Purpose and Objective of Study

In view of the existing gap in multimedia annotations studies, the purpose of this study is to broaden our understanding of the application of different types of multimedia annotations in facilitating L2 reading comprehension and incidental vocabulary acquisition. As such, the following research objectives are drawn.

1. To investigate the effects of different multimedia annotations on the reading comprehension of ESL students. 2. To investigate the effects of different multimedia annotations on the incidental vocabulary acquisition of ESL students.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

Specifically, the researcher will examine the use of multimedia annotation in a single mode (audio only) single annotation format (sound only), dual mode (audio-visual) dual annotation format (sound and text; sound and pictures), and dual mode (audiovisual) multiple annotation format (sound, text and pictures). The sound-only format, and sound plus text format require a single coding system (verbal). The sound and pictures format, and the sound, text and pictures format require dual-coding (verbal and visual). As for incidental vocabulary learning, specifically, this study will

examine the participants acquisition of vocabulary breadth. This study therefore, addresses the following research questions (RQ). To answer each research question, null hypotheses are derived.

RQ1: Will there be any significant difference in the pretest and immediate posttest reading comprehension scores of the participants?

Ho1: There will be no significant difference in the pretest and immediate posttest reading comprehension scores of participants who are in the control group. Ho2: There will be no significant difference in the pretest and immediate posttest reading comprehension scores of participants who are in the audio annotation group. Ho3: There will be no significant difference in the pretest and immediate posttest reading comprehension scores of participants who are in the audio-text annotation group. Ho4: There will be no significant difference in the pretest and immediate posttest reading comprehension scores of participants who are in the audio-picture annotation group. Ho5: There will be no significant difference in the pretest and immediate posttest reading comprehension scores of participants who are in the audio-text-picture annotation group. RQ2: Will there be any significant difference in the immediate posttest and delayed posttest reading comprehension scores of the participants?

Ho6: There will be no significant difference in the immediate posttest and delayed posttest reading comprehension scores of participants who are in the control group. Ho7: There will be no significant difference in the immediate posttest and delayed posttest reading comprehension scores of participants who are in the audio annotation group. Ho8: There will be no significant difference in the immediate posttest and delayed posttest reading comprehension scores of participants who are in the audio-text annotation group. Ho9: There will be no significant difference in the immediate posttest and delayed posttest reading comprehension scores of participants who are in the audiopicture annotation group. Ho10: There will be no significant difference in the immediate posttest and delayed posttest reading comprehension scores of participants who are in the audiotext-picture annotation group.

RQ3: Will there be any significant difference in the pretest and immediate posttest vocabulary scores of the participants?

Ho11: There will be no significant difference in the pretest and immediate posttest vocabulary scores of participants who are in the control group. Ho12: There will be no significant difference in the pretest and immediate posttest

vocabulary scores of participants who are in the audio annotation group. Ho13: There will be no significant difference in the pretest and immediate posttest vocabulary scores of participants who are in the audio-text annotation group. Ho14: There will be no significant difference in the pretest and immediate posttest vocabulary scores of participants who are in the audio-picture annotation group. Ho15: There will be no significant difference in the pretest and immediate posttest vocabulary scores of participants who are in the audio-text-picture annotation group.

RQ4: Will there be any significant difference in the immediate posttest and delayed posttest vocabulary scores of the participants?

Ho16: There will be no significant difference in the immediate posttest and delayed posttest vocabulary scores of participants who are in the control group.

Ho17: There will be no significant difference in the immediate posttest and delayed posttest vocabulary scores of participants who are in the audio annotation group. Ho18: There will be no significant difference in the immediate posttest and delayed posttest vocabulary scores of participants who are in the audio-text annotation group.

Ho19: There will be no significant difference in the immediate posttest and delayed posttest vocabulary scores of participants who are in the audio- picture annotation group. Ho20: There will be no significant difference in the immediate posttest and delayed posttest vocabulary scores of participants who are in the audio-text-picture annotation group.

RQ 5: Will participants who have access to different types of multimedia annotations have significantly higher immediate posttest comprehension scores than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations?

Ho21: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest comprehension scores than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations. Ho22: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest comprehension scores than participants who have access to audio-picture annotations. Ho23: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest comprehension scores than participants who have access to audio-text annotations. Ho24: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest comprehension scores than participants who have access to audio-picture-text annotations.

Ho25: Participants who have access to audio-picture annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest comprehension scores than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations. Ho26: Participants who have access to audio-picture annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest comprehension scores than participants who have access to audio-text annotations. . Ho27: Participants who have access to audio-picture annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest comprehension scores than participants who have access to audio-picture-text annotations. Ho28: Participants who have access to audio-text annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest comprehension scores than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations. Ho29: Participants who have access to audio-text annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest comprehension scores than participants who have access to audio-picture-text annotations.

Ho30: Participants who have access to audio-text-picture annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest comprehension scores than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations.

RQ 6: Will participants who have access to different types of multimedia annotations have significantly higher delayed posttest comprehension scores than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations?

Ho31: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest comprehension scores than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations. Ho32: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest comprehension scores than participants who have access to audio-picture annotations. Ho33: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest comprehension scores than participants who have access to audio-text annotations. Ho34: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest comprehension scores than participants who have access to audio-picture-text annotations. Ho35: Participants who have access to audio-picture annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest comprehension scores than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations. Ho36: Participants who have access to audio-picture annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest comprehension scores than participants who have access to audio-text annotations. . Ho37: Participants who have access to audio-picture annotations will not have

significantly higher delayed posttest comprehension scores than participants who have access to audio-picture-text annotations. Ho38: Participants who have access to audio-text annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest comprehension scores than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations. Ho39: Participants who have access to audio-text annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest comprehension scores than participants who have access to audio-picture-text annotations. Ho40: Participants who have access to audio-text-picture annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest comprehension scores than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations.

RQ 7: Will participants who have access to different types of multimedia annotations have significantly higher immediate posttest vocabulary retention than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations? Ho41: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations. Ho42: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have access to audio-picture annotations. Ho43: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have

significantly higher immediate posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have access to audio-text annotations. Ho44: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have access to audio-picture-text annotations. Ho45: Participants who have access to audio-picture annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations. Ho46: Participants who have access to audio-picture annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have access to audio-text annotations. . Ho47: Participants who have access to audio-picture annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have access to audio-picture-text annotations. Ho48: Participants who have access to audio-text annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations.

Ho49: Participants who have access to audio-text annotations will not have significantly higher immediate posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have access to audio-picture-text annotations. Ho50: Participants who have access to audio-text-picture annotations will not have

significantly higher immediate posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations.

RQ 8: Will participants who have access to different types of multimedia annotations have significantly higher delayed posttest vocabulary retention than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations?

Ho51: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations. Ho52: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have access to audio-picture annotations. Ho53: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have access to audio-text annotations.

Ho54: Participants who have access to audio only annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have access to audio-picture-text annotations. Ho55: Participants who have access to audio-picture annotations will not have

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significantly higher delayed posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations. Ho56: Participants who have access to audio-picture annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have access to audio-text annotations. . Ho57: Participants who have access to audio-picture annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have access to audio-picture-text annotations. Ho58: Participants who have access to audio-text annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations. Ho59: Participants who have access to audio-text annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have access to audio-picture-text annotations. Ho60: Participants who have access to audio-text-picture annotations will not have significantly higher delayed posttest vocabulary recall than participants who have no access to multimedia annotations.

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Definition of Terms

The important terms used in this study are defined conceptually and operationally. Clearly defined key terms will guide the researcher in data collection, data analysis and in reporting the findings.

Multimedia annotations Multimedia refers to the presentation of materials using both words and pictures via a computer (Mayer, 2001). Greenlaw and Hepp (1999) define multimedia as

information in the form of graphics, audio, video or movies, and a multimedia document contains a media element other than plain text (p. 44). In multimedia annotation, words are linked to pictures, audio, videos by annotating them through a multimedia programme. When the learners encounter a difficult word while reading via the computer, and if the word is provided with a multimedia annotation, the learners can click on the word and access a provided annotation. In this study, the multimedia annotation follows the definition discussed above. Moreover, the word annotations and glosses are used interchangeably.

Annotation format, annotation mode and coding system In multimedia annotations, the terms annotation format, annotation mode and coding system are often used to mean different things. Annotation format refers to the manner through which the information is presented, which can be in the forms of

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texts, pictures, sound recordings or videos. If an annotation presents the information through the use of written text only, sound only, picture only, or video only, then a single annotation format is used. If an annotation combines any two of the above forms, then a dual annotation format is used. A multiple annotation format combines more than two forms of annotations.

Multimedia annotation also employs the use of different presentation modes such as auditory (sounds, spoken texts) and visual (printed texts, graphics, videos). Single mode presentation engages either only the auditory mode or only the visual mode. Dual mode annotations combine both the auditory mode and the visual mode.

The use of multimedia annotations is drawn upon the assumptions of the dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1990; Sadoski & Paivio, 2001) which claims that the human mental process derives perceptions from various sensory modalities. Accordingly, multimedia annotations are presented through two different coding systems verbal and visual. Printed and spoken texts are processed by the verbal system whereas pictures and illustrations are processed by the visual system. In the present study, the terms annotation format, annotation mode and coding system take on the above definitions.

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Theoretical Basis of the Study

This study investigates the effects of multimedia annotation on the reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition of ESL learners. This study is carried out based on the schema theory of reading which explains the acquisition of knowledge and the interpretation of text by the readers while utilizing their built-in schemata. The interactive model of reading which views reading as a cognitive process involving the simultaneous interaction of information obtained through bottom-up decoding and top-down analysis, and the constructivist theory of learning which recognizes the learners active role in collaboratively creating knowledge through social negotiations from multiple perspectives also provide the theoretical bases for this study. Since this study focuses on the use of multimedia annotation in ESL reading comprehension and vocabulary learning, the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 1997, 2001) is also used as its theoretical framework. The theoretical framework is presented in Figure 2.1.

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Figure 2.1: Theoretical Framework

Reading

Theory of Reading

Model of Vocabulary Acquisition

Schema Theory (Bartlett, 1932)

Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (Mayer, 1997)

Interactive Theory (Rumelhart, 1977)

Constructivist Theory (Bernhardt, 1986)

Generative Cognitive Theory Load (Wittrock, 1974) (Sweller, 1998) Dual coding Theory ( Paivio, 1971)

Parallel Distributed Processing (Rumelhart & McClelland, 1986)

Content Knowledge (Comprehension)

Linguistic Knowledge (Vocabulary)

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Conceptual Framework Based on the theoretical foundations discussed above, the conceptual framework is built. Figure 2.2 shows the conceptual framework which will be used to answer the research questions in this research. This conceptual framework provides the structure of the research by specifying the relationship between the research variables, besides identifying the boundaries of the research.

Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework

Outcome 1. Autonomous Learning 2. Bottom-up and Top-down processing 3. Visual and Verbal processing

RC (DV 1) Audio facilitated by TA Picture Text Extratextual Textual

VA (DV 2)

Symbols RC VA DV TA : Reading Comprehension : Vocabulary Acquisition : Dependent Variable : Text Annotation

In this conceptual framework, reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition are the two dependent variables whereas text glossing and language proficiency are the independent variables. The different types of text glossing will be able to help the

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ESL students to read and comprehend text better, and at the same time help them to retain the meanings of the vocabulary items encountered in the reading texts. This is because the glosses provide help through scaffolding, thereby facilitating the students in terms of linguistics and content knowledge. Linguistic help in the form of providing vocabulary meanings and explanations also helps ESL readers gain a better understanding of concepts and word meanings. Such linguistic enhancements in reading texts facilitate the readers reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition.

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CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD Introduction The objective of this study was to examine the effects of multimedia annotations on the reading comprehension and incidental vocabulary acquisition of ESL students. The research design employed in this study was a true-experimental design. This design was used because the subjects were randomly assigned to the different treatment groups.

Research Design Specifically, this research study employed the pretest posttest control group design. The design notation for this study is shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Pretest Posttest Control Group Design RA CG EG 1 EG 2 EG 3 EG 4 Pretest O1 . O1 . X1 O1 . X2 O1 . X3 O1 . X4 Immediate Posttest Delayed Posttest O2 O2 O2 O2 O2 . . . .. .. O3 O3 O3 O3 O3

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Symbols RA CG EG 1 - EG 4 X1 X4 X1 X2 X3 X4 O1 O2 O3 : Randomized Assignment of subjects : Control Group : Experimental Groups : Research treatment conditions : Audio only annotation : Audio and picture annotation : Audio and text annotation : Audio, picture and text annotation
: Observation

: Observation 2 : Observation 3

Subscripts indicate time (two months)

Data Analysis

The data in this study was analyzed quantitatively. Descriptive statistics for the reading comprehension and vocabulary tests were carried out. Since this was an experimental study, and the total subjects were more than 15, parametric tests were used. Statistical significance was accepted at the .05 level of confidence.

In this study, the researcher had hypothesized that group means did not differ for the two dependent variables, which were reading comprehension and incidental

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vocabulary acquisition. As such, the statistical tests used to test all the null hypotheses was the multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). MANOVA was preferred over the analysis of variance test (ANOVA) because MANOVA bypassed the assumption of compound symmetry and sphericity. The MANOVA could also be used to uncover the main and interaction effects of categorical independent variables (called factors) on an interval dependent variable. A main effect is the direct effect of an independent variable on the dependent variable. An interaction effect is the joint effect of two or more independent variables on the dependent variable. Whereas regression models cannot handle interaction unless explicit crossproduct interaction terms are added, MANOVA uncovers interaction effects on a built-in basis. In interpreting the results of MANOVA, one can conclude that the respective effects are significant if the overall multivariate test is significant.

After obtaining a significant multivariate test for a particular main effect or interaction, a multivariate F value (Wilks lambda) based on a comparison of the error variance/covariance matrix and the effect variance/covariance matrix could be obtained. The covariance was included because the two measures were probably correlated and this correlation must be taken into account when the significance test was performed.

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