be omes more a urate, the higher the frequen y.
We still have to derive the onditions under whi h the rst two terms of (3.130)
are indeed of dierent order and, therefore, the separation into (3.131) and
(3.132) is valid.
ea h single
ea h single sum-
The ondition follows from the requirement that
summand in the se ond term has to be small with respe t to

mand in the rst term, for example,

2

T

2 T
.
x x
x
From (3.131), it follows roughly
With
= 2 ,
it follows
|T /x| = 1/ .
Thus,

x .

.
+
2
x
x
(3.133)
Similar relations follow from the other summands in (3.130). Usually, the required onditions are formulated as follows: the high frequen y approximations
(3.131) and (3.132) are valid for frequen ies whi h are large with respe t to the
velo ity gradients
|| =
"
2
2 # 21
(3.134)
Equation (3.133) shows also, that density gradients have also an inuen e.
Equation (3.134) an be expressed even more physi ally: the relative hange
of the velo ity over the distan e of a wavelength has to be smaller then
(show).
Example
We solve (3.131) and (3.132) in the simplest ase of a plane
in z-dire tion with the assumption that
and
SH -wave propagating
z. Ansatz
depend only on
(3.129) then simplies to
v(z, t) = A(z) exp [i (t T (z))] .

The solution of (3.131) is
(3.135)
3.9.
1
dT
=
, T (z) =
dz
(z)
where
T (z)
is the
121
d
()
S-wave travel time, with respe t to the referen e level z = 0.
Equation (3.132) an be written as
1 d
d
2 d ln A
=
+ 2
.
dz
dz
dz
Thus,

1
d ln () 2
d ln
d ln
=
=
dz
dz
dz

12
(0)(0)
.
= A(0)
(z)(z)
d ln A
dz
1
2
A(z)
The amplitudes of the
impedan e
SH -wave
vary, therefore, inversely proportional to the
The nal solution of (3.135) is
(0)(0)
v(z, t) = A(0)
(z)(z)
21

Z
exp i t
d
()

From these results we on lude that, in the ase onsidered, an

frequent
SH -wave propagates without hanging its form.
(3.136)
impulsive, high
Exer ise 3.14

Vary the velo ity
z,
but via a
exa tly via
and the density
not
step somewhere in between.

the SH -refra tion oe ient
ontinuously
from depth 0 to depth
Then the amplitudes an be derived

(3.40).
Show that (3.136) gives the
same results if the relative hange in impedan e is small with respe t to 1.

Hint: Expansion in
both
ases.
3.9.3 Eikonal equation and seismi rays

From (3.129), it follows that surfa es of onstant phase are given by
t T (x, z) = const.
In the impulse ase, these surfa es are the wavefronts separating perturbed and
unperturbed regions. This is why the term wavefront is used also here. Complete
dierentiation with respe t to
gives
122
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
dx
T dx T dz
+
= T
= 1,
x dt
z dt
dt
where
dx/dt = (dx/dt, 0, dz/dt)
(3.137)
is the propagation velo ity of the wavefront.
dx/dt and the

ve tor T , whi h is perpendi ular to the wavefront, are parallel,
sin e
a ording

to the Eikonal equation (3.131) | T | = 1/ , it holds that dx/dt = . This
The obvious interpretation of (3.137) for isotropi media is that
means that the wavefronts propagate perpendi ular to themselves with the lo al
velo ity
The
orthogonal traje tories of the wave are dened as seismi rays.
We still have
to show that they are the rays dened via the Fermat's prin iple. We demonstrate this by showing that the dierential equations of the seismi ray, (3.119)
and (3.120), also follow from the Eikonal equation. As before, we des ribe the
ray via its parameter representation
s.
Ve tor
dx/ds = (dx/ds, 0, dz/ds)
{x = x(s), z = z(s)}
with the ar length
is a unit ve tor in ray dire tion for whi h,
using the statements above, we an write
dx
= T = (T /x, 0, T /z).
ds
(3.138)
Instead of (3.119), we, therefore, have
d
ds
1 dx
ds
d
ds
T
x
Using (3.138) and the Eikonal equation on the right side, we derive
d
ds
1 dx
ds
=
=
=

2
2 T dx
2 T dz
2 T T
T T
+
=
+
x2 ds
xz ds
x2 x
xz z
"
2
2 #

T
1
T

=
+
2 x
x
z
2 x 2

(2)
1
1
.
= 2
=
2 3 x
x
x
That is identi al to (3.119) and a similar derivation holds for (3.120).

following is the
ray equation in ve tor form,
The
whi h is also valid in the three-
dimensional ase
d
ds
!
1
1 dx
= .
ds
(3.139)
3.9.
This shows that
mi s.
123
ray seismi s is a high frequen y approximation of wave seiskinemati aspe ts of wave
We have, until now, limited the dis ussion on
propagation, i.e., on the dis ussion of wave paths, travel times and phases.
Dynami
parameters, espe ially amplitudes, were not dis ussed ex ept in the
simple example in se tion 3.9.2. The following se tion gives more details on this
aspe t.
Before doing this, we give the form of (3.139) whi h is often used in numeri al
al ulations, espe ially in three dimensions.
equation of 2nd order for
1st order for
and the
the absolute value
1
)
The
single
ordinary dierential
(3.139) is repla ed by a system of
p =
slowness ve tor
two
equations of
1 dx
ds (ve tor in ray dire tion with
dx
dp
1
=
p,
= .
ds
ds
Ee tive numeri al methods for the solution of systems of ordinary dierential
equations of 1st order exist, e.g., the Runge-Kutta-method.
3.9.4 Amplitudes in ray seismi approximation

Within the framework of ray seismi s developed from Fermat's prin iple, amplitudes are usually omputed using the assumption that the energy radiated
into a small ray bundle, remains in that bundle. This assumption implies that
no energy exits the bundle sideways via dira tion or s attering and no energy
is ree ted or s attered ba kwards. This is only valid for high frequen ies. In
the following, we derive a formula whi h des ribes the hange of the displa ement amplitude along a ray radiated from a line sour e in a two dimensional
inhomogeneous medium. The medium shall have no dis ontinuities.
We onsider (see Fig. 3.58) a ray bundle emanating from a line sour e
a width of
the point
dl(M ) at the
P.
referen e point
lose to
1
0
Q
0
1
dl(M)
11
00
00
11
M
and a width of
x
z
dl(P)
P
0
1
Fig. 3.58: Ray bundle emanating from the sour e Q.
with
dl(P ) near
124
CHAPTER 3.
Equation (3.129) holds for the displa ement in
and
BODY WAVES
P, or in real form
v = A sin [(t T ] .
Our aim is the determination of the amplitude ration
A(P )/A(M ).
We rst de-
termine the energy density of the wave, i.e., the sum of kineti and potential en1
1
2
2 2
2
ergy per unit volume. The kineti energy density is v
2 = 2 A cos [(t T )].
Averaged over the period 2/ , the potential and kinemati energy density have
1
1
2 2
2
the same value 4 A sin e the average of cos x is identi al to 2 . Then the
energy density averaged over a period an be written as
E
1
= 2 A2 .
V
2
Consider a ube with the volume
V = dl dy ds; its ross se tion dl dy is perds is exa tly 1 wavelength 2/ .
pendi ular to the ray bundle and its length

The energy
E =
1 2 2
A V = A2 dl dy
2
ontained within this ube ows per period through the ross se tion
the ray bundle. Sin e no energy leaves the bundle,
M. From this the amplitude ratio
at
dl dy
of
is the same as at
follows as
1

A(P )
(M )(M )dl(M ) 2
.
=
A(M )
(P )(P )dl(P )
As in (3.136), impedan e hanges o ur along the ray.
(3.140)
The square root of
the hange in the ross se tion is the important parameter for the amplitude
variation. In the most general three-dimensional ase,
the ross se tion
surfa e
of the
three-dimensional
dl
has to be repla ed by
ray bundle.
Equation (3.140) an be approximated by tra ing su iently many rays through
the medium using the methods dis ussed previously, and then determining their
perpendi ular distan es (or ross-se tion surfa es in three dimensions). These
methods are based mainly on the solution of the ray equation (3.139), whi h is
also alled the equation of the
kinemati ray tra ing.
A more stringent approa h
to al ulate (3.140) is based on dierential equations whi h are dire tly valid
for the ross se tion of a ray bundle; they are alled equations of the
ray tra ing.
dynami
Their derivation annot be treated here; for details, see the book
of erven, Molotov and Pen k (1977).

For point
on a horizontal prole, e.g., at
z = 0,
a loser look at (3.140) and
Fig. 3.59 helps in understanding the physi al meaning.
3.9.
P
0
1
0
1
11
00
Q
00
11
1M
0
125
x,
d
dl(P)=cos d d 0
0
dl(M)=ad 0
z
Fig. 3.59: Ray paths in an inhomogeneous medium.
The horizontal distan e of
to
dl(P )
P.
is
(0 ) with the take-o angle 0
The distan e of the referen e point
from
is
a.
of the ray from
With
dl(M )
and
from Fig. 3.59, it follows from (3.140) that
21
1

A(P )
a
(M )(M ) 2
.

=
d
A(M )
(P )(P )
cos d

0
(3.141)
P is on, or lose to, the neighturning points of the travel time urve on the horizontal prole
This expression shows that problems o ur if

bourhood of
( ompare, e.g., the travel time urve in Fig. 3.56). At these points,
d/d0
hanges its sign, and that an happen either with a ontinuous or non- ontinuous
pass through a zero. In the rst ase, innite amplitudes o ur in
ond ase, the amplitudes be ome non- ontinuous.
and nonphysi al.
P ; in the se -
Both ases are unrealisti
Equations (3.141) and (3.140), respe tively, an, therefore,
only be used at some distan e from the turning points ( austi s) of the travel
time urves. Unfortunately, this means that the points with some of the largest
amplitudes annot be treated properly under these assumptions; more sophisti ated methods (like the WKBJ method, to be dis ussed later, or the Gaussian
Beam method) must be employed.
Despite this disadvantage, the formulae given above (and their orresponding
equations in three dimensions) are very useful in seismologi al appli ations.
They an be easily extended to in lude refra tions and ree tions at dis ontinuities.
This requires the determination of hanges in the ross se tion of
the ray bundle at dis ontinuities, and the in lusion of ree tion and refra tion
oe ients.
A further problem of the energy ansatz used in this se tion is that it only
gives the amplitudes of a seismi ray but no information on its phase hanges
that o ur in
addition
always su ient to add
to the phase hanges in the travel time term. It is not
exp [i(t T )] to (3.140) and (3.141), respe tively, e.g.,
on retrograde travel time bran hes in the ase that the velo ities are only a
126
CHAPTER 3.
fun tion of
z.
BODY WAVES
The WKBJ method and the Gaussian Beam method solve this
problem by tra king an additional parameter, the KMAH index named after
Keller, Maslov, Arnold and Hormander, whi h ounts the austi s en ountered
along the ray.
In the following se tion, the WKBJ theory for verti al inhomogeneous media,
whi h avoids some of the ray theory problems dis ussed, is presented; it ontains
more wave seismi elements.
Exer ise 3.15

Use the ray parameter
q instead of the take-o angle 0 in the amplitude formula
(3.141) in the ase of a verti ally inhomogeneous medium and then use (3.127).
What is the relation between the amplitudes and the travel time urve
T ()?
WKBJ method
3.10
Now we will onsider total ree tion at a verti ally inhomogeneous medium
using the WKBJ method.
3.10.1 Harmoni ex itation and ree tion oe ient

We onsider a medium whose velo ity
for
z > 0
(z)
in the medium. A
for
z0
is
(0),
i.e., onstant and
ontinuous fun tion of z, i.e., no dis ontinuities exist

plane SH -wave may propagate obliquely in the lower half-
an be any
z < 0 with the horizontal wavenumber k = sin /(0) (ray parameter

q = sin /(0) ( = angle of in iden e). Note the dieren e to the example in
spa e
hapter 3.9.2 with verti al propagation.

Then the ray seismi s of the verti ally inhomogeneous medium, se tion 3.9.1,
suggests inserting
T /x = q = constant
in the Eikonal equation (3.131) ( om-
pare with (3.127)). This then, gives
T (x, z) = qx +
2
1
() q 2 2 d,
travel time of the S-wavefront from the interse tion of the origin
x,z ). The rest of the dis ussion is as in se tion 3.9.2., and leads to
and, thus, the

to the point (
v0 (x, z, t) =
s()

1
Z z
(0)s(0) 2
A(0)
exp i t qx
s()d (3.142)
(z)s(z)
0
1
2
() q 2 2 .
(3.143)

3.10.
127
WKBJ METHOD
is the horizontal and
is identi al to (3.136).
S -wave.
is the verti al
slowness
Equation (3.142) is the
q= 0, (3.142)
WKBJ -approximation of the
of the wave. For
It is a useful high frequen y approximation, as long as
1 (z) > q ,
i.e., as long as the seismi ray whi h an be asso iated with the wave
propagating horizontally.
is not
If the velo ity, e.g., with in reasing depth de reases or

1
, (3.142) is appli able
.
if it in reases, but does not rea h the value q
for all z
For ases of interest and a medium with in reasing velo ities for in reasing
1
depth, a depth zs is rea hed where (zs ) = q
. At this depth, where the ray
propagates horizontally, (3.142) diverges. Equations (3.129), (3.131) and (3.132)
are
insu ient
for the des ription of the waveeld near the turning point of
rays. If (3.142) is onsidered for
z > zs
with
(z) > (zs ),
i.e., the velo ity
ontinues to in rease, a stable result an, again, be obtained. The integral in

the exponential term from
zs
to
is imaginary, thus, giving an exponential
z
SH -wave de reases as expe ted.
de ay of the amplitudes with in reasing , i.e., below the ray's turning point the
amplitude of the
For
z < zs ,
the waveeld is
insu iently des ribed by (3.142) sin e (3.142) represents only the downward
propagating in ident SH -wave. A similar equation an be given for the ree ted
SH -wave upward propagating from the turning point
(0)s(0)
v1 (x, z, t) = RA(0)
(z)s(z)
21

Z
exp i t qx +
s()d
0

(3.144)
That this wave propagates upwards an be seen from the positive sign before the
integral in the exponent.
R is, as an be seen by the sele tion z=0
(3.144), the amplitude ratio

wave; in other words, the
v1 (x, 0, t)/v0 (x, 0, t)
in (3.142) and
of the ree ted to the in ident
ree tion oe ient of the inhomogeneous half-spa e
is z>0.
Its determination requires a quantitative onne tion of the whole eld
v0 + v1
z > zs .
To tie these two solutions together is, as mentioned before, not possible
for
z < zs
with the already mentioned exponentially de aying eld for
with the high frequen y approximation of the equation of motion used until
now.
The required onne tion be omes possible with another high frequen y approximation of (3.128), namely a wave equation with depth dependent velo ity
2 V
v
=
=
2V
x2
1
1
+ zV2 =
V
1 2V
2 (z) t2
2 (z)
(3.145)
This high frequen y approximation is valid under ondition (3.134), as an be

shown by inserting in (3.128). For plane waves, it follows from the ansatz
V (x, z, t) = B(z) exp [i(t qx)]
128
CHAPTER 3.
via (3.145) an ordinary dierential equation for
BODY WAVES
B(z)

B (z) + 2 2 (z) q 2 B(z) = 0.
This equation has now to be solved for large .

2 f (z)B(z) = 0 in the neighbourhood of a zero of
alled
For
(3.146)
The solutions of
B (z) +
f(z) and for large is generally

WKBJ -solution after the authors - Wentzel, Kramers, Brillouin, Jereys.
z < zs ,
the previously dis ussed superposition of (3.142) and (3.144) of the
in ident and ree ted wave of
results. For
z > zs
the exponentially de aying
is in the immediate neighbourhood of zs

2 2
has to be examined in more detail. We approximate the oe ient s (z)
2
of B(z) (with
from (3.143))
and get, with s (zs ) = 0, (zs ) =
q 1 and (zs ) > 0,
solution follows.
The ase that
s(z)
linearly
B (z) 2 2 q 3 (zs )(z zs )B(z) = 0.
(3.147)
This equation an, with the substitution,

1
y(z) = 2 2 q 2 (zs ) 3 (z zs )
be transformed into the dierential equation of the
(3.148)
Airy fun tions
C (y) yC(y) = 0.
The solution of interest to us,
C(y) = Ai(y),
is dis ussed in appendix E (more
on Airy fun tions an be found in M. Abramovitz and I.A. Stegun: Handbook

of Mathemati al Fun tions, H. Deuts h, Frankfurt, 1985). The depths
z < zs
Ai(y). From Fig. E.2,

it follows that the transition from the os illatory solution B(z) of (3.147) with
z < zs to the exponentially damped solution for z > zs is without singularity.
This then, also holds for the displa ement v, in ontrast to what one would
(z
> zs )
orrespond to arguments
y < 0 (y > 0)
of
expe t from (3.142) and (3.144).

The os illatory behaviour of
v0
and the ree tion
v1 ,
B(z)
for
z < zs
indi ates that the in ident wave
build a standing wave with nodes of the displa ement
at depths whi h orrespond to the zeros of the Airy fun tion. The ree tion
oe ient R in (3.144) is now determined in su h a way, that the superposition
of (3.142) and (3.144), in the term that depends on z, is identi al to the Airy
fun tion. Due to the high frequen y assumption, the asymptoti form of Ai(y)
for large negative y an be used
Ai(y)
Furthermore, for
z < zs
12
41
|y|
sin
2 23
|y| +
3
4
(3.149)
3.10.
129
WKBJ METHOD
v0 + v1
h
i1

Rz
(0)s(0) 2
= A(0) (z)s(z)
exp i t qx 0 s s d

Rz

Rz

Rz

exp i z s s d + R exp 2i 0 s s d exp i z s s d .
(3.150)
The
z -dependen e
v0 + v1
of
is given by the urved bra ket.
It will now
2 2
be determined in approximation. With the approximation (3.147)

2 2 q 3 (zs )(zs ), it follows
with
y = y(z)
zs
s d
z

1
= 2 2 q 3 (zs ) 2
zs
s () =
(zs ) 2 d

1 2
3
= 2 2 q 3 (zs ) 2 (z zs ) 2
3
2 3
= |y| 2
3
= Y
from (3.148).
The positive (negative) sign holds for positive
(negative) frequen ies. Thus, for the urved bra kets in (3.150)
{ } = eiY + ZeiY
with the abbreviation

Z
Z = R exp 2i
With
Z = i
for
{ } =
=
zs

s d .
(3.151)
<0 (>0), it follows that

1

(1 i)(cos Y + sin Y ) = 2 2 (1 i) sin Y +
4

1
2 23
|y| +
2 2 (1 i) sin
,
3
4
and, therefore, the required agreement with the main term in (3.149).
in (3.151) gives then the

Rz
exp 2i 0 s s()d
= i ||

1
s()
= 2 () q 2 2
(0)
(zs ) = q 1 = sin
.
R
Z = i
ree tion oe ient in the WKBJ-approximation
(3.152)
130
CHAPTER 3.
total ree tion ).
Its absolute value is 1 (
i.e., a onstant phase shift of
/2
for
BODY WAVES
It des ribes only the
< 0 ( > 0)
phase shifts,
is added to the phase
shifts due to the travel time in the exponential term of
R.
Compared to the
ree tion oe ients of layered media, derived earlier without approximation;
the form of (3.152) is
simple.
It is only valid for su iently high frequen ies
( ondition (3.134)) and for angle of in iden e
with
total ree tion. Ree tion
oe ients of the type of (3.152) are useful in seismology but even more so for
the propagation of sound waves in o eans or the propagation of radio waves in
the ionosphere ( ompare, e.g., Budden (1961) and of Tolstoy and Clay (1966)).
The
ree ted SH-wave
observed at the oordinate entre follows, then, by in-
serting (3.152) in (3.144)
v1 (0, 0, t) = A(0)i

Z zs
s()d
.
exp i t 2
||
0
(3.153)
Then
(q) = 2
zs
s()d
is the
delay time,
, i.e., the time between the interse tion of the in ident and
the ree ted wave with the oordinate entre. This time delay orresponds to
the ray segments
AC, BD, or OP.
Fig. 3.60: Constru tion of a austi from the envelopes of rays.
Note that the wavefronts are
z< 0 are the wavefronts plane.
Fig.
urved
3.60 shows also that the line
for
z>0;
z = zs
only in the homogeneous region
is the envelope of all rays.
Su h
envelopes are alled austi s, and they are hara terised by large energy on entrations. Within the amplitude approximation formula (3.140), and due to
3.10.
131
WKBJ METHOD
dl(P)= 0
z = zs , innite amplitudes would result

2 , as dis ussed before, an be interpreted
for a point P on the austi
there. The additional phase shift of
physi ally as the ee t of the strong intera tion of ea h ray with its neighbouring
rays in the vi inity of the austi . More ompli ated austi s o ur in verti ally
inhomogeneous media, if the in ident wave is from a point or line sour e, re

spe tively. In su h ases, the phase shift per austi en ountered, is . More
2
ompli ated austi s are en ountered in two and three dimensional media.
3.10.2 Impulsive ex itation and WKBJ-seismograms

If an
impulsive wave,
produ ing a displa ement
v0 (0, 0, t) = F (t)
at the oor-
dinate entre, instead of a harmoni wave is in ident, it follows from (3.153)
F(t)
that the orresponding ree tion is the time delayed Hilbert transform of
( ompare se tion 3.6.3)
v1 (0, 0, t) = FH (t (q)).
This means that the ree tion for
or horizontal slowness
q)
all
(3.154)
angles of in iden e
(or ray parameters
have the same form ex ept for the time delay
(q).
This is, therefore, dierent from the results for a dis ontinuity of rst order in
hapter 3.6.3 (there the impulse form hanged in the ase of total ree tion also
with the angle of in iden e
When
ylindri al waves
).
are onsidered, the prin iple of superposition is used.
line
sour e in the oordinate entre, is represented by many plane waves with radiation angles from 0 to /2. This orresponds to positive values of q. The
The ylindri al wave, assumed to originate from an isotropi ally radiating
ree tions are superimposed similarly. First, (3.154) is generalised for arbitrary
x>0
v1 (x, 0, t) = FH (t (q) qx) = FH (t) (t (q) qx) .
Then these plane waves are integrated over
WKBJ-seismogram
at distan e
v(x, 0, t) = FH (t)
The
from 0 to
/2
and, thus, the
from the line sour e is derived
(t (q) qx) d = FH (t) I(x, t).
(3.155)
impulse seismogram I(x, t) an now be derived numeri ally via

I(x, t)
ti
Usually, the
P
=
i (t ti )i
= (qi ) + qi x ,
qi =
sin i
(0) .
i are hosen equidistant (i = = const).
(3.156)
The delta fun tions
are shifted from the times ti to their immediate neighbouring time points
I(x, t)
132
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
and possibly amass there, i.e., in the dis retised version of I(x, t), multiples of
o ur there. I(x, t) is then onvolved with FH (t). The most time- onsuming
part is the omputation of the delay time (qi ); on the other hand, e ient rayseismi methods exist for that. In omparison to the ree tivity method and the
GRT, the WKBJ-method is signi antly faster. There are also other numeri al
realisations of this method than (3.155) and (3.156).
WKBJ-seismograms have
other phase relations and impulse forms
pe ted from (3.152) and (3.154), respe tively.
than ex-
This is due to the summation
of many plane waves. Pro-grade travel time bran hes (see Fig. 3.56) show no
phase shift, i.e., the impulse form of the in ident ylindri al wave is observed
there. Phase shifts and impulse form hanges only o ur on retro-grade travel
time bran hes. Furthermore, the seismogram amplitudes are nite in the vi inity of the turning points of travel time urves, i.e., the WKBJ-method is valid
at austi s.
WKBJ-seismograms for a simple rust-mantle model and a line sour e at the
Earth's surfa e are shown in Fig. 3.61. The omputations were performed with
a program for
SH -waves; even so, the velo ity model (Fig.
3.62) is valid for P-
waves. An a ousti P-wave omputation would give, in prin iple, the same result
for
pressure.
The travel time urve of the ree tion
PM P
from the rust-mantle
boundary (Moho) is retrograde and the travel time bran h of the refra ted wave
Pn
from the upper mantle is prograde. Times are redu ed with 8 km/s.
Fig. 3.61: WKBJ-seismograms for a simple rust-mantle model and a line sour e
at the Earth's surfa e.
3.10.
133
WKBJ METHOD
Fig. 3.62: Velo ity model used in Fig. 3.61.
The impulse forms of these waves are as expe ted:

radiated wave, whereas
PM P
Pn
has the form of the
is roughly the Hilbert transform of it. At distan es
smaller than the riti al distan e ( a. 100 km), the amplitudes in rease strongly.
At the riti al point, whi h is lo ated on a austi within the rust, the wave
eld remains nite.
In seismologi al appli ations of WKBJ-seismograms, their approximate nature,
due to the high frequen y approximation (3.152) for the ree tion oe ient,
should be kept in mind.
This approximation is insu ient in regions of the
Earth where wave velo ity and density hange rapidly with depth, e.g., at the
ore-mantle boundary or at the boundary of the inner ore of the Earth.
134
CHAPTER 3.
BODY WAVES
Chapter 4
Surfa e waves
4.1 Free surfa e waves in layered media
4.1.1 Basi equations
In addition to the body waves that penetrate to all depths in the Earth, another
type of wave exists whi h is mostly limited to the neighbourhood of the surfa e of
the Earth alled
surfa e waves.
These waves propagate along the surfa e of the
Earth, and their amplitudes are only signi ant down to the depth of a few wave
lengths. Below that depth, the
displa ement is negligible.
Be ause surfa e waves
are onstrained to propagate lose to the Earth's surfa e, their amplitude de ay

as a fun tion of sour e distan e is smaller than for body waves, whi h propagate
in three dimensions.
This is why surfa e waves are usually the dominating
signals in the earthquake re ord. Another signi ant property is their
dispersion,
i.e., their propagation velo ity is frequen y dependent. Therefore, the frequen y
within a wave group varies as a fun tion of time ( ompare example in 4.1.4).
These are some of the main observations and explanations for surfa e waves.
The rst s ientists to study surfa e waves (Rayleigh, Lamb, Love, Stoneley et
al.) found the theoreti al des riptions explaining the main observations. The
fundamental tenet of this approa h is the des ription of surfa e waves as an
eigenvalue problem but omitting the sour e of the elasti waves.
We onsider a
layered half-spa e with parameters as given in Fig. 4.1 with a free surfa e.
135
136
CHAPTER 4.
SURFACE WAVES
Fig. 4.1: Layered half-spa e with free surfa e.
We work with Cartesian oordinates
x,y,z
and assume
independen e from y.
Then, the equations from se tion 3.6.2 an be used whi h have been derived
to des ribe ree tion and refra tion. The separation of the displa ement into
P-, SV- and SH - ontributions holds as before, as does the fa t, that the P-SVSH-waves. Surfa e waves of the
P-SV-type are alled Rayleigh waves. They are polarised in the x-z-plane
ontributions propagate independently from the
The potentials
horizontal displa ement
verti al displa ement
x .
and
in ea h layer, satisfy the wave equation
2 =
Surfa e waves of the
(4.1)
1 2
,
2 t2
2 =
1 2
.
2 t2
(4.2)
SH -type are alled Love waves. They are polarised in y v in ea h layer the following wave equation
dire tion, and for the displa ement

holds
2 v =
1 2v
.
2 t2
The boundary onditions are given in se tion 3.6.2. The
(4.3)
ansatz for j , j
in the j-th layer of the model for harmoni ex itation (
j
j
Aj (z)
Bj (z)
> 0)
and

x i
Aj (z)
=
exp [i (t kx)]
exp i t
Bj (z)
c
h
vj
is
(4.4)
4.1.
137
FREE SURFACE WAVES IN LAYERED MEDIA
and
vj
h
x i
= Cj (z) exp [i (t kx)] .
= Cj (z) exp i t
c
(4.5)
Consider the onditions for whi h a plane wave exists, whi h propagates in xdire tion with the
is
phase velo ity , where
Then the fun tions
Aj (z), Bj (z)
and
is identi al in all layers. How large
Cj (z)
exist, so that
An (z)
Bn (z)
lim
= 0.
z
Cn (z)
This problem is an
(4.6)
eigenvalue problem, and and the wavenumber k = /c,

eigenvalues. In many ases (for xed ), a
respe tively, are the orresponding

nite number
( 1)
of eigenvalues exist. The problem is omparable to that of
natural os illations (or free os illations) of nite

et .) ( ompare exer ise 4.1).
determining the frequen ies of

bodies (beams, plates, bodies
Here we are only interested in the ase where the eigenvalues are real (>0). This
has the largest pra ti al appli ation. The orresponding surfa e waves are alled
normal modes.
There exist also waves whi h an be des ribed with omplex
k = k1 ik2 (k1,2 > 0).
These surfa e waves are alled
their amplitude de reases exponentially with

is
exp(k2 x).
leaking modes
k:
sin e
Their phase velo ity
/k1 .
The ansatz with plane waves negle ts the inuen e of ex itation. This, then,
leads to a major simpli ation of the problem. Su h surfa e waves are alled
in ontrast to
for ed
free
surfa e waves whi h are ex ited by spe i sour es. The
analogy to the free and for ed resonan es of limited bodies is also helpful here in
the ontext of ex itation. The treatment of free surfa e waves is an important
requirement for the study of for ed surfa e waves ( ompare se tion 4.2). We will
soon show that the dispersive properties of both wave types are identi al. Sin e
this property depends on the medium, they an be used to determine medium
parameters. This is why the study of the dispersion of free surfa e waves is of
great pra ti al importan e.
Exer ise 4.1

P
The radial os illations of a liquid sphere with

-velo ity are des ribed by
n (r, t) (ein t/r ) sin(n r/) (n=1,2,3...). Determine the eigen
the potential
frequen ies
from the ondition that the surfa e of the sphere at
r=R is stress
free (prr from exer ise 3.4); give the radial displa ement. Where are the nodal
planes?
138
CHAPTER 4.
SURFACE WAVES
4.1.2 Rayleigh waves at the surfa e of an homogeneous

half-spa e
The half-spa e (z>0) has the velo ities
and
for
P - and S -waves, respe tively.
Inserting the ansatz
= A(z) exp [i (t kx)]

into the wave equation (4.2) with
equations for
A(z) and B(z), e.g.,
and
= B(z) exp [i (t kx)]
2 = 2 /x2 + 2 /z 2 ,
A (z) + k 2
(4.7)
gives the dierential

c2
1
A(z) = 0.
2
The general solution of this equation is
A(z) = A1 e
Due to (4.6),
ikz
+ A2 e
ikz
with
has to be purely imaginary. Then,
, a rst statement on the phase

possible: c < . It also holds that
the properties of
be omes
c2
1
2
A2 = 0
21
has to hold. From
velo ity of the Rayleigh wave
A(z) = A1 eikz ,
and, similarly, it follows that
B(z) = B1 eikz
with
= c2 / 2 1
1/2
(negative imaginary). This further limits
: c < .
The potential ansatz (4.7) an now be written as
= A1 exp [i (t kx kz)] ,
Inserting the
= B1 exp [i (t kx kz)] .
boundary onditions pzz = pzx = 0 for z= 0 with pzz
(3.29), it follows that

2
=
A1 + 2 k 2 2 A1 k 2 B1
2

2k 2 A1 + k 2 + k 2 2 B1 =
0
0.
and
pzx
(4.8)
from
4.1.
139
Division by
k 2

/ = (2 2 2 )/ 2
and use of
c2 2 2 2
+2
2
2
c2
1
2
gives

A1 + 2B1

c2
2A1 + 2 2 B1
= 0
= 0.
This leads to

2 A1 + 2B1

2
2A1 + c 2 2 B1
c2
2
=
=
0.
This system of equations only has non-trivial solutions

minant is zero.
This leads to an equation for :

In the range of interest
c2
2
2
0 < c < ,
c2
2
2
2
2
A1
(4.9)
and
B1 ,
if its deter-
+ 4 = 0.
we have
1
1

c2 2
c2 2
1 2
.
=4 1 2
Squaring this gives

c4
2 c2
2
c2 c6
= 0.
8 4 + 24 16 2
16 1 2
2 6
Solution
c=0
(4.10)
is not of interest, therefore, only the terms in the bra ket have
to be examined. For
c = 0,
it is negative, and for
c = , positive. Therefore, at
. The eigenvalue problem
least one real solution of (4.10) exists between 0 and
has, thus, a solution, i.e., along the surfa e of a homogeneous half-spa e a wave
an propagate, the amplitudes of whi h de ay with depth. In this simple ase
no dispersion
o urs and
In the spe ial ase
= 3), c = 0, 92 .
is independent of
(i.e.,
wave is only slightly slower than the

We now examine the
displa ement
S -wave.
In general, the Rayleigh
of the Rayleigh wave

u = ikA1 eikz + ikB1 eikz exp [i (t kx)] .
140
CHAPTER 4.
With

B1 = c2 /2 2 1 A1

u = ikA1 e
ikz
ikz
SURFACE WAVES
(from (4.9)), it follows

c2
ikz
exp [i (t kx)]
1 e
2 2
(4.11)

c2
1 eikz =: a(z).
2 2
Similarly,

w = ikA1 eikz ikB1 eikz exp [i (t kx)] .
With
B1 = A1 c2 /2 2 1
"
eikz +
A1
ikz
(from (4.9)), it follows
c2
1
2 2
w = ikA1 e
We assume that
1
1
1
eikz =: b(z).
c2
1
2 2
ikz
exp [i (t kx)]
(4.12)
is positive real and onsider the real parts of (4.11) and
(4.12)
u =
w =
For
z= 0,
kA1 a(z) sin(t kx)

||kA1 b(z) cos(t kx).
it holds that a(0)>0 and b(0)<0. In the ase of
and
w,
show the
behaviour given in Fig. 4.2 (e.g., for x = 0). The displa ement ve tor des ribes
an
ellipse
with
retro-grade
motion.
Fig. 4.2: Behaviour of u and w.
4.1.
141
Fig. 4.3: Theoreti al seismograms for an explosive point sour e in a homogeneous half-spa e and re orders at its surfa e ( omputed with the GRT for point
sour es, ompare se tion 3.8).
For su iently large
|| < ||
z,
the se ond term in
a(z)
and
b(z)
dominates due to
so that both fun tions are negative there. The displa ement ve tor,
again, des ribes an ellipse but now with
prograde dire tion.
retro-grade to pro-grade motion o urs at the depth where

this is the ase at about
z = 0, 2
This depth is, therefore, a
where
The transition from
a(z)= 0.
= 2c/ = 2/k
For
= ,
is the wavelength.
nodal plane of the horizontal displa ement.
142
CHAPTER 4.
SURFACE WAVES
Ellipti al polarisation of the displa ement ve tor and the existen e of nodal
planes of the displa ement omponents, are also hara teristi s of free Rayleigh
waves in
layered
media, with the additional feature of dispersion.
The Rayleigh wave is, therefore, for ed.

indi ate the theoreti al arrival times
r/
The arrows above the seismograms

where
is the phase velo ity of the
free Rayleigh wave. Fig. 4.4 shows a hodograph of a point at the surfa e, i.e., its
tra e during the passage of a Rayleigh wave whi h has roughly ellipti al form.
r=32 km
z=0
u
w
Fig. 4.4: Hodograph at a point at the surfa e (see Fig. 4.3).
The results of the theory of the free Rayleigh wave are, therefore, relatively well
onrmed.
Exer ise 4.2

Does the homogeneous half-spa e have free Love waves?
4.1.3 Love waves at the surfa e of a layered half-spa e

Matrix formalism and mode on ept
We now study
Love waves, i.e., waves of the SH-type, for example, surfa e waves
in layered media. First, we dis uss the general ase of arbitrarily many layers
and give the
k = k()
numeri al
method, with whi h the
dispersion relation c = c() or
an be determined; then the ase of a single layer over a half-spa e is
dis ussed in more detail.

We start from the basi equations in se tion 4.1.1 and use the ansatz (4.5) for
Love waves in the wave equation (4.3) for the displa ement in
this, we derive, in analogy with (4.8), in the j-th layer
y -dire tion.
By
4.1.
143
vj = Dj exp [i (t kx + kj (z zj ))] + Ej exp [i (t kx kj (z zj ))] ,
(4.13)
where
Dj
and
Ej
are now onstants and
c2
1
j2
j =
We postulate, that
! 12
is positive real or negative imaginary, depending on its
radi and being positive or negative, respe tively. In the half-spa e

has to be negative imaginary due to (4.6), i.e.,
c < n ,
(j = n), n
and
Dn = 0.
(4.14)
z = z1 , z2 , . . . , zn ontinuity of the tangenv/z and for z = z2 , z3 , . . . , zn ontinuity of the displa ement v.

v1 /z = 0 for z = z1 = 0, it follows that
The boundary onditions require for

tial stress
From
E1 = D1 .
For
(4.15)
z = zj (j 2) with vj = vj1 and j vj /z = j1 vj1 /z , the following

Dj and Ej with dependen e on Dj1 and Ej1 , an be derived
equations for
Dj + Ej
Dj Ej
Dj1 eikj1 dj1 + Ej1 eikj1 dj1

j1 j1
Dj1 eikj1 dj1 Ej1 eikj1 dj1 .
j j
As in se tion 3.6.5, this an be expressed in matrix form
Dj
Ej
1 ikj1 dj1
e
2
1 + j
1 j
(1 j )e2ikj1 dj1
(1 + j )e2ikj1 dj1
or
Dj
Ej

Dj1
Ej1

(4.16)
layer matrix
j1 j1
.
j j
mj
Dj1
Ej1
Su essive appli ation of (4.16) leads to
144
CHAPTER 4.

Dn
En
is the produ t of the layer matri es. With (4.14) and (4.15), the equation for
= mn mn1 . . . m3 m2
D1
E1
=M
SURFACE WAVES
D1
E1
M11 M12
M21 M22
D1
E1
or k as a fun tion of and the layer parameters an be given as a dispersion

equation
M11 + M12 = 0.
(4.17)
This equation is ordinarily solved numeri ally. For this, a value of

interval from 0 to
within the
M11 + M12 is omputed via the multifun tion of in the relevant frequen y range.
is hosen, and then
pli ation of the layer matri es as
Finally, their zeros are determined.

shifted zeros are determined,
et .
Then,
is varied and the orresponding
If zeros exist, their lo ation depends on the
S -velo ity and the density as a fun tion of depth. Ea h zero gives one bran h
of the dispersion urve of the phase velo ity ci () (see Fig. 4.5).
Fig. 4.5: Dispersion urves of the phase velo ity.
Ea h bran h has a
(lower) uto frequen y i = i /2.
Theoreti al dispersion
urves are omputed as a fun tion of frequen y, period or wavenumber, respe tively (in the last ase the frequen y is xed). Experimentally determined urves
are mostly given as a fun tion of period.
The wave behaviour in the half-spa e, orresponding to a ertain bran h of the
dispersion urve, is alled
mode.
For Love waves, these are
normal modes
of
4.1.
145
SH -type
the
that propagate undamped. The on ept of modes also holds for
Rayleigh waves and damped surfa e waves. Modes are lassied by their order:
1st mode, 2nd mode,
et .
Often the rst mode is also alled
and the numbering starts after it.

dier by their number of
fundamental mode
Besides their dispersive properties, modes
node surfa es.
1)
This number is (up to
identi al
with their order. Whi h modes o ur in reality, depends on the frequen y range
in whi h the sour e radiates, as well as its depth ( ompare se tion 4.2).
For
earthquakes usually, only a few modes ontribute, and often only the fundamental mode ontributes to the surfa e waves. In Fig.
3.39, the Love waves
onsist mainly of the fundamental modes.
Spe ial ase n=2

In the ase of a single layer over a half-spa e, the dispersion equation (4.17) an
be written as
e2ik1 d1 =
with
If
2
1,2 = (c2 /1,2
1)1/2 . 2
1 > 2 , 1
2 + 1
1 1 + 2 2
=
2 1
1 1 2 2
is negative imaginary and
(4.18)
c < 2 .
is also negative imaginary. Then, the right side of (4.18) is real
and larger than 1. The left side is also real, but smaller than 1. Therefore, no
real solution
The
S -velo ity
layer, i.e.,
of (4.18) exists in this ase.

in the half-spa e, therefore, has to be larger than that of the
2 > 1 .
In this ase, we an ex lude values of
with the same arguments as for

and
2 .
In this ase
1 > 2 .
between 0 and
This leaves values for
between
1
1
is positive real, and both sides in (4.18) are omplex.
The absolute value of both sides is 1. Thus, the mat hing of the phases gives
the
dispersion equation of the Love waves
2k1 d1 = 2 arctan
From this, it follows with
2 |2 |
.
1 1
= kc
2 c2 22
1 12 c2
12
12
h
1 i
= tan d1 12 c2 2 .
This trans endent equation is solved by sele ting
(4.19)
with 1 < c < 2 and inver-
sion of the radi and, thus, giving the orresponding (or the the orresponding
s). For a
dis ussion, we introdu e a new variable
general
146
CHAPTER 4.
x(c)
= d1 12 c2
c(x)
d1
2 d2
2
1
x2
21 .
12
(4.20)
The left side of (4.19) an then be written as
2 c2 22
SURFACE WAVES
21

1
2 2 2 2
d1 1 22 x2 2 = f (x, ).
1 =

1 x
2 c2 2
1
Equation (4.19) an then be expressed (see also Fig. 4.6) as
f (x, ) = tan x.
Fig. 4.6:
f (x, )
f (x, )
and tan x.
is real between
x= 0 and its zero

x0 = d1 12 22
This zero moves to the right as a fun tion of

se tions of
in
f (x, )
with
tan x.
The interse tion
21
(4.21)
and reates, thus, more inter-
xi = xi ()
gives, substituting
(x) from (4.20), the dispersion relation of the i-th mode (i = 1, 2, . . .)

ci () =
d1
2 d21
12
12 .
x2i ()
(4.22)
4.1.
147
The i-th mode o urs only if

be omes
i =
x0 > (i 1) .
uto frequen y
i1
i
=
1 .
2
2d1 12 22 2
The i-th mode exists only for frequen ies

mode,
With (4.21), its
> i .
(4.23)
The rst mode (fundamental
i= 1) exists, due to 1 = 0, at all frequen ies.
The phase velo ity of ea h mode at its uto frequen y is most simply derived
from the fa t that at this point the tangent is zero in (4.19)
ci (i ) = 2 .
For
, xi (i1/2) and the tangent in (4.19) approa hes .

lim ci () = 1 .
(4.24)
Therefore,
(4.25)
An upper-limiting frequen y does not exist, and the velo ities of the layer and
the half-spa e are the limiting values of the phase velo ity.
A al ulated example for the dispersion urves of the rst three Love modes of
a rust-mantle model, onsisting of a half-spa e with a layer above, is given in
Fig. 4.7.
Fig.
4.7:
model.
Dispersion urves of the rst three Love modes of a rust-mantle
148
CHAPTER 4.
In addition to the urves of the phase velo ities
the
SURFACE WAVES
group velo ities U
are
shown
U=
d
dc
dc
c
c
=c+k
=c
=
=
dc
dk
dk
d
1 c d
1 + Tc
(= wavelength,
T = period).
dc
dT
(4.26)
The group velo ity ontrols, as we will see, the
propagation of an impulse from the sour e to a re eiver, i.e., ea h frequen y

travels with its group velo ity from the sour e to the re eiver,
not
with its
phase velo ity. Phase and group velo ities an be determined from observations
(see se tion 4.1.4 and 4.1.5). Thus, both an be used for interpretation.
Nodal planes and eigen fun tions

Finally, we examine the
nodal planes
of the Love modes for the ase just dis-
ussed, i.e., the surfa es on whi h the displa ement is zero. From (4.13) with
(4.14) and (4.15), it follows that
v1
v2
where
v1
and
v2
=
=
2E1 cos(k1 z) exp [i (t kx)]

E2 exp (ik2 (z d1 )) exp [i (t kx)]
are for the layer and the half-spa e, respe tively. These expres-
sions also hold for ea h individual mode, and the dispersion relation (4.22) has
to be used. The relation between
E1
E2
and
is
E2 = 2E1 cos(k1 d1 ); E1
an be
hosen arbitrarily.
This means that at the surfa e
z = 0,
the
maximum displa ement
is always
observed, and that nodal planes an only o ur in the layer, but not in the
half-spa e. Their position is determined by the zeros of the osine. For the i-th
mode they an be derived via the equation
k1 z = 12 c2
i
where
Ni
21
z = (2n 1)
is their number determined by
For the lower frequen y limit
= i ,
(i 1)
(n = 1, 2, . . . , Ni ),
z d1 .
from (4.23), it follows due to (4.24)
z
= (2n 1) .
d1
2
This is satised for
z=
2n 1
d1
2i 2
with
(4.27)
n = 1, 2, . . . , Ni = i 1.
4.1.
For
149
= i ,
therefore,
i1
nodal planes exist. Their spa ing is
d1
(i = 3, 4, . . .).
i1
z =
i= 1) has no nodal plane, neither for = 1 = 0 nor for nite
The rst mode (
> 0.
The other extreme on the frequen y s ale of ea h mode is
dis ussion of the behaviour of
lim
12
ci ()
c2
i
12
for
xi ()
=
= lim
d1
Equation (4.27) leads to the fa t that all

satisfy the relation
= .
From the
(see (4.25)), it follows that
z d1

1
i
.
2 d1
have to be determined whi h

1
z
= (2n 1) .
2
d1
2
These are the values
z=
For
= ,
therefore,
2n 1
d1
2i 1
with
n = 1, 2, . . . , Ni = i.
nodal planes exist with the spa ing
z =
d1
i 12
(i = 2, 3, . . .).
The hange relative to the situation where
= i
holds, is rst, the de rease in
the spa ing of the nodal planes, se ond a general move to shallower depth and
nally, the addition of the i-th nodal plane
z = d1 .
This means that for
the half-spa e remains at rest.
Fig. 4.8 shows quantitatively the amplitude behaviour of the rst three modes
as a fun tion of depth for the rust-mantle model used for Fig. 4.7. The period
is also indi ated. Su h amplitude distributions are alled
eigen fun tions
modes. They follow from the z-dependent part of the displa ement
dis ussed above.
v1
of the
and
v2
150
CHAPTER 4.
SURFACE WAVES
Fig. 4.8: Quantitative amplitude behaviour of the rst three modes as a fun tion
of depth for the rust-mantle model used for Fig. 4.7.
Exer ise 4.3

Derive the dispersion equation for free Rayleigh waves in a liquid medium onsisting of a layer over a half-spa e and ompare this to (4.19). Sket h a gure
similar to Fig. 4.6. What is the dieren e, espe ially for the rst mode?
4.1.4 Determination of the phase velo ity of surfa e waves

from observations
In the last se tion, we saw how the phase velo ity of a Love mode in a layered
half-spa e an be determined if the half-spa e is known. In the same way (but
with more ompli ations), the same an be done for Rayleigh waves. We now
dis uss the derivation of the phase velo ity from
only
one
mode is present.
observations. We assume that

lters have to be used to
If that is not the ase,
separate the dierent modes. Sin e these are sometimes ompli ated methods,
they are not dis ussed here. An overview, and appli ations for surfa e waves,
an be found, e.g., in Aki and Ri hards, Dahlen and Tromp, and Kennett.
We work here with plane surfa e waves, i.e., we negle t the sour e term. The
method for the determination of the phase velo ity thus derived, is su iently
a urate for pra ti al purposes.
The
modal seismogram
of any displa ement
omponent at the Earth's surfa e an be written for propagation of the mode

in
x -dire tion as
4.1.
151
1
u(x, t) =
2

x
d.
A() exp i t
c()

(4.28)
This is a superposition of the previously dis ussed harmoni surfa e waves with
c()
u(x, t).
the aid of the Fourier integral.

derived from the re ordings of
mograms for dierent
at (arbitrary)
x= 0.
() = arg A(),
are dierent.
is the phase velo ity of the mode to be

Sin e
A()
is frequen y dependent, the seis-
is the spe trum of the displa ement
The amplitude spe trum is
i.e.,
|A()|
and the phase spe trum
A() = |A()|ei() .
We assume that
u(x, t)
x = x1
is known for
and
x = x2 > x1
and apply a
Fourier analysis to the seismograms
u(x1,2 , t) =
where
G1,2 ()
1
2
G1,2 ()eit d,
(4.29)
is the spe trum of the seismogram for
x = x1,2 .
The omparison
of (4.29) with (4.28) gives
G1,2 () = |G1,2 ()|ei1,2 () =

x1,2
x1,2
= |A()| exp i ()
.
A() exp i
c()
c()
If the time
t= 0 is identi al for both seismograms, and, if possible, jumps of 2

1,2 ()
G1,2 ()...)
have been removed from the numeri ally determined phases
and + ), the phases of the top

( |A()|...) an be mat hed and give
between
bottom
1,2 () = ()
Subtra ting
1 ()
from
2 (),
(observation
(usually
and the
x1,2
.
c()
the unknown phase spe trum
()
of
u(0, t)
an els and the following result for the phase velo ity is left
c() =
(x2 x1 )
.
1 () 2 ()
(4.30)
For pra ti al appli ations of this method, the surfa e waves have to be re orded
at two stations whi h are on a great ir le path with the sour e. In ase
three
stations are available, this requirement an be ir umvented by onstru ting a

triangle between the stations. In both approa hes, the phase velo ities derived
are representative for the region
between
the stations.
152
CHAPTER 4.
SURFACE WAVES
Fig. 4.9: Example for seismograms of Rayleigh waves from L. Knopo, et al.,
1966. The tra es have been shifted.
The interpretation based on the phase velo ity from Fig. 4.9 is given in Fig.
4.10. It shows short period group velo ity observations from near earthquakes
as well as phase-velo ity measurements for the region of transition (Central Alps
to northern Foreland, Fig. 4.9) (from L. Knopo, St. Mller and W.L. Pilant:
Stru ture of the rust and upper mantle in the Alps from the phase velo ity of
Rayleigh waves, Bull. Seism. So . Am.
Fig.
1966.
56, 1009-1044, 1966).
4.10: Short period group velo ity observations from L. Knopo, et al.,
4.1.
153
4.1.5 The group velo ity

Seismograms with dispersion, as shown in Fig.
variation of frequen y with time, so that
one
4.9, often have a very slow
frequen y an be asso iated with
a ertain time. If this is done for two dierent distan es
x1
and
x2
ir le through the sour e), and if the times, for whi h frequen y
are t1 () and
t2 (),
(on a great
is observed
it follows that
U () =
x2 x1
.
t2 () t1 ()
(4.31)
U () is the velo ity with whi h this frequen y, or a wave group with a small
frequen y band around the frequen y , propagates. U is, therefore, alled
the group velo ity. The theory of surfa e waves from point sour es in se tion
4.2 gives the even simpler formula
seismogram;
U () = r/t(), whi h only requires one

t() is relative to the time
is the distan e from the sour e, and
when the wave started (sour e time).
In pra ti e, this seismogram is ltered
in a narrow band with the entral frequen y
The arrival time
t()
is at
the maximum of the envelope of the ltered seismogram. The group velo ity
an, therefore, in prin ipal be determined without di ulty from observations.
Another question is, how the group velo ity is onne ted with the phase velo ity
and, thus, with the parameters of the Earth, i.e., the velo ity of
P - and S -waves
and density, as a fun tion of depth.

To study this relation, we start from the des ription of the modal seismogram
(4.28) and express it using the wavenumber
u(x, t) =
For su iently large
1
2
k = /c
as
A() exp [i (t kx)] d.
(4.32)
and, therefore, also large , the phase
() = t kx
is
rapidly varying ompared to A().
()
has hanged by
2 ,
whereas
This means, for example, that for hanging
A()
is pra ti ally un hanged, and the
interval, therefore, does usually not ontribute to the integral (4.32). This is
espe ially true if
= 0 ,
() an be approximated linearly. This no longer holds for

() has an extremum (see Fig. 4.11), i.e., when it be omes
for whi h
stationary.
154
CHAPTER 4.
Fig. 4.11: Extremum of

This frequen y
SURFACE WAVES
().
depends on
and follows from
(0 ) = t x
dk
|=0 = 0.
d
(4.33)
The frequen y 0 , whi h satises (4.33), dominates at time t in the modal seismogram. Sin e for plane surfa e waves lo ation and time origin are arbitrary,
(4.33) an be written for two distan es
and
t2 (0 ),
lo ity
x1
and
x2 and orresponding times t1 (0 )
respe tively. Subtra tion gives the
basi formula for the group ve-
x2 x1
d
= U (0 ) =
|=0 .
t2 (0 ) t1 (0 )
dk
and
are onne ted via the phase velo ity
c = /k .
(4.34)
Using this, the expli it
group velo ity (4.26) an be derived dire tly from (4.34) (see exer ise 4.4).
The arguments sket hed here are the entral ideas of the
phase.
method of stationary
We will use it later to al ulate integrals of the form (4.32) approxi-
mately; here, it was only used to demonstrate that it is the group velo ity whi h
determines the sequen e and possible interferen e in the modal seismogram.
To make this statement more obvious, we onsider an arbitrary mode of the
Rayleigh waves of a liquid half-spa e with a layer at the top.
Its dispersion urves
for phase and group velo ity look like those in Fig. 4.12 ( ompare exer ise 4.3).
Fig. 4.12: Dispersion urves for a liquid half-spa e with a top layer.
4.1.
155
Instead of (4.31), or the left of (4.34), we use
U () = r/t(),
whi h refers to
the sour e, to interpret the urve of the group velo ity.

From the trend in
Un , we on lude that for the mode onsidered, the frequen ies

n arrive at an arbitrary
in the neighbourhood of the lower limiting frequen y

distan e
from the sour e.
This assumes that su h frequen ies are a tually
ex ited at the sour e. Their group velo ity is

is
r/2 .
2 ,
and their group travel time
For later times, whi h are still smaller than
r/1 ,
the frequen y of the
arriving os illations slowly in reases, orresponding to the steep trend in the

urve of
Un .
greater then
This wave train is alled the
r/1
there are
two
frequen ies,
fundamental wave.
and
At later times
whi h ontribute to the
seismogram. This has the ee t that the higher frequen y waves (water waves)
ride on the fundamental waves. The frequen ies of the two waves approa h ea h
r/Unmin .
other for in reasing time and be ome identi al at time
Here,
is the minimal group velo ity. The orresponding wave group is the
and it onstitutes the end of the modal seismogram.
Unmin
Airy phase,
Exa t omputations of
modal seismograms, dis ussed later, onrm these qualitative statements. The
example in Fig. 4.13 shows the behaviour of pressure of the fundamental mode
(from C.L. Pekeris: Theory of propagation of explosive sound in shallow water,
Geol. So . Am. Memoir No. 27, 1948).
Fig. 4.13: Pressure of the fundamental mode from C.L. Pekeris, 1948.
3
3
1500 m/s , 2 = 1650 m/s, 1 = 1 g/ cm , 2 = 2 g/ cm , d1 = 20 m.
The dispersion of the fundamental wave of the example in Fig.
4.13, shown
for a sour e distan e of 9200 m , i.e., de reasing group velo ity with in reasing
frequen y (in rease of frequen y with time), is alled
regular dispersion.
For the
water wave, the group velo ity grows with the frequen y (frequen y in reases
with in reasing time); this is alled
inverse
dispersion.
The notation regular
and inverse dispersion should not be onfused with the expressions
normal
and
156
CHAPTER 4.
anomal
SURFACE WAVES
dispersion, whi h express, that the group velo ity is larger or smaller
than the phase velo ity, respe tively.

Fig. 4.14 is a sket h to demonstrate the basi propagation properties of a dispersive wave train. It assumes that the sour e radiates an impulse with onstant
spe trum in the frequen y band
only regular dispersion.
1 2
and that the medium produ es
The larger the propagation distan e, the longer the
wave train be omes. At the same time, the amplitudes de rease (not shown in
Fig. 4.14).
Fig. 4.14: Basi propagation properties of dispersive wave trains.
Constant frequen ies

with a slope of
dr/dt
o ur on
straight lines
through the origin (r
e.g., a ertain maximum or an interse tion with zero, are
lines,
= 0, t = 0)
Constant phases,
situated on urved
that is identi al to the group velo ity.
and the frequen y varies along these urves.
The lo al slope
dr/dt
of
these urves is the phase velo ity for the dominating frequen y at this time.
Exer ise 4.4

Derive (4.26) for the group velo ity. How does
abnormal dispersion, respe tively?
dc/d
behave for normal and
4.1.
157
Exer ise 4.5

a) What is the form of the most general phase velo ity
velo ity
U ()
c() for whi h the group
is onstant? Interpret the orresponding seismogram (4.28).
c1 () and
1/U = dk/d =
b) What is the most general onne tion between phase velo ities
c2 () with identi al
d(/c)/d .
group velo ities
U1 ()
U2 ()?
and
Use
4.1.6 Des ription of surfa e waves by onstru tive interferen e of body waves
Up to this point, surfa e waves have been treated for the most part theoreti ally,
namely based on an ansatz for the solution of dierential equations. Input in
these equations have been the on entration of the wave amplitude near the
surfa e, propagation along the surfa e and dispersion. We have not rea hed a
physi al understanding how these waves an be onstru ted. In this se tion, we
will show for the simple example of Love waves in a half-spa e with one layer
at the top, that surfa e waves an basi ally be understood as arising from onstru tive interferen e of body waves whi h are ree ted between the interfa es.
We onsider SH -body waves whi h propagate up and down in the layer with
an angle of in iden e and ree tion
The ree tion at the surfa e is loss
free; the ree tion oe ient a ording to (3.39) equals +1. During ree tion
at the lower boundary of the layer (z = d1 ), energy loss through ree tion
o ur, as long as < = arcsin(1 /2 ). In this ase, the amplitude of the

ree ted waves de rease with the number of ree tions at the lower boundary.
If on the other hand, > , the ree tion oe ient at the lower interfa e
has the absolute value of +1 (see (3.42)).
Thus, no wave in the lower half-
spa e exists transporting energy away from the interfa e and the amplitude
of ea h
single
multiple ree tion is preserved.
The wave eld in this layer is
then basi ally ontrolled by the interferen e of

ertain values of
all
multiple ree tions.
For
there will be onstru tive interferen e and for other values
there will be destru tive interferen e, respe tively. We try to determine those
whi h show onstru tive interferen e. To a hieve this, we approximate the
momentary waveeld pi ture of Fig. 4.15, lo ally, by plane parallel wavefronts

with a orresponding angle of in iden e
(see Fig. 4.16).
Fig. 4.15: Pi ture of momentary wave eld.
158
CHAPTER 4.
SURFACE WAVES
Fig. 4.16: Approximation of Fig. 4.15 by plane, parallel wavefronts.

This approximation is better at larger distan es from the sour e. The limitation
on
plane
free
waves means that we onsider
normal modes.
The phases of neighbouring wavefronts 1, 2, 3 are

and
3 = 1 + 1 + 2 ,
A and B, respe tively.
ree tions in
the phase dieren e

travel time
respe tively, where
s/1
3 1
s=2
SH -waves.
follows for
and
To ensure that wave 1 and 3 are
2 .
in phase,
With
onstru tive interferen e
2d1
cos + 2n,
1
1 (arbitrary), 2 = 1 + 1
2 are the phase shifts of the
d1
sin = 2d1 cos ,
tan
we derive the following ondition for
The phase shifts;
and
has to be equal to the phase dieren e due to the
plus a multiple of
1 + 2 =
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
(4.35)
are the phases of the ree tion oe ients for plane
> = arcsin(1 /2 ), it
Sin e we only onsider post- riti al
from (3.42) and with
>0
12
2
2
2
sin
2 2 12
1 = 2 arctan = 2 arctan
.
a
1 1 cos
For the ree tion at
B,
it holds that
2 = 0 ,
sin e a ording to (3.39), the
ree tion oe ient at the free surfa e is always +1.

Substituting all of the above into (4.35), we get an equation for
in iden e
whi h produ e a for given
2 2
arctan
22
12
sin2 1
1 1 cos
12
those
angles of
onstru tive interferen e
d1
cos + n,
=
1
n = 0, 1, 2, . . .
(4.36)
4.1.
159
In this equation, we introdu e the apparent velo ity
c=
1
sin
(4.37)
horizontal
with whi h the wavefronts propagate in a

dire tion. With cos =
2
and 1,2 1,2 = 1,2 , we derive by reversing (4.36), an equation
1 (12 c2 )1/2
for
2 c2 22
1 12 c2
21
h
1 i
2
2 2
.
12 = tan d1 1 c
This equation is identi al with the dispersion equation (4.19) of Love waves.
We would have found the same equation, if we had onsidered waves whi h
propagate upwards (and not downwards) in Fig. 4.16. The superposition of both
verti al wavefronts.
is not only an apparent velo ity, but also the phase velo ity of this
groups of waves gives, for reason of symmetry, a wave with

Therefore,
resulting wave.
We also see that the Love waves in the half-spa e with a top layer are produ ed
by
onstru tive interferen e of body waves
whi h have a
post- riti al
angle of
in iden e. For these angles of in iden e, no energy is lost from the layer into
the half-spa e. The energy remains in the layer whi h a ts as a perfe t
guide.
wave
This is generally true for normal modes of Love and Rayleigh waves in
horizontally layered media, in whi h ase that normal modes exist. From this,
we an also on lude that the phase velo ity of normal modes an,
equal to the
S -velo ity of the half-spa e under the layers
at most, be
c n .
If it were larger, energy would be radiated into the half-spa e in the form of an
S -wave. Leaking modes
also o ur by onstru tive interferen e of body waves.
In this ase, the angles of in iden e are

larger than
n .
pre- riti al,
and the phase velo ity is
Thus, radiation into the lower half-spa e o urs and the wave
guide is not perfe t.

Finally, it should be noted that the explanation of surfa e waves via onstru tive interferen e of body waves annot be applied to the
Rayleigh waves.
fundamental mode of
The Rayleigh wave of the homogeneous half-spa e, for example,
exists without additional dis ontinuities at the surfa e. No simple explanation

exists for the fundamental mode of Rayleigh waves.
Exer ise 4.6

Determine the dispersion urves for a liquid layer whose boundaries are (1) both
free, (2) both rigid, (3) one rigid and one free, respe tively. Use the arguments
of se tion 4.1.6 and ompare with the solution of the orresponding eigenvalue
problem. Give the group velo ity and sket h the pressure-depth distributions.
160
CHAPTER 4.
SURFACE WAVES
4.2 Surfa e waves from point sour es

4.2.1 Ideal wave guide for harmoni ex itation
Expansion representation of the displa ement potentials
We study the propagation of mono hromati sound waves from an explosive
point sour e in a liquid layer with a free surfa e situated above a
rigid
half-
spa e.
Fig. 4.17: Explosive point sour e in a liquid layer with a free surfa e atop a
rigid half-spa e.
This is an ideal wave guide sin e no waves an penetrate the half-spa e. For
su h a s enario, the key features of surfa e waves from point sour es an be
studied without too mu h mathemati al eort.
For the displa ement potential
in the layer, we assume the following integral
ansatz, using the analogy to (3.84) and applying (3.85) for the potential of the
it
spheri al wave from the sour e. In the following, the time-dependent term e
is omitted
2
k2
2
J0 (kr)
J0 (kr)
12

k il|zh|
e
+ A(k)eilz + B(k)eilz dk
il
(4.38)
is the Bessel fun tion of rst kind and zeroth order,
and
zontal and verti al wavenumber, respe tively. The square root
are the hori-
l is, as in se tions
3.6.5 and 3.7, either positive real or negative imaginary. It an be shown that
is a solution of the wave equations in ylindri al oordinates. The rst term in

(4.38) is the wave from the sour e, the se ond and third orrespond to the waves
4.2.
161
SURFACE WAVES FROM POINT SOURCES
z -dire tion,
propagating in positive and negative
respe tively.
A(k)
and
B(k)
follow from the boundary onditions for the interfa es
z=0:
stress
pzz =
z=d:
normal displa ement
2
= 2 = 0
t2
or
=0
= 0.
z
This gives
A(k) + B(k)
A(k) e2ild B(k)
k
eilh
il
k
eilh .
il
The solution of this system of equation is (please he k)
k cos [l(d h)]

il cos(ld)
k sin(lh) ild
e
.
l cos(ld)
A(k)
B(k)
Inserting them into (4.38) gives
0zh:
hzd:
sin(lz) cos [l(d h)]

dk
l cos(ld)
Z0
sin(lh) cos [l(d z)]
2
kJ0 (kr)
dk.
l cos(ld)
0
2
kJ0 (kr)
(4.39)
(4.40)
Before these expressions are solved with methods from omplex analysis, it
should be noted that an ex hange of sour e and re eiver does not hange the
value of
Displa ement and pressure are also the same for this ase. This is
an example for
re ipro ity relations, whi h is important in the theory of elasti
waves.
The poles
kn
of the integrand in (4.39) and (4.40) are determined via
dln = d
This gives
2
kn2
2
12
= (2n 1) ,
2
n = 1, 2, 3 . . .
162
CHAPTER 4.
kn =
2
(2n 1)2 2
4d2
12
SURFACE WAVES
(4.41)
The innite number of poles are situated on the real axis between
+/ and
and
on the imaginary axis, respe tively. The number of poles on the real
axis depends on
Due to these poles, the integration path in (4.39) and (4.40)
have to be spe ied in more detail.
We hoose path
C1
in Fig.
4.18 whi h
ir umvents the poles in the rst quadrant.
Fig. 4.18: Integration path
C1
whi h ir umvents the poles in the rst quadrant.
In the following, we dis uss only (4.39) in detail. Equation (4.40) an be solved
similarly. We use the identity
J0 (kr) =
where
(1)
H0 (kr)
fun tions )
and
(2)
H0 (kr)
i
1 h (1)
(2)
H0 (kr) + H0 (kr) ,
2
Hankel
are Bessel fun tions of the third kind (=
and zeroth order (Appendix C, equations (C.2) and (C.3), respe -
tively). Then,
h
i sin(lz) cos [l(d h)]
(1)
(2)
dk.
k H0 (kr) + H0 (kr)
l cos(ld)
C1
Using relation (C.6) from appendix C,
(1)
(2)
H0 (x) = H0 (x)
(4.42)
4.2.
163
the rst part of the integral in (4.42) an be written as
(2)
C1
kH0 (kr)

dk =
l cos(ld)
(2)
C2
C2
where u=-k is used. The integration path
C1
uH0 (ur)

du
l cos(ld)
is point-symmetri al to the path
with respe t to the oordinate entre, but it goes from
this in (4.42) and with onsistent use of
(2)
kH0 (kr)

dk =
l cos(ld)
from
real axis.
Integration path
C,
to 0. Inserting
as integration variable, gives
to
I(k)dk.
ir umventing the poles on the
therefore, is, as indi ated in Fig. 4.19, from
and ir umventing the poles on the real axis.

Despite the non-uniqueness of the square root
fun tion of
k.
The reason for this is that
sign of the square root of
does
not
e.g., if the half-spa e is not rigid,

more ompli ated (introdu tion of
Now we apply the
I(k)
in (4.43),
I(k)
to
is a unique
is an even fun tion of , thus, the
matter. For more ompli ated wave guides,
I(k)
is not unique and the theory be omes
bran h uts ).
remainder theorem on the losed integration path shown in

C and a half ir le with innite radius. The
Fig. 4.20 whi h onsists of path
only
(4.43)
singularities in luded are the poles of
I(k).
164
CHAPTER 4.
SURFACE WAVES
and half ir le with innite radius.
= 2i
Then
Z
L
ResI(k)|k=kn .
n=1
indi ates the lo kwise integration in the lower plane of Fig. 4.20, and ea h
term in the sum is the residue of

If the
asymptoti representation
I(k)
at the pole
k = kn .
of the Hankel fun tion is used, it follows for
large arguments (Appendix C, equation (C.4))
(2)
H0 (kr)
2
kr
12
ei(kr 4 ) .
(4.44)
We see that their values on the semi- ir le in the lower half-plane, where
a negative imaginary part, be omes zero (for R going to
).
has
The orresponding
integral also goes to zero, and we have found a representation of the potential
as an innite sum of residuals. The determination of the residue of the quotient
f1 (k)/f2 (k)
if
kn
at the lo ation
is a pole of
rst
kn
with
f2 (kn ) = 0
is done with the formula

f1 (k)
f1 (kn )
Res
,
=

f2 (k) k=kn
f2 (kn)
order. In our ase,
kn
follows from (4.41) and is either
positive real or negative imaginary. The orresponding
ln =
Furthermore, it holds here, that
is
(2n 1)
.
2d
f2 (k) = cos(ld),
f2 (kn ) = d
kn
sin(ln d).
ln
f2 (kn ) = cos(ln d) = 0
and
4.2.
165
Finally,
cos [ln (d h)] = cos(ln d) cos(ln h) + sin(ln d) sin(ln h) = sin(ln d) sin(ln h).
Thus,
Res I(k)|k=kn =
We, therefore, get the following
sion, for whi h eit

=
1 (2)
H (kn r) sin(ln z) sin(ln h).
d 0
representation of the potential as an expan-
has now to be added again for ompleteness

h
2i X
z i (2)
h
sin (2n 1)
H0 (kn r)eit .
sin (2n 1)
d n=1
2d
2d
This expression not only holds for
0 z h
but also for arbitrary depth,
sin e a ording to (4.40) the same expansion an be found.

displa ement omponents
an be derived.
(4.45)
From (4.45) the
/r and /z and the pressure p = pzz = 2
For the ideal wave guide the eld an be onstru ted
solely
from the ontribu-
tions from the poles, ea h of whi h represents a mode, as will be shown later.
For ompli ated wave guides, ontributions in the form of urve integrals in the
omplex
k -plane have to be
added to the pole ontributions. These additional
ontributions orrespond mostly to body waves.
Modes and their properties

Ea h term in (4.45) represents a
mode.
This is only a denition, but it ts well
into the mode on ept introdu ed in the previous se tions for
free surfa e waves.

r, we an use
If we onsider, for example, the terms in (4.45) for large distan es

(4.44)
(|kn r| > 10)

h
2 2iei 4 X
z i
1
h
i(tkn r)
=
.
sin (2n 1)
sin (2n 1)
1 e
d
2d
2d
2
(k
r)
n
n=1
(4.46)
kn . Their num . They orrespond to waves with ylindri al

wavefronts whi h propagate in +r-dire tion with the frequen y dependent phase
The most important terms in (4.46) are those with positive

ber is nite and in reases with
velo ity
1

(2n 1)2 2 2 2
cn () =
= 1
.
kn
4d2 2
(4.47)
166
CHAPTER 4.
If the eigenvalue problem for
SURFACE WAVES
free surfa e waves in the same wave guide is solved

n-th free normal mode
( ompare exer ise 4.6), it follows for the
h
z i i
n = A sin (2n 1)
e
2d
with
cn ()
t cnx()
(4.48)
from (4.47). Furthermore, the terms in (4.46) and (4.48) agree, that
des ribe the
z-dependen e agree. It, therefore, makes sense to name the single

n-th for ed normal mode, if kn > 0. The dieren e
terms in (4.45) and (4.46) the
with respe t to (4.48) is in the amplitude redu tion proportional to

the addition of a term that depends on the sour e depth
the
ex itation fun tion of the mode.
h.
r1/2
and in
This term is named
If the the sour e is lo ated at a nodal plane
of the free mode (4.48), the ex itation fun tion is zero, and the mode is not
ex ited. Maximum ex itation o urs, if the sour e is at a depth where the free
mode has its maximum.
From the omparison of the free and the for ed normal modes, the importan e of
the study of free modes be omes obvious. It des ribes the dispersive properties
and the amplitude-depth distributions (eigen fun tions) of the for ed normal
modes and, therefore, their most important property.
ompli ated wave guides.
The terms in (4.46) with negative imaginary
kn
This also holds for more
are not waves but represent
os illations with amplitudes that de rease exponentially in
r -dire tion.
They
only ontribute to the wave eld near the sour e, where (4.45) has to be used
for ompleteness.
The far-eld is dominated by normal modes.
The number of
nodal planes of the n-th mode is n, and their spa ing is 2d/(2n1)
(n = 2, 3 . . .).
The potential
have a node for
z=0
horizontal displa ement
and a maximum for
z = d,
The opposite is true for the verti al displa ement
/r
and pressure
respe tively (see Fig. 4.21).
/z .
Fig. 4.21: Modes and nodal planes, n = 1, 2, 3, 4.
The phase velo ity (4.47) of the n-th mode an be written as
4.2.
167

2 21
n
cn () = 1
(4.49)
with the lower frequen y limit
n =
(2n 1)
.
2d
Innitely high phase velo ities an o ur. A ording to (4.26), the group velo ity
is
Un () = 1
2 12
n
(4.50)
Fig. 4.22: Group and phase velo ities.

An important property of the ideal wave guide with a rigid and a free interfa e
is that the angular frequen ies
and waves length
> 4d,
< 1 = /2d
respe tively)
(or the frequen ies
< /4d
annnot propagate undamped.
This no
longer holds for the ideal wave guide with two rigid walls ( ompare exer ise 4.6).
In this ase, an additional fundamental mode exists, in addition to the modes
dis ussed before, but with dierent limiting frequen ies. That mode an o ur
at all frequen ies, and its phase velo ity is frequen y independent and equal to
4.2.2 The modal seismogram of the ideal wave guide

In this se tion, we will ompute the orresponding
arbitrary summand in (4.45), exa tly.
method of stationary phase to do this.
modal seismogram
for an
In the next se tion, we will use the
168
CHAPTER 4.
SURFACE WAVES
The potential (4.45) orresponds to time harmoni ex itation, i.e., for the potential of the explosion point sour e
0 =
it holds that
F (t) = eit .
1
F
R

R
,
t
(4.51)
From this mode of ex itation, we now will move to
the ex itation via a delta fun tion, F (t) = (t). Multiplying (4.45), without the
it
fa tor e
, with the spe trum of the delta fun tion F () = 1, gives the Fourier
transform of the displa ement potential. Finally, the result is transformed ba k
into the time domain. These modal seismograms an then be onvolved with
realisti ex itation fun tions
stood for
F (t),
but the basi features an already be under-
F (t) = (t).
For this, we onsider the n-th mode in the expansion (4.45). Its Fourier transform for ex itation via a delta fun tion is, ex ept for geometry fa tors, equal
(2)
2
2 1/2
/. We now use the Lapla e
to H n () = iH0 (kn r) with kn = ( n )
transform ( ompare se tion A.1.7)
(2)
hn (s) = H n (is) = iH0

and the relation
(2)
H0 (ix) =
h r
1 i
i s2 + n2 2
2i
K0 (x)
between the Hankel fun tion and the modied Bessel fun tion
K0 (x) (see se tion
3.8). This gives then
hr
1 i
2
hn (s) = K0
s2 + n2 2 .
The original fun tion an then be found in tables of the Lapla e transform. It
r
r
is zero for t <
, and for t > it holds that
Hn (t) =

cos n t2
t2
r2
2
21
r2
2
12
Thus the n-th mode of the potential an be written as
n =
4
d
for

cos
z
sin (2n 1) h
sin
(2n
1)
2d
2d
n t
r2
2
2
r
t2
2
21
12 i
for
t<
t>
r
.
(4.52)
4.2.
169
That is a normal mode for
all n sin e the delta fun tion ontains arbitrarily high
frequen ies, ensuring that the lower limiting frequen y of ea h normal mode an
be ex eeded.
For simpli ity, we limit the dis ussion in the following to the potential
All on lusions also hold for displa ement and pressure.
n .
The seismogram in
t = r/ with a singularity that is integrable. Then the

1/t, for times large ompared to r/, while os illating.
The most important feature of n is its frequen y modulation or dispersion. The
frequen ies de rease from large values to the limiting frequen y n of the mode
Fig. 4.23 starts at time
amplitudes de rease with
onsidered. The dispersion in the example shown is, therefore, inverse.
Fig. 4.23: Seismogram showing frequen y modulation (dispersion).
What we have learned about the group velo ity in se tion 4.1.5 an be onrmed
with (4.52). We rst ask whi h frequen ies
dominate at a ertain time
t0
in
the modal seismogram. Outside the singularity, the dis ussion an be limited
f (t) near t = t0 to be able

cos [f (t)] in the neighbourhood of t = t0 by the
mono hromati os illation cos [0 + (t0 )t]. Here 0 is a phase that is independent of t, and (t0 ) is the instantaneous angular frequen y required. This leads
to the osine fun tion in (4.52). We plan to linearise

to approximate the fun tion
to
cos [f (t)] cos [f (t0 ) + f (t0 )(t t0 )] .

(t0 ) = f (t0 ).
If applied to (4.52), it follows

21
r2
2
(t0 ) = n t0 t0 2
.
170
CHAPTER 4.
From this, we derive the quotient

of frequen y
(t0 )
SURFACE WAVES
r/t0 , i.e., the velo ity with whi h a wave group
propagates from the sour e to the re eiver, and we get (with
0 = (t0 ))
"
2 # 21
r
n
= Un (0 )
= 1
t0
0
with
Un (0 )
from (4.50), i.e., exa tly the
group velo ity
of the n-th mode. We,
therefore, onrm the statement from se tion 4.1.5: that ea h frequen y that is
radiated from the sour e propagates to the re eiver with the group velo ity.
The
omplete seismogram
in the wave guide is produ ed by onvolving the
modal seismogram (4.52) with a realisti ex itation fun tion
F (t), the spe trum
of whi h has an upper limiting frequen y, and sum. Only those normal modes
(4.52) ontribute signi antly to the seismogram whi h have lower limiting frequen ies that are smaller than the upper limiting frequen y of
F (t).
Often the
response of hydro-phones and seismometers, together with the dissipative me hanisms in the wave guide, redu e the number of modes. In pra tise usually only
a few modes ontribute to the observed surfa e waves.
4.2.3 Computation of modal seismograms with the method

of stationary phase
The omputation of modal seismograms is only possible
exa tly
guides (with rigid and/or free boundaries, respe tively).
for ideal wave
In the following, an
approximation is dis ussed and demonstrated, whi h gives the modal seismogram for the far-eld form of a normal mode of the type of (4.46). This is the
method of stationary phase
mentioned before.
Multiplying a normal mode in (4.46) with the spe trum

fun tion
F (t)
F ()
of the ex itation
in (4.51), then transforming ba k into the time domain, gives
the modal seismogram as a Fourier integral. To avoid integration over negative

frequen ies, we use the fa t that
real
fun tions
f (t)
annot only be represented
as
1
f (t) = Re
f (t) =
1
2
f ()eit d
but also as
This gives the modal seismogram as
f ()eit d.
4.2.
171
n = Re

Z
h
h
z i 1
F () i(tkn r)
2 2iei 4
e
sin (2n 1)
sin (2n 1)
d .
d
2d
2d
r 0
kn
(4.53)
The approximate omputation of the integral over

on the fa t that at times
is based, as in se tion 4.1.5,
to be onsidered, the phase
() = t kn r
is usually
rapidly varying
ompared to fun tion
tribute little to the integral in (4.53).
(4.54)
F ().
Su h frequen ies on-
This is dierent for frequen ies with
stationary phase values. Su h a frequen y
follows from the equation

dkn
=0
(0 ) = t r
d =0
and depends on
t.
This means that the frequen y
0 ,
for whi h the group
velo ity is

d
r
Un (0 ) =
= ,
dkn =0
t
t.
From this follows the prin iple of determining the group velo ity from an observed modal seismogram. For a given time t, relative to the sour e time, the
moment frequen ies and the orresponding group velo ities, using t and sour e
distan e r, are determined. The sour e time and epi entre of the earthquake,
dominates the modal seismogram at time
therefore, have to be known. This gives a pie e of the group velo ity dispersion
urves. One has now to verify this pie e of the urve via forward modelling.
The asso iation of a ertain frequen y to a ertain time, ne essary here, is in
prin iple not unique, but the error asso iated with it an be estimated. With
this method, applied to surfa e waves of earthquakes, several important results
on the stru ture of the Earth were found, for example, the average rustal thi kness in dierent parts of the Earth is shown in the dierent bran hes in Fig.
4.10. A disadvantage of this method is that the result is only an average over
the
whole
region between sour e and re eiver. Therefore, today several stations
are used in the interpretation of the phase velo ity ( ompare se tion 4.1.4).
The
omputation of the modal seismogram requires then the following additional
steps: for given time t, we expand the phase (4.54) at the frequen y
0 ,
whi h
is determined by
Un (0 ) =
r
t
(4.55)
172
CHAPTER 4.
= (0 ) + 21 (0 )( 0 )2
()
(0 )
An
important requirement
F () i()
e
d
kn
SURFACE WAVES
2 ( )
Un
0
is that
dUn
d (0 )
(0 ) 6= 0.
(4.56)
Then,
0 +

1
F ()
2
exp i (0 ) + (0 )( 0 )
d
2
kn
0

Z
F (0 )ei(0 ) 0 +
i
p
(0 )( 0 )2 d.
exp
2
kn (0 )
0
Here, we limited our dis ussion to the neighbourhood of the frequen y
() is stationary. The other frequen ies

1/2
x = ( 0 ) 12 | (0 )|
, we get
0 +
exp

i
2
(0 )( 0 ) d
2
with

| (0 )|
12 Z
2
| (0 )|
12 Z
2
| (0 )|
1
R +
R +
2
2
2
cos
x
dx
=
sin
x
dx
=
.
2
0 , where
do not ontribute signi antly. With
| (0 |
2
| (0 )|
2
1/2
eix dx
12
ei 4
The positive and the negative sign in the exponential term hold, if
(0 ) >
0 and < 0, respe tively. The extension of the limits

of the integration to
x = is possible, sin e they are proportional to r and r is very large.
Furthermore, signi ant ontributions to the integral ome only from relatively
small values of x ( a.
|x| 5).
Putting all this together, the modal seismogram
for the ideal wave guide in the approximation given by the method of stationary
phase (with (0 ) > 0) an be written as

h
z i
h
2 2iei 4
sin (2n 1)
sin (2n 1)
Re
2d
2d
d
)
1

2
2
F (0 )ei(0 )
ei 4 .
rkn (0 ) | (0 )|
1/2 eix dx
(4.57)
4.2.
173
Next, one uses
(0 ) =
0 t kn (0 )r,
"
2 # 12
n
0
1
,
0
"
2 # 21
n
Un (0 ) = 1
0
kn (0 ) =
r
t
1/2
0 = 0 (t) = n t t2 r2 /2
from
(4.57). After some al ulations, and for the assumption F (0 ) = 1, whi h orresponds to the ex itation fun tion F (t) = (t), the following modal seismogram
and
(0 )
from (4.56) and deletes
an be derived (please onrm)
n =
4
d
for

cos
z
sin (2n 1) h
2d sin (2n 1) 2d
n t2
2
t2 r 2
12 i
r2
21
t<
for
t>
r
.
(4.58)
We, therefore, get the stringent results of (4.52). This is surprising, onsidering
the approximations used. From this we an draw the general on lusion that
the method of stationary phase is a good approximation for normal modes even
for more ompli ated wave guides.
dUn
d (0 ) = 0 and with stationary
values of the group velo ity (whi h do not o ur for ideal wave guides), the
For frequen ies
with
(0 ) = 0,
i.e., with
expansion in (4.56) has to be extended by one additional term. The treatment

of the al ulations following is, therefore, slightly dierent (see, for example,
Appendix E). It leads to the
behaviour of Airy phases
and shows that they
are usually the dominating parts of the modal seismograms ( ompare also Fig.
4.13).
4.2.4 Ray representation of the eld in an ideal wave guide

In the last two se tions we have learned that the waveeld in an ideal wave guide
is omposed of for ed normal modes. Furthermore, we found in se tion 4.1.6,
that free normal modes are omposed of multiple ree ted plane body waves in
the wave guide. This raises the question, an the eld of a point sour e in an
ideal wave guide also be represented by the superposition of multiple ree tions?
In other words, in this ase is there also a ray representation of the wave eld?
In addition, it is interesting to see if mode and ray representations of the wave
eld are then also equivalent.
174
CHAPTER 4.
SURFACE WAVES
We rst examine the ree tion of the spheri al wave
1
0 =
F
R0

R0
t
(4.59)
at the interfa e of the wave guide in the neighbourhood of the point sour e, e.g.,
the free surfa e.
Q1
000000
111111
0000000000
1111111111
h
0000000000
1111111111
z=0
0000000000 r
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
R1
h
111111
000000
000000000
111111111
0000000000
1111111111
1
0
000000000
111111111
0
1
0000000000
1111111111
Q0
000000000
111111111
0
1
R0
z=d
P(r,z)
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
01
1
0
1
z
Fig. 4.24: Ree tion of a spheri al wave at the interfa e of the wave guide in
the neighbourhood of the point sour e.
The potential of the ree tion is
1
1 =
F
R1
R1
is the distan e between
P (r, z)

R1
.
t
and the
image sour e Q1 .
(4.60)
As long as the
ree tion from the lower (rigid) interfa e of the wave guide has not rea hed
0 + 1 and,
0 + 1 satisfy, therefore, for su h times, the
2
2
surfa e z = 0 (pzz = (0 + 1 )/t ).
the surfa e, the potential in the neighbourhood of the surfa e is

therefore, zero on the surfa e.
ondition of no stress at the
Similarly, if we onsider the ree tion of the spheri al wave from

interfa e
z = d,
Q0
at the
the potential of the wave ree ted there an be written as
1
F
2 =
R2

R2
,
t
(4.61)
R2 now has to be determined for a new image sour e with the z - oordinate
d + (d h) = 2d h. That 0 + 2 satises the boundary onditions (0 +
2 )/z = 0 for z = d (zero normal displa ement), an be seen easily, sin e for
where
points in that interfa e
4.2.
175
R0
= R2
R0
z
R2
z

z h
R0
dh
R0
z=d

dh
R0
2d h z
=
=
.

R2
R2
z
z=d
=
With the two previously onsidered ree tions of the spheri al wave originating
from
Q0
at the interfa es of the wave guide, boundary onditions an only be
satised for ertain times, e.g., only as long as the ree tions
and
have
rea hed the opposite interfa e, respe tively. Sin e they are of the same form as
0 ,
higher order ree tions an be onstru ted in the same way. Ea h ree tion
and multiple ree tion seems to ome from an image sour e, whi h was reated
by the appli ation of multiple mirror images of
Q0
at the interfa es (Fig. 4.25).
The sign of the orresponding potential is negative if the number of ree tions
at the surfa e is odd, otherwise it is positive. Ea h image sour e orresponds to
a
ray
from the sour e to the re eiver whi h has undergone a ertain number of
ree tions.
Fig. 4.25: Image sour es for multiple ree tions in the wave guide.
176
CHAPTER 4.
The ray on ept an, without di ulties, be generalised for
SURFACE WAVES
solid
media (in lud-
ing S-waves), but this is not true for the on ept of the image sour e. This is
why, in general, and also in the ase presented here, we speak of a
tation of the wave eld.
ray represen-
It an be expressed as

1
Rj1
Rj2
1
+
F t
F t
(1)
Rj1
Rj2
j=0

1
1
Rj3
Rj4
+
F t
F t
Rj3
Rj4
(4.62)
with
2
Rj1
(2jd + h + z) + r2
2
Rj2
2
Rj3
(2jd h + z)2 + r2
2
Rj4
(2(j + 1)d h z) + r2
2
(2(j + 1)d + h z) + r2 .
Only those terms in (4.62) are non-zero, for whi h the argument is positive, and
for whi h
F (t)
at
t = 0
is not zero.
The number of su h terms is nite and
in reases with time.

For the ideal wave guide, the determination of the ontribution of a ray is simple,
sin e it follows the same time law as the exiting spheri al wave. For other wave
guides, methods like those presented in se tion 3.8 have to be used. The resulting
numeri al eort is then signi antly greater and seems only justied if not too
many rays have to be summed up, but that is ne essary for large horizontal
distan es from the sour e where the paths of many rays be ome very similar.
In this ase, the representation of the wave eld as a sum of only a few normal
modes is
signi antly more e ient.
The ray representation is most suited for
su h distan es from the sour e where the typi al normal mode properties of the
wave eld have
not yet
developed.
Finally, we will show that (4.62) for

tively, are
F (t) = eit
and (4.39) and (4.40), respe -
two dierent representations of the same wave eld.
dis ussion rst to the ase
h z d.
If
F (t) = eit
We limit our
is inserted into (4.62),
and the Sommerfeld integral (3.85) for a spheri al wave is used for ea h term,
it
it follows (the fa tor e
is again omitted)
J0 (kr)
kX
(1)j [ exp (il |2jd + h + z|)
il j=0
4.2.
177
+ exp (il |2jd h + z|)
+ exp (il |2(j + 1)d h z|)

exp (il |2(j + 1)d + h z|)] dk.
z h, the ontributions are
exp(i2ljd) an be separated
If
equal to the arguments
everywhere.
Then
X

k
j
J0 (kr)
e2ild [ exp (il (h + z))
il j=0
+ exp (il (h + z))
+ exp (il (2d h z))

exp (il (2d + h z))] dk.
The expansion in the rst square bra ket has a sum of
ild
an be extra ted giving
se ond square bra ket, e
1/(1 + e2ild ).
From the
k
[ exp (il (d h z))
2il
cos(ld)
0
+ exp (il (d + h z))
+ exp (il (d h z))
Z
J0 (kr)
exp (il (d + h z))] dk.
The remaining square bra ket is equal to
2i sin [l (d h z)] + 2i sin [l (d + h z)] = 4i cos [l (d z)] sin (lh) .

Thus,
=2
J0 (kr)
k cos [l(d z)] sin(lh)

dk,
l
cos(ld)
(4.63)
whi h agrees with (4.40).

If sour e and re eiver are ex hanged in (4.62), the potential of a single ray is
un hanged sin e it depends only on the path travelled. Therefore, ex hanging
with
in (4.63) gives the potential for
Thus, the proof of the identity of (4.62) (for
0 z h whi h leads to (4.39).

F (t) = eit ) with (4.39) and (4.40),
respe tively, is omplete.

Finally, we would like to reiterate ( ompare se tion 4.2.1) that a representation
of the wave eld
by normal modes alone
is only possible for ideal wave guides
178
CHAPTER 4.
SURFACE WAVES
whi h have upper and lower boundaries that are ompletely ree ting for all angles of in iden e. In other media, additional ontributions (body waves, leaky
modes) o ur whi h are not due to the poles in the omplex plane like the normal modes.
Exer ise 4.7

Study the polarisation of the displa ement ve tor of the se ond free normal
mode of the ideal wave guide ( =2 in (4.48)) as a fun tion of depth.
Exer ise 4.8

An explosive point sour e is lo ated at depth
half-spa e. The displa ement potential
h below the free surfa e of a liquid
is the sum of the potentials (4.59) of
the dire t wave and (4.60) for the ree tion. Give an approximation for
whi h
holds under the following onditions (dipole approximation) :

a) The dominant period of the ex itation fun tion
travel time
h/
b) The distan e
F (t)
is mu h larger than the
from the sour e to the surfa e.
to the re eiver is mu h larger than
Introdu e spheri al oordinates
and
h.
relative to the point
( ompare Fig. 4.24).

What is the result, if the surfa e is not free but rigid?
r = 0,
and
z=0
Appendix A
Lapla e transform and delta

fun tion
A.1 Introdu tion to the Lapla e transform
A.1.1 Literature
Spiegel, M.R.
: Lapla e Transformation, S haum, New York, 1977
Riley, K.F., Hobson, M.P. and Ben e, J.C.
: Mathemati al methods for
physi s and engineering, A omprehensive guide, Cambridge University

Press, Cambridge, 2nd edition, 2002
A.1.2 Denition of the Lapla e transform

The Lapla e transform asso iates a fun tion
transforms a fun tion
f (s) =
F (t)
f (s) =
F (t)
into the fun tion
f (s) with
f (s).
the fun tion
F (t),
or it
est F (t)dt = L {F (t)}
original fun tion

image fun tion
Symboli notation:
(Lapla e transform,
f (s) F (t) ( = symbol

t =
s =
real variable
+ i
(of
abbreviated L
of asso iation)
time)
omplex variable
179
transform)
180
APPENDIX A.
LAPLACE TRANSFORM AND DELTA FUNCTION
A.1.3 Assumptions on F(t)

1. F(t) is usually a real fun tion
2.
F (t) 0
3.
F (t)
for
t < 0 (satised
for many physi al parameters - ausality)
should be integrable in the interval
[0, T ],
and for
t> T
it should
hold that
|F (t)| < et
with real
f (s) of F (t)
s > ( onvergen e half-plane ). All limited fun tions
( > 0), sin t et . have an L-transform but also non-limited
1/2 n
, t and et (n, > 0). Note assumption 2. Many fun tions
fun tions as t
1
t2
in physi s also have an L-transform. The fun tions t
and e
do not have an
These are su ient onditions for the existen e of the L-transform
for omplex
t
as, e.g., e
with Re
L-transform.
A.1.4 Examples
a)

0 for t < 0
H(t) =
Heaviside step fun tion (unit step)
1 for t 0
Z

1
1
f (s) =
est dt = est 0 = for Re s > 0 ( onverg. half-plane)
s
s
0
1
H(t)
s
F (t)
b)
F (t)
f (s)
=
=

Z
et H(t)
For
=0
0
et
for
for
t<0
t0
e(s) dt =
1
s

1
1

e(s)t =
,
s
s
0
transition to the L-transform of
Re s >
H(t)
sin at
1
.
H(t) 2
a
s + a2
Tables of many more orresponden es an be found in the literature given.
A.1.
181
INTRODUCTION TO THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
A.1.5 Properties of the Lapla e transform

Similarity theorem a > 0
F (at)
st
F (at)dt =
Therefore,
s
a
at
d(at)
1
F (at)
=
a
a
1 s
F (at) f
.
a
a
Thus, only the L-transform of
F (t)
e a F ( )d
(A.1)
has to be known.
Example: A ording to se tion A.1.4
et H(t)
1
.
s1
With the similarity theorem, it follows that
eat H(t)
1
a
s
a
1
1
=
,
1
sa
i.e., the result of the dire t omputation in se tion A.1.4.
Displa ement theorem
Fig. A.1: Displa ement theorem.
F (t )
F (t ) e
0
s
st
F (t )dt =
f (s)
es( +) F ( )d = es f (s)
0
(A.2)
Damping theorem ( arbitrary omplex)

e
F (t)
e(s+)t F (t)dt = f (s + )
et F (t) f (s + )
(A.3)
182
APPENDIX A.
Dierentiation theorem
F (t)
est F (t)dt = est F (t)|

0 +s
est F (t)dt
The rst term is zero at its upper limit due to the assumption 3 from hapter
A.1.3. Thus,
F (t) sf (s) F (+0)
F (+0)
lim
t0
t>0
right
F(t) is the limit from the
side.
(A.4)
Generalisation:
F (t)
F (t)
.
.
.
(n)
sf (s) F (+0)
s2 f (s) sF (+0) F (+0)
(A.5)
(t) s f (s) s
F (+0) s
F (+0)
(n2)
(n1)
. . . sF
(+0) F
(+0)
n
n1
n2
Integration theorem
G(t) =
1
F ( )d f (s)
s
(A.6)
G (t) = F (t) f (s) G(+0) = f (s).
Convolution theorem
Z
F1 ( )F2 (t )d f1 (s)f2 (s)
The integral is alled onvolution of

Furthermore, it holds that
F1
with
F2 ,
symboli notation
(A.7)
F1 F2 .
A.1.
183
INTRODUCTION TO THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
F1 ( )F2 (t )d =
F1 (t )F2 ( )d
or
F1 F2 = F2 F1 ,
i.e., the onvolution is ommutative.
Further elementary properties of the L-transform are that it is rstly homogeneous and linear, i.e., it holds that
a1 F1 (t) + a2 F2 (t) a1 f1 (s) + a2 f2 (s),

and se ondly, that from
F (t) 0
it follows that
f (s) 0
and vi e versa.
An important property, whi h follows from the denition of the L-transform, is
lim
Re s+
Only
then
is a fun tion
f (s)
f (s) = 0.
(A.8)
an L-transform and an be transformed ba k (see
next hapter).
A.1.6 Ba k-transform
1
F (t) = L
1
{f (s)} =
2i
c+i
ets f (s)ds
(A.9)
ci
Fig. A.2: Convergen e half-plane of Lapla e inverse-transform.

The integration path is parallel to the imaginary axis and has to be situated
in the onvergen e half-plane of
the integration path,
the left.
f (s)
f (s),
otherwise,
is arbitrary. To the right of
annot have singularities, but it an have them to
The integration path an be deformed in a ordan e with Cau hy's
integral law and the remainder theorem.
184
APPENDIX A.
A.1.7 Relation with the Fourier transform

A ommon representation of the Fourier transform
F () =
F ()
of a fun tion
F (t)eit dt.
F (t)
is
(A.10)
F ()
is also alled the
omplex spe trum
of
F (t);
is the angular frequen y.
The inverse-transform is given by
1
F (t) =
2
F ()eit d.
(A.11)
This equation an be interpreted as the superposition of harmoni os illations.

This is the reason why the Fourier transform is often used in physi s. If the
behaviour of a system, whi h an be des ribed by linear dierential equations,
is known for harmoni ex itation, its behaviour for impulsive ex itation an be
determined via (A.11).
To do this, the ex itation has to be broken into its
spe tral omponents a ording to (A.10). Then, the problem is solved for ea h
spe tral omponent, and, nally, all spe tral solutions are superimposed via
(A.11). Su h an approa h is used in se tion 3.6.3 in the study of the ree tion
of impulsive waves at an interfa e.
It is often less physi al, but often more elegant and simple, to use the Ltransform. The onne tion between
F (t)
that are zero for
t<0
F ()
and
f (s)
is very lose for fun tions
( ausality)
F () =
eit F (t)dt = f (i),
i.e., the Fourier transform is also the L-transform on the imaginary axis of the
omplex s-plane.
1
In an alternative representation of the Fourier transform, the fa tor 2 is not
in (A.11) but in (A.10). Then the Fourier transform F () is equal to f (i)/2 .
A.2 Appli ation of the Lapla e transform

A.2.1 Linear ordinary dierential equations with onstant
oe ients
Dierential equation
L(Y ) =
F (t)
Y (n) + an1 Y (n1) + an2 Y (n2) + . . . + a1 Y + a0 Y = F (t)

(A.12)
0 for t < 0
A.2.
185
APPLICATION OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Initial onditions
(n1)
Y (+0) = Y0 , Y (+0) = Y0 , . . . , Y (n1) (+0) = Y0

Y (t) y(s), F (t) f (s)

+ . . . + a1 s + a0 y(s) = f (s)
L-transform of (A.12) with
s + an1 s
n1
and (A.5)

+ sn1 + an1 sn2 + . . . + a2 s + a1 Y0

+ sn2 + an1 sn3 + . . . + a3 s + a2 Y0
+...
(n2)
+ (s + an1 ) Y0
(n1)
+Y0
The polynomials an be written as
pi (s) =
ni
X
ak+i sk , i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n, an = 1.
k=0
Therefore,
X pl (s) (l1)
f (s)
+
Y
.
p0 (s)
p0 (s) 0
y(s) =
(A.13)
l=1
The right side ontains the L-transform of the known fun tion
F (t),
some poly-
nomials, the oe ients of whi h are known and the known initial values of the
fun tion
Y (t) to be solved for.
If it is possible to determine the inverse transform
on the right side of (A.13), the problem is solved. In the ase presented here,
this is not di ult.
Before this is done, we dis uss the omparison with the
standard method to solve linear ordinary dierential equations with onstant

oe ients.
First, in the standard method the homogeneous dierential equation is solved
generally (i.e., it ontains n undetermined oe ients); then a spe ial solution
of the inhomogeneous dierential equation is determined, e.g., by guessing or
by variation of the onstants.
This is then the general solution of the inho-
mogeneous dierential equation from whi h the n onstants an be determined

via the initial onditions. It is not ne essary to nd a general solution if the
L-transform is used. Here, the solution that orresponds to the initial onditions is determined dire tly. That is the great advantage of this method. This
advantage is even greater for the solution of partial dierential equations with
boundary and initial onditions and is why the L-transform is widely used. This
is espe ially true in ele troni s. One onsequen e of this is that extensive tables
with inverse transforms for many L-transforms exist.
The inverse-transform of (A.13) an be split into two steps (but that is not a
ne essity).
186
APPENDIX A.
(n1)
f (s) 6= 0, Y0 = Y0 = . . . = Y0
1.
= 0.
This orresponds to the solution
of the inhomogeneous dierential equation with zero initial values (See

se tion A.2.1.1).
f (s) = 0,
2.
initial value
6= 0.
This orresponds to the solution of the
homogeneous dierential equation with non-zero initial onditions (See

se tion A.2.1.2).
The sum of solution 1 and 2 is the inverse transform of (A.13) to be determined

(See se tion A.2.1.3).
A.2.1.1 Inhomogeneous dierential equations with zero initial values

This ase is also of pra ti al interest sin e in many ases in whi h a system is
zero up to time
t=0
Y (t) 0
(i.e.,
this ase,
for
y(s) =
1/p0 (s)
Sin e
for
exists
n1
t < 0),
the initial values are zero. In
f (s)
.
p0 (s)
is always an L-transform ( ompare (A.8)), the inverse
1
Q(t).
p0 (s)
Q(t)
is the
Green's fun tion
then gives the solution
Y (t) =
The determination of
of the problem.
The onvolution theorem (A.7)
Y (t)
F (t )Q( )d =
Q(t)
F ( )Q(t )d.
is, therefore, the remaining task. To that end, we
introdu e an expansion into partial fra tions of

that the zeros
of
p0 (s)
are all
dierent
1/p0 (s)
under the assumption
X dk
1
=
p0 (s)
s k
k=1
where
dk
is the residue of
dk = lim
sk
(A.14)
1/p0 (s)
at the lo ation
s k
= lim
sk
p0 (s)
1
p0 (s)p0 (k )
sk
.
p0 (k )
A.2.
187
Thus,
X 1
1
1
=
p0 (s)
p0 (k ) s k
k=1
Inverse-transform, with a result from se tion A.1.4, gives
Q(t) = H(t)
n
X
ek t
.
p0 (k )
(A.15)
k=1
k is real, the orresponding summand in Q(t) is also real. If k is omplex,

1 with 1 = k (the onjugate omplex value to k ) exists as part of the
other zeros, sin e p0 (s) has real oe ients. Then,
If
an
ek t
ek t
+
p0 (k ) p0 (k )
=
=
Q(t)
ek t
e(k t)
+
p0 (k ) p0 (k )
k t
ek t
e
ek t
= 2Re
+
.
p0 (k )
p0 (k )
p0 (k )
is, therefore, always real.
Relation to the usual solution method

The determination of the zeros of
p0 (s)
is ompletely identi al to the determi-
nation of the zeros for the hara teristi equation
p0 () = 0 of the homogeneous
dierential equation. The eort involved is, therefore, the same. For the usual
method, the additional eort of nding a spe ial solution of the inhomogeneous
dierential equation and the determination of n onstants in the solution of the
homogeneous dierential equation from the zero initial onditions is needed.
It is also interesting to see under whi h onditions on
F (t)
the initial values of
the solution
Y (t) =
F ( )Q(t )d
are indeed equal to zero. One an show that
sk+1
s p0 (s)
Q(k) (+0) = lim

and thus,
(k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1),
188
APPENDIX A.
Q(+0) = Q (+0) = . . . = Q(n2) (+0) = 0,

If this is used during the dierentiation of
Y (t),
Q(n1) (+0) = 1.
it follows that
Y (+0) = Y (+0) = . . . = Y (n2) (+0) = 0,

and under the ondition that
lim
t0
t>0
it also holds that
Y (n1) (+0) = 0.
F ( )d = 0
(A.16)
This means that due to the fa t that a phys-
i al fun tion in general satises (A.16) (as long as they have a dened start),
the assumption of zero initial values is most often satised. Equation (A.14)
with (A.15) is then the solution of the problem. An ex eption an be found in
exer ise A.2.
Appli ation example

The dierential equation of the me hani al resonator an be written as
1
Y + 20 Y + 02 Y = K(t)
m
with
Y (t) =
K(t) =
displa ement from zero

a ting for e ( = 0 for t < 0 )
=
=
= eigen frequen y of the undamped resonator

1
= 0 (1 2 ) 2 eigen frequen y of the damped
We hoose
<1
mass
damping term
( = 1 :
aperiodi limit)
resonator ase ).
The L-transform of the dierential equation leads to
y(s) =
k(s)
mp0 (s)
resonator
A.2.
p0 (s)
p0 (s)
p0 (1 )
=
=
=
189
s2 + 20 s + 02 = (s 1 )(s 2 )

1
0 + i(1 2 ) 2 = 0 i
0 + i
2s + 20
2i = p0 (2 ).
Thus, the Green's fun tion an be written as
Q(t) =
=
Q(t) =
Q(+0) =

1 0 tit
e
+ e0 t+it H(t)
2i

e0 t it
e eit H(t)
2i
1 0 t
e
sin t H(t)
0, Q (+0) = 1.
The solution of the dierential equation is, therefore,
Y (t) =
=
(t 0)
Z t
1
K(t )e0 sin d
m 0
Z t
1
K( )e0 (t ) sin (t )d.
m 0
(A.17)
If the polynomial p0 (s) has several zeros, an extension into partial fra tions of
1/p0 (s) is also possible, but it looks dierent as if only simple zeros were present.
Thus, the orresponding Green's fun tion Q(t) looks dierent ( ompare also the
usual method of solution). Equation (A.14) is also valid in this ase.
Exer ise A.1

Give the solution of the inhomogeneous equation
L(Y ) = 02 Y0 H(t),
where
H(t)
is the Heaviside step fun tion.
Exer ise A.2

Solve the dierential equation of the me hani al seismograph
L(Y ) = X
(X(t) = ground
displa ement)
190
APPENDIX A.
with the aid of the method of the variation of the onstants and with the Ltransform. Assume
X(t) 0
for
t < 0,
Derive the initial onditions for
Y (+0) = 0, Y (+0) = V0 .
In both exer ises,
X(+0) = 0,
Y (t)
X(+0)
= V0 .
from physi al prin iples and show that
L(Y ) = Y + 20 Y + 02 Y, < 1.
A.2.1.2 Homogeneous dierential equations with arbitrary initial values

de ay of os-
This ase has also a pra ti al appli ation sin e it des ribes the
illations
of physi al systems. The important points an be learned from the
following exer ise.
Exer ise A.3

Solve the dierential equation of the eigen os illation of a me hani al resonator
with
L(Y ) = 0,
Y (+0) = Y0 , Y (+0) = 0 using the L-transform, and
with the solution L(Y ) of exer ise A.1 as done above.
with the initial onditions

ompare the solution
A.2.1.3 Inhomogeneous dierential equations with arbitrary initial

values
We superimpose the solutions of se tion A.2.1.1 and se tion A.2.1.2. This means
that
Y (t)
onsists of the two ontributions
Y (t) = Y1 (t) + Y2 (t).

Y1 (t)
is the solution of the homogeneous dierential equation that satises the
initial onditions
(n1)
Y1 (+0) = Y0 , Y1 (+0) = Y0 , . . . , Y1
Y2 (t)
(n1)
(+0) = Y0
is the solution of the inhomogeneous dierential equation with zero initial
values
A.2.
(n1)
Y2 (+0) = Y2 (+0) = . . . = Y2
Y (t)
191
(+0) = 0.
satises the dierential equation and the given initial onditions, and is,
therefore, the solution of the problem.

For physi al problems, the initial onditions
always
have to be derived from
physi al prin iples, for example:

1. Me hani al resonator:
For
t < 0, Y = Y0 (t)
Due to the
Y + 20 Y + 02 Y =
is given. At time
ontinuity requirement
t=0
1
m K(t)
the for e
K(t)
begins to a t.
it must, therefore, hold that
Y (+0) = Y0 (0), Y (+0) = Y 0 (0).

The resonator starts at time
t=0
(A.18)
with the initial values whi h onne t
ontinuously to the previous values. The ontribution of

pla ement
Y (t)
eigen resonan e, whi h ontinues the os illation

tion
Y2 (t),
Y1 (t)
to the dis-
has the initial value given in (A.18) and is, therefore, an
Y0 (t).
The for ed os illa-
given in (A.17), with zero initial values, is then superimposed
on that os illation.
Y + 20 Y + 02 Y = X
rest until the time t = 0. Due
2. Me hani al seismograph:
The ground may be at
of ontinuity, it follows that
to the
requirement
Y (+0) = 0, Y (+0) = X(+0).

Homogeneous equation:
Y1 + 20 Y 1 + 02 Y1 = 0, Y1 (+0) = 0, Y 1 (+0) = X(+0)

L-transform:
s2 + 20 s + 02 y1 (s) = X(+0)
Similar to se tion A.2.1.1, the eigen resonan e an be written as
Y1 (t) =
X(+0)
e0 t sin t H(t).
Inhomogeneous equation:
Y2 (+0) = Y 2 (+0) = 0
Y2 + 20 Y 2 + 02 Y2 = X,
L-transform:

s2 + 20 s + 02 y2 (s) = s2 x(s) X(+0)
The for ed resonan e, therefore, is (
Y2 (t) =
The omplete solution
1
0
t 0)
)e0 (t ) sin (t )d.

X(
Y (t) = Y1 (t) + Y2 (t)
is the same as in exer ise A.2.
192
APPENDIX A.
A.2.2 Partial dierential equations

We now use an example to demonstrate the main points dis ussed so far. We
will examine, unlike in se tion 3.4, the propagation of a ompressional wave
from an explosive point sour e. The starting point is the equation of motion of
the elasti ontinuum without body for es.
u
2
= ( + 2)
u
u
t2
=Lam's parameters).
(=density,
and
In our problem, for whi h we use spheri al oordinates, the displa ement
only a radial omponent
U,
U
+
r 2
U
r2
u =

u =
2 = ( + 2)/
u has
and the only spatial oordinate is the distan e
from the explosive point sour e. In this ase,
With
(A.19)
is zero and it holds that
2
U
r

2 U
2
+
2 U, 0, 0 .
r r
r
(=velo ity of the ompressional waves), it follows from
(A.19) that
2 U
1 2U
2
2U
+
U
= 0.
r2
r r
r2
2 t2
The
boundary onditions
assumed are that for
r = r1
(A.20)
the displa ement is pre-
s ribed as
U (r1 , t) = U1 (t).
The
initial onditions
are
U (r, 0) =
U1 (t),
(A.21)
whi h shall be zero for
U
(r, 0) = 0.
t
t < 0, has
r = r1 .
to start smoothly, so that the initial
onditions are also satised for

L-transform then gives
u(r, s) =
u1 (s) =
est U (r, t)dt

est U1 (t)dt
(A.22)
A.2.

U
L
=
r
2
U
=
L
r2
st U
dt =
r
r
2
u(r, s).
r2
est U dt =
With this and (A.20), equation (A.20) leads to an

for
193
ordinary
u(r, s)
r
dierential equation
u(r, s)
d2 u 2 du
+
dr2
r dr
s2
2
+ 2
2
r
u = 0.
(A.23)
For ordinary dierential equations, the L-transform leads to an algebrai equa-
tion (polynomials). For partial dierential equations in whi h, together with ,

only
one
additional oordinate o urs (the ase studied here), the L-transform
leads to ordinary dierential equations.

whi h, in addition to
t i, more than one
For partial dierential equations in

oordinate o urs, partial dierential
equations are derived. In ea h ase, the dependen e on

We hange the variables in (A.23) to
x=
is eliminated.
rs
d2 u s2
d2 u
= 2 2.
2
dr
dx
du s
du
=
,
dr
dx
Thus, (A.23) be omes
x2

du
d2 u
+ 2x
x2 + 2 u = 0.
2
dx
dx
This is a spe ial ase of the dierential equations of the
fun tions
x2
(A.24)
modied spheri al Bessel

dy
d2 y
+ 2x
x2 + n(n + 1) y = 0.
dx2
dx
Compare, e.g., M. Abramovitz and I.A. Stegun: Handbook of Mathemati al

Fun tions, H. Deuts h, Frankfurt, 1985.
In our ase,
n = 1,
and the solution of (A.24), whi h has the properties (A.8)
of L-transforms, is
1
u(x) =
x

1
1+
ex F (s),
x
x=
rs
.
(A.25)
As will be ome lear in the following, the integration onstant
F (s) is important.
r = r1 ,
has to be ome the
We now spe ify (A.25) for
i.e.,
x = r1 s/,
thus,
u(x)
194
APPENDIX A.
known L-transform
u1 (s)
of the displa ement
U1 (t)
given at the limit
r = r1
(see (A.21))
u1 (s) =
r1 s
From this,
F (s)

r1 s
1+
e F (s).
r1 s
an be derived. Therefore, (A.25) an be written as
u (r, s) =
rr
r1 1 + rs
1s
u1 (s)
e
r 1 + r1 s
"
s + r1 + r
r1
=
r
s + r1
r1
u1 (s) e
rr1
(A.26)
The term in the square bra ket an now be given as
u1 (s) +
1
1
r
r1
u1 (s)
U1 (t) +
s + r1
1
1
r
r1
i
h
t
U1 (t) e r1 H(t) .
In the last step, the onvolution theorem (A.7) was applied. If the displa ement
theorem (A.2) is used, the inverse transform of (A.26) follows as
#
"

Z t rr1
rr
r1
r r1
1
1
r (t 1 )
U1 ()e 1
d .
U (r, t) =
U1 t
+
r
r1
0
(r r1 )/ refers here not to the explosion point sour e, but to
r = r1 , from whi h the wave starts at time t = 0. The retarded time
is, therefore, = t (r r1 )/, and the arrival of the wave at ea h re eiver
with r > r1 follows from = 0. Then
The retardation
the sphere

Z
r1
1
1
r ( )
1
d .
U (r, t) =
U1 ( ) +
U1 ()e
r
r
r1
0
A.3 The delta fun tion (t)

A.3.1 Introdu tion of (t)
We examine the result (A.17) for the me hani al resonator
A.3.
(T )
THE DELTA FUNCTION
Y (t) =
for the for e
1
m
K(t) = I (t),
195
K( )e0 (t ) sin (t )d,
where
is a onstant with the dimension of for e
time (=dimension of an impulse) and
(t) =
for
for
for
t<0
0<t<
t>
is a square fun tion as shown in Fig. A.3.
( t )
1/1
1/2
1/3
1 2 3
Fig. A.3: Representation of
The area under the urve
(t)
(t)
always the same impulse
as square fun tions.
is always equal to 1. Therefore, independent of
is transfered. Then the displa ement for
be written as
Y (t) =
=
Z
I
e0 (t ) sin (t )d
m 0
Z t
I
e0 u sin u du.
m t
t>
an
196
APPENDIX A.
Fig. A.4: Behaviour of the term under integral in

The mean value theorem for integrals gives (0
Y (t) =
arbitrary)
lim Y (t) =
where
< < 1):
I 0 (t)
e
sin (t ).
m
The next step is the transition to
Y (t).
0.
(A.27)
For (A.27) follows the result (t is
I 0 t
I
e
sin tH(t) = Q(t),
m
m
Q(t) is the Green's fun tion of the dierential equation of the me hani al
0 means
resonator ( ompare se tion A.2.1.1). For the for e, the transition
that the impulse is transfered to the resonator in shorter and shorter time. It
is physi ally plausible, that this time
small ompared to the de ay time
then
is not important, if it is su iently
(0 )1 and the eigenperiod 2/ of the eigen
resonan e of the resonator. Therefore, it makes sense to adopt the limiting ase
=0
also for the for e, i.e.,
lim K(t) = I lim (t) = I(t),
0
where
(t)
is the
delta fun tion

(t) = lim (t).
(A.28)
Other names are
impulse fun tion
or
unit impulse.
It is obvious that
(t)
an-
not be treated as a standard fun tion. On the other hand, it would be wrong
to study the fun tion
ontrary,
(t)
(t)
separated from the ordinary fun tions
has to be understood as a series of
the mathemati al point of view,
tributions,
(t)
is part of the
{ (t)}
with
generalised
(t). On the
0. From
fun tions or
dis-
for whi h extensive theories and literature exist. For our purposes,
A.3.
THE DELTA FUNCTION
(T )
197
the physi al approa h to the delta fun tion given, will be su ient. The definition of
(t)
as a series of ordinary fun tions is the basis of an exa t theory
that an also be understood by non-mathemati ians; see, e.g., Riley, K.F., M.P.
Hobson and S.J. Ben e: Mathemati al methods for physi s and engineering,
A omprehensive guide, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2nd edition,
2002.
A.3.2 Properties of (t)

Due to (A.28)
(t) = 0
for
t 6= 0.
Furthermore, it follows from the properties of
(t),
that
(t)F (t)dt = F (0).
The delta fun tion, therefore, is the value of
F (t)
at
t = 0;
su h that
(t)dt = 1.
G(t)(t) = G(0)(t). If G(0) = 0, then G(t)(t) 0.

(t ), whi h is displa ed by , it holds that
Furthermore, it holds that

For the delta fun tion
(t ) = 0
for
t 6=
and
The denition of
(t)
(t )F (t)dt = F ( ).
is not only possible with the series
{ (t)}, the fun tions

{n (t)} with
of whi h are dis ontinuous. An alternative option is the series
n (t) =
n 12
ent .
198
APPENDIX A.
n( t )
t
Fig. A.5: Representation of
n (t).
In this ase,
(t)
Z
lim n (t)
n (t)dt
= 1.
With the fun tions
n (t), the derivatives of the the delta fun tion an be dened
as
(k) (t) = lim n(k) (t).

n
n( t )
Fig. A.6: Derivative of the delta fun tion
It holds that
(k) (t) = 0
for
t 6= 0.
n (t).
Furthermore, it follows that
A.3.
THE DELTA FUNCTION
(k) (t )F (t)dt
(T )
=
=
after
199
lim
lim (1)
n(k) (t )F (t)dt
Z
n (t )F (k) (t)dt,
partial integrations. This gives
(k) (t )F (t)dt = (1)k F (k) ( ).
(A.29)
onne tion between the delta fun tion and the step fun tion H(t) from se tion A.1.4. We onsider the fun tion
Finally, we dis uss the
H (t) =
( )d =
0
t
for
for
for
t<0
0t
t>
H (t)
Fig. A.7: Fun tion
H (t).
This means that
(t) = H (t),
and in the limit
0
(t) = H (t).
The delta fun tion is the
derivative of the step fun tion.
have been a hieved with the denition of

It should also be mentioned that
dimension of time.
H(t)
The same result ould
(t) with the use of the fun tions n (t).
is dimensionless, but (t) has the inverse
200
APPENDIX A.
A.3.3 Appli ation of (t)

1. The option to des ribe
impulses of for e
(and, similarly, of stress and ur-
rent) will not be dis ussed now sin e that was the topi of the introdu tion
of this appendix.
2. A
point mass m
density
(or similarly a point harge) an be des ribed by the
following
= m (x)(y)(z).
This holds be ause
=0
for
be des ribed via
ZZZ
3. The
dx dy dz = m
(x, y, z) 6= (0, 0, 0),
(x)dx
and the whole mass an
(y)dy
(z)dz = m.
harge distribution of a point-like dipole an be des ribed by the

line density (x) (e.g., Coulomb per meter) on the x -axis as
following
(x) = M (x),
sin e we dene
(x)
M >0
(dimension :
by the series
harge * length
),
{M n (x)}.
M
n (x)
+
x
-
Fig. A.8: Charge distribution of a point-like dipole.

The transition
gives then two innitely large opposite point
harges, whi h are innitely lose to ea h other.
+ x=0
Fig. A.9: Charge distribution of a point-like dipole for two innitely large
opposite point harges, whi h are innitely lose to ea h other.
A.3.
THE DELTA FUNCTION
(T )
201
The moment of su h an arrangement relative to
x(x)dx = M
x=0
is
x (x)dx = M.
The sign is orre t, sin e the ve tor of the moment points from the negative
spatial harge
to the positive harge. The dimension is also orre t. The
of the dipole would be (x, y, z) = M (x) (y)
density
Coulomb per ubi meter).

4.
(z)
(e.g.,
The role of the delta fun tion for the solution of inhomogeneous linear
ordinary dierential equations.
We start with
L(Y ) = Y (n) + an1 Y (n1) + . . . + a1 Y + a0 Y = (t).
(A.30)
The solution is, a ording to se tion A.2.1.1,
Y (t) = Y (t) =
with
Q(t)=Green's
( )Q(t )d,
(A.31)
fun tion, and it satises the initial onditions
Y (+0) = Y (+0) = . . . = Y(n1) (+0) = 0.

The transition
in (A.30) and (A.31) gives
L(Y ) = (t)
(A.32)
with the solution
Y (t) = Q(t).
The Green's fun tion of a system, whi h an be des ribed by a linear ordinary dierential equation, is also the solution of the inhomogeneous equation, whi h has the delta fun tion as the term of perturbation. Expressed
the Green's fun tion is the response fun tion of a perturbation

of the system by the delta fun tion (impulse response).
dierently,
The initial values of
Q(t)
are
Q(+0) = Q (+0) = . . . = Q(n2) (+0) = 0, Q(n1) (+0) = 1,

and are, therefore, dierent from those of the fun tions
a onsequen e of the transition
0.
Y (t).
This is
If (A.32) has, therefore, to be
202
APPENDIX A.
solved dire tly, one has to use

whi h a tually hold for
L-transform of
Q(t).
always
(t)
L {(t)} = f (s) =
(t) is a generalised fun tion,

Re s ( ompare (A.8).
Sin e
for
zero initial values and not those,
In that situation, it is useful to know the
est (t)dt = 1.
it does
not
hold here that
lim f (s) = 0
Now we an give the general solution of the initial value problem for a
t = 0
system whi h is at rest up to the time
new interpretation.
arbitrary way, a
Y (t) =
F (t )Q( )d =
t
0
F ( )Q(t )d,
is derived by the onvolution of the solution

of the system by
F (t) = (t)
and is then ex ited in an
The solution (A.14), namely
(A.33)
Q(t) for the spe ial ex itation

F (t).
with an arbitrary perturbation
A.3.4 Duhamel's law and linear systems

In (A.33), we hoose
F (t) = H(t)
Y (t) = YH (t)
(step fun tion). In this ase,
Q( )d
(step
response)
YH (t)
= Q(t).
Integrating by parts, it follows from (A.33)
Y (t) = F (t )
Thus, due to
t
0
F (t )YH ( )d.
YH (+0) = 0
Y (t)
This is
t
YH ( )|0
= F (+0)YH (t)
= F (+0)YH (t)
Rt
0
Rt
0
F (t )YH ( )d
(A.34)
F ( )YH (t )d
Duhamel's law, whi h des ribes how solutions for arbitrary F (t) an be
determined from those for
F (t) = H(t).
A.3.
THE DELTA FUNCTION
(T )
203
Generalisation
If we use
Q(t) = Y (t)
Y (t) =
in (A.33), it follows that
The relation between
F (t )Y ( )d =
Y (t)
and
YH (t)
F ( )Y (t )d.
(A.35)
is
Y (t) = YH (t).
Equations (A.34) and (A.35) ontain the statement that the response of a system
has to be known only for very spe ial ex itations like the delta and the step
fun tions. From this, the solution for arbitrary ex itation an be given. This
is not only true for systems whi h follow linear
ordinary
partial
but also for systems whi h an be des ribed by
dierential equations,
dierential equations
simultaneous dierential equations as long as they are linear and

have time independent oe ients. One requirement for this to hold is that the
or systems of
system is at rest in the beginning.
The perturbation an, depending on the
problem, have a dierent form (e.g., for e, temperature, displa ement
et .),
indi ated in Fig. A.10.
output fun tion
input fun tion

or
or
perturbation fun tion
response fun tion
(t)
H(t)
F (t)
Y (t) = Q(t) (impulse response)

Rt
YH (t) = 0 Q( )d (step response)
Y (t) a ording to (A.34) or (A.35)
Fig. A.10: Linear system with input and output.
Transition into the frequen y domain using the Fourier transform

The Fourier transform of
F (t), Q(t)
and
Y (t)
is
F (), Q()
F () Z + F (t)
Q(t)
eit dt.
=
Q()
Y (t)
Y ()
and
Y ()
as
204
APPENDIX A.
The lose relation with the L-transform has been dis ussed in se tion A.1.7.
Therefore, it holds, as for the Fourier transform
Y () = F () Q(),
Y () of the input fun tion Y (t) is the produ t of
F () of the input fun tion F (t) with Q() of the Green's
i.e., the Fourier transform

the Fourier transform
fun tion
Q(t). Q() is alled the transfer
fun tion
of the linear system or lter.
Separation into absolute value and phase gives
Q() =
A() =
() =
A()
A()ei ()
amplitude hara teristi s of the system
phase hara teristi s of the system
des ribes the ampli ation or de rease of the ir ular frequen y
spe tively, and
()
re-
des ribes the phase shift. A mono hromati os illation as
input
F (t) = a sin t,
has the output
Y (t) = A()a sin (t + ()) .

The transfer fun tion of the system has, therefore, a very physi al meaning, and
it is thus, used widely.
Exer ise A.4

A sphere of mass
drops from the height
h1
on the mass
(verti al-)resonator, is ree ted there and rea hes the height
of a me hani al
h2 .
No additional
intera tions between the two masses follow. Determine the displa ement of mass
M:
1. Using the homogeneous dierential equation
L(Y ) = 0
and the orre-
L(Y ) =?
and zero initial
sponding initial onditions.

2. Using the inhomogeneous dierential equation
values.
It holds that
L(Y ) = Y + 20 Y + 02 Y,
< 1.
A.3.
THE DELTA FUNCTION
(T )
205
Exer ise A.5

The ground displa ement of the me hani al seismograph (dierential equation
)
L(Y ) = X
is given by
a) X(t) =
t2 H(t)
,
2
b)
X(t) = tH(t),
c)
X(t) = H(t).
Determine, in ea h ase, the displa ement
Y (t) and dis uss the relation between
the three ases.
A.3.5 Pra ti al approa h for the onsideration of non-zero

initial values of the perturbation fun tion F(t) of a
linear problem
For the me hani al seismograph, the perturbation fun tion of the dierential
X(t), and we noti e

Y (t) of the mass of the seismometer
, respe tively ( ompare exer ise

values X(+0) and X(+0)
equation is the se ond derivative of the ground displa ement

that the initial values of the displa ement
depends on the initial
A.2 and se tion A.2.1.3).

prin iples.
This onne tion had to be derived from physi al
Cases exist in whi h this is di ult.
Therefore, we would like to
have an approa h, that onsiders the initial values of the perturbation fun tion.
In the following, we dene,
ontrary to the usage up to now,
the perturbation
fun tion as the fun tion, the single (or higher) derivatives of whi h o ur in the
dierential equation as inhomogeneities (we onsider an arbitrary linear system).
.
Now F (t) = X(t) for the me hani al seismograph and not F (t) = X(t)
then solve the equation for

up to
su iently
F (t) = Fn (t),
high orders. Then, one an assume that the initial values of
the orresponding solution
Yn (t)
Yn (t) =
Therefore, we know the
fun tion
i -th
are also zero. Thus,
t
0
Yn (t)
an be written as
Fn(i) (t )G( )d.
order of the derivative of
G(t).
Given a series of fun tions
F (t)
We
for whi h the initial values are zero,
(A.36)
Fn (t) (i 1)
and the
Fn (t) whi h onverge versus the perturbation fun tion
to be determined (with non-zero initial values),
206
APPENDIX A.
lim Fn (t) = F (t).
Compare also the omments to the denition of the delta fun tion in hapters
A.3.1 and A.3.2. Then, it follows that
lim Fn (t) =
F (t) + F (+0)(t)
lim Fn (t) =
F (t) + F (+0) (t) + F (+0)(t)
n
n
.
.
.
lim Fn(i) (t) =
F (i) (t) +
(0) (t)
i1
X
F (j) (+0) (ij1) (t).
(A.37)
j=0
is here equal to
(t).
Fig. A.11: F(t) and its derivative as a fun tion of time.
The general solution
Y (t) =
=
Y (t)
for arbitrary initial values of
F (t)
is
lim Yn (t)
F (i) (t )G( )d +
i1
X
F (j) (+0)
j=0
(ij1) (t )G( )d,
if (A.37) is used in(A.36). Now
(ij1)
(t )G( )d
=
u=t
t
0
(ij1) (u)G(t u)du
A.3.
THE DELTA FUNCTION
(T )
207

dij1
(1)
G(t u)
duij1
ij1
u=0
d
(1)ij1
G(t u)
(1)ij1
dtij1
u=0
=
with (A.29)
ij1
G(ij1) (t).
The general solution of the problem for arbitrary initial values of the perturbation fun tion
F (t)
Y (t) =
is then
i1
X
F (j) (+0)G(ij1) (t) +
j=0
F (i) (t )G( )d.
(A.38)
Appli ation
Me hani al seismograph:
Y + 20 Y + 02 Y = X
The assumption that the ground displa ement

and allows us to put the initial values of
Yn (t)
Xn (t)
starts su iently smooth
equal to zero
Yn (+0) = Y n (+0) = 0.
The dierential equation is then solved under this assumption, most easily with
the L-transform ( ompare exer ise A.2)
Yn (t) =
Compare with (A.36):
n (t )e0 sin d.
X
Fn (t) = Xn (t), i = 2,
G(t) =
1
e0 t sin t H(t).
The general solution is, a ording to (A.38),
Y (t) =
X(+0)G (t) + X(+0)G(t)

+
X(+0)G (t) + X(+0)G(t)

+
This result (with
X(+0) = 0)
exer ise mentioned above.
)G( )d
X(t
)G(t )d.
X(
was derived dire tly, ex ept for the sign, in the
208
APPENDIX A.
Appendix B
Hilbert transform
B.1 The Hilbert transform pair
The
Hilbert transform H(x) of the real fun tion h(x) is dened by the following
integral (x and
are real)
1
H(x) = P
is the
main value
h()
d.
x
of the integral, i.e., the singularity
(B.1)
=x
of the integrand
has been ex luded
..d = lim
The
inverse Hilbert transform
Z
..d +
x+
..d .
an be written as (proof follows)
1
h(x) = P
H()
d.
x
(B.2)
Although this is dierent from the Lapla e and the Fourier transform, the two
orresponding fun tions
Some
analyti al
h(x)
and
H(x)
have the
same argument.
Hilbert transform pairs are shown in Fig. B.1.

209
210
APPENDIX B.
HILBERT TRANSFORM
Fig. B.1: Analyti al Hilbert transform pairs.
B.2 The Hilbert transform as a lter

Equation (B.1) is a onvolution integral
P (x)
+
Fig. B.2: Form of
P (x).
H(x) =
h() P
1
x

1
d = h(x) P
x
B.2.
THE HILBERT TRANSFORM AS A FILTER

1
P
=
x
P (x)
211
lim P (x)
0

for |x| <
0
1
x
otherwise .
Therefore, it holds for the Fourier transforms
H() Z + H(x)
h(x)
eix dx,
=
h()
1
P x
P ()
(B.3)
and a ording to se tion A.3.4,
H() = h() P ().

The Hilbert transform is, therefore, a
linear lter.
(B.4)
The Fourier transform and
its inverse an be ee tively al ulated with the method of the Fast Fourier
transform. It is, therefore, advantageous to perform the Hilbert transform in
the frequen y domain via (B.4). To be able to do this, one needs the
fun tion P () of the Hilbert transform.

1
P () = P
transfer
From (B.3), it follows that
1 ix
e
dx,
x
P (0) = 0.
(B.5)
We ompute this integral with methods from omplex analysis by deforming

the integration path to a semi- ir le with innite radius in the upper (lower)
x -half-plane for < 0 ( > 0), respe tively,
Fig. B.3: Integral path of
P ()
in the omplex plane.
212
APPENDIX B.
eix
dx =
x
HILBERT TRANSFORM

eix
eix
dx iRes
x
x x=0
U/L
eix
dx i,
x
where the upper (lower) integration path and the + (-) sign for
have to be hosen, respe tively.
(B.6)
<0
( > 0)
Note that the rst term on the right of the
rst equation has to be integrated along the real axis (ex luding the pole), and
the residual in the se ond term is identi al to 1. The integration in the se ond
equation is then along the upper (lower) half ir le U (L), respe tively.
With the new variable
on the half ir les, it follows that
x = Rei , dx = Riei d.
This leads to
U/L
eix
dx
x
exp [iR (cos + i sin )] d
Z 0
for
exp [R sin iR cos ] d

R ,
sin e
sin < 0.
Equation (B.6), therefore, redu es to
P
and the transfer fun tion
P ()
P () = i sign
eix
dx = i,
x
in (B.5) be omes the simple expression
with
1
sign =
0
+1
for
for
for
<0
=0
> 0.
(B.7)
If the Hilbert transform is onsidered as a lter of the original fun tion, it follows
from (B.4) with (B.7) that the frequen y 0 is suppressed (P (0)
other frequen ies remain un hanged in their amplitude (P ()
6= 0 only phase shifts

900 results, respe tively.
At
are produ ed. With
> 0 ( < 0)
= 0), but all

= 1 for 6= 0).
a phase shift of
In lter theory, the Hilbert transform is an
lter with removal of the average.
The pra ti al omputation of the Hilbert transform

requires three steps:
H(x)
of
h(x),
all-pass
therefore,
B.2.
213
THE HILBERT TRANSFORM AS A FILTER
1. Computation of the Fourier transform
h()
2. Multipli ation with the transfer fun tion

3. Ba k transformation of
of
h(x)
P ()
H().
If the Hilbert transform is applied
twi e, it follows in the frequen y domain that

2
g() = h() P () = h(),

and, therefore,
g(x) = h(x).
The original fun tion
h(x) is, therefore, obtained,
if the sign of the se ond Hilbert transform is reversed. This proves (B.2) for the
inverse Hilbert transform.
h(0) = 0, i.e., in ases for whi h the

h(x) is zero. The third example in Fig. B.1 is su h a ase. Equation
holds if h(0) 6= 0. This is shown in the se ond example of Fig. B.1
This proof only holds for ases in whi h

integral over
(B.2) also
and an be onrmed with methods from omplex analysis.
The numeri al Hilbert transform, with (B.4) and (B.7) frequen y
= 0,
is
sometimes not treated properly. For numeri al reasons, it is assumed that due
P (0) = 0 the integral of the Hilbert transform is always zero. This is not
R +
h(0) = h(x)dx is not nite or not orre tly dened. The rst ase
o urs, if, e.g., h(x) is a step fun tion. The se ond ase o urs, e.g., during
2
2
the inverse-transformation of the Hilbert transform h(x) = ax/(a + x ), the
de ay of whi h with in reasing |x| is proportional to 1/x and, therefore, not
to
true, if
strong enough.
In su h ases, a onstant shift of the numeri al result in the
ordinate dire tion is often su ient. The frequen y
=0
is the only frequen y
for whi h the Hilbert transform omputed numeri ally an then deviate from
the exa t result.
214
APPENDIX B.
HILBERT TRANSFORM
Appendix C
Bessel fun tions

In the following, only the most important equations and properties of Bessel
fun tions with
integer order
are listed. More details an be found, e.g., in M.
Abramovitz and I.A. Stegun (1985), or in Riley, K.F., M.P. Hobson and S.J.
Ben e (2002).
The
dierential equation
of the Bessel fun tion of integer order
n = 0, 1, 2, . . . is

x2 y + xy + x2 n2 y = 0.
(C.1)
The two linearly independent solutions of this equation are
Jn (x) =
n order
Bessel fun tion of se ond kind and n th order
Yn (x) =
or N eumann s f unction of n th order.

Bessel fun tion of rst kind and
Representation as a series
Jn (x)
k=0
Yn (x)
(1)k x n+2k
k!(n + k)! 2
n2k
n1
x
1 X (n 1 k)! 2
2
0, 577216 + ln
Jn (x)
k!
x
k=0
1 X (1)k (k + k+n ) x n+2k
k!(n + k)!
2
k=0
l
X
s=1
1
s
215
216
APPENDIX C.
The graphi representation for
x0
BESSEL FUNCTIONS
is shown in Fig. C.1.
Fig. C.1: Bessel and Neumann fun tions.
Neumann's fun tions have a singularity at

The
x = 0.
Hankel fun tions, or Bessel fun tions of the third kind, are dened as
Hn(1) (x)
Hn(2) (x)
(1)
Hn (x)
and
= Jn (x) + iYn (x)

= Jn (x) iYn (x)
(2)
Hn (x)
Hankel fun tion of rst kind

Hankel fun tion of se ond kind
(C.2)
(C.3)
are linearly independent. The general solution of (C.1) is,
therefore, (with the arbitrary onstants A,B,C,D) either
AJn (x) + BYn (x)
CHn(1) (x) + DHn(2) (x).
or
Analogies to the dierential equations of the trigonometri fun tions

(equation of os illation)
y + n2 y = 0
or their well-known solutions
tively,
cos nx
and
sin nx,
and
einx
and
einx ,
respe -
217
Bessel fun tions
Trigonometri fun tions
Jn (x)
Yn (x)
(1)
Hn (x)
(2)
Hn (x)
cos nx
sin nx
inx
e
= cos nx + i sin nx
einx = cos nx i sin nx.
Asymptoti representation for x 1

Jn (x)
Yn (x)
(1)
Hn (x)
(2)
Hn (x)
1
2 2
x 1

2 2
x 1

2 2
x 1

2 2
x
cos x
n
2
n
2
4
sin x

n
exp i x 2 4

exp i x n
2 4
Re ursion formulae (Zn = Jn , Yn , Hn(1) or Hn(2) )

2n
x Zn (x)
Zn1 (x) + Zn+1 (x)
Zn (x)
n
x Zn (x)
Zn (x)
nx Zn (x) + Zn1 (x)
(n = 1, 2, 3, . . .)
(n = 0, 1, 2, . . .)
(n = 1, 2, 3, . . .)
Zn+1 (x)
(C.4)
(C.5)
Spe ial ases of the se ond and third re ursion formulae in (C.5) are then used
J0 (x)
= J1 (x)
J1 (x)
= J0 (x)
1
J1 (x).
x
Up until now, we have onsidered the variable

assume
|x| 1,
omplex
as real and positive. If we also
all formulae given also hold for
omplex, x
and for (C.4). If
are used, the following relations are often useful
Hn(1) (x) =
Hn(2) (x) =
with spe ial ase
eni Hn(2) (x)

eni Hn(1) (x)
n=0
(1)
H0 (x)
(2)
H0 (x)
= H02 (x)
(1)
= H0 (x).
(C.6)
218
APPENDIX C.
BESSEL FUNCTIONS
Appendix D
The Sommerfeld integral

We onsider a time harmoni explosion point sour e at the origin of a ylindri al
oordinate system. Its ompressional potential
1 i(t R )
e
R
R2 = r 2 + z 2
solves the wave equation and an, therefore, be onstru ted from more elementary solutions of the wave equation in ylindri al oordinates (as long as
ylindri al symmetry is maintained); see also dis ussion in se tion 3.7 leading
to (3.83)
1 i(t R )
e
R
= e
To determine
g(k),
it
g(k)kJ0 (kr)eil|z| dk
(D.1)
2
k2
2
12
we onsider (D.1) at
1 i r
=
e
r
and use then the
(positive
real or
negative imaginary).
z=0
g(k)kJ0 (kr)dk
(D.2)
Fourier-Bessel transform
g(k) =
G(r)
G(r)rJ0 (kr)dr
(D.3)
g(k)kJ0 (kr)dk.
(D.4)
0
219
220
g(k)
APPENDIX D.
is the Fourier-Bessel transform of
g(k)
THE SOMMERFELD INTEGRAL
G(r),
and
G(r)
is the inverse Fourier-
Bessel transform of
. Equation (D.2) has the form of (D.4), therefore,
eir/ /r. Therefore, (D.3) an be used to ompute
g(k) =
g(k)
G(r) =
ei J0 (kr)dr
Z
r
r
J0 (kr)dr i
sin
J0 (kr)dr.
cos
With
r
J0 (kr)dr
cos
r
J0 (kr)dr
sin
it follows that
or simply
g(k) =
0
12

=
2
k2
2
12
2
2
2 k
=
0
1

i 22 k 2 2
g(k) =

12
k 2 22
0<k<
for
k>
for
0<k<
,
k>
for
for
0<k<
for
k>
1
il . Inserted into (D.1), this gives the
1 i R
=
e
R
for
Sommerfeld integral
k
J0 (kr)eil|z| dk.
il
(D.5)
Appendix E
The omputation of modal

seismograms
E.1 Numeri al al ulations
The treatment of point sour es in wave guides with
arbitrary
(horizontal) layer-
ing leads to the following general far-eld form for the eld values (displa ement,
pressure, potential
et .)
of a normal mode
N (t) = r 2 Re
M ()
M () exp [i (t kr)] d.
onsists, in prin ipal, of fa tors that des ribe the
ex itation fun tion
(E.1)
sour e spe trum,
the
of the mode (depending on sour e depth, sour e orientation
) and their eigen fun tion (amplitude-depth distribuk() = /c() ontains the dispersion information of the
1/2
(4.53) is a simple spe ial ase of (E.1) with M () k
() .
and, in general, also on

tion). Wavenumber
mode. Equation
Integrals of the form (E.1) an be solved e iently with the help of the
Fourier transform.
Fast
In the ase of the ideal wave guide, for whi h the modal
seismograms omputed analyti ally are given in Fig. 4.3, the following numeri al
result is derived for the potential (after a low-pass lter, whi h has de ayed to
zero at the Nyquist frequen y).
221
222
APPENDIX E.
THE COMPUTATION OF MODAL SEISMOGRAMS
Fig. E.1: Modal seismogram for the ideal wave guide ( ompare to Fig. 4.23).
They agree very well with the analyti al seismograms in Fig. 4.33.
If one is only interested in the study of dispersion on horizontal proles, most
times it is su ient to onsider in
M () only the
es the studies, sin e then only the theory of

the determination of
sour e spe trum. This simpli-
free
surfa e waves is needed (for
k()).
E.2 Method of stationary phase

The appli ation of the method of stationary phase in integrals of the type (E.1)
has been des ribed in se tion 4.2.3. Here, it is shortly outlined again, sin e the
results are needed as the basis for the treatment of the Airy phases in se tion
E.3. It should be noted that today the results of this and the next se tion are
not of great importan e in the numeri al omputation of modal seismograms,
sin e the Fast Fourier transform mentioned in se tion E.1 is more suited for
that purpose. Here, analyti al rules for the amplitude de ay of surfa e waves
with in reasing distan e an be derived; this is an important addition to purely
numeri al methods.
The phase
to
() = t k()r
in (E.1) has the following derivatives with respe t
(U = group velo ity)
=
=
r
U
rk = rU 2 U

rk = r U 2 U 2U 3 U .
t rk = r
(E.2)
(E.3)
(E.4)
E.2.
223
METHOD OF STATIONARY PHASE
Stationary phase values follow from
(0 ) = 0
and are, therefore, determined
by
r
U (0 ) = .
t
(E.5)
U (0 ) 6= 0,
(E.6)
Then
()
an be approximated near
by
1
() = 0 + 0 ( 0 )2
2
(0 = (0 ), 0 = 0 (0 )).
The modal seismogram an then be written in the
stationary phase approximation
x=
0 +
1/2
( 0 ).
21
|0 |
as

1
2
d
r Re
M () exp i 0 + 0 ( 0 )
2
0
(
)

21 Z +
2
21
i0
ix2 sign
0
r Re M (0 )e
dx
e
|0 |
12
N (t) =
with
(E.7)
With (E.3), we nally derive
(E.8)
(U0 = U (0 ), U0 =
U (0 ), k0 = k(0 ) = 0 /c(0 ))
U0
N (t) =
r
2
|U0 |
io
n
h
.
Re M (0 ) exp i 0 t k0 r + sign U0
4
Equation (E.9) holds under the requirement (E.6). Then

ne ted via (E.5) and` this produ es the
0 , t
frequen y modulation
and
mode. Its amplitude is also time dependent; this is mostly due to

U0 and U0 (
).
also partially due to
amplitude modulation
(E.9)
are on-
of the normal
M (0 (t)) but
If we onsider the amplitudes of the normal mode as a fun tion of distan e , we

1
see that they de ay with r
as long as (E.9) holds. This statement on erns the
1/2
amplitudes in the
; spe tral amplitudes de ay with r
a ording
time domain
to (E.1).
224
APPENDIX E.
E.3 Airy phases

For realisti wave guides, one or several frequen ies exist for whi h the
velo ity
group
is stationary. In the following, we assume that 0 is su h a frequen y.
It also holds that U (0 ) = 0, (E.6) is, therefore, violated and (E.9) no longer
holds. A su ient approximation of the phase is, in this ase,
1
( 0 )3
() = 0 + 0 ( 0 ) +
6 0
(E.10)
instead of (E.7). From (E.2) and (E.4), it follows that
0 = t
r
,
U0
0 = rU0 U0 .
(E.11)
no longer stationary at 0
The phase is
but has a turning point there. The

0 hanges from negative
> r/U0 and, thus, the se ond term in
third term in (E.10) has now to be onsidered sin e

values
t < r/U0
to positive values for
(E.10) is not ne essarily dominant. In analogy to (E.8), the following approximation of the modal seismogram for times near
approximation )
N (t) =
with
x=
Airy phase
an be derived (
Z 0 +
1
r 2 Re
M ()
0

1
3
d
(
)
exp i 0 + 0 ( 0 ) +
0
6 0

Z +
1
x3
r 2 Re H b
exp i 0 b x + sign
dx
0
3

Z
x3
12
cos sign 0 0 b x +
2r Re {H} b
dx
3
0
|
0 |
2
r/U0
31
( 0 ), H = M (0 )ei0
The integral an be expressed by the
1
Ai(z) =
whi h is shown in Fig. E.2.
and
b=
Airy fun tion
2
|
0 |

x3
dx,
cos zx +
3
31
E.3.
225
AIRY PHASES
Ai(z)
0.5
-8
-4
-6
-2
-0.5
Fig. E.2: Airy fun tion.
With (E.11), the end result for the
N (t) =
2U0
|U0 |
Airy phase
an be written as
13

Re M (0 ) exp [i(0 t k0 r]
r
"

1
#
sign U0 2U02 3
r
Ai
.
t
1
|U0 |
U0
r3
5
6
This is a mono hromati os illation with frequen y
0),
If
(following from
the amplitude of whi h is modulated by the Airy fun tion.
sign U0 > 0,
i.e., if we are at a group velo ity
minimum,
t ).
U (0 ) =
the modal seis-
mogram looks qualitatively like that in Fig. E.3 (the argument

fun tion in reases with
(E.12)
of the Airy
226
APPENDIX E.
N(t)
t=r/u
Fig. E.3: Modal seismogram.
The seismogram
ends
with strong amplitudes in the neighbourhood of the the-
oreti al arrival times of the Airy phase. Fig. 4.13 gives quantitative results for
a liquid wave guide; in the range of the Airy phases, the seismogram has been
omputed with the theory if this hapter.
If
sign U0 < 0
(i.e., we are near a group velo ity
maximum ), z
de reases for in-
reasing , and the Airy fun tion is sampled from right to left. The seismogram,
starts with large amplitudes.

5/6
The amplitudes of the Airy phases de rease with r
as a fun tion of distan e
therefore,
r, i.e., they de rease slower then given in (E.9). This is the reason why the Airy
phase dominates for in reasing distan es.
Index
Airy fun tions, 128, 224
group velo ity, 148, 152, 154, 155,
Airy phase, 155, 222, 224
157, 171, 173, 225

GRT, 98, 111, 113, 132, 141
Brewster angle, 76
head wave, 95, 96, 110
austi , 125, 130, 133
ompressional module, 37
impedan e, 68, 121
ompressional potential, 46, 219
inhomogeneous wave, 35
ompressional waves, 36, 46

Kir hho 's equation, 51
riti al angle, 69, 71, 84, 96, 110

riti al point, 96, 133
Lam's parameter, 28, 192
ubi dilatation, 17, 18
leaky mode, 178

deformation, 12
longitudinal waves, 36, 40, 76
deformation tensor, 13, 17, 20, 35
Love waves, 136, 142, 144, 145, 157,
delay time, 130, 132
159
dipole, 49, 56, 178, 201

method of stationary phase, 154, 167,
dispersion, 142
172, 222
dispersion urve, 144, 154, 171
modal seismogram, 150, 154, 157,
dispersion equation, 145, 150, 159
167, 173, 221, 224
displa ement potential, 34, 45, 46,
moment fun tion, 58, 61
50, 76, 85, 93, 99, 160, 168,

178
near eld, 55, 57
double ouple, 56, 59
nodal plane, 59, 60, 141, 148, 166

normal mode, 4, 26, 137, 144, 158,
eigen fun tion, 148, 149, 166, 221
159, 166, 169, 173, 176, 221
Eikonal equation, 119, 121
normal stress, 23, 86
equation of motion, 25, 26, 31, 39,

119
phase velo ity, 62, 137, 142, 144,
ex itation fun tion, 46, 102, 113, 221
147, 150, 151, 154, 156, 159,
ex itation fun tions, 113
165, 167, 171

far-eld, 55, 59, 166
Poisson's ratio, 30
far-eld approximation, 102
polarisation, 40, 56, 62, 65, 142
Fermat's prin iple, 109, 112, 114,

radiation hara teristi , 55, 59
123
ray equation, 114, 122, 124

ray parameter, 116, 126, 131
generalised ray theory, 98

227
228
INDEX
Rayleigh waves, 136, 138, 142, 145,

150, 154, 159
re ipro ity, 161
redu ed displa ement potential, 46
ree tion oe ient, 66, 67, 69, 70,
73, 74, 80, 86, 88, 89, 94,
95, 126, 128, 157
Ree tivity method, 92, 95, 97, 132
refra tion oe ient, 66, 71, 84
retarded time, 48, 194
rotation tensor, 13
seismi ray, 114, 121, 122, 125
SH-wave, 65, 72, 84, 96, 97, 113,
119, 121, 126, 130, 136, 157
shear modulus, 113
shear potential, 34, 46, 54
shear wave, 36
single ouple, 56, 58, 61
slowness, 123, 127, 131
Snell's law, 66, 67, 77, 87, 116
Sommerfeld integral, 94, 176, 219,
220
stress, 21
stress tensor, 21, 23, 26, 28, 30
stress ve tor, 26, 32, 33, 44
stress-strain relation, 26, 27, 30, 44,
45
SV-wave, 65, 84
tangential stress, 23, 32, 45, 67, 143
total ree tion, 69, 71, 74, 126, 130
transport equation, 119
transversal waves, 36
water wave, 155
wave equation, 35, 37, 40, 43, 46,
50, 53, 62, 64, 67, 85, 93,
99, 127, 136, 138, 142, 219
wave guide, 159, 160, 165, 167, 170,
172, 173, 176, 221, 224, 226
wavefront approximation, 102
wavenumber, 40, 62, 85, 86, 94, 126,
137, 153, 160, 221
WKBJ method, 126
WKBJ-approximation, 127, 129

Theory of Elastic Waves

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Theory of Elastic Waves

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Theory of Elasti

Potsdam, Frankfurt, Hamburg

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Prefa e of the German Le ture Notes

These simpli ations o asionally hide the dire t onne tion to

seismology. In my opinion, there is no other approa h if one aims at presenting

2 Foundations of elasti ity theory

Equation of motion, boundary and initial ... . . . . . . . . . . . .

Displa ement potentials and wave types

Plane body waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The initial value problem for plane waves

Simple boundary value problems for plane waves

Spheri al waves from explosion point sour es

Spheri al waves from single for e and dipole ...

Single for e point sour e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dipole point sour es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ree tion and refra tion of plane waves ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Plane waves with arbitrary propagation dire tion . . . . .

Ree tion and refra tion of SH-waves

Ree tion of P-waves at a free surfa e . . . . . . . . . . .

Ree tivity method: Ree tion of ...

Ree tion and head waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Exa t or generalised ray theory - GRT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

In ident ylindri al wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Wavefront approximation for

Ree tion and refra tion of the ylindri al wave . . . . . . 103

Dis ussion of ree ted wave types

Ray seismi s in ontinuous inhomogeneous media . . . . . . . . . 113

Fermat's prin iple and the ray equation

High frequen y approximation of the equation of motion . 119

Eikonal equation and seismi rays

Amplitudes in ray seismi approximation

WKBJ method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Free surfa e waves in layered media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Basi equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Rayleigh waves at the surfa e of an homogeneous half-spa e138

Love waves at the surfa e of a layered half-spa e

Determination of the phase velo ity of surfa e waves from

The group velo ity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Des ription of surfa e waves by onstru tive interferen e

Surfa e waves from point sour es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Ideal wave guide for harmoni ex itation . . . . . . . . . . 160

The modal seismogram of the ideal wave guide

Computation of modal seismograms with the method of

Ray representation of the eld in an ideal wave guide

A Lapla e transform and delta fun tion

Introdu tion to the Lapla e transform

Denition of the Lapla e transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Assumptions on F(t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Properties of the Lapla e transform

Relation with the Fourier transform

Appli ation of the Lapla e transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Linear ordinary dierential equations with onstant oef ients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Partial dierential equations

The delta fun tion

Duhamel's law and linear systems

Pra ti al approa h for the onsideration of non-zero initial

values of the perturbation fun tion F(t) of a linear problem205

The Hilbert transform pair

The Hilbert transform as a lter

C Bessel fun tions

D The Sommerfeld integral

This le an be downloaded from

These simpli ations o asionally hide the dire t onne tion to

Ree tion and refra tion of plane waves ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ree tion and refra tion of SH-waves

Ree tion of P-waves at a free surfa e . . . . . . . . . . .

Ree tivity method: Ree tion of ...

Ree tion and head waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ree tion and refra tion of the ylindri al wave . . . . . . 103

Dis ussion of ree ted wave types

Ray representation of the eld in an ideal wave guide

Denition of the Lapla e transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Linear ordinary dierential equations with onstant oef ients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Partial dierential equations

The Hilbert transform as a lter

The seismi wave eld (2 volumes), Cambridge University

xi and the innitesimal lose point Q has the

innitesimal. A su ient ondition for this is that

whi h are, in general, dierent.

innitesimal strain theory