CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.

1 GENERAL
Bidirectional dc-dc converters (BDC) have recently received a lot of attention due to the increasing need to systems with the capability of bidirectional energy transfer between two dc buses. Apart from traditional application in dc motor drives, new applications of BDC include energy storage in renewable

energy systems, fuel cell energy systems, hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).The fluctuation nature of most renewable energy resources, like wind and solar, makes them unsuitable for standalone operation as the sole source of power. A common solution to overcome this problem is to use an energy storage device besides the renewable energy resource to compensate for these fluctuations and maintain a smooth and continuous power flow to the load. As the most common and economical energy storage devices in medium-power range are batteries and super-capacitors, a dc-dc converter is always required to allow energy exchange between storage device and the rest of system. Such a converter must have bidirectional power flow capability with flexible control in all operating modes. In HEV applications, BDCs are required to link different dc voltage buses and transfer energy between them. For example, a BDC is used to exchange energy between main batteries (200-300V) and the drive motor with 500V dc link. High efficiency, lightweight, compact size and high reliability are some important requirements for the BDC used in such an application. BDCs also have applications in line-interactive UPS which do not use double conversion technology and thus can achieve higher efficiency.
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In a line-interactive UPS, the UPS output terminals are connected to the grid and therefore energy can be fed back to the inverter dc bus and charge the batteries via a BDC during normal mode. In backup mode, the battery feeds the inverter dc bus again via BDC but in reverse power flow direction. BDCs can be classified into non-isolated and isolated types. Non-isolated BDCs (NBDC) are simpler than isolated BDCs (IBDC) and can achieve better efficiency. However, galvanic isolation is required in many applications and mandated by different standards. The complexity of IBDCs stems from the fact that an ac link must be present in their structure in order to enable power transfer via a magnetically isolating media, i.e. a transformer. As isolation and/or voltage matching is required in many applications. It should be stated that in order to improve the efficiency, almost all recently proposed medium-power IBDC configurations have exploited the benefits of softswitching or resonant techniques to increase the switching frequency and achieve lower size and weight.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The objective of this project is to get high voltage gain without using Snubber circuit by using Zero current switching and Zero voltage switching techniques.

1.3 APPLICATIONS
Fuel cell energy conservation systems Solar cell energy conservation systems Battery back-up system for un interruptiple power supplies.

CHAPTER 2 DC/DC BOOST CONVERTER

In voltage

many

industrial

applications, it is required to convert a fixed

DC source into a variable voltage dc source. A DC chopper converts

directly from DC to DC and it is also known as a DC to DC converter. This can be considered as the DC equivalent to an AC transformer with a Continuous variable turns ratio and like a transformer; this down DC voltage source. This DC to DC regulators. can step up or step

converter is used in dc Voltage

2.1 MODES OF OPERATION

CCM DCM

2.2 ADVANTAGES
Used in much wider range voltage application. High level dc is converted to desired level with simple diode Circuit

2.3 DISADVANTAGE
Used only for low voltage systems Cost is high

CHAPTER 3 BI-DIRECTIONAL DC CONVERTERS

BDCs also have applications in line-interactive UPS which do not use double conversion technology and thus can achieve higher efficiency. In a line interactive UPS, the UPS output terminals are connected to the grid and therefore energy can be fed back to the inverter dc bus and charge the batteries via a BDC during normal mode. In backup mode, the battery feeds the inverter dc bus again via BDC but in reverse power flow direction.

BDCs can be classified into non-isolated and isolated types. Non-isolated BDCs (NBDC) are simpler than isolated BDCs (IBDC) and can achieve better efficiency. However, galvanic isolation is required in many applications and mandated by different standards.

3.1 TYPES OF BDC 3.1.1 NON-ISOLATED BDC

Basic dc-dc converters such as buck and boost converters (and their derivatives) do not have bidirectional power flow capability. This limitation is due to the presence of diodes in their structure which prevents reverse current flow. In general, a unidirectional dc-dc converter can be turned into a bidirectional converter by replacing the diodes with a controllable switch in its structure. As an example, Fig. 1 shows the structure of elementary buck and boost converters and how they can be transformed into bidirectional converters by replacing the diodes in their structure. It is noteworthy that the resulted converter has the same structure in both cases.
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Some of the major limitations associated with the NBDC are: It can only operate in buck mode in one direction and boost in the other. In technical terms, this means that the voltage ratio d, which is defined as d= VB/VA, is either smaller or greater than unity in one direction. When the voltage ratio becomes large, this structure becomes impractical. The lack of galvanic isolation between two sides.

3.1.2 ISOLATED BDC (IBDC):

Galvanic isolation between multi-source systems is a requirement mandated by many standards. Personnel safety, noise reduction and correct operation of protection systems are the main reasons behind galvanic isolation. Voltage matching is also needed in many applications as it helps in designing and optimizing the voltage rating of different stages in the system. Both galvanic isolation and voltage matching are usually performed by a magnetic transformer in power a electronic system, which call for an ac link for proper energy transfer. Although this approach is similar to unidirectional dc-dc converters, the need to bidirectional power flow significantly adds to the system complexity. Furthermore, when high efficiency soft-switching techniques are to be applied, this complexity tends to be more. While different terminologies have been proposed and used in the literature, a unified terminology is introduced and used throughout the project to simplify the comparison between different structures. A classification is provided which helps in understanding the conceptual similarities and differences between different structures.
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CHAPTER 4 ZERO CURRENT SWITCHING (ZCS)

The switches of a zero current switching (ZCS) turn-on and turn-off at zero current. The resonant circuit that consists of switch S, inductor L and capacitor C. Inductor L is connected in series with a power switch S to achieve zero current switching (ZCS). When switch current is zero, there is current flowing through the internal capacitance due to a finite slope of the switch voltage at turn-off. This current flow causes power dissipation in the switch and limits the high switching frequency.

4.1 ZERO CURRENT SWITCHING RESONANT CONVERTERS

The switches of Zero Current Switching (ZCS) resonant converters turn on and off at zero current. The resonant circuit that consists f switch S1, inductor L, and capacitor C is shown. The inductor L is connected in series with power switch S1 to achieve ZCS. It is classified into two types L type and M type. In both the types the inductor L limits the di/dt of the switch current and L and C constitute a series resonant circuit. When the switch current is zero there is a current i=Cj.dvt/dt flowing through the internal capacitance Cj due to finite slope of switch voltage at turn off. This current flow causes power dissipation in the switch and limits the high switching frequency.

The switch can be implemented either in half wave configuration where diode D1 allows unidirectional current flow or in full-wave configuration where the
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switch current can flow bidirectionally. The practical devices do not turn off at zero current due to their recovery time.

Lr

Lr

Cr S S Cr (b)

(a)

Figure 4.1 Zero current resonant switching

As a result, an amount of energy can be trapped in inductor L of the m-type configuration and voltage transients appear across the switch. This normally favors L type configuration over M type one.

CHAPTER 5 ZERO VOLTAGE SWITCHING (ZVS)

The switches of a zero voltage switching turn-on and turn-off at zero voltage. The capacitor C is connected in parallel with the switch S to achieve zero voltage switching. The internal switch capacitance is added with the capacitor and it affects resonant frequency only, thereby contributing no power dissipation in the switch. In Zero voltage switching the switch in converter is turned ON and turned OFF at zero voltage across the switch. Here capacitor is used as Filter circuit. The function of capacitor is to produce zero voltage across the switch.

5.1 ZERO-VOLTAGE-SWITCHING RESONANT CONVERTERS

The switches of ZVS resonant converters turn on and off at zero voltage. The capacitor C is connected in parallel with the switch S1 to achieve ZVS. The internal switch capacitance Cj is added with the capacitor C and it affects the resonant frequency only, thereby contributing no power dissipation in the switch. If the switch is implemented with transistor Q1 and an anti-parallel diode D1 as shown, the voltage across C is clamped by D1 and the switch is operated in half wave configuration. If the diode D1 is connected in series with Q1 as shown, the voltage across C can oscillate freely and the switch is operated in full wave configuration.

A ZVS resonant converter is shown in Figure 5.1. converter is the dual of ZCS resonant converter.

A ZVS resonant

Lr

Lr

Cr S S Cr (b)

(a)

Figure 5.1 Zero voltage resonant switching

In a ZV resonant switch, a capacitor Cr is connected in parallel with the switch S for achieving zero-voltage-switching (ZVS). If the switch S is a unidirectional switch, the voltage across the capacitor Cr can oscillate freely in both positive and negative half-cycle. Thus, the resonant switch can operate in full-wave mode. If a diode is connected in anti-parallel with the unidirectional switch, the resonant capacitor voltage is clamped by the diode to zero during the negative half-cycle. The resonant switch will then operate in half-wave mode. The objective of a ZV switch is to use the resonant circuit to shape the switch voltage waveform during the off time in order to create a zero-voltage condition for the switch to turn on.

CHAPTER 6 COMPARISON OF ZCS AND ZVS RESONANT CONVERTERS

ZCS can eliminate switching losses at turnoff and reduce the switching losses at turn on. Because a relatively large capacitor is connected across the diode Dm the inverter operation becomes insensitive to the diodes junction capacitance. When power MOSFETs are used for ZCS the energy stored in the devices capacitance is dissipated during turn on. This capacitive turn on loss is proportional to the switching frequency. During turn on a high rate of change of voltage may appear in the gate drive circuit due to the coupling through the Miller capacitor, thus increasing switching loss and noise.

Another limitation is that the switches are under high current stress, resulting in higher conduction loss. By the nature of ZCS, the peak switch current is much higher. In addition, a high voltage becomes established across the switch in the off state after the resonant oscillation. When the switch is turned on again, the energy stored in the output capacitor becomes discharged through the switch, causing a significant power loss at high frequency and higher voltages.

This switching loss can be reduced by using ZVS. ZVS eliminates the capacitive turn on loss. It is suited for high frequency operation. Without any voltage clamping, the switches may be subjected to excessive voltage stress which is proportional to the load and the output voltage can be achieved by varying the frequency.

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CHAPTER 7 PROPOSED CONVERTER

This project proposes a novel and simple ZCS-primary, ZVS-secondary converter without a need for an active clamp or passive snubbers. In this project, authors have concentrated on improving the efficiency of the current-fed converter by ZCS operation of the converter switches as well as reduction in size and cost by eliminating the need of passive snubbers or active clamp circuit.

It replaces the output rectifier diodes by active switches. However, this ZCS concept is applicable to half-bridge voltage doubler rectifier on secondary. The currents through primary and secondary switches start building from zero with a slope depending on the transformer leakage inductance causing zero-current turn on of the switches resulting in reduced switching losses. The proposed topology has reduced circulating current and reduced switching losses and therefore, is expected to show better part-load efficiency than hard-switching and active-clamp current-fed converter

Figure 7.1 Proposed ZCS current-fed half-bridge dc/dc converter

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In forward direction the converter acts as a two-phase isolated boost (current-fed half-bridge) converter and in reverse directional, the converter acts as voltage-fed full bridge current doubler dc/dc converter. Electrolytic capacitors consume a major volume of the converter.

The proposed topology has only one electrolytic capacitor compared to four large capacitors and two large input capacitors. Due to dual boost topology, it also needs half if the transformer turns ratio. Due to two phase input, the current is divided and it reduces the current stresses through the switches and the transformer, reducing their KVA ratings.

It has low components count. Switching losses are reduced a lot due to softswitching of primary and secondary devices and higher efficiency. It allows high switching frequency operation, which results in compact and low cost system. The objectives of this project are to present steady-state operation and analysis of the proposed converter has been reported. The objectives of this project are to present the analysis and design of the active-clamped current-fed full-bridge dc/dc converter.

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CHAPTER 8 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 8.1 General block diagram of proposed converter

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8.1

OPERATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE CONVERTER

Before the instant, gating signal of the primary-side switch is removed, a

secondary side switch is turned on. The reflected output voltage Vo/n appears across the transformer primary. It diverts the current from the primary switch into the transformer, causing transformer current to rise and the primary switch current to fall to zero. Then the body diode across the primary switch starts conducting and the gating signal is removed causing its ZCS turn-off.

The following assumptions are made during analysis of the converter: Inductors L1 and L2 are assumed large so that the current through them can be considered constant. Magnetizing inductance of the transformer is assumed infinitely large. All the components are assumed ideal. Llk is the leakage inductance of the transformer or a series inductor that includes the transformer leakage inductance.

The steady-state operating waveforms of the proposed converter are Primary side switches S1 and S2 are controlled by gating signals shifted in phase by 180 with an overlap. The overlap varies with duty cycle. Fixed frequency duty cycle modulation is used for control.

The duty cycle of the primary switches is always greater than 50%. The operation of the converter during different intervals ina HF half cycle is explained using the equivalent circuits for the next half cycle. The intervals are repeated in the same sequence with other symmetrical devices conducting to complete the full HF cycle.
14

The analysis is done to obtain the design equations to design and select the components as well as to evaluate the converters performance theoretically. The operation of the converter during different intervals in a half HF cycle is explained using the equivalent circuits.

8.2

MODES OF OPERATION

8.2.1 MODE 1 (Interval to < t < t1; Figure 8.2):

During this interval, primary side switch S1 and anti-parallel body diodes D4 and D5 of secondary side switches are conducting. Power is fed to the load from the source through the HF transformer. Transformer leakage inductance current is negative and constant. Switch S1 is carrying the entire input current.

Figure 8.2 Mode 1 Operation of proposed converter

is1 = Iin. iS2 = 0, ilk = -Iin/2, iD4 = Iin/n. Voltage across the switch S2 Vs2 = Vo/n.

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8.2.2 MODE 2 (Interval t1 < t < t2; Figure 8.3):

In this interval, switch S2 is turned on. Device capacitance across the device S2 discharges quickly. It is a very short interval.

Figure 8.3 Mode 2 Operation of proposed converter

8.2.3 MODE 3 (Interval t2 < t < t3; Figure 8.4):

In this interval, primary side switch S2 starts conducting. The transformer leakage inductance starts transferring the current to switch S2 with a slope limited by Llk. The current is a ramp, starts from zero, causing zero current turn-on of the switch S2. It reduces losses associated with turn-on process of primary switch S2. The current through the several components are given by

Figure 8.4 Mode 3 Operation of proposed converter

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At the end of this interval t = t3, switch current iS1 reduces to Iin/2, leakage current ilk reaches zero, switch current iS2 increases to Iin/2 and secondary switch/diode current reduces to zero.

8.2.4 MODE 4 (Interval t3 < t < t4; Figure 8.5):

In this interval, secondary switches S4 and S5 are turned-on with ZVS. The current through the components are rising or falling with the same slope. At the end of this interval, the switch current iS1 naturally reaches to zero attaining zerocurrent switching turn-off. Final values are: iS2 = Iin, iS1 = 0, ilk = Iin/2, iS4 = Iin/n.

Figure 8.5 Mode 4 Operation of proposed converter

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8.2.5 MODE 5 (Interval t4 < t < t5; Figure 8.6):

During this interval, the anti-parallel body diode D1 of switch S1 starts conducting causing zero voltage across the switch S1 ensuring its ZCS. Still the current through the components are rising or falling with the same slope. Switch current iS2 and transformer leakage inductance current ilk attain their peak values. This interval should be short in order the limit the peak current through the components reducing the current stress and KVA rating. The current through the several components are given by

Figure 8.6 Mode 5 Operation of proposed converter

It is clear that peak current through the primary switches is a little higher than Iin and transformer leakage inductance current is a little higher than Iin/2. This is a diode conduction interval and is kept short.

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8.2.6 MODE 6: (Interval t5 < t < t6; Figure 8.7):

In this interval, secondary switches S4 and S5 are turned-off. Other pair of body diodes of the secondary switches takes over the current immediately. The current through the several components are given by

Figure 8.7 Mode 6 Operation of proposed converter

The peak current through the switch S2 and transformer leakage inductance Llk decreases to values similar to final values of interval 4. Body diode D1 of switch S1 commutates at the end of this interval. Final values are: iS2 = Iin, iD1 = 0, ilk = Iin/2, iS4 = Iin/n.

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8.2.7 MODE 7 (Interval t6 < t < t7; Figure 8.8):

In this interval, device capacitance of switch S1 charges to Vo/n. This interval is very small, getting the switch into forward blocking mode.

Figure 8.8 Mode 7 Operation of proposed converter

8.2.8 MODE 8: (Interval t7 < t < t8; Figure 8.9):

In this interval, steady-state is achieved. Constant current is flowing through switch S2, leakage inductance Llk and body diode of secondary switch.

Figure 8.9 Mode 8 Operation of proposed converter

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Half HF switching cycle ends here with the end of this interval. For the next half cycle, the intervals are repeated in the same sequence with other symmetrical devices conducting to complete the full HF cycle.

7.3 OPERATING WAVEFORMS

The operating waveforms for the proposed converter is shown in Figure 8.10.

Fig 8.10 Operating waveforms of the proposed converter

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CHAPTER 9 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

9.1

MOSFET
The symbol diagram and pin diagram of the Mosfet are shown in

Figure 9.1

Figure 9.1 Symbol and pin diagram of MOSFET The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. Although the MOSFET is a four-terminal device with source (S), gate (G), drain (D), and body (B) terminals,[1] the body (or substrate) of the MOSFET often is connected to the source terminal, making it a three-terminal device like other field-effect transistors. Because these two terminals are normally connected to each other (short-circuited) internally, only three terminals appear in electrical diagrams. The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog circuits, though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more common.
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9.1.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION:

In our project the MOSFET switch is connected to the main circuit.Here we have two switches namely Primary switches S1, and S2. Secondary switches Sr1, Sr2, Sr3, and Sr4.

9.1.2 TYPES OF MOSFET: 9.1.2.1 CMOS:

The MOSFET is used in digital complementary metaloxidesemiconductor (CMOS) logic, which uses p- and n-channel MOSFETs as building blocks. Overheating is a major concern in integrated circuits since ever more transistors are packed into ever smaller chips. CMOS logic reduces power consumption because no current flows (ideally), and thus no power is consumed, except when the inputs to logic gates are being switched. CMOS accomplishes this current reduction by complementing every N-MOSFET with a P-MOSFET and connecting both gates and both drains together. A high voltage on the gates will cause the N-MOSFET to conduct and the P-MOSFET not to conduct and a low voltage on the gates causes the reverse. During the switching time as the voltage goes from one state to another, both MOSFETs will conduct briefly. This arrangement greatly reduces power consumption and heat generation.

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9.1.2.2 NMOS and PMOS:

N-channel MOSFETs are smaller than p-channel MOSFETs and producing only one type of MOSFET on a silicon substrate is cheaper and technically simpler. These were the driving principles in the design of NMOS logic which uses n-channel MOSFETs exclusively. However, unlike CMOS logic, NMOS logic consumes power even when no switching is taking place. With advances in technology, CMOS logic displaced NMOS logic in the mid-1980s to become the preferred process for digital chips. In the case of a P-MOS, the body is connected to the most positive voltage, and the gate is brought to a lower potential to turn the switch on. The P-MOS switch passes all voltages higher than VgateVtp (threshold voltage Vtp is negative in the case of enhancement-mode P-MOS).A P-MOS switch will have about three times the resistance of an N-MOS device of equal dimensions because electrons have about three times the mobility of holes in silicon.

9.1.3 FEATURES:
Single pulse avalanche energy rated Nano second switching speeds Linear transfer characteristics High input impedance

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9.2

INDUCTOR A coil of wire that generates a magnetic field when current is passed

through it. The strength of the magnetic field is measured in henrys (H). When the current is removed, as the magnetic field disintegrates, it "induces" a brief current in the opposite direction of the original. Thus "induction" is caused by the opening and closing of a DC circuit or the continuous changing of directions in an AC circuit.

Figure 9.2 Symbol of Inductor Inductance (measured in henries, symbol H) is a measure of the generated emf for a unit change in current. For example, an inductor with an inductance of 1 H produces an emf of 1 V when the current through the inductor changes at the rate of 1 As1. An inductor is a passive electrical device used in electrical circuits for its property of inductance. An inductor is usually made as a coil (or solenoid) of conducting material, typically copper wire, wrapped around a core either of air or of ferromagnetic material. Electrical current through the conductor creates a magnetic flux proportional to the current. A change in this current creates a change in magnetic flux that, in turn, generates an emf that acts to oppose this change in current.

25

The inductance of an inductor is determined by several factors: The shape of the coil; a short, fat coil has a higher inductance than one that is thin and tall. The material that the conductor is wrapped around. How the conductor is wound; winding in opposite directions will cancel out the inductance effect, and you will have only a resistor. The inductance of a solenoid is defined by:

Where

is the permeability of the core material (in this case air), A is the

cross-sectional area of the solenoid, N is the number of turns and l is the length of the solenoid. 9.2.1 TYPES OF INDUCTORS: 1. WIREWOUND INDUCTOR bobbin inductor toroidal inductor 2. MULTILAYER FERRITE INDUCTOR bead inductor

3. MULTILAYER CERAMIC INDUCTOR 4. FILM INDUCTOR 5. LASER CUT INDUCTOR

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9.3

CAPACITOR
A capacitor is an electronic component used for storing charge and energy.

The usual capacitor is a pair of parallel plates separated by a small distance. When a steady voltage is applied across a capacitor, a charge +Q is stored on one plate while -Q is stored on the opposite plate. The amount of charge is determined by the capacitance C and the voltage difference V applied across the capacitor:

Figure 9.3 Various type of Capacitors Since the charge cannot change instantaneously, the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously either. Thus capacitors can be used to guard against sudden losses of voltage in circuits, among other uses that we will study later. Capacitance is measured in farads. One farad (F) equals one coulomb per volt. One of the many uses for capacitors is in computer memories. A typical computer memory chip might contain 16,777,216 capacitors; each capacitor is charged to approximately 5 volts to store the binary digit 1 or 0 volts to store the binary digit 0.

27

Another use of capacitors is to store energy for relatively brief times; for example, the calculator I use is powered by light energy instead of a battery, and it has a capacitor to provide power during brief intervals in which a shadow passes across its photocell.

9.4

HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER:

A high frequency transformers transfer electric power. Its mechanical size

depends on the power to be transferred and on the operating frequency. The higher the frequency the smaller the mechanical size. Usually frequencies are from 20 to 100 kHz. The material of the core is ferrite.

Data books for appropriate cores provide information about the possible transfer power for various cores. The first step to calculate a high frequency transformer is to choose an appropriate core with the help of the data book, the size of the core is dependent on the transfer power and the frequency. The second step is to calculate the number of primary turns.

This number determines the magnetic flux density within the core. The number of secondary turns is the ratio of primary to secondary voltage. Following this the diameters of the primary and secondary conductors can be calculated depending on the RMS-values of the currents.

28

The magnetizing current can be neglected in this calculation. The current density can be chosen in a range of 2 to 5 A/mm, depending on the thermal resistance of the choke.

If good coupling is important, the primary and secondary winding should be placed on top of each other. Improved coupling is achieved if the windings are interlocked.

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CHAPTER 10 CONTROL CIRCUIT 10.1 GATE PULSE CIRCUIT

In this project, Gate pulse for power switches is generated by Integrated by PWM IC TL494. The TL494 is a fixed frequency, pulse width modulation control circuit designed primarily for switch mode power supply control.

Figure 10.1 Gate pulse generation circuit using TL494 The TL494 is a fixedfrequency pulse width modulation control circuit, incorporating the primary building blocks required for the control of a switching power supply. An internallinear saw tooth oscillator is frequencyprogrammable by two external components, RT and CT.
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This is desirable when the output transformer has a ring back winding with a catch diode used for snubbing. When higher outputdrive currents are required for singleended operation, Q1 and Q2 may be connected in parallel, and the output mode pin must be tied to ground to disable the flipflop. The output frequency will now be equal to that of the oscillator.

Table 10.1 Functional table for TL494

10.1.1

PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION

Pulse-width modulation (PWM) or pulse-duration modulation (PDM) is a modulation technique that conforms the width of the pulse, formally the pulse duration, based on a modulator signal information. Although this modulation technique can be used to encode information for transmission, its main use is to allow the control of the power supplied to electrical devices, especially to inertial loads such as motors. The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch between supply and load on and off at a fast pace. The longer the switch is on compared to the off periods, the higher the power supplied to the load.

31

The PWM switching frequency has to be much faster than what would affect the load, which is to say the device that uses the power. Typically switching have to be done several times a minute in an electric stove, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of kHz for a motor drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer power supplies.

Figure 10.2 Waveform of PWM signal The term dutycycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or 'period' of time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most of the time. Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100% being fully on. The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low. When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on, there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of
32

voltage and current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM also works well with digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle. PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has been used to convey information over a communications channel.

10.2 DRIVER CIRCUIT

The driver circuit for the proposed converter is shown in Figure 10.3. In this project, IR2110 IC is used as a driver circuit.

Figure 10.3 Gate driver circuit of IR2110 Figure shows the isolator/driver circuit used in the control circuit. It has the combined property of isolation and MOSFET driver. This IC gets gate pulse from the optocoupler in and gives the pulses to the MOSFET, which gives the isolation between gate and source.

33

The IR2110 is a high voltage ,high speed power MOSFET and IGBT driver with independent high and low side referenced output channels. Proprietary HVIC and latch immune CMOS technologies enable ruggedized monolithic construction. Logic inputs are compatible with standard CMOS or LSTTL outputs.

Figure 10.4 Various configurations of IR2110 The output drivers feature high pulse current buffer stage designed for minimum driver cross-conduction.Propagation delays are matched to simplfy use in high frequency applications.The floating channel can be used to drive an Nchannel power MOSFET or IGBT in the high side configuration which operates upto 5oo volts.

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CHAPTER 11 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

All the electronic circuits such as transistor, integrated circuits generally required DC electrical power for the operation. For the operation most of the electronic devices, AC power must be converted into DC Power. This process commonly called rectification. Alternating current differ from DC in the direction of electron flow, first in one direction for a short time, then reverse direction and flow again in opposite direction for short time. The flow of electrons in one direction and then in another direction is called a cycle of AC. The number of cycles that occur in one second of time is called Cycles/ Second. In our country the standard power line frequency is 50Hz.

The major blocks of the power supply units are: Step down transformer Rectifier Diodes Filters Voltage regulators

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11.1 STEP DOWN TRANSFOMER

The instrument transformer for power supply in this project is to convert AC from 230V to required low level such as 5V AC. This transformer apart from stepping down AC voltage gives isolation between power source and power supply circuitries.

11.2 RECTIFIER UNIT

In a power supply unit, rectification is normally achieved by a solid state diode. Diode contains two electrodes called the anode and the cathode. A diode has the property that will let electron flow easily in one direction. As a result when AC is applied to a diode, electrons only flow when the anode is positive and cathode is negative. Reversing the polarity of voltage applied to a diode will not permit electron flow. The various method of rectifying AC to DC are half wave, full wave and bridge rectifications. This project employs a full wave bridge rectifier which is most commonly used in industries. A bridge structure of four diodes is commonly used in power supply units to achieve full wave rectification. When AC voltages applied to the primary winding of power transformer. It is stepped down to 5V AC across the secondary winding of the transformer. Normally one alteration of the input voltage will cause the polarities to reverse. Opposite end of the transformer will therefore, always be 1800 - out of face with each other. For positive cycle, two diodes connected to the top winding gets positive voltage and only one diode conducts for that cycle due to forward bias. At the same time one out of the other two diodes conducts, for the negative
36

voltage being applied form the bottom winding due to forward bias for that diode. Due to positive half cycle diodes D1 & D3 conduct to give10.8V pulsating DC of frequency 100Hz.In the next alteration the two diodes conducted form top winding and bottom winding as they are forward biased in this cycle. It is to be noted that the current flow through the load is always in one direction for each alteration of the applied AC input. This is of course, means that AC is rectified into DC. This DC output, in this case, and has a ripple frequency of 100Hz, since each alternation producers a resulting output pulse, the ripple frequency or 2*50 Hz =100Hz. The output DC is not a pure DC. It is pulsating DC voltage.

11.3 FILTER UNIT

After pulsating DC has been produced by our rectifier, it must be filtered in or for it to be usable in a power supply. Filtering involves the ripple frequency. The power supply unit employed in this project used 7805 voltage regulator (for positive output voltages) and a 7905 regulator, (for negative output voltages). Resistors R1 and R2 maintain line load regulation. Capacitors C2 and C4 act as high frequency suppressors.

37

CHAPTER 12 SIMULATION STUDIES 12.1 INTRODUCTION

Computer simulation is the discipline of designing a model of an actual or theoretical physical system, executing the model on a digital computer and analysing the execution output. Simulation embodies the principle of learning by doing to learn about the system we must first a model of some sort and then operate the model.

12.2 MATLAB
Matlab is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation, visualization and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include Math and computation Algorithm development Data acquisition Modeling, simulation, and prototyping Data analysis, exploration, and visualization Scientific and engineering graphics Applications development, including graphical user interface building Matlab is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems, especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the
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time it would take to write a program in a scalar non interactive language such as C or FORTRAN. Matlab features a family of add-on application-specific solutions called toolboxes.

12.2.1 SIMULINK
Simulink is a software package for modeling, simulating, and analysing dynamic systems. It supports linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampled time or a hybrid of two. Systems can also be multi rate, i.e., have different parts that are sampled or updated at different rates. For modeling, Simulink provides a graphical user interface (GUI) for building models as block diagrams, using click-and-drag mouse operations. This is a far cry from previous simulation packages that require formulating differential equations and difference equations in a language or program. Simulink includes a comprehensive block library of sinks, sources, linear and nonlinear components, and connectors. It is possible to customize and create blocks as required.

12.2.2 ROLE OF SIMULATION

Sim Power System is a modern design tool that allows scientist and engineers to rapidly and easily build models that simulate power systems. A sim power system uses the simulink environment, allowing us to build a model using simple click and drag procedures. The circuit topology can be drawn rapidly, but the analysis of the circuit can include its interactions with mechanical, thermal, control, and other disciplines. This is possible because all the electrical parts of the simulation interact with the extensive simulink modeling library, since simulink
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uses matlab as its computational engine, designers can also use MATLAB toolboxes and Simulink block sets. Sim power systems and sim mechanics share a special physical modeling block and connection line interface.

12.3 SIMULATION OF PROPOSED CONVERTER

The simulation diagram or the proposed converter is shown in Figure 12.1.

Figure 12.1 Simulation of proposed converter

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12.4 SIMULATION RESULTS

The simulation results for proposed converter at various locations are shown in Figures 12.2, 12.3, & 12.4.

Figure 12.2 Simulation result of Inductors L1, L2, and Leakage inductance

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Figure 12.3 Simulation results of Gate pulses for switches

Figure 12.4 Simulation results of input and output voltages

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CHAPTER 13 CONCLUSION

Current-fed topologies are suitable for low voltage higher current applications. However, these topologies suffer from higher voltage stress across the power semiconductor devices. So far, active-clamp, passive and resonant snubbers have been proposed to improve absorb the turn-off voltage spike across the switches during turn off to avoid high voltage rating devices. However, it does results in need of extra components, increased PCB or foot size, and additional cost. Therefore, it affects the overall volume and cost of the system. Also, there are some losses associated with the auxiliary snubber circuitry as well as it owes the contribution of undesired circulating current through the devices and components, which increases their peak current. The proposed bi-directional current-fed converter provides a switching based solution to this problem. It avoids the needs of such extra snubber circuitry for the solution making it novel and snubberless. Steady-state analysis and design of the proposed converter have been presented. Experimental results demonstrate the accuracy of the proposed analysis and design. This topology is suitable for low voltage high current such as fuel cell, PV and battery based applications.

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APPENDIX-II

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APPENDIX-III

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