1) Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function,

growth, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.[1] Biology has many subdisciplines unified by five so-called axioms of modern biology:[2] 1. Cells are the basic unit of life 2. Genes are the basic unit of heredity 3. New species and inherited traits are the product of evolution 4. An organism regulates its internal environment to maintain a stable and constant condition 5. Living organisms consume and transform energy Subdisciplines of biology are defined by the scale at which organisms are studied and the methods used to study them: biochemistryexamines the rudimentary chemistry of life; molecular biology studies the complex interactions among biological molecules; cellular biology examines the basic building block of all life, the cell; physiology examines the physical and chemical functions of tissues, organs, and organ systems of an organism; evolutionary biology examines the processes that produced the diversity of life; and ecology examines how organisms interact in their environment.[3] The term biology is derived from the Greek word , bios, "life" and the suffix -, -logia, "study of."[4][5] The Latin form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Linnaeus (Carl von Linn) used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica. It was used again in 1766 in a work entitledPhilosophiae naturalis sive physicae: tomus III, continens geologian, biologian, phytologian generalis , by Michael Christoph Hanov, a disciple ofChristian Wolff. The first German use, Biologie, was used in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus' work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in a book, Grundzge der Lehre van der Lebenskraft, in the preface. Karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective ( Propdeutik zum Studien der gesammten Heilkunst). The term came into its modern usage with the six-volume treatise Biologie, oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur (180222) by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus, who announced:[6] The objects of our research will be the different forms and manifestations of life, the conditions and laws under which these phenomena occur, and the causes through which they have been effected. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the name biology [Biologie] or the doctrine of life [Lebenslehre]. (1:4) Although modern biology is a relatively recent development, sciences related to and included within it have been studied since ancient times. Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, and China. However, the origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are most often traced back to ancient Greece.[7] While the formal study of medicine dates back toHippocrates (ca. 460 BC ca. 370 BC), it was Aristotle (384 BC 322 BC) who contributed most extensively to the development of biology. Especially important are his History of Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life. Aristotle's successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages. Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz (781869), AlDinawari (828896), who wrote on botany,[8] and Rhazes(865925) who wrote on anatomy and physiology. Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in

Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought, especially in upholding a fixed hierarchy of life. Biology began to quickly develop and grow with Antony van Leeuwenhoek's improvement of the microscope. It was then that scholars discoveredspermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria and the diversity of microscopic life. Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.[9] Advances in microscopy also had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell. Then, in 1838, Schleidenand Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets of what came to be known as cell theory.[10] Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians. Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.[11] Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable even suggesting the possibility of common descent. Though he was opposed to evolution, Buffon is a key figure in the history of evolutionary thought; his work influenced the evolutionary theories of both Lamarck and Darwin.[12] Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who was the first to present a coherent theory of evolution.[13] He posited that evolution was the result of environmental stress on properties of animals, meaning that the more frequently and rigorously an organ was used, the more complex and efficient it would become, thus adapting the animal to its environment. Lamarck believed that these acquired traits could then be passed on to the animal's offspring, who would further develop and perfect them.[14] However, it was the British naturalistCharles Darwin, combining the biogeographical approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian geology of Lyell, Malthus's writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, who forged a more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection; similar reasoning and evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions.[15] Although it was the subject of controversy (which continues to this day), Darwin's theory quickly spread through the scientific community and soon became a central axiom of the rapidly developing science of biology. The discovery of the physical representation of heredity came along with evolutionary principles and population genetics. In the 1940s and early 1950s, experiments pointed to DNA as the component of chromosomes that held the trait-carrying units that had become known as genes. A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double helical structure of DNA in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics. From the 1950s to present times, biology has been vastly extended in the molecular domain. The genetic code was cracked by Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley and Marshall Warren Nirenberg after DNA was understood to contain codons. Finally, the Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 with the goal of mapping the general human genome. This project was essentially completed in 2003,[16] with further analysis still being published. The Human Genome Project was the first step in a globalized effort to incorporate accumulated knowledge of biology into a functional, molecular definition of the human body and the bodies of other organisms.

(2) People coming new to the Quality Assessment game encounter new terminology the meaning of which may not be self-evident. "Aims and Objectives" have to be provided for each course that we provide, and this document attempts to provide an explanation of these terms. Part I is a definition of the terms; Part II is a more detailed discussion of how to prepare a statement of learning objectives. PART I : DEFINITION OF AIMS AND OBJECTIVES [This is extracted from the Subject Review Handbook: October 1998 to September 2000 published by the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAAHE)(Reference No: QAA 1/97, December 1997), pp. 30 - 31.] The statement of aims and objectives prepared by the subject provider is an essential yardstick by which quality is assessed. The job of reviewers is to evaluate and report on the learning experiences of students in relation to the stated aims and objectives. The statement is therefore important in defining and communicating the nature of the educational provision, the intended learning outcomes for each programme of study, and will serve as the focus of enquiries during the subject review visit. The terms aims and objectives are defined in a particular sense for the purposes of subject review:

The aims express the provider's broad educational purposes in providing the programmes of study in the subject. These aims address the question "why is the education provided?". In identifying the broad educational purposes, the provider may wish to refer to the way in which the provision addresses the interests of educational stakeholders - students, employers, sponsors (including government), "PSBs" [Professional and Statutary Bodies], and might include the NHS0, society. For example by:enabling students to develop their capacity to learn meeting international, national, regional or local needs preparing students for employment or further study. The objectives (learning outcomes and experiences) set out the intended learning outcomes that demonstrate successful completion of each programme and level of study, and the learning experiences provided to ensure that those outcomes can be achieved. The learning outcomes identify the knowledge, skills and attributes developed by each programme and level of study. These may include reference to subject knowledge and understanding, cognitive skills, practical/professional skills, and key (transferable) skills. [Note added by Alan Findlay: I have attempted to clarify the precise meaning of the preceding terms, in the context in which they are used here. Official publications offer little guidance, so I offer the following attempts at definitions: Subject knowledge and understanding: knowing and understanding the subject matter of the course. Cognitive skills: intellectual skills, including critical, analytical, synthesising and problem-solving skills. An ability and willingness to learn. Flexibility and adaptability. Practical/professional skills: these involve a limited range of specific skills and, more generally, the ability to follow instructions in order to make effective use of apparatus used in biomedical investigations. In the areas of biology and biomedical sciences, these skills are exemplified by the use of a microscope, the use of an oscilloscope, the use of a pH meter, the palpation of a pulse in the radial artery, or the use of a stethoscope. Key (transferable) skills: these relate, rather generally, to "employability", and include such things as ability to organise oneself, to work independently and to take initiatives; self-confidence; communication skills, written and oral - increasingly in more than one language; people skills, including the ability to work in teams and motivate others; numeracy; computer literacy (most or all of: word processing; use of the Internet; use of spreadsheets; use of statistical packages; use of databases; use of bibliographic search facilities). Ways in which Cambridge students develop transferable skills include: (1) informally through extracurricular activities; (2) through teaching either explicitly (e.g. language training, presentations, practical class work, research projects), incidentally (e.g. through supervisions) or voluntarily (e.g. through computing courses where these are not an essential part of the course). It is now being advocated that the acquisition of these, and other, skills should be acquired less haphazardly.] The objectives should be clearly relevant to fulfilling the educational aims.

Format and Word Limit Experience suggests that subject providers have found it difficult to summarise their aims and objectives within 500 words, particularly where the educational provision is large and complex. The word limit for the 1998-2000

QAA exercise has therefore bee n relaxed, and is as follows:

aims: maximum 250 words objectives: maximum 500 words for provision comprising up to 3 programmes; maximum 1,000 words for more extensive and diverse provision. The objectives for each programme and level of study should be clearly differentiated.

The statement of aims and objectives should be no longer than three pages of A4 (up to 1,250 words). Objectives in Medical Education There are certain specific objectives - subdivided into knowledge objectives, skills objectives and attitudinal objectives - that have been specified in Tomorrow's Doctors, published in 1993 by the General Medical Council. Medical education in Cam bridge must conform to these (generally uncontentious) objectives. There is no comparable list of objectives for natural science and veterinary students, and it is therefore the job of each major course provider to develop his/her own set of objectives within the scope of the overall University mission statement. PART II : PREPARING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES [This section is based on the work of Norman E. Gronlund Stating Behavioural Objectives for Classroom Instruction.] Typically, teachers, if they attempt to state instructional objectives, do so in terms of (1) the teacher's performance; (2) the learning process; or (3) the subject matter to be covered. For example, it would not be unusual to find the following as an instructional objective in many educational institutions: "To increase students' reading ability." The problem with the above statement is that it focuses upon what the teacher wants to do. Technically, once the teacher had carried out whatever plan he had prepared to "increase students' reading ability", he would have achieved his objective and we would be left wondering whether, in fact, students had increased their reading ability. The approach to preparing instructional objectives advocated here stresses focusing attention on the student and on the type of performance he is expected to demonstrate at the end of instruction. In other words, it is suggested that instructional objectives should be stated in terms of the desired learning outcomes. Following this suggestion, the above objective might reasonably read: "Comprehends assigned reading material." Note that this statement stresses what the student will be able to do after instruction rather than how the teacher will behave during instruction. Stating instructional objectives as learning outcomes contributes to the instructional process in the following ways: 1. 2. 3. It provides direction for the instructor, and it clearly conveys his instructional intent to others. It provides a guide for selecting the subject matter, the teaching methods, and the materials to be used during instruction. It provides a guide for constructing tests and other instruments for evaluating student achievement.

Defining learning outcomes is really a two-step process: 1. 2. Stating instructional objectives as general learning outcomes; and, Listing, under each instructional objective, a representative sample of the specific types of student behaviour that would indicate attainment of the objective.

Two examples are listed below, with the general learning outcome stated first, followed by representative samples of specific types of student behaviour that might indicate attainment of the objective. 1. 2. Understands the Meaning of Technical Terms. a. Defines the term in his own words. b. Identifies the meaning of the term when used in context. c. Distinguishes between terms that are similar in meaning. Understands Basic Principles. a. States the principle in his own words. b. Gives an example of the principle. c. Distinguishes between correct and incorrect applications of the principle.

Stating the general instructional objective first and then clarifying it further by listing types of specific behaviour that characterise the object makes clear that the instructional objective above is understanding, and that defining,

identifying, and distinguishing between are simply samples of the types of performance that represent understanding. It would be impossible to list all types of behaviour that might show understanding; therefore, one must settle for a representative sample of the types of behaviour that, in the judgement of the teacher, adequately describe the objective. Teaching efforts must be directed toward the general objectives of instruction and not toward the specific samples of behaviour selected to represent each objective. For example, in teaching an understanding of technical terms, we might have students listen to a lecture, study textbook definitions, compare and contrast the terms during class discussion, and use the terms in laboratory work. When we test the students, however, we would present them with a list of technical terms and ask them to define each term in their own words, identify the meaning of each term when used in a context, and distinguish between terms that are similar in meaning. Note that the test calls for a type of response that was not directly taught during instruction. This is necessary if the test behaviour is to show an understanding rather than merely a recall of previous training. When developing a list of general instructional objectives for a course or unit of course work, the aim is to obtain a list of general objectives to work toward and not a list of specific types of words that are particularly useful in articulating general instructional objectives. Examples are listed below: Applies Comprehends Knows Understands Uses Appreciates Thinks critically. Note that the above verbs are specific enough to provide direction for instruction without overly restricting the teacher or reducing the instruction to a simplistic level. They are also specific enough to be easily defined by a brief list of the types of behaviour students are to demonstrate when the objectives have been achieved. Choosing from eight to twelve general objectives will usually provide a list that is both manageable and suitable for a unit of instruction. When elaborating general instructional objectives so as to define specific learning outcomes, that is, identifying and listing under each objective a representative sample of specific types of behaviour that are to be used as evidence that the objective has been achieved, it is important to use verbs that indicate observable behaviour, that is, behaviour that can be seen by an outside observer. Such words as the following are particularly useful: Identifies Describes Lists Relates Explains Predicts Distinguishes Formulates Specifies Words like realises, sees, feels, suggests are less clear and therefore should be avoided. To illustrate once again the relationship between a general instructional objective and specific learning outcomes that can be used as evidence that the objective has been achieved, consider the following example: General Instructional Objective Uses critical thinking skills in reading. Specific Learning Outcomes (in behavioural terms) Distinguishes between facts and opinion. Distinguishes between facts and inferences. Identifies cause-effect relationships. Identifies errors in reasoning.

Distinguishes between relevant and irrelevant arguments. Distinguishes between warranted and unwarranted generalisations. Specifies assumptions needed to make conclusions true. Although this list of types of specific behaviour is by no means complete, a careful reading of the statements will provide a fairly good indication of what students are like when they are able to use critical thinking skills in reading. Thus, this list is perhaps comprehensive enough to clarify the instructional intent and short enough to be manageable and useful. During the process of defining the general instruction objectives, it may be necessary to modify the original list. In identifying the specific types of behaviour for the objectives, you may realise that some of them are too general and need to be subdivided. In defining other objectives, you might note that the specific types of behaviour overlap to such a degree that is desirable to combine two statements into a single objective. Thus, applies scientific procedures and plans simple experiments might best be combined into a single objective like uses the scientific method effectively. Because instructional objectives can be stated in many different ways and at various levels of generality, there is considerable flexibility in the formulation of the statements. Thus, the listing of specific types of behaviour provides a good opportunity for evaluating the original list of instructional objectives and for revising them if necessary. The ultimate aim, of course, is to derive a final list of general objectives and specific behaviours that most clearly indicate the learning outcomes expected from instruction. One further note. Beware of neglecting those objectives that are difficult to define. Simple objectives like knows common terms are easy to state in specific behavioural terms. There is a tendency to overload the list of instructional goals with such objectives because they are so easy to define. The more complex objectives, although difficult to define, are usually more important from an educational standpoint. Objectives pertaining to thinking skills, attitudes, and appreciation should not be slighted because of the difficulty of clearly defining them. In general summary, the procedure for defining instructional objectives should include the following steps: 1. 2. State the general instructional objectives as expected learning outcomes. Place under each general instructional objective a list of specific student behaviours that would indicate attainment of the objective. (a) Begin each specific learning outcome with a verb that specifies definite, observable behaviour. (b) List a sufficient number of specific learning outcomes under each objective to describe adequately the behaviour of students who have achieved the objective. (c) Be certain that the behaviour in each specific learning outcome is relevant to the object it describes. When defining the general instructional objectives in terms of specific learning outcomes, revise and refine the original list of objectives as needed, Be careful not to omit complex objectives (e.g., critical thinking, appreciation) simply because they are difficult to define in specific behavioural terms. Consult reference materials for help in identifying the specific types of behaviour that are most appropriate for defining the complex objectives.

3. 4. 5.

(3) Aims and Principles 1. The general aim of education is to contribute towards the development of all aspects of the individual, including aesthetic, creative, critical, cultural, emotional, expressive, intellectual, for personal and home life, for working life, for

living in the community and for leisure. 2. Leaving Certificate programmes are presented within this general aim, with a particular emphasis on the preparation of students for the requirements of further education or training, for employment and for their role as participative, enterprising citizens. 3. All Leaving Certificate programmes aim to provide continuity with and progression from the Junior Certificate programme. The relative weighting given to the various components e.g. personal and social (including moral and spiritual) development, vocational studies and preparation for further education and for adult and working life within the programmes may vary. 4. Programmes leading to the award of the Leaving Certificate are of two years duration and are offered in three forms: i. The Leaving Certificate (Established) ii. The Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme iii. The Leaving Certificate Applied 5. All Leaving Certificate programmes, in contributing to a high quality education, emphasise the importance of : self-directed learning and independent thought a spirit of inquiry, critical thinking, problem

solving, self-reliance, initiative and enterprise preparation for further education, for adult and working life lifelong learning

Preamble Policy Context Science education in the senior cycle should reflect the changing needs of students and the growing significance of science for strategic development in Ireland. Leaving Certificate Science syllabuses are designed to incorporate the following components: science for the enquiring mind or pure science, to include the principles, procedures and concepts of the subject as well as its cultural and historical aspects science for action or the applications of science and its interface with technology science that is concerned with issuespolitical, social and economicof concern to citizens. The three components are integrated within each science syllabus, with the first component having a 70% weighting. The remaining 30% should be allocated to the other two components in the ratio 3 to 1. The science syllabuses, which are offered at two levels, Higher and Ordinary, will have approximately 180

hours of class contact time over a two-year period. They should be practically and experimentally based in their teaching. LEAVING CERTIFICATE BIOLOGY SYLLABUS 1 LEAVING CERTIFICATE BIOLOGY SYLLABUS CONTENTS Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Unit One: Biology The Study of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Unit Two: The Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Unit Three: The Organism . . . . . . . 27 Syllabus Structure The syllabus is composed of science for the enquiring mind or pure science, which constitutes approximately 70% of the syllabus, and the technological, political, social and economic aspects of biology, which constitutes the remaining 30%. The syllabus consists of three units: Unit One: Biology - The Study of Life Unit Two: The Cell Unit Three: The Organism. The learning outcomes associated with the units of study are presented in four columns: Sub-units and topics Depth of treatment Contemporary issues and technology Practical activities. The sequence in which the syllabus is presented

does not imply any particular order of teaching. Teaching strategies should promote the aims and objectives of the syllabus. Professional discretion should be evident when dealing with sensitive topics in the syllabus. Duration The syllabus is designed for approximately 180 hours of class contact time (the equivalent of 270 class periods of 40 minutes duration or five class periods per week, to include at least one double period). A specific number of class periods for each sub-unit of the syllabus are recommended. These should be treated as a guideline intended to indicate the approximate amount of time needed. Teachers are encouraged to exercise discretion when allocating time periods to the various elements of the syllabus. Practical Activities In the course of their studies, students should undertake a range of practical work, laboratory work and fieldwork. Students should carry out these activities over the duration of the course. A record of this work should be retained. In all practical work safety must be a major concern. Teachers are encouraged to develop in their students positive attitudes and approaches to safety in the range of activities they encounter and to inculcate in them an awareness of the values of creating a safe working environment.

Standard laboratory safety precautions should be observed and care taken when carrying out activities. All legal and health regulations must be adhered to in activities involving live and dead organisms. Before rearing and maintaining organisms, detailed information on the appropriate methods for the rearing and maintenance of the organisms must be studied. These methods must be strictly adhered to during the activity. Students should appreciate the possibility for errors in activities and the precautions or controls that can be applied to reduce errors. Students should also be aware that the value of scientific method is limited by the extent of our own basic knowledge, by the basis of investigation, by our ability to interpret results, by its application to the natural world (which is always subject to change or variation) and by accidental discoveries.

(4) BSCS (Biological Sciences Curriculum Study) is a non-profit

curriculum study committed to transforming science teaching and learning.

Our vision and work are grounded in research about what makes a difference in education and what a high-quality science education could and should be. We use and generate research to continually raise the standards for the development of materials and services that promote the teaching and learning of science. We have a long history of developing exemplary curriculum materials, offering transformative professional development services, and conducting rigorous research and evaluation studies. As we continue in our commitment to transform science education, we are building upon the foundation of our past while seeking innovative opportunities to lead the science education community. We are committed to generating and using research to develop products and services that will improve science teaching and learning for all. MISSION STATEMENT Our mission is to transform science teaching and learning through research and development that strengthens learning environments and inspires a global community of scientifically literate citizens. Click here to sign up for an exclusive preview of a new feature called the BSCS LAB (Learning

And Beyond) upon its completion.

The BSCS community is made up of science educators and professional partners who fulfill a variety of roles within the science education community in general and the BSCS community in particular.
They attend national and regional conferences, serve as leaders in school districts and in policymaking, and participate on BSCS advisory boards for all kinds of projects, as field-test teachers for Professional Development and Curriculum Development projects, and as study sites for research projects. Being part of the BSCS community means you, like us, are committed to inspiring a global community of scientifically literate citizens. If you havent already done so, please join us! As a member of the BSCS eCommunity, youll receive news of BSCS projects and partnerships, including opportunities for you to become involved in ways that map to your professional goals. Shared vision, shared goals Learn more about our work Subscribe to the BSCS eCommunity Free resources for you

One of our primary organizational goals is to generate knowledge for the science education community that will contribute to understanding how to improve the teaching and learning of science for all students.
We have developed three lines of research: nature of curriculum, teacher learning and practice, and leadership and policy. Nature of Curriculum studies emphasize research-based characteristics of curriculum, delivery mechanisms, and the educative nature of materials; Teacher Learning and Practice studies how teachers grow professionally; and Leadership and Policy emphasizes studies about the influence of leadership and policy on stakeholders within various education systems. Collectively, these studies will generate new knowledge for the field, as well as help researchers and practitioners translate and use knowledge to inform their work. A collection of current and past BSCS research, published and unpublished, is available here for you to read and download. Use the website search function at the top of the page or view/sort options in the three Lines of Research sections above to help you in your search.

(5) One

of our primary organizational goals is to generate knowledge for the science education community that will contribute to understanding how to improve the teaching and learning of science for all students.
We have developed three lines of research: nature of curriculum, teacher learning and practice, and leadership and policy. Nature of Curriculum studies emphasize research-based characteristics of curriculum, delivery mechanisms, and the educative nature of materials; Teacher Learning and Practice studies how teachers grow professionally; and Leadership and Policy emphasizes studies about the influence of leadership and policy on stakeholders within various education systems. Collectively, these studies

will generate new knowledge for the field, as well as help researchers and practitioners translate and use knowledge to inform their work. A collection of current and past BSCS research, published and unpublished, is available here for you to read and download. Use the website search function at the top of the page or view/sort options in the three Lines of Research sections above to help you in your search.

One of our primary organizational goals is to generate knowledge for the science education community that will contribute to understanding how to improve the teaching and learning of science for all students.
We have developed three lines of research: nature of curriculum, teacher learning and practice, and leadership and policy. Nature of Curriculum studies emphasize research-based characteristics of curriculum, delivery mechanisms, and the educative nature of materials; Teacher Learning and Practice studies how teachers grow professionally; and Leadership and Policy emphasizes studies about the influence of leadership and policy on stakeholders within various education systems. Collectively, these studies will generate new knowledge for the field, as well as help researchers and practitioners translate and use knowledge to inform their work. A collection of current and past BSCS research, published and unpublished, is available here for you to read and download. Use the website search function at the top of the page or view/sort options in the three Lines of Research sections above to help you in your search.

One of our primary organizational goals is to generate knowledge for the science education community that will contribute to understanding how to improve the teaching and learning of science for all students.
We have developed three lines of research: nature of curriculum, teacher learning and practice, and leadership and policy. Nature of Curriculum studies emphasize research-based characteristics of curriculum, delivery mechanisms, and the educative nature of materials; Teacher Learning and Practice studies how teachers grow professionally; and Leadership and Policy emphasizes studies about the influence of leadership and policy on stakeholders within various education systems. Collectively, these studies will generate new knowledge for the field, as well as help researchers and practitioners translate and use knowledge to inform their work. A collection of current and past BSCS research, published and unpublished, is available here for you to read and download. Use the website search function at the top of the page or view/sort options in the three Lines of Research sections above to help you in your search.

One of our primary organizational goals is to generate knowledge for the science education community that will contribute to understanding how to improve the teaching and learning of science for all students.
We have developed three lines of research: nature of curriculum, teacher learning and practice, and leadership and policy. Nature of Curriculum studies emphasize research-based characteristics of curriculum, delivery mechanisms, and the educative nature of materials; Teacher Learning and Practice studies how teachers grow professionally; and Leadership and Policy emphasizes studies about the influence of

leadership and policy on stakeholders within various education systems. Collectively, these studies will generate new knowledge for the field, as well as help researchers and practitioners translate and use knowledge to inform their work. A collection of current and past BSCS research, published and unpublished, is available here for you to read and download. Use the website search function at the top of the page or view/sort options in the three Lines of Research sections above to help you in your search.

One of our primary organizational goals is to generate knowledge for the science education community that will contribute to understanding how to improve the teaching and learning of science for all students.
We have developed three lines of research: nature of curriculum, teacher learning and practice, and leadership and policy. Nature of Curriculum studies emphasize research-based characteristics of curriculum, delivery mechanisms, and the educative nature of materials; Teacher Learning and Practice studies how teachers grow professionally; and Leadership and Policy emphasizes studies about the influence of leadership and policy on stakeholders within various education systems. Collectively, these studies will generate new knowledge for the field, as well as help researchers and practitioners translate and use knowledge to inform their work. A collection of current and past BSCS research, published and unpublished, is available here for you to read and download. Use the website search function at the top of the page or view/sort options in the three Lines of Research sections above to help you in your search.

(6) General Characteristics

Good teachers are dynamic, patient, understanding and caring. They enjoy the company of young people and have the ability to see things from various points of view. They know how to explain concepts in several different ways depending upon the needs of their students. Their sense of humor helps them put troublesome situations into perspective. They are enthusiastic about teaching and they transmit their enthusiasm to their students, making even the boring appear interesting.

Knowledge
Biology teachers are knowledgeable about science in general, and about the characteristics of animal and plant life, in particular. They are lifelong learners who continue to keep current with the latest news, discoveries, and research results. They have an insatiable curiosity about life and a genuine interest in the natural world.

Personality
Biology teachers are enthusiastic, positive and encouraging. They possess the ability to see and transmit bigpicture concepts; they don't get bogged down in the minutiae of a topic. They explain how individual parts fit into the whole. They pay attention to detail. They have no embarrassment about explaining bodily functions to teens who might not have the maturity to deal with the subject matter seriously. They understand possible cultural or religious needs and the personal preferences of students who might be squeamish about performing animal dissection.

Physical Attributes
Biology teachers have good eyesight and are able to distinguish things under a microscope. They are not squeamish about handling living or dead animals. They are able to tolerate strong, unpleasant odors such as the smell of formaldehyde. A teacher is often a role-model to his students, which makes it quite important for him to have some good qualities. From my perspective those should be patience, kindness and of course, intelligence.

To begin with, patience is important, because, as being young and not experienced, the students often make mistakes. When the teacher isnt patient and gets annoyed or worse- starts screaming, the children will quit trying, in order to quit being wrong. For example, the math teacher in my primary school would get mad every time one gave her a wrong answer. So I stopped giving answers at all and hated math. Then in high school, having a smiling, patient teacher, I realized I liked math and was good at it. The second quality I believe is important for a teacher is kindness- in other words, having a smile on the face, not mixing personal life drama with work and enjoying the teachers profession. This is important, as it reduces the level of stress students have to deal with every day and allows them to have a calm, placid day at school. Otherwise the stress makes them aggressive and is the reason for fights and melees which often take innocent lives. An example for that are the tons of fights at school we watch on the news every day. Last but not least, a teacher should be intelligent and have knowledge, in order to pass it to the younger generation. Even if one is a great person, not having the knowledge needed will most surely make one unsuitable for the teachers profession. For instance, the biology teacher I had in high schoo l was the funniest one Ive ever had, which is why I and my classmates would be waiting impatiently for the next biology class. However, he didnt have a lot of knowledge, as far as biology goes and we didnt learn a thing. Later, when our teacher was changed, we all received low grades and had to give twice the effort in order to keep up. In conclusion, I would like to say, that being a teacher isnt only about being acknowledged in a certain area, as a lot of people think. Its also about being a person worth admiring, who has some nice qualities to pass. Job Description A biology teacher instills and helps students appreciate biological knowledge. Many times a biology teacher works alone in class with students. Presenting lessons and assessing the performance of each student in class are duties of a biology teacher. A biology teacher also plays a role in developing a curriculum which involves laboratory experiments and science research for students. Ensuring discipline is also part of the job description. Training A Bachelor of Science degree in biology with an education minor is required to become a biology teacher. You can also study biology with an education emphasis when the college does not offer minor degrees. Such a program, according to Education Portal, is likely to include courses such as mathematics, chemistry, physics and teaching methods. In addition, you need to have an understanding of different cultures for you to work effectively with diverse student populations. Licensure is required if you teach in a public school. Sponsored Links Stay Connected with Gmail Access your emails and docs from any computer or mobile phone! Mail.Google.com Skills You must have the ability to keep students fully engaged through instructions in the fundamentals of biology and make sure students gain new skills and knowledge. As a teacher, you are a coach. Being able to encourage interactive discussions among students in addition to your presentations is part of your job. You must also be able to inspire confidence and motivate students. A biology teacher needs the skills to work with students from various cultures. Technology, Jobs and Salary Technology plays a significant role in a modern classroom. A teacher can use films, overhead projector, computers and videos to present lessons.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics project job growth in the foreseeable future, especially in the Western and Southern states where populations are soaring. The annual median pay for a teacher is $49,420 at time of publication.

(7) A blueprint is a reproduction of a technical drawing, documenting an architecture or

an engineering design, using a contact print process on light-sensitive sheets. Invented in the 19th century, the process allowed rapid and accurate reproduction of documents used in construction and industry. The blue-print process was characterized by light colored lines on a blue background, a negative of the original. The process was unable to reproduce color or shades of grey. Various base materials have been used for blueprints. Paper was a common choice; for more durable prints linen was sometimes used, but with time, the linen prints would shrink slightly. To combat this problem, printing on imitation vellum and, later, polyester film (Mylar) was implemented. The process has been largely displaced by the diazo whiteprint process and by largeformat xerographic photocopiers, so reproduced drawings are usually called "prints" or just "drawings".

The blueprint process[edit]

In 1861 Alphonse Louis Poitevin, a French chemist, found that ferro-gallate in gum is light [1] sensitive. Light turns this to an insoluble permanent blue. A coating of this chemical on a paper or other base may be used to reproduce an image from a translucent document. The ferro-gallate is coated onto a paper from aqueous solution and dried. The coating is yellow. In darkness it is stable for up to three days. It is clamped under glass and a light transmitting document in a daylight exposure frame, which is similar to a picture frame. The frame is put out into daylight requiring a minute or two under a bright sun or about ten times this under an overcast sky. Where ultra-violet light is transmitted the coating converts to a stable blue or black dye. The image can be seen forming, when a strong image is seen the frame is brought indoors and the unconverted coating, under the original image, is washed away. The paper is then dried. The result is a copy of the original image with the clear background area rendered dark blue and the image reproduced as a white line. The image is stable. The contact printing process has the advantage that no large-field optical system is required. A further advantage is that the reproduced document will have the same scale as the original. Another quality is that the dark blue background makes it difficult to add new information to the print (such as recording as-built changes); a blueprint cannot easily be altered -- depending on the situation, this can be either a strength or a drawback. Since the paper is soaked in liquid during processing, a minor change of scale can occur,and the paper can also become brittle. Engineering drawings often are marked to remind users not to rely on [2] the scale of reproductions. Other blueprint processes based on photosensitive ferric compounds have been used. The best [3] known is probably a process using ammonium ferric citrate and potassium ferricyanide. In this procedure a distinctly blue compound is formed and the process is also known as cyanotype. The paper is impregnated with a solution of ammonium ferric citrate and dried. When the paper is illuminated a photoreaction turns the trivalent (ferric) iron into divalent (ferrous) iron. The image is then developed using a solution of potassium ferricyanide forming insoluble ferroferricyanide (Turnball's blue identical to Prussian blue) with the divalent iron. Excess ammonium ferric citrate and potassium ferricyanide are then washed away.

This is a simple process for the reproduction of any light transmitting document. Engineers and architects drew their designs on cartridge paper; these were then traced on to tracing paper usingIndian ink for reproduction whenever needed. Introduction of the blueprint process eliminated the expense of photolithographic reproduction or of hand-tracing of original drawings. By the latter 1890s in American architectural offices, a blueprint was [4] one-tenth the cost of a hand-traced reproduction. The blueprint process is still used for special [5] artistic and photographic effects, on paper and fabrics.

Replacements for blueprints[edit]

Traditional blueprints have largely been replaced by more modern, less expensive printing methods and digital displays. In the early 1940s, cyanotype blueprint began to be supplanted by diazo prints, also known as whiteprints, which have blue lines on a white background; thus these drawings are also called blue-lines or bluelines. Other comparable dye-based prints are known as blacklines. Diazo prints remain in use in some applications but in many cases have been replaced by xerographic print processes similar to standard copy machine technology using toner on bond paper. More recently, designs created using computer-aided design techniques may be transferred as a digital file directly to a computer printer or plotter; in some applications paper is avoided altogether and work and analysis is done directly from digital displays. Another common modern method of copying is the use of large-format scanners. These digitize an image which can then be printed with a large-format plotter. As print and display technology has advanced, the traditional term "blueprint" has continued to be used informally to refer to each type of image.

(8) AUDIO VISUAL AIDS Introduction:

Audio visual material must be seen in their relationship to teaching as a whole and to the learning process as a whole, until the teacher understands the relationship between audio visual material and teaching learning process. Audio visual materials are produced, distributed and used as planned components of educational programs. It helps the process of learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation. A.v. aids are multisensory materials which motivate and stimulate the individual. It makes dynamic learning experience more concrete realistic and clarity. It provides significant gains in thinking and reasoning. Audio visual aids are sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for learning. These are planned educational materials that appeal to the senses of the people and quicken learning facilities for clear understanding.

Definitions:
1. According to Kinder S. James: Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to make the learning experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.

2. According to Burton: audio visual aids are those sensory objects or images which initiate or stimulate and reinforce learning. 3. According to Carter.v.Good: audio visual aids are those aids which help in completing the triangular process of learning that is motivation, classification and stimulation. 4. According to goods dictionary of education: audio visual aids are any thing by means of which learning process may be encouraged or carried on through the sense of hearing or sense of sight. 5. According to Edger Dale: audio visual aids are those devices by the use of which communication of ideas between persons and groups in various teaching and training situations is helped. These are also termed as multi sensory materials.

6. According to McKean and Roberts: audio visual aids are supplementary devices by which the teacher, through the utilization of more than one sensory channel is able to clarify, establish and correlate concepts, interpretations andappreciations.
7. According to KP. Neeraja: an audio visual aid is an instructional device in which the message can be heard as well as seen.

Purposes:
To supplement and enrich teachers own teaching to make teaching-learning more concrete. To serve an instructional role in itself. To create interest among the group. To make teaching as an effective process.

Advantages:
1. A.V.Aids helps in effective perceptual and conceptual learning. 2. A.V.Aids helpful in capturing and sustaining attention of students. 3. A.V.Aids arouses interest and motivates students to learn. 4. A.V.Aids is helpful in new learning. 5. A.V.Aids helps in saving energy and time of both the teachers and students. 6. A.V.Aids provides near realistic experience.

7. A.V.Aids can meet individual demands. 8. A.V.Aids is useful in for education of masses.

Characteristics of good teaching aids:

Teaching aids should be Meaningful and purposeful

Motivates the learners Accurate in every aspect Simple and cheap Improvised Large in size Up-to-date Easily portable

According to intellectual level of students Sources of A.V.Aids:

Government Educational institutions Professional organizations Non-governmental organizations Voluntary organizations(national and international) Commercial producers of educational material Commercial advertisement In nursing organizations like TNAI, INC...etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF A.V.AIDS:
Various classifications are given for Audio visual aids according to the type of projection by various authors.

I)
I)

Classification of A.V.Aids

Audio aids

Audio materials are those which can be heard. Ex: - radio, tape recorder, walkman, Headphones. II) Visual aids: these are helpful to visualize the things. Ex:- graphic aids, 3d-aids, display boards, and print material. Audio visual aids: these aids can be heard and seen simultaneously. Ex: - projected aids, TV, films.

III)

II) Classification of A.V.Aids

I) II) Simple A.V.Aids: It includes graphic aids, display boards, 3d-aids, print material...etc. Sophisticated A.V.Aids: includes audio-visual aids.

PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED FOR THE EFFECTIVE USE OF A.V.AIDS:

Audio visual materials should function as an integral part of the educational program. A.v. aids should be centralized, under specialized direction and leadership in educational programs. An advisory committee consisting of representative from all areas of curriculum should be appointed to assist in selection and coordination of a.v. materials. An education program should be flexible. A.v. material should be carefully located to eliminate duplication, easy accessibility and convenient use. A.v. material should be available whenever and wherever they needed for effective utilization as an integral part of curriculum. Budget appropriations should be made regularly for a.v. education programs. Periodic evaluation to be done to assess the function of, utilization and expenditure of the program.

Classification of Teaching Aids Using audio-visual aids and other technologies developed in this modern scientific era for the purpose of achieving concrete education proves beneficial for teacher and student and

educational system as whole. It brings diversification in methods of instruction. They are equally useful at all levels of education. Appropriate use of audio-visual aids in teaching of English, Geography, History, Science, Languages, Art, Agriculture and many other technical and vocational subjects is increasing day by day. Prasad (2005) contend that audio-visual aids and their use are not only limited to educational purposes rather if we go back in history we find Martin Luther suggesting to use empty walls for the promotion of Protestant movement. Infect this idea leads to the invention of writing board or black board which is used today in almost every school world wide. Some other social objectives are also achieved through the use of audio-visual aids i.e. in an awareness campaign about Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) audio-visual aids are used. While studying the broad umbrella term of audio-visual aids, one can easily came across different types of audio-visual equipments ranging from simple hand-made charts to highly sophisticated projectors. The classification of audio-visual aids is presented graphically as under: In the broadest sense audio visual aids can be categorized under two heads i.e. 1.Projected Aids 2.Non-Projected Aids Audio-visual material contributes valuable experiences for teachers and students. Almost every form of instruction is based on verbalism, but the use of audio-visual aids minimizes the verbalism and facilitates students to concentrate and motivate them towards abstract thinking and imagination to better understand the concept. Projected Aids According to Sampath, Pannneerselvam and Santhan (1998)

projected aids involves an enlarge image of the material or text projected on a screen which is at a distance from the projector. While using projected aids (film strips, slide projector, overhead projection, opaque projection) the room is either totally dark or may be partially dark. The bright colors and images on the screen catch the attention; sound and motion will make presentation more dynamic as compared to non-projected aids. Projected aids are equally effective for every age group as well as small or large group. Equipments used for projection requires eclectic power. A clean white wall can be effectively used for front projection. Projected aids include: Filmstrips Filmstrips are connected series of pictures, drawings, photographs and diagrams joined together to illustrate a single concept, story or a lesson. According to Holmes (1968) the filmstrips differ from moving films as there is no appearance of movement. Slide Projector According to Sampath, Pannneerselvam and Santhan (1998) slides are commonly used instructional device to complement verbalism. They involve projection through the passing of strong light on transparent slide. Slide projector is a light house with a hauler for holding the slides. Slides projector proves valuable where motion in pictures is given less importance for comprehension. Slides require little more space for storage then filmstrips (Holmes, 1968). Overhead Projector Overhead projector is used to present large size transparencies with normal daylight condition (Botham 1967). The way slides require total or partial darkness; overhead projector does not require blackout. Students can take notes in the normal mode as they do when working without overhead

projector. The teacher or facilitator is completely facing the students; whereas the projected image or text is behind and over her/his head (Sampath, Pannneerselvam and Santhan, 1998). According to Brown, lewis and Harcleroad (1977) the speaker has full control over the timing and choice of why, when, what and how of presentation when using overhead projector.

9) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Inefficiencies and uncertainties are a broad range of burdens that a project can face during planning and implementation for organizations of all types and sizes. In order to alleviate the harmful consequences , the Project Management Organization (PMO) utilizes a phased approach to deliver projects on time, budget, and within scope, as well as to ensure quality, for the purpose of guaranteeing ample returns for the clients investment. Every project follows the following phases: Initiation, Planning, Execution, Control, and Closure. Throughout each one of these phases, deliverables are given to the client and stored on EPC Groups Project Web Access intranet page. The benefits are not only realized to the client, but also to the organization who is implementing the project in the form of consistent behavior across projects and greater precision, returns to scale, efficiency on customer delivery and increased customer satisfaction, and symbiotic organizations. This white paper discusses the ATLAS Project Management methodology and how an organization and its clients can gain from its consistent use in project planning and implementation. PROJECT INEFFICIENCIES AND UNCERTAINTIES Whenever a project begins, every organization faces a slew of potential problematic issues: time delays, exceeding budgets, bureaucratic hurdles, and unplanned resource necessities. These are only a few of the complexities that may arise as possible negative consequences of project development and implementation. With these complications come the potential damaging effects of increased life-spans of projects, financial burdens, or even the decline in a companys reputation with future clients. In response, inefficiencies and uncertainties are among the areas that an organization must attempt to eliminate by astute adherence to the principles of economics and proactive risk management. The basic mission of economics is to properly allocate resources, time, and funds most efficiently. Meanwhile, risk management attempts to minimize the uncertainties that can emerge unexpectedly. A proper framework to handle these harmful consequences becomes a prerequisite for any project implementation. The framework has to ensure also that all the stakeholders within the project have a designated role. Furthermore, it must be truly integrated as to where interdependencies are created and maintained amongst the stakeholders.

As a final point, all projects must be delivered according to certain constraints: scope, time, and cost. These parameters form together and are dynamic in nature. When one changes, it directly affects the others. For instance, exceeding the time constraints may mean increased cost and reduced scope. Each time this occurs, the quality of delivery, which is encapsulated by the three constraints, is affected. PROJECT MANAGEMENT ORGANIZATIONS ATLAS METHODOLOGY As a service to its clients, EPC Group manages its projects by utilizing the Project Management ATLAS Methodology, a standardized best practices approach defined through real world best project management practices. Every project follows the project management life cycle outlined below:

and the timetable of when the deliverables will be completed is identified. The Statement of Work is signed, Scope and High Level Requirements are defined, and the Project Manager (PM) is chosen.

This schedule contains the activities necessary to fulfill the requirements characterized in the Initiation phase, based upon the best solution recommended. Required resources are identified, confirmed, and assigned to the tasks with estimates of labor effort. Additionally, critical technical resources are identified, estimated, and incorporated into the schedule as well for acquisition and installation purposes. o Supporting plan definitions are also completed during the planning phase of the project. These include defining the communication plans, escalation procedures, change management plans, etc. -off of the project in which all team members are briefed on the objectives of the project, the methodology to be employed, the procedures to be followed, the project schedule, and each individuals roles and responsibilities.

Controlling also includes taking preventative actions in anticipation of possible problems, including issue and risk management, holding weekly status meetings, and collecting resource actual hours worked.

Phase End Assessments/Reviews: Phase end assessments/reviews are performed with the client to review all deliverables within a phase and to determine if the project is a go or no go to the next phase. PROJECT MANAGEMENT DELIVERABLES In addition to the phase objectives, Project Management deliverables are expected throughout the lifecycle as tangible evidence of the status of the project. All project documentation will be stored on the Project Workspace Site within EPC Groups intranet. Below is a list of deliverables that are expected during each phase of the project:

and planning deliverables. This document is reviewed and approved by the client prior to the kick-off of the project. The project schedule milestones and controlling procedures are maintained within this document as well. -off will be performed with project team members to ensure consistent communication and understanding of the project objectives, expectations, and processes. Kick-off presentation and all supporting documentation are delivered.

o Weekly Status Meetings: Status meetings will be held with the project team and key stakeholders to track and communicate project status and progress.

g Minutes

o Project Status Report: A formal project status report will be provided to the stakeholders on a weekly basis. o Collection of Actual Hours expended on the project task: Hours are logged by the resources directly into Enterprise Project Management (EPM). Once the PM approves the hours, they are applied to the project schedule and, then, will assess the impact and maintenance of the schedule to keep the project on track. o Risk and Issue Management: All issues and risks are tracked in the Project Workspace and are also covered in the weekly status meetings. o Change Management: All changes to the project will follow the defined Change Management process and will be tracked in the Project Workspace. All changes to the project must approved by the Change Control Board. -off has been obtained from the client, the project will move into a project closure state. Surveys are sent to the project team members and stakeholders to gather information needed. o Conduct Closure Meeting: During the closure meeting lessons learned are gathered and project statistics are shared with the team. o Closure Report: All final project information and statistics are documented in this report and are provided to the client, as well as archived with all project documentation in the Project

Workspace site. POSITIVE PROJECT DELIVERY EPC Groups employment of this roadmap for the promotion of our customers projects has led to numerous instances of the benefits outlined in the time, cost, scope, and quality figure. The following are a few accounts of where the PMO ATLAS Methodology has ensured the best results to guarantee customer satisfaction: volving a branch of the U.S. Military, a delay in obtaining hardware occurred as a result of the client. Owing to efficient time management and scheduling, the Project Management was able to change task logic and overlap a few activities that would allow the project to be kept on track for delivery. Because of this effort, EPC Group was able to get the environment in and system in for User Acceptance Testing (UAT), as scheduled. The client was satisfied, and no commitments were missed. -Effectiveness: By tracking the actual hours spent and cost on the U.S. Military branchs project, the Project Manager has been able to determine also that the project is under budget. In doing so, this has allowed EPC Group to work with the client to meet some special reporting needs that were requested that still were in scope. The expectations of the client were exceeded.

determined that international site visits were necessary to gain buy-in on the project requirements; therefore, a change request was submitted to add these to the project schedule. These were in scope as defined in the project. However, the change in the requirement impacted the overall timeline of the project and would cause significant impacts to all project milestones. During these discussions, the client decided they wanted to add additional functionality to the defined project and these were not in scope. The client was informed that these additional items could be done

10) An achievement test is a test of developed skill or knowledge. The most common type of
achievement test is a standardized test developed to measure skills and knowledge learned in a given grade level, usually through planned instruction, such as training or classroom [1][2] instruction. Achievement tests are often contrasted with tests that measure aptitude, a more general and stablecognitive trait. Achievement test scores are often used in an educational system to determine what level of instruction for which a student is prepared. High achievement scores usually indicate a mastery of grade-level material, and the readiness for advanced instruction. Low achievement scores can indicate the need for remediation or repeating a course grade. Under No Child Left Behind, achievement tests have taken on an additional role of assessing proficiency of students. Proficiency is defined as the amount of grade-appropriate

knowledge and skills a student has acquired up to the point of testing. Better teaching practices are expected to increase the amount learned in a school year, and therefore to increase achievement scores, and yield more "proficient" students than before. When writing achievement test items, writers usually begin with a list of content standards (either written by content specialists or based on state-created content standards) which specify exactly what students are expected to learn in a given school year. The goal of item writers is to create test items that measure the most important skills and knowledge attained in a given grade-level. The number and type of test items written is determined by the grade-level content standards. Content validity is determined by the representativeness of the items included on the final test.

CONSTRUCTION OF AN ACHIEVEMENT TEST

Achievement Test

Any test designed to assess the achievement in any subject with regard to a set of predetermined objectives Major steps involved in the construction of achievement test

Planning of test Preparation of a design for the test Preparation of the blue print Writing of items Preparation of the scoring key and marking scheme Preparation of question-wise analysis

1. Planning of test

Objective of the Test Determine the maximum time and maximum marks

2. Preparation of a design for the test

Important factors to be considered in design for the test are: Weightage to objectives Weightage to content Weightage to form of questions Weightage to difficulty level.

Advantages of Objective Type Items

A large amount of study material can be tested in a very short period time Economy of time. Objectivity of scoring. No bluffing

It reduces the subjective element of the examiner to the minimum. If carefully planned, it can measure the higher mental process of understanding, application, analysis, prediction and interpretation. Limitations of Objective type items

Difficulty in preparing good items. Problem of guessing. Problem of cheating. Inefficiency in testing complicated skills High printing cost. Emphasis on testing superficial knowledge.

2. Short answer type

A question requiring three value points at most may be defined as a short answer question. Value points diminish the subjectivity. Help in ensuring wide coverage of content. Advantages of Short answer Type Items

Large portion of the content can be covered in a test. No opportunity for guessing. Easy to construct, because it measures a relatively simple outcomes. It can be made quit objective by carefully fixing the value points. Useful in evaluating the ability to interpret diagrams, charts, graphs, etc. If carefully prepared, deep level objectives understanding, application and problem solving skill can be evaluated. Limitations of Short answer Type Items

It is more subjective than the objective type of items. It may encourage student to memories fact and develop poor study habits. Mechanical scoring is not possible

3. Essay type

It is free response test item. Help in ensuring a wide coverage of content and variety of objectives. Help in evaluating complex skills.

Advantages Essay Type Items

Easy to prepare. Useful in measuring certain abilities and skills. Permit the examinee to write down comprehensively what he knows about something. Promote originality and creative thinking. Possibility of guess work can be eliminated.

Reduce chance on the spot copying. Low printing cost.

Limitations of Essay Type Items

Minimum validity. Lack of reliability. No objectivity. Rote memory is encouraged. It is a time consuming test item.

(11) Educational evaluation is the evaluation process of characterizing and appraising some
aspect/s of an educational process. There are two common purposes in educational evaluation which are, at times, in conflict with one another. Educational institutions usually require evaluation data to demonstrate effectiveness to funders and other stakeholders, and to provide a measure of performance for marketing purposes. Educational evaluation is also a professional activity that individual educators need to undertake if they intend to continuously review and enhance the learning they are endeavoring to facilitate.

Standards for educational evaluation[edit]

The Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation published three sets of standards for [1] educational evaluations. The Personnel Evaluation Standards was published in 1988, The Program [2] Evaluation Standards (2nd edition) was published in 1994, and The Student Evaluations [3] Standards was published in 2003. Each publication presents and elaborates a set of standards for use in a variety of educational settings. The standards provide guidelines for designing, implementing, assessing and improving the identified form of evaluation. Each of the standards has been placed in one of four fundamental categories to promote evaluations that are proper, useful, feasible, and accurate.

The Personnel Evaluation Standards[edit]

The propriety standards require that evaluations be conducted legally, ethically, and with due regard for the welfare of evaluatees and clients involved in. The utility standards are intended to guide evaluations so that they will be informative, timely, and influential. The feasibility standards call for evaluation systems that are as easy to implement as possible, efficient in their use of time and resources, adequately funded, and viable from a number of other standpoints. The accuracy standards require that the obtained information be technically accurate and that conclusions be linked logically to the data.

The Program Evaluation Standards[edit]

The utility standards are intended to ensure that an evaluation will serve the information needs of intended users.

The feasibility standards are intended to ensure that an evaluation will be realistic, prudent, diplomatic, and frugal. The propriety standards are intended to ensure that an evaluation will be conducted legally, ethically, and with due regard for the welfare of those involved in the evaluation, as well as those affected by its results. The accuracy standards are intended to ensure that an evaluation will reveal and convey technically adequate information about the features that determine worth or merit of the program being evaluated.

The Student Evaluation Standards[edit]

The Propriety standards help ensure that student evaluations are conducted lawfully, ethically, and with regard to the rights of students and other persons affected by student evaluation. The Utility standards promote the design and implementation of informative, timely, and useful student evaluations. The Feasibility standards help ensure that student evaluations are practical; viable; cost-effective; and culturally, socially, and politically appropriate. The Accuracy standards help ensure that student evaluations will provide sound, accurate, and credible information about student learning and performance.

Criticism of educational evaluation[edit]

Evaluation in a democratic school[edit]
Sudbury model of democratic education schools do not perform and do not offer evaluations, assessments, transcripts, or recommendations, asserting that they do not rate people, and that school is not a judge; comparing students to each other, or to some standard that has been set is for them a violation of the student's right to privacy and to self-determination. Students decide for themselves how to measure their progress as self-starting learners as a process of self-evaluation: real lifelong [1] learning and the proper educational evaluation for the 21st Century, they adduce. According to Sudbury schools( Riaz Institute of education and research.)..., this policy does not cause harm to their students as they move on to life outside the school. However, they admit it makes the process more difficult, but that such hardship is part of the students learning to make their own way, set their own standards and meet their own goals. The no-grading and no-rating policy helps to create an atmosphere free of competition among students or battles for adult approval, and encourages a positive co-operative environment amongst [2] the student body. The final stage of a Sudbury education, should the student choose to take it, is the graduation thesis. Each student writes on the topic of how they have prepared themselves for adulthood and entering the community at large. This thesis is submitted to the Assembly, who reviews it. The final stage of the thesis process is an oral defense given by the student in which they open the floor for questions, challenges and comments from all Assembly members. At the end, the Assembly votes by secret [3] ballot on whether or not to award a diploma. Measurement vs Evaluation Measurement and evaluation are concepts that hold great significance in all human activities. While driving a car, you cannot measure the distance between two yet are able to cruise in between the vehicles as you evaluate that you are safe and make an assessment on the basis of what your eyes see. Yes, measurement is more accurate as it yield standard results and you can make compare the results of two students in an exam on the basis of marks secured by them in individual subjects. Measurements make a strong basis for evaluation and you dare to compare two objects when you

know their measurements. However, evaluation becomes necessary even without measurements when there are none to take as in the case of evaluating two novels or paintings. Measurement and evaluation are very important tools in teaching profession which makes it prudent to have a better understanding of the two methods. Measurement is easy to implement as it is a scientific process of knowing the attributes of an object. You have tools for measurement such as speedometer to measure the velocity of a moving car, weighing machine to measure the weight of an individual and a thermometer to measure the temperature of an object. Measurement tells you how hot, fast, tall, heavy, dense, or long (scores of other attributes) an object is. Of course you can make measurements of physical attributes, but what do you do when you have to measure attributes that have not been standardized to be easily measured with tools. This is where evaluation comes into picture. The word value inside evaluation is enough to convey an impression that you are passing your judgment about a thing or an individual. You evaluate a plan, a process, success or failure of a method, policies of a government, fairness or lack of it in a judicial system, and so on. You do not have the advantage of tools to make measurements in such cases but still evaluation is done. Of course, evaluation becomes much easier when measured results are available. But evaluation has its own importance and used widely in many situations. Summary Measurement is the process of knowing about physical qualities of objects and individuals such as length, weight, height, volume, density, and so on. On the other hand there are circumstances where measurement is not possible. This is where evaluation is done on the basis of either comparison or assessment. Evaluation helps in passing judgment about policies, performances, processes, and so on.

Measurement, assessment, and evaluation are three methods used in educational system. Each one of them has its features and way. Although they are used in educational aspect, also used in another aspects and there are many differences between them. First, according to the use of the data that we get from measurement, it could not be useful. It depends on the user's skills and instruments. However, data of assessment is useful. Second, the differences of aspects for each one. The aspects of measurement are attributes or dimensions of some physical object, IQ of person and attitudes or preferences. On the other hand, the aspects of assessment are skills, understanding and person's knowledge. Evaluation could be for situations, people and conditions. Third, the assessment could be established every day, month or could be at the end of the year. In fact, every time the teacher gives the students test she assesses them. In contrast, the evaluation must be every day. Fourth, the instruments that are used to measure particularly in dimension are ruler, scale and thermometer. On the other hand, in assessing skills we need SAT and GRE. Fifth, we measure things according to standard or established rule. While in assessment we assess according to criteria of quality. Finally, three of them are like three branches in a tree. They are separated and connected. Only further reading