Gas dynamics The study of gases in motion. In general, matter exists in any of three states: solid, liquid, or gas.

Liquids are incompressible under normal conditions; water is a typical example. In contrast, gases are compressible fluids; that is, their density varies depending on the pressure and temperature. The air surrounding a high-speed aircraft is an example. Gas dynamics can be treated in a variety of ways. One such way deals with gases as a continuum. The structure of gases on the particle level is called rarefied gas dynamics. See Aerothermodynamics, Compressible flow, Fluid flow Gases in motion are subject to certain fundamental laws. These are the laws of the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy. In the case of the dynamics of incompressible fluids, it is usually sufficient to satisfy only the laws of conservation of mass and momentum. This distinction constitutes the fundamental difference between high-speed gas dynamics and hydrodynamics. If irreversibilities are involved, a fourth equation called the entropy balance equation may be considered. Whereas mass, momentum, and energy are conserved, the entropy is not. Real problems are irreversible; that is, losses such as friction are involved. However, as a first approximation such effects are generally not considered. See Conservation laws (physics), Conservation of energy, Conservation of mass, Conservation of momentum The mass, momentum, and energy equations are higher-order, nonlinear equations that have no general solution, and only a limited number of special cases can be solved. Another approach is to resort to numerical solutions using high-speed digital computers. While this approach has proven to be very useful, it limits the degree to which flow phenomena can be conceptualized. Accordingly, it is frequently permissible to write the equations in one-dimensional form. By onedimensional flow is meant that the properties of gas such as its velocity and density are assumed to be constant in the direction perpendicular to the direction of the gas flow. Generally, the onedimensional approach gives excellent insights into understanding the physical behavior of the flow. It is also very useful in setting up the computer algorithm for numerical solutions. See Computational fluid dynamics One other matter must be considered, namely whether the flow is steady or unsteady. In steady flow, the flow characteristics do not vary with time, whereas unsteady flow implies that the flow assumes different configurations over time. Thus, unsteady flow is broader in scope. In this case the continuity equations for conservation of mass may be written as Eq. (1). (1) In this equation, the first term defines the mass-flow changes with respect to the space coordinates, whereas the second term indicates the changes with time. Here, is the partial differential operator; x denotes the space coordinate, in this case the direction of flow; &rgr; is the gas density; V is the gas velocity; and t is the time. If the flow is steady, there is no time-dependent term, and hence the continuity equation can be written in integrated form as Eq. (2), where A denotes the area in the direction perpendicular to the flow direction.

(2) The momentum equation is the mathematical representation of the law of conservation of momentum. It is a statement of the forces acting on the gas. Different types of forces must be recognized. Body forces, such as gravitation and electromagnetic forces, act at a distance. The so-called surface forces may assume different forms, such as normal stresses and viscosity. The simple form of the momentum equation is Eq. (3), (3) which, in spite of its simplicity, is very powerful. Called Bernoulli's theorem, this equation makes a crucial statement that when the velocity increases, the pressure p decreases. See Bernoulli's theorem The energy equation expresses the first law of thermodynamics and accounts for the changes in energy as the gas moves about its path. It can also take into consideration energy exchanges between the gas and its environment, such as radiation. Its simplest form is Eq. (4), where cp denotes the specific heat at constant pressure. (4) The speed of sound or the acoustic velocity is a very important term in gas dynamics because it serves as a criterion to identify flow regimes. Being able to do so is crucial because the designer must know the conditions that the gas will generate or, conversely, experience. In prescribing flow regimes, the flow velocity of the gas is compared with the acoustic velocity. This ratio, called the Mach number (M), is defined by Eq. (5). (5)

Using the Mach number the following flow regimes are described: High-speed aircraft are categorized by the Mach number. See Mach number, Sound Flows can be classified as internal flow and external flow. Internal flow refers to the cases where the gas is constrained by a duct of some sort. Characteristically external flow is flow over an airplane or missile. Internal flows are conveniently characterized by (1) the shape of the duct and its variation, (2) the heat transfer through the walls of the duct and internal heat sources, and (3) frictional effects. By varying one of these characteristics at a time, the essential features of internal flow can be discussed most simply. Boundary layers and wakes are the centers of interest in external flows. Here the effects of compressibility are substantially more difficult to analyze than in internal flows, if for no other reason than the inapplicability of a one-dimensional approach. See Boundary-layer flow, Wake flow

Rarefied gas dynamics is that branch of gas dynamics dealing with the flow of gases under conditions where the molecular mean free path is not negligibly small compared to some characteristic dimension of the flow field. Rarefied flows occur when the gas density is extremely low, as in the cases of vacuum systems and high-altitude flight, but also when gases are at normal densities if the characteristic dimension is sufficiently small, as in the case of very small particles suspended in the atmosphere. The dimensionless parameter which describes the degree of rarefaction existing in a flow is the Knudsen number, Kn = /L, defined as the ratio of the mean free path to some characteristic dimension L of the flow field. Depending on the situation, L might be chosen, for example, as the diameter of a duct in a vacuum system, the wavelength of a high-frequency sound wave, the diameter of a suspended submicrometer-size particle, the length of a high-altitude rocket, or the thickness of a boundary layer or a shock wave. The mean free path , which is the average distance traveled by a gas molecule between successive collisions with other molecules, is equal to the molecular mean speed, given by Eq. (6) (6) [where R is the gas constant and T is the gas temperature], divided by the collision frequency &ngr;c: thus, Eq. (7) (7) is satisfied. However, it is often more convenient in evaluating the Knudsen number to use the viscosity-based mean free path given by Eq. (8), where &ngr; is the kinematic viscosity. (8) See Viscosity It is convenient to divide rarefied flows into three flow regimes, according to the range of values of the appropriate Knudsen numbers. The regime of highly rarefied flow, which obtains for Kn much greater than 1 (typically greater than 10), is called collisionless or free-molecule flow, while the regime of slight rarefaction, where Kn is much less than 1 (typically less than 0.1), is called slip flow. Flows at Knudsen numbers intermediate to these limiting values are termed transition flows. The phenomena and methods of analysis associated with the three regimes are in general quite dissimilar.

The study of the motion of gases, and of its causes, which takes into account thermal effects generated by the motion Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/gas-dynamic#ixzz2GpoLNQQh

In fluid mechanics, Mach number ( or ) (generally pron.: /mk/, sometimes /mx/ or /mk/) is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of speed of an object moving through a fluid and the local speed of sound.[1][2]

where
is the Mach number, is the velocity of the source relative to the medium and is the speed of sound in the medium.

Mach number varies by the composition of the surrounding medium and also by local conditions, especially temperature and pressure. The Mach number can be used to determine if a flow can be treated as an incompressible flow. If M < 0.20.3 and the flow is (quasi) steady and isothermal, compressibility effects will be small and a simplified incompressible flow model can be used.[1][2] The Mach number is named after Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, a designation proposed by aeronautical engineer Jakob Ackeret. Because the Mach number is often viewed as a dimensionless quantity rather than a unit of measure, with Mach, the number comes after the unit; the second Mach number is "Mach 2" instead of "2 Mach" (or Machs). This is somewhat reminiscent of the early modern ocean sounding unit "mark" (a synonym for fathom), which was also unit-first, and may have influenced the use of the term Mach. In the decade preceding fasterthan-sound human flight, aeronautical engineers referred to the speed of sound as Mach's number, never "Mach 1."[3] In French, the Mach number is sometimes called the "nombre de Sarrau" ("Sarrau number") after mile Sarrau who researched into explosions in the 1870s and 1880s.[4]

Contents

1 Overview 2 Classification of Mach regimes 3 High-speed flow around objects 4 High-speed flow in a channel 5 Calculation o 5.1 Calculating Mach Number from Pitot Tube Pressure 6 See also 7 Notes 8 External links

Overview
The Mach number is commonly used both with objects traveling at high speed in a fluid, and with high-speed fluid flows inside channels such as nozzles, diffusers or wind tunnels. As it is defined as a ratio of two speeds, it is a dimensionless number. At Standard Sea Level conditions (corresponding to a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius), the speed of sound is 340.3 m/s[5] (1225 km/h, or 761.2 mph, or 661.5 knots, or 1116 ft/s) in the Earth's atmosphere. The speed represented by Mach 1 is not a constant; for example, it is mostly dependent on temperature and atmospheric composition and largely independent of pressure. Since the speed of sound increases as the temperature increases, the actual speed of an object traveling at Mach 1 will depend on the fluid temperature around it. Mach number is useful because the fluid behaves in a similar way at the same Mach number. So, an aircraft traveling at Mach 1 at 20C or 68F, at sea level, will experience shock waves in much the same manner as when it is traveling at Mach 1 at 11,000 m (36,000 ft) at -50C or -58F, even though it is traveling at only 86% of its speed at higher temperature like 20C or 68F.[6]

Classification of Mach regimes

While the terms "subsonic" and "supersonic" in the purest verbal sense refer to speeds below and above the local speed of sound respectively, aerodynamicists often use the same terms to talk about particular ranges of Mach values. This occurs because of the presence of a "transonic regime" around M=1 where approximations of the Navier-Stokes equations used for subsonic design actually no longer apply, the simplest of many reasons being that the flow locally begins to exceed M=1 even when the freestream Mach number is below this value. Meanwhile, the "supersonic regime" is usually used to talk about the set of Mach numbers for which linearised theory may be used, where for example the (air) flow is not chemically reacting, and where heat-transfer between air and vehicle may be reasonably neglected in calculations. In the following table, the "regimes" or "ranges of Mach values" are referred to, and not the "pure" meanings of the words "subsonic" and "supersonic". Generally, NASA defines "high" hypersonic as any Mach number from 10 to 25, and re-entry speeds as anything greater than Mach 25. Aircraft operating in this regime include the Space Shuttle and various space planes in development.
Regime Mach mph km/h m/s General plane characteristics Most often propeller-driven and commercial turbofan aircraft with high aspect-ratio (slender) wings, and rounded features like the nose and leading edges. Transonic aircraft nearly always have swept wings, delaying drag-divergence, and often feature design

Subsonic <0.8

<610

<980

<270

Transonic

0.81.2

610-915

9801,470

270410

adhering to the principles of the Whitcomb Area rule. Aircraft designed to fly at supersonic speeds show large differences in their aerodynamic design because of the radical differences in the behaviour of flows above Mach 1. Sharp edges, thin aerofoil-sections, and all-moving tailplane/canards are common. Modern combat aircraft must compromise in order to maintain low-speed handling; "true" supersonic designs include the F-104 Starfighter and BAC/Arospatiale Concorde.

Supersonic

1.25.0

9153,840

1,4706,150

4101,710

Hypersonic

5.0- 3,84010.0 7,680

6,15012,300

Cooled nickel-titanium skin; highly integrated (due to 1,710- domination of interference effects: non-linear behaviour 3,415 means that superposition of results for separate components is invalid), small wings, see X-51A Waverider

High10.0- 7,680hypersonic 25.0 16,250

Thermal control becomes a dominant design consideration. Structure must either be designed to operate hot, or be protected by special silicate tiles or similar. Chemically reacting flow can also cause corrosion 12,300- 3,415of the vehicle's skin, with free-atomic oxygen featuring in 30,740 8,465 very high-speed flows. Hypersonic designs are often forced into blunt configurations because of the aerodynamic heating rising with a reduced radius of curvature.

Re-entry >25.0 >16,250 >30,740 >8,465 Ablative heat shield; small or no wings; blunt shape speeds

High-speed flow around objects

Flight can be roughly classified in six categories:
Regime Subsonic Transonic Sonic Supersonic Hypersonic Mach <1.0 0.81.2 1.0 1.25.0 5.010.0 Highhypersonic >10.0

For comparison: the required speed for low Earth orbit is approximately 7.5 km/s = Mach 25.4 in air at high altitudes. The speed of light in a vacuum corresponds to a Mach number of approximately 881,000 (relative to air at sea level).

At transonic speeds, the flow field around the object includes both sub- and supersonic parts. The transonic period begins when first zones of M>1 flow appear around the object. In case of an airfoil (such as an aircraft's wing), this typically happens above the wing. Supersonic flow can decelerate back to subsonic only in a normal shock; this typically happens before the trailing edge. (Fig.1a) As the speed increases, the zone of M>1 flow increases towards both leading and trailing edges. As M=1 is reached and passed, the normal shock reaches the trailing edge and becomes a weak oblique shock: the flow decelerates over the shock, but remains supersonic. A normal shock is created ahead of the object, and the only subsonic zone in the flow field is a small area around the object's leading edge. (Fig.1b)

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1. Mach number in transonic airflow around an airfoil; M<1 (a) and M>1 (b). When an aircraft exceeds Mach 1 (i.e. the sound barrier) a large pressure difference is created just in front of the aircraft. This abrupt pressure difference, called a shock wave, spreads backward and outward from the aircraft in a cone shape (a so-called Mach cone). It is this shock wave that causes the sonic boom heard as a fast moving aircraft travels overhead. A person inside the aircraft will not hear this. The higher the speed, the more narrow the cone; at just over M=1 it is hardly a cone at all, but closer to a slightly concave plane. At fully supersonic speed, the shock wave starts to take its cone shape and flow is either completely supersonic, or (in case of a blunt object), only a very small subsonic flow area remains between the object's nose and the shock wave it creates ahead of itself. (In the case of a sharp object, there is no air between the nose and the shock wave: the shock wave starts from the nose.) As the Mach number increases, so does the strength of the shock wave and the Mach cone becomes increasingly narrow. As the fluid flow crosses the shock wave, its speed is reduced and temperature, pressure, and density increase. The stronger the shock, the greater the changes. At high enough Mach numbers the temperature increases so much over the shock that ionization and dissociation of gas molecules behind the shock wave begin. Such flows are called hypersonic.

It is clear that any object traveling at hypersonic speeds will likewise be exposed to the same extreme temperatures as the gas behind the nose shock wave, and hence choice of heat-resistant materials becomes important.

High-speed flow in a channel

As a flow in a channel becomes supersonic, one significant change takes place. The conservation of mass flow rate leads one to expect that contracting the flow channel would increase the flow speed (i.e. making the channel narrower results in faster air flow) and at subsonic speeds this holds true. However, once the flow becomes supersonic, the relationship of flow area and speed is reversed: expanding the channel actually increases the speed. The obvious result is that in order to accelerate a flow to supersonic, one needs a convergentdivergent nozzle, where the converging section accelerates the flow to sonic speeds, and the diverging section continues the acceleration. Such nozzles are called de Laval nozzles and in extreme cases they are able to reach hypersonic speeds (Mach 13 (9,896 mph; 15,926 km/h) at 20C). An aircraft Machmeter or electronic flight information system (EFIS) can display Mach number derived from stagnation pressure (pitot tube) and static pressure.

Calculation
The Mach number at which an aircraft is flying at can be calculated by

where:
is Mach number is velocity of the moving aircraft and is the speed of sound at the given altitude

Note that the dynamic pressure can be found as:

Assuming air to be an ideal gas, the formula to compute Mach number in a subsonic compressible flow is derived from Bernoulli's equation for M<1:[7]

where:
is impact pressure (stagnation pressure) and is static pressure is the ratio of specific heat of a gas at a constant pressure to heat at a constant volume (1.4 for air).

The formula to compute Mach number in a supersonic compressible flow is derived from the Rayleigh Supersonic Pitot equation:

Calculating Mach Number from Pitot Tube Pressure

At altitude, for reasons explained, Mach number is a function of temperature. Aircraft flight instruments, however, operate using pressure differential to compute Mach number, not temperature. The assumption is that a particular pressure represents a particular altitude and, therefore, a standard temperature. Aircraft flight instruments need to operate this way because the stagnation pressure sensed by a Pitot tube is dependent on altitude as well as speed. Assuming air to be an ideal gas, the formula to compute Mach number in a subsonic compressible flow is found from Bernoulli's equation for M<1 (above):[7]

The formula to compute Mach number in a supersonic compressible flow can be found from the Rayleigh Supersonic Pitot equation (above) using parameters for air:

where

is dynamic pressure measured behind a normal shock

As can be seen, M appears on both sides of the equation. The easiest method to solve the supersonic M calculation is to enter both the subsonic and supersonic equations into a computer spreadsheet such as Microsoft Excel, OpenOffice.org Calc, or some equivalent program. First determine if M is indeed greater than 1.0 by calculating M from the subsonic equation. If M is greater than 1.0 at that point, then use the value of M from the subsonic equation as the initial condition in the supersonic equation. Then perform a simple iteration of the supersonic equation, each time using the last computed value of M, until M converges to a valueusually in just a few iterations.[7]