4.

DISPLACEMENTS, STRESSES AND STRAINS

4.1 DISPLACEMENTS
Consider a body subjected to several external loads P
1
, P
2
,, P
k
, P
n
in
mechanical equilibrium, (Fig. 4.1). The body has been represented in a rectangular
coordinate system Oxyz, with
j i

,
and k

the versors of the reference

axes.
Let us assume that, before the action of the external loads, a certain point of the
body occupies the position A (Fig. 4.1). Due to the action of the external loads the
body deforms and, after deformation of the body, the point A is displaced to A. The
length A A is called the total displacement of point A.
Denoting the displacement components of point A by u, v and w, we may write
k w j i u A A


+ + v
(4.1)
The components u, v, w are called linear displacements.
4.2 THE CONCEPT OF STRAIN
Fig. 4.1
Strength of Materials
Consider again a body subjected to several external loads in mechanical
equilibrium, P
1
,,P
n
. Before the action of the loads the involved body occupies a
certain position in space. Due to the action of the external loads the body deforms
(Fig. 4.2) and all
its points are
displaced to the
other positions.
Two points occupying the positions A and B, within the initial undeformed state
of the body, are displaced to A and B respectively. In this way the distance
between points A and B changes due to the action of the external loads. Denoting by
the original length of the segment AB and by the length of AB we define the
linear absolute deformation as

- . (4.2)
Letting approach zero, we define the deformation per unit length at point A (or the
normal strain at point A) along direction AB as

lim
0

. (4.3)
Since and are expressed in the same units, the normal strain obtained by
dividing

by is a dimensionless quantity.
Returning now to Fig. 4.2, let us consider three points (O, C, D) of the body in
its original, undeformed state, where segments OC and OD are perpendicular. After
deformation of the body, the points O, C, D are displaced to O
, C
, D the
segments C O
and D O
losing their perpendicularity. In the same time a change of
the right angle between OC and OD occurs ( D O C COD ). Letting the segments
OC and OD approach zero, we define the shearing strain as
( ) ' ' ' lim
0
0
D O C COD
OD
OC

. (4.4)
In fact

represents the change of the original right angle COD. In case of a

rectangular element of infinitely small sides a, b and c the shearing strain
corresponding to the x and y directions is, (Fig. 4.3):
Fig. 4.2
76
Displacements, stresses and strains
If we attach a rectangular coordinate reference system Oxyz to the body represented
in Fig. 4.2, the knowledge of the body deformation state implies the knowledge, for
each particular point of the body, of all components contained in the table bellow.

T
is called the deformations tensor. In other words, the deformation state of a body
subjected to certain external loads is defined by the nine components of table (4.5).
Since yx xy

, zx xz

, zy yz

, only six components of table (4.5) are distinct. This
is why the deformation state is a tensorial quantity.
4.3 THE CONCEPT OF STRESS
While the method of sections (i.e. internal forces diagrams) presented in
chapter II represents a first and necessary step in the analysis of a certain mechanical
structure (member, beam, etc) it does not tell us whether the loads may be safely
supported. This is why we have to introduce the concept of stress.
Let us now return for a while to the method of sections, considering a body
subjected to several external loads in mechanical equilibrium (Fig. 4.4a).
Fig. 4.3

,
_

z zy zx
yz y yx
xz xy x
T



. (4.5)
a. b.
Fig. 4.4
77
Strength of Materials
Passing an exploratory plane

through the body at some arbitrary point we

obtain the two segments shown in Fig. 4.4b. (I and II). In this way we expose the
internal forces acting on the exploratory section that are necessary to maintain the
equilibrium of either segment. As
presented in chapter II, in general,
the internal forces reduce to a force and a
couple that, for convenience are resolved
into their components that are normal and
tangent to the section, (Fig. 4.5).
The origin of the reference axes is always taken at the centroid which is the
key reference point of the section. Although we are not get ready to show why this is
so, we shall prove it as we progress.
Anyhow, the internal forces defined above (R, M, R, M or their components)
represent a global effect occurred within the exploratory section considered. But, if
the considered body is to fail under the action of the external loads, this failure begins
at the level of a certain point of the exploratory section. This is why we have to
analyze the local effect occurred at the level of the exploratory sectional points, when
the involved body is subjected to several external loads in mechanical equilibrium.
Such an analysis requires the concept of stress.
Let us now consider the I
st
segment of the
body shown in Fig.4.4, for which we take an
elementary area A of the section surface
considered, around an arbitrary point C,
(Fig.4.6).
We denote by
P
the surface force acting on A. This force models the
mechanical interaction between the points of A and the points of the area A of the
second segment of the body with which A comes in contact. The vector quantity

A
P
p
m

(4.6)
is called the total average stress developed on A.
Fig. 4.5
Fig. 4.6
78
Displacements, stresses and strains
Now letting A approach zero (which means that A reduces to the point C), the
vector quantity
A
P
p
A

lim
0

(4.7)
is called the total stress at point C or simply the stress at point C, (Fig.4.6).
Generally speaking, the stresses on different sections passing though the same
point in a body are different. Usually, the stress is resolved into a component

(called the normal stress) acting along the normal direction
n
to the A surface and a
tangential component

(called the shearing stress) acting along a tangential

direction
t
, contained within the plane of surface A (Fig.4.6).
Since the force
P
is expressed in newtons (N) and A in square millimeters,
the stress
p
and the stress components

and

will be expressed in N/mm

2
. This
unit is called a megapascal (MPa). We have
2
1 1
mm
N
MPa
.
If we take a rectangular coordinate reference system xyz with its origin at point
C (with Cx axis perpendicular to A and Cz and Cy axes contained within the A
plane), the shearing stress may be resolved into other two components acting along
Cy and Cz respectively, Fig. 4.7.To indicate the acting plane and the direction of a
normal stress, we associate the stress with a coordinate subscript.
For instance, x

indicates the normal stress acting on a plane perpendicular to

the x axis and also in the x direction. As to a shearing stress, we should associate it
with two coordinate subscripts. For instance, xy

indicates the shearing stress acting

on a plane perpendicular to the x axis, but in the y direction.
The stress
p
shown in Fig. 4.7 may be thus expressed as
k j i p
xz xy x

+ +
, (4.7)
where
j , i

and k

are the versors of the reference axes.

Fig.4.7
79
Strength of Materials
The stress components positive sign convention has been shown in Fig. 4.8.
Returning to the exploratory plane considered, it is to be noted that there is
an infinit number of planes (sections), which may be passed through the point C of
the body. For each plane passed through point C, we find a certain stress
p
.
Although there is an infinit number of stresses which may be associated to the point
C, one could demonstrate (and this will be done later) that the stress state at point C is
defined by the stresses corresponding to the three perpendicular planes at C (Fig.4.9),
where

'

+ +
+ +
+ +



k j i p
k j i p
k j i p
z zy zx z
yz y yx y
xz xy x x



(4.8)
The quantity

,
_

z zy zx
yz y yz
xz xy x
T



(4.9)
is called the stress tensor at point C.
To facilitate the visualization of the stress condition at point C, we shall
consider a small cube of side a centered of C and the stresses exerted an each of the
six faces of the cube (Fig.4.10).
Fig. 4.8 Fig. 4.9
80
Displacements, stresses and strains
The stress components shown in the figure are x

, y

and z

, which
represent the normal stresses of faces respectively perpendicular to the x, y and z
axes, and the six shearing stress components xy

, xz

, etc. We recall that, according

to the definition of the shearing stress components, xy

represents the y component of

the shearing stress exerted on the face perpendicular to the x axis, while yx

represents the x component of the shearing stress exerted on the face perpendicular to
the y axis. Note that only three faces of the cube are actually visible in Fig.4.10 and
that equal and opposite stress components act on the hidden faces. While the stresses
acting on the faces of the cube differ slightly from the stresses at C, the error involved
is small and vanishes as side a of the cube approaches zero.
Important relations between the shearing stress components will now be
derived. Let us consider the free-body diagram of the small cube centered at point C
(Fig.4.11).
The normal and shearing forces acting on the various faces of the cube are
obtained by multiplying the corresponding stress components by the area A of each
face. Selecting coordinate axes centered at C, we may write the six equilibrium
equations:
0
x
F
;
0
y
F
; 0
z
F
;
(4.10)
0
x
M
;
0
y
M
;
0
z
M
. (4.11)
Fig. 4.10 Fig. 4.11
81
Strength of Materials
Since forces equal and opposite to the forces actually shown in Fig. 4.11 are
acting on the hidden faces of the cube, it is clear that equations 4.10 are satisfied.
Turning now to the equations (4.11), we first consider the last of these equations,
0
z
M
. Using a projection on the xy plane (Fig.4.12), we note that the only forces
with moments about the z axis different from zero are the shearing forces.
These forces form two couples one of
counterclockwise moment
( ) a A
yx

,
the other of clockwise moment
( ) a A
xy

. We write therefore

0 ) ( ) ( 0 a A a A M
yx xy z

from which we conclude that
yx xy

. (4.12)
The relation obtained shows that the y component of the shearing stress exerted
on a face perpendicular to the x axis is equal to the x component of the shearing stress
exerted on a face perpendicular to the y axis. From the remaining two equations
(4.11) , we derive in a similar manner the relations
zy yz

; xz zx

. (4.13)
Fig. 4.12
Fig. 4.13
82
Displacements, stresses and strains
We conclude from equations (4.12) and (4.13) that only six stress components
are required to define the condition of stress at a given point C, instead of nine as
originally assumed in (4.9). These stress components are x

, y

, z

, xy

, xz

, yz

.
We also note that, at a given point, shear cannot take place in one plane only; an
equal shearing stress must be exerted on another plane perpendicular to the first one
(Fig.4.13). The two shearing stresses have the same orientation with respect to the
common edge. This property is called the shearing stresses duality law.
4.4 RELATIONSHIPS AMONG INTERNAL FORCES AND STRESSES
WITHIN A BEAM (MEMBER) CROSS SECTION
The method of sections tells us that, in the most general state, the global
internal force at the level of a given cross section of a beam or member, may be
expressed through six components (Fig.4.14):
N
, y
T
, z
T
, t x
M M
, iy
M
and iz
M
.
These components do also represent a global effect corresponding to the entire
cross section. In the same time these global internal forces determine the
development of normal and shearing stresses at the level of the cross - sectional
points, (Fig. 4.15). For example, at the level of a certain element of area dA, of
coordinates z and y, the normal stress x

and the shearing stresses xy

and xz

may
occur. The internal forces
N
, y
T
, z
T
, t x
M M
, iy
M
and iz
M
represent in fact the
summation of the elementary effects given by normal and shearing stresses at the
level of the cross - sectional elements of area dA. We may write therefore the
following relationships:

'

A
xz z
A
xy y
A
x
A T
A T
A N
; d
; d
; d

(4.14)
Fig. 4.14 Fig. 4.15
83
Strength of Materials

( )

'

A
x iz
A
x iy
A
xz xy t x
A y M
A z M
A y z M M
. d
; d
; d

84