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Seismic methods: Refraction

Refraction reading: Sharma p158 - 186

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Pre-Critical incidence

Reflection and refraction

Snells Law:

sin iP sin RP sin rP = = =p VP1 VP1 VP 2


where p is the ray parameter and is constant along each ray.

Reflection and transmission coefficients for a specific impedance contrast Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Critical incidence

When rP = 90 iP = iC the critical angle

sin iC =

VP1 VP 2

The critically refracted energy travels along the velocity interface at V2 continually refracting energy back into the upper medium at an angle iC a head wave

Reflection and transmission coefficients for a specific impedance contrast Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Post-Critical incidence
The angle of incidence > iC No transmission, just reflection

Reflection and transmission coefficients for a specific impedance contrast Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Horizontal interface
Traveltime equations Direct wave: Head wave

T=

x V1

Head wave:

T = TSB + TDD ' + TBD T= T= 2h1 x 2h1 tan ic + V1 cos ic V2


2 2 x 2h1 V2 V1 + V2 V2V1

T = ax + b slope: 1/V2 intercept: gives h1

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Horizontal interface
Crossover distance, xco Where the direct and head wave cross. Their travel times are equal:
2 2 xco xco 2h1 V2 V1 = + V1 V2 V2V1

xco = 2h1

V2 + V1 V2 V1

Another approach to obtaining layer thickness

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Horizontal interface
Reflections The critical reflection is the closest head wave arrival. At shorter offsets there are low amplitude reflections (used in reflection seismology). At greater offsets there are wide-angle reflections.

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Three-layer model
Traveltime

TSG = TSG =

SA AB BC CD DG + + + + V1 V2 V3 V2 V1 2 z1 2 z2 x 2 z1 tan 1 2 z 2 tan c + + V1 cos1 V2 cos c V3

With some manipulation

TSG =

2 2 x 2 z1 V3 V1 + V3 V3V1

2 z 2 V32 V22 V3V2

1. Determine V1, V2, V3 from slopes 2. Determine z1 from 1st intercept 3. Determine z2 from 2nd intercept

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Multiple-layered models
For multiple layered models we can apply the same process to determine layer thickness and velocity sequentially from the top layer to the bottom Head wave from top of layer 2:

T=

2 2 x 2h1 V2 V1 + V2 V2V1

Head wave from top of layer 3:

T=

2 2 2h V 2 V22 x 2h1 V3 V1 + + 2 3 V3 V3V1 V3V2 2 2 n 1 2h j Vn V j T = VnV j j =1

Head wave from top of layer n:

x + V n
Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Horizontal vs. vertical velocity contrasts


A three-horizontal layer model can produce the same traveltime curve as a single horizontal layer over a vertical velocity contact 1/V3 1/V2 1/V1 1/V2b 1/V2a 1/V1

Head wave continues into 2b

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Horizontal vs. vertical velocity contrasts


Use a long-offset shot Leave the geophones fixed and move shot to greater offset In horizontal layers case the shape of the traveltime curve is unchanged, just shifted in space. In vertical velocity contrast case the crossover distance remains fixed but is time shifted.

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Mapping vertical contacts


Small offsets A vertical step causes an offset on the traveltime curve The relation of velocity to the slope remains unchanged The offset can be calculated from the time offset, T

zt =

TV2V1 V22 V12 1

Diffractions link the two head wave curves Depth, z1, is calculated from the intercept in the usual way

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Mapping vertical contacts


Infinite/large offsets For infinite/large vertical offsets there is no secondary head wave Three segments Direct wave Head wave Diffracted wave Will have the velocity close to the direct wave Reverse the line Shooting to the same string of geophones from the other end Two traveltime segments: direct and head wave Head wave generated from energy entering the high velocity layer at the vertical interface
Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Dipping layers

Dipping layers still produce head waves but the traveltimes are affected by the dip Shooting up-dip: the velocity appears greater Shooting down-dip: the velocity is reduced

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Reversing lines

shooting to a line of geophones from both ends For dipping layers layer velocities appear different for each end the dip and true velocity can be determined from the updip and down-dip velocities

For horizontal layers the traveltime curves are symmetrical

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Dipping layer traveltime


Down-dip

Td =

SC CD DS ' + + V1 V2 V1 hu + hd x [(hu + hd ) tan ic ] + V1 cos ic V2

Td =

With trigonometric transformations, an exercise for the class: Down-dip traveltime Down-dip apparent velocity

x sin(ic + ) 2hd cos ic Td = + V1 V1


Up-dip traveltime

Vd =

V1 sin(ic + ) V1 sin(ic )

Up-dip apparent velocity

Tu =

x sin(ic ) 2hu cos ic + V1 V1

Vu =

where is V2 dependence?

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Dipping layer traveltime


Given

Vd =

V1 sin(ic + )

Vu =

V1 sin(ic )

We can solve for:

1 V1 sin 1 V1 =1 2 sin Vd Vu 1 V1 + sin 1 V1 ic = 1 2 sin Vd Vu


V2 then obtained from:

sin ic =

Finally, the intercept times can be used to determine the perpendicular distance to the reflector:

V1 V2

Tid =

2hd cos ic V1

Tiu =

2hu cos ic V1

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Dipping layer
Direct arrivals

Example

Velocities from slopes: 1780 m/s and 2250 m/s average: 2015 m/s Head waves Up-dip velocity, Vu = 3200 m/s Down-dip velocity, Vd = 2870 m/s Using

1 V1 sin 1 V1 =1 2 sin Vd Vu 1 V1 + sin 1 V1 ic = 1 2 sin Vd Vu

we obtain:

= 2.8 ic = 42
Applied Geophysics Refraction I

Dipping layer
Now obtain V2 from

Example

sin ic =
V2 = 3000 m/s

V1 V2

hu and hd, use

To determine the perpendicular depths,

Tid =

2hd cos ic V1

Tiu =

2hu cos ic V1

hu = 155 m and hd = 95 m

Applied Geophysics Refraction I

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