Circuit Integration for RF and Microwave

Applications
1
Thierry PARRA, Professor
Universit Paul Sabatier - Toulouse III
Laboratory of Analysis and Architecture of Systems - CNRS
parra@laas.fr
June 2010
Introduction : MicroWave and
Telecommunications
1- Microwave circuit technologies
Substrate and technologies
Integration issue
Elements of technology
Microwave Active Circuits Overview
4- Frequency conversion
Components
Noise issues
Frequency multipliers
2
Elements of technology
Comparison of the main technologies
Design constraints
CAD for MIC and MMIC
2- Linear operation vs non-linear
3- Amplification
Definitions
Low level amplifiers
Low noise amplifiers
Power Amplifiers
06/2010
Pr. Thierry PARRA
parra@laas.fr
Frequency multipliers
Mixers
5- Frequency generation
Applications
Oscillator principle
Oscillator large signal model
Oscillator analysis
Examples of realisations
Knowledge requests
- S parameters (scattering parameters)
- Smith chart (impedance matching, )
- dB, dBm, dBv,
- Components for microwave applications (MESFET, HEMT, PHEMT, HBT, diodes )
- Analog electronics (transistor operation, biasing, )
3
Nonlinear microwave circuits
Stephen A. Maas - Hartech House, 1988
Handbook of microwave integrated circuits
HOFFMANN R. K., Artech House, 1987
COPLANAR MICROWAVE INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Wolff I., Wiley Interscience, 2006
HIGH-FREQUENCY AND MICROWAVE CIRCUIT DESIGN
Charles NELSON, CRC PRESS, 2008
Bibliography
4
MICROWAVE CIRCUIT DESIGN USING LINEAR AND NON LINEAR CIRCUITS
VENDELIN G; PAVIO A; ROHDE V, WILEY, 2005
RF AND MICROWAVE CIRCUIT DESIGN FOR WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS
LARSON L E, Editeur (scientifique), ARTECH HOUSE (MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS SERIES), 1997
THE RF AND MICROWAVE CIRCUIT DESIGN COOKBOOK
MAAS S A, ARTECH HOUSE, 1998
MMIC DESIGN
ROBERTSON I D, Scientifique Editor, IEE, 1995
Fundamentals of RF and Microwave NF measurements
Application Note Agilent AN57-1
Trends of the domain
cost
Mass production
Number of functionalities
Electrical performances
(frequency & consumption)
Integration density
Reliability
(or optics)
5
Computer Aided Design (& modelling)
Circuit topologies
Technologies (active components and passives)
Microwave Integrated Circuits(MIC)
(hybrid technology)
System applications
>>> collective technologies
Microwave Monolithic Integrated
Circuits (MMIC)
Circuit integration
>>> multi-function chips
Fulfill all trends needs further developments on:
Main substrates
Substrate Si GaAs InP GaN on SiC
Permittivity 11,9 13 12,4 9
Resistivity
(ohm.cm)
5 10 10
5
10
4
-
Mobility e
-
at 300K
(cm
2
.V
-1
.s
-1
)
1500 8500 5000 1000
Mobility e
+
at 300K
(cm
2
.V
-1
.s
-1
)
600 300 100 350
6
(cm
2
.V
-1
.s
-1
)
Thermal
conductivity
(W.cm
-1
.K
-1
)
1,5 0,46 0,7 1,3
Dilatation Coef.
(dL/LdT).10
-6
2,5 6 4,5 -
Oxydation
(MOS transistor)
yes no no no
Cost Low cost (x1)
6 Wafer (300mm )
Cost x10
4 wafer
Cost x 50
3 wafer
Cost x1000
Mobility : must be weighted because it can be increased using compounds and specific structures as
heterostructure or pseudomorphic stacks
Main technologies

Component MESFET
(GaAs)
HEMT
(AlGaAs/GaAs,
GaInP/GaAs)
HEMT (InP)

(metamorphic)
PHEMT
(AlGaAs/InGa
As)
TBH (Si/SiGe)
ft (GHz) 30 40 60 150 80 150 to 200
fmax (GHz) 50 70 170 100 170 to 230
Vmax (V) 15 8 3 to 6 10 3 to 6
Fmin (dB) @10 GHz 1.5 1 0.3 0.5 1 to 2
7
Other components: =TBH : GaInP/GaAs or AlGaAs/GaAs
=Bipolar Transistor on Si, HEMT Si/SiGe
fc of 1/f noise (MHz) 100 100 100 10 1.10
-3

Gm (mS/mm) 100 250 600 700 5000
Cost (euro/mm
2
) 2 10 2 0.6

CMOS technologies: f
t
and f
max
~ 95GHz and 120GHz, respectivelly, but with L
g
~
90nm (while L
g
=250 nm for PHEMT)
LDMOS technologies: power amplification up to 6GHz (high voltage withstanding)
Technology versus power and frequency of applications
Output Power
(W)
SiC
Broadcasting
stations
Communication
satellites
100
1k
10k
Future of GaN which will extend solid
state circuit application domain
8
Operating frequency
(GHz)
GaAs / InP
SiC
Mobile phone
Radar
GaN
Phone
Base
stations
Solid State circuit / tube
limit
silicon
0.1 1 10 100 1000
0.1
1
10
Microwave Integrated Circuits
Hybrid technology (MIC = Microwave Integrated Circuit)
Several integration levels:
- Typical (3 metal layers max.): MIC
- High density (multilayer metals / dielectrics): HMIC
- Miniaturized (integration of all passives): MiMIC
Substrate: alumina, teflon, epoxy, etc
Metallisations: Au, Au + NiCr, Cu, etc
Active components or MMICs are reported with
Dielectric Resonator
Oscillator 24 GHz
2512mm IMST GmbH
9
Active components or MMICs are reported with
sealing and bondwires (some passives as well)
LTCC Module Tx GSM multi-
band 910mm Freescale
MobilePhone Multistandard PA
module 8x8 mm
2
Freescale
Microwave Monolithic Integrated Circuit
Monolithic technology (MMIC = Monolithic MIC)
All actives and passives integrated on same substrate
Photolithography (12 to about 20 mask levels)
Integration densities depend on the technology
(Silicon, GaAs, , FET, HBT, )
Xband LNA 9-11 GHz (pHEMT InGaAs
2.71.7mm) Astra Microwave Products
10
Phase Lock Loop 10GHz
(SiGe HBT, 1x1 mm
2
) LAAS
100 m
R
F
P
A
D
S
LO
PADS
RX
IF
Zigbee compatible receiver 2.4 GHz
(90nm CMOS, Die area : 0.4 x 0.17 mm
2
)
LAAS & STMicroelectronics
Manufacturer = FOUNDER (foundery)
Elements of technologies
Wire length minimization
(important when thick dies)
MiMIC cross section
3 mm
11
Metal
MMIC cross section
150 m
Passivation
Via hole
capacitor MESFET
Resistor
Airbridge
Technological start : the photolithography
Rsine
Masque
UV
photosensible
Substrat
Rsine
Masque
UV
photosensible
Substrat
insolation
development
substrate
substrate
Photoresist
(light sensitive)
Mask
quartz
12
development
etching deposit
Photoresist cleaning
Photo-etching Lift-off
MIC Technology
1-Vias opening through the substrate (laser)
2-Resistive layer deposit (NiCr or TaN)
5-Dies sealing and wire-bonding
13
3-Conductive layer sputtering and electrolytic
Deposit (Au or Cu)
4-Photo-etching of layers
OIntegration of lines and resistors
OPlatings can be done using silkscreen
printing
OVia process is expensive (alumina)
OInductors can be integrated using omega
topology (only 1 conductor level)
R
line
MIC LTCC Technology
LTCC = Low Temperature Cofired Ceramic
Multilayer interconnection Circuits
(15 metallic layers, up to 40GHz)
This technology allows Multi-Chip-Modules
14
(Source : www.ltcc.de)
t~1000C
MMIC Technology (GaAs) 1/3
15
MMIC Technology (GaAs) 2/3
16
MMIC Technology (GaAs) 3/3
17
Comparison between MIC and MMIC 4/6
Weight, size
Cost (average and large productions)
Reproducibility (limited process variations)
High frequency performances (small parasites)
Dedicated for some applications
(distributed amplifier, balanced circuits )
Limited choice for components
MMIC versus MIC: DRAWBACKS
+
MMIC versus MIC: ADVANTAGES
+
Chip size (mm) Process yield (%)
1x1 80
2x2 70
5x5 45
7x7 30
10x10 20
Conductor Skin depth (m)
18
Limited choice for components
(+ trade-off on performances)
Circuits can not be tuned
Fabrication time (3 to 6 months)
Cost of fabrication facilities
Fabrication yield
Skin effect
SYNERGY of TECHNOLOGIES
+
MMIC
Omass market circuits
Osmall size requirements (active antenna)
MIC
OHigh performances circuits (choice of
best component, model accuracy, tuning)
Opackaging and system card
Conductor Skin depth (m)
2GHz 5GHz 10GHz
Cu 1.46 0.92 0.65
Al 1.88 1.19 0.8
Au 1.77 1.12 0.79
Comparison between MIC and MMIC 5/6
Device Modelling
+
MMIC
O Components are not fabricated
(models must be generic for the
technology)
O Models must fit many functions
(they are not dedicated to the only
considered one)
MIC
O Components are on the shelf (they
have been already fabricated and
can be modelled by the user)
O Selection of the best model,
matching the application
O Selection of the characterisation
19
considered one)
O Models must take into account the
technology but also the process
(statistic variations)
Design is made on components-to-be
O Selection of the characterisation
methods
O Integrated components can be the
modelled ones
Design is made on actual components
Library which must be used by users
(models, scale rules, layout, design rules)
Datasheet if required by users
(measurements, model extracted from
typical performances)
Comparison between MIC and MMIC 6/6
+
Choice of passive element topology
= == =distributed elements
Zc
l
Zr
Z(l) Zc
Zr + j.Zc..l
Zc + j.Zr..l
l
Zc
Z j.Zc..l
Z
j..l
Zc
20
= == =lumped elements (spiral inductor, MIM capacitor)
GHz
0 10 20 30
distributed
lumped
transistors
MIC+MMIC
MIC
MMIC
MIC+MMIC
= == =How to chose ?
Silicon versus III-V MMIC technologies
Al (Cu for the
last level)
~ 6 m
M2
VIA
Au
Nitride
21
Silicon technology III-V technology
~ 6 m
Si Substrate
Si Substrate
M1
GaAs Substrate
Active
CO
Back Metal
VIA HOLE
~ 100 to 200 m
Mask set-up
Dicing Street
X
Y
Process Control Monitor (PCM)
1x1,5 mm
1x3 mm
2x1,5 mm
2x3 mm
Dicing Street
Multiproject organisation constraint
22
Alignment patterns
PCM:
uniformly distributed on wafer
group of test structures
process step control (destructive test)
electrical performance guarantee of components
1x1,5 mm
Dicing Street
Reticule (several circuits assembly
and duplicated on the mask)
Design rules
+Basic layout rules outline:
Minimum spacing between 2 shapes on same or on different layers (example below)
Minimum overlap between 2 layers (example below)
Minimum width and length of a shape on a layer
Minimum density on a level for Si technologies (planarization purpose)
+implementation of dummies (electronically useless but need to be
without any electronic influence, as well)
+Because a standard technology is about 15 masks (with about 1 hundred shape per layer), the
checkout is done by computer using DRC tools: Design Rule Check
23
checkout is done by computer using DRC tools: Design Rule Check
M1
M2
Insulator
+Examples of design rule arguments
Capacitor surface
The capacitance C depends on
process
The capacitance C stays the same
whatever misalignments are
MIM capacitor layout
Etching conditions
Spacing is too small for a good
etching
substrate
resist
Technological process variations
3 kinds of process variations occur:
-On a same wafer, in relation with the circuit location (Wafer)
-Between 2 wafers processed simultaneously (Run)
- Global variations of the technological process, when various
runs within several months (Techno)
From these process variations, the founder
provides a statistical model
Statistical analysis methods
- Worst case (all values set to limits, gives an envelope for performances)
Electrical
parameter
Number of samples
Run Wafer
Techno
24
= == =Design centering
- Worst case (all values set to limits, gives an envelope for performances)
- Monte Carlo (random setting of values, gives a fabrication efficiency
when 200-250 runs are performed)
Min Nom Max
Optimized circuit
Spec.
Parameter
value
P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
Min Nom Max
Centered circuit
Spec.
Parameter
value
P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
Run Wafer
Main CAD tools 1/2
Electrical commercial simulators have been developed to reach design software platforms
(in a single environment, they include all tools : schematic interface, simulator + optimizer,
layout , statistics, DRC, translator as GDSII)
Advanced Design System (ADS) of Agilent : dedicated for microwave circuit design,
frequency domain (linear) and harmonic balance (non-linear) simulations, time representation is
obtained by Fourier Transform, includes a lot of electrical models for interconnections, passives , III-
V foundry often provides its library for this platform, e.m tool
Cadence of Cadence Design Systems, Inc.: initially for low frequency silicon circuit design,
Advanced Design System (ADS) of Agilent
dedicated for microwave circuit design
frequency domain (linear) and harmonic
balance (non-linear) simulations
Cadence of Cadence Design Systems, Inc.
initially for low frequency silicon analog and
digital circuit design
time domain simulation (Spice)
25
Cadence of Cadence Design Systems, Inc.: initially for low frequency silicon circuit design,
time domain simulation (Spice), frequency representation is obtained by Fourier Transform, parasites are
extracted and must be inserted into simulation (LVS : Layout versus Schematic), Silicon foundry often
provides its library for this platform
But during their evolution they are converging to the same solution (Ptolemy for ADS,
Spectre RF for Cadence) & Golden Gate (interface between Cadence and ADS)
time representation by reverse Fourier
Transform
includes a lot of electrical models for
interconnections, passives
III-V foundry often provides its library for
this platform
e.m tool
time domain simulation (Spice)
frequency representation is obtained by
Fourier Transform
parasites are extracted as RC and must be
inserted into simulation (LVS : Layout versus
Schematic)
Silicon foundry often provides its library for
this platform
But in their evolution they are converging to the same solution (Ptolemy for ADS, Spectre
RF and HB module for Cadence) & interface between Cadence and ADS & Golden Gate
(ADS engine into Cadence)
Main CAD tools 2/2
Electro-magnetic (e.m.) simulators: 2D or 3D Maxwell equations solving
to get performances of specific structure
not modeled yet (example : uniplanar
interconnections)
to take into account coupling between
circuit elements
to verify performances of high frequency
circuits (millimeter-wave) because the
26
Sonnet and Momentum (implemented into ADS) : 2.5D softwares, they can not analyze coupling between
2 metallic planes but consider transitions between 2 planes
HFSS of Ansoft : actual 3D software
circuits (millimeter-wave) because the
smallest metallic part or discontinuity can
have serious impact
time and computer resource consuming
The aim of a simulation (electrical or e.m.) is to be as close as possible to the
actual circuit which will be fabricated
Interconnection basics
Microstrip Line (MSL)
Substrate
Ground plane
Ground plane
Ground plane
A lot of models into electrical softwares (ADS)
Very compact when designed in a Si technology
(thin substrates)
Vias are required for connecting ground
27
Coplanar Strips (CPS)
Coplanar Line (CPW)
Substrate
Ground plane
Substrate
Technological step removal (as via hole for a GaAs technology)
Reduced dispersion versus frequency
Less radiating structures
Only few models (em simulations are often required)
CPS fit quite well differential applications
CPW can also be designed as grounded CPW
The steps of a design
Initial description
(ideal passive components)
Linear simulations Non-linear simulations
Optimized Description
Sensitivity analysis
Real components
Characterizations
Modeling
Active components
complete model
Performances must not be to
much sensitive to a component
value (fabrication dispersions)
28
Real components
Layout
Parasites extraction
Statistical analysis
Design centering
For increased
fabrication efficiency
Design Rule Check
Fabrication
Characterizations
Components positioning
Line length reading
Layout versus Schematic (LVS)
Layout translated into GDS II
MMIC circuit elements 1/3
Airbridge details (connection of an
inductor and a capacitor)
29
Thin film resistor
Resistor could be implanted, as well
(low cost but non-linear : the resistance
depends on the applied voltage)
MMIC circuit elements 2/3
MIM capacitor (metal quality difference
vs level); MOM capacitor as well
(capacitance per surface unit is a bit less
but a dielectric level is avoided)
30
Airbridge inductor (loss issues
because skin effect)
MMIC circuit elements 3/3
Medium power
MESFET details
31
Transistor power capabilities increase:
Width enlargement is limited (because Rg,
gate SWR)
Parallel implementation of gate digits
D
S
G
D
S
G
D
S
G
D
S
G
Modelling basics 1/2
Transistor: parameters of the model are given for a
size and a bias > the model must be parametric
32
Line: each metal level has its own model
Modelling basics 2/2
Inductor: model is semi-empirical, based on
measurements or em simulations
Resistor: it is a resistive line
33
Capacitor: realized from two lines, top electrode
connected with an airbridge for high breakdown
voltage
Probe test 1/2
DC Probe
34
Microwave Probe
DUT
Microwave probing:
-Probe station (weight for mechanical stability)
-Optical binocular system
-Antivibrating table
Probe test 2/2
RF Probe
(coplanar, pitch
between probe tip :
100 to 200 m)
DC Probe
(needles)
35
Uniplanar frequency converter test (14 GHz >>12 GHz conversion)
100 to 200 m)
DC & RF Probe
(mixed card)
MMIC specific circuit topologies 1/2
GaAs distributed amplifier 2-18 GHz
This concept needs a good phase
control on each line, only possible
with MMIC (in-phase power
combining)
36
Input
Output
Vd
Vg
MMIC specific circuit topologies 2/2
Good differential structures only possible with MMIC (technological dispersion on
transistors and interconnects)
37
SiGe frequency double balanced converter (20 GHz >> 1 GHz conversion)
MMIC schematic extraction
38
Pads
Capacitors
Via holes
Metallic levels (transitions)
Active components
Inputs / Outputs
Resistors (thin film or implanted)
Knowledge
+
Coherence
Microwave Linear and Non-linear
Active Circuits
39
Active Circuits
Thierry PARRA, Professor
Universit Paul Sabatier - Toulouse III
Laboratory of Analysis and Architecture of Systems - CNRS
parra@laas.fr
June 2010
Introduction
Microwave applications
- mass market & industry : terrestrial telecoms systems, satellite links , car radars, air navigation
- instrumentation - scientific research: detectors for astronomy, observation satellites
- military : Radars, telecoms hardened systems,
Main microwave circuits
-Passives (interconnections, R, L C,
couplers, filters )
- Amplifiers :
Silicon Labs -
40
- Amplifiers :
LNA - receiver
(LNA = Low Noise Amplifier),
PA- transmitter
(PA = Power Amplifier)
- Devices for frequency conversion
(multiplication, mixing)
- Sources :
* Sinusoidal oscillators
* Pulse generators (ultra wide band systems
like Wireless USB, UWB )
Linear and Non-Linear operation 1/3
t
Vo
Vd
Id
t
Vo
Vd
Id
Every component or circuit can present linear (small signal) or non-linear (large signal) operation
Bias point
Bias point
41
Vi
t
Vi
t
A periodic non- sinusoidal signal can be
expressed as a Fourier Series
+a distorted sinusoidal signal is the sum of
several sinus. Example of periodic square:
Bias point = quiescent point
( ) ( ) ( ) ... 5 sin .
. 5
. 4
3 sin .
. 3
. 4
sin .
. 4
+ + + = t
Xm
t
Xm
t
Xm
X

Non-Linear operation =frequency generation

Linear and Non-Linear operation (time / frequency) 2/3
Graph : Agilent AN-150
42
Linear and Non-Linear operation (comparison) 3/3
Linear operation (or quasi-linear):
Non-Linear operation:
Circuit
Circuit
43
Non-Linear operation:
Circuit
Circuit
Harmonic frequencies
Excitation/Fundamental frequencies: f
1
, f
2
Harmonic frequencies: mf
1
, nf
2
where (m, n)Z
2
Intermodulation/mixing products: mf
1
nf
2

Circuit response issues
A circuit is never only linear, and its output v
s
can be expressed versus the input v
e
as
follows (1
st
degree approximation):
The non-linearity is then addressed following two ways:
1. One tries to reject the non-linear behavior as far as possible (amplitudes) for minimizing signal
distortions (amplification, filtering , see 3
rd
order intermodulation)
1-a. If v
e
<< 1, then v
e
2
<< v
e
& v
e
3
<< v
e
2
, and
1-b. Minimization of k
2
, k
3
for a linear operation up to the highest v
e
amplitude
v
s
k
1
v
e
2 3
1 2 3
...
s e e e
v k v k v k v = + + +
44
1-b. Minimization of k
2
, k
3
for a linear operation up to the highest v
e
amplitude
2. One tries to optimize the non-linear behavior for maximizing signal amplitudes when processing
the frequency (mixing, multiplication, generation )
If a sinusoidal signal is applied at the system input:
then:
( )
0
cos
e
v A t =
f
0
2f
0
DC extra-part
Self -biasing
3f
0
f
0
signal distortion
at f
0
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 3 3
1 0 2 0 3 0
cos cos cos ...
s
v k A t k A t k A t = + + +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
3 2
1 0 0 0 0
cos 1 cos 2 3cos cos 3 ...
2 4
s
k A k A
v k A t t t t ( ( = + + + +

Amplifiers - definitions
Amplifier = quasi-linear two port network
Several kinds of amplifiers defined from their main characteristics:
- Small Signal: use to amplify IF signal, only the gain is specified
- Low Noise(LNA): used at the front end of receivers, specifications are on gain and S/N ratio deterioration
- Power (HPA, SSPA) : used at the output of transmitters, (gain) output power and efficiency are the specifications
Main electrical characteristics include:
- Gain, input and output matching
- Stability
- Noise Figure (NF)
45
- Linearity (compression point, intermodulation, etc)
- Output power and efficiency
At microwave frequencies, power measurements are expressed into: dBm
The dB is not really a measurement unit. It is quantifying only the comparison
between two powers (ratio):
If P
2
is set to 1mW (the reference), then P
1
is compared to 1 mW (the reason
of the m of dBm):
( )
1
2
10 log
P
G dB
P
| |
=
|
\
[ ]
[ ]
[ ] ( )
1
1 1
3
10 log 10 log 30
10
dBm
P W
P P W
W

| |
= = +
|
|
\
Amplifier Power Gain 1/3
Transducer Gain:
The amplifier (transistor) is driven by a source with a particular impedance, and that its
output is connected to a load with a particular impedance
46
Transducer Gain:
It gives the ratio of the power delivered to the load P
L
to the power available from the source
P
avs
. It depends on both Z
L
and Z
S
, and it is often used to design amplifiers which exhibits a
maximum small signal gain.
With and out then and
Amplifier Power Gain 2/3
Power gain
It is the ratio of power dissipated in the load Z
L
to the power delivered to the input of the
amplifier, making it independent of the source impedance Z
s
(the input is supposed to
be matched
s
=
in
* ). It is often used for power amplifier design, where load
impedance is critical (see later).
The power gain (or operating power gain) is defined to be:
G
P
= P
L
/ P
in
resulting to
2
2
21
2 2
1
1
1 1
L
P
G S
S

=

47
21
2 2
22
1 1
P
e L
S
in
Available power gain
It is the ratio of the power available at the amplifier output to the power available from the
source P
avs
(the output is supposed to be matched
L
=
out
* ). It is commonly used for
LNA design, as it is a function of the source impedance, but not of the load impedance
(see later).
The avalaible gain is defined to be:
G
A
= P
out
/ P
avS
resulting to
2
2
21
2 2
11
1
1
1
1
g
P
s
g
G S
S

=


S
S
out
A
Amplifier Power Gain 3/3
2
max 21
2 2
11 22
1 1
1 1
U
G S
S S
=

Unilateral gains: If the amplifier is unilateral S
12
= 0 and then
in
= S
11
and
out
= S
22
These conditions yield to the unilateral transducer gain:
This expression is an approximation but can be useful for initial design, as it removes the effect
of the load impedance on the source side.
Moreover, if we consider the amplifier is perfectly matched on input and output (
out
=
L
* and

in
=
S
* ), we defined the maximum unilateral gain:
48
Discussion on gain definitions:
The Transducer Gain G
T
is the general definition
- if
S
=
in
* : the amplifier input power is the source maximum available power G
T
= G
P
- if
L
=
out
* : the power at the load is the amplifier output maximum available power G
T
= G
A
G
T
leads to the smallest gain value, since none of input and output ports are matched
When the amplifier input and output are matched: G
T
= G
P
= G
A
If all terminals are matched on 50 , then: G
T
= G
P
= G
A
= |S
21
|
11 22
1 1 S S
This expression is useful for evaluating the maximum gain value that can be reached
Two port network stability 1/3
Matching the network consists to solve the
The two port network is not unilateral (S
12
0) = == = positive feedback at certain frequencies,
resulting in oscillation, or instability.
For unconditionally stability we need to ensure that
|
in

S
| < 1 and |
out

L
| < 1
(the only way to ensure that the signal does not grow to infinity)
Because |
S
| < 1 and |
L
| < 1, these conditions are resumed in: |
in
| < 1 and |
out
| < 1
( )
*
12 21
11
1
g e L
S S
S
S

= = +

S in
49
Matching the network consists to solve the
system of equations:
Of which the solutions are:
(with the determinant of the network S matrix)
It can be verified that : with
K is the Rollett factor.
2 2 2
1 11 22
1 B S S = +
2 2 2
2 22 11
1 B S S = +
*
1 11 22
C S S =
*
2 22 11
C S S =
( )
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 1 2 2 12 21
4 4 4 1 B C B C K S S = =
2 2 2
11 22
12 21
1
2
S S
K
S S
+
=
( )
( )
22
*
12 21
22
11
1
1
L
L s g
g
S
S S
S
S

= = +

out S
S
2
2
1 1 1
1
2
2
2 2 2
2
4
2
4
2
g
L
B B C
C
B B C
C

S
21 12 22 11
S S S S =
Two port network stability 2/3
The stability can be discussed from values of the Rollet factor K and of the determinant of
the network S matrix:
- K > 1 et | | < 1: the network is unconditionally stable. It can be possible to find a couple (
S
,
L
)
which reaches the simultaneous input and output matching (maximum gain).
- K > 1 et | | > 1: the network is conditionally stable (see further slide). The simultaneous input and
output matching is still possible.
50
In these two precedent situations, the transducer gain G
T
can be written:
si || < 1 and si || > 1
-| K | 1: the network is conditionally stable (see further slide). This network can not be
simultaneously matched on input and output: maximum gain can not be reached.
- K < 1: the network is unconditionally unstable. Nothing is possible.
21 2
12
1
c
S
G K K
S
= +
T
21 2
12
1
c
S
G K K
S
=
T
Two port network stability 3/3
If a network is only conditionally stable = == = find the good source and load impedances for
stability
On the network input :
For stability, we need to find values of
L
which ensure:
If we report on the Smith chart values of
S
as: we obtain a circle which
radius is R and the center C
The equation for the circle doesn't tell us whether the
stable region is: the inside of the stability circle, or the
R
( )
*
12 21
11
22
1
1
g e L
L
S S
S
S
= = +

S
in
12 21
11
22
1
1
L
L
S S
S
S
+ =

51
C
O
stable region is: the inside of the stability circle, or the
outside ?
The easiest to answer this question is using a test
point. And the simplest point is
L
= 0 (the center of the
Smith chart) . Then
in
= S
11
If S
11
< 1 then the outside region of the stability circle is
the stable region.
the same procedure applies for the load stability
circle for finding values of
S
leading to
out
< 1
* *
22 11
2 2
22
S S
OC
S

=

12 21
2 2
22
S S
Rayon
S
=

R
R
Two port network noise 1/2
Because an amplifier is a noisy two port network, the noise study is of first importance for
LNA design
The noise is from several sources:
White noise sources (found at high frequencies in linear circuits also called additive noise)
- Thermal noise also called diffusion noise (carrier velocity fluctuations caused by collisions inside crystal or with
impurities)
- Shot noise (current fluctuations when a junction is direct biased)
Low frequency noise sources (this noise is translated around the carrier when non-linear operation see later)
- trapping/release noise (Lorentz spectrum: the power spectral density is constant for frequencies under f
c
and
then is decreasing with a 1/f slope)
52
then is decreasing with a 1/f slope)
- flicker noise or 1/f noise (origin still under investigation)
The Noise Figure (NF) gives the deterioration of the signal on noise ratio between input and
output
n two port cascade : Friis Theorem
3 2
1
1 1 2 1 2 1
1 1 1
...
...
n
tot
n
F F F
F F
G GG GG G


= + + + +
Noiseless
two port
network
V
S
Z
S
e
Sn
e
n
i
n
Z
L
Noisy two port network
Sn
n
Sn
outn
outn
out
Sn
in
P
P
P G
P
P
P
P
P
NF + =

= = 1
P
outn
P
out
P
Sn
P
in
P
n
Two port network noise 2/2
Two port network noise modeling
F
min
, R
n
, |
opt
| et arg(
opt
) are the 4 noise parameters of the component. From these parameters,
the noise figure NF is expressed:
( )
2
min
2 2
0
4
1 1
opt g
n
opt g
R
F F
Z

= +
+
F
min
: minimum noise figure
R
n
: equivalent noise resistance (aperture of
N
N
53
NF minimization: the input of the two port network must be connected on the noise
optimal impedance
Because
opt

in
* a trade-off between gain and noise figure have to be solved
R
n
: equivalent noise resistance (aperture of
the noise curve)

opt
: noise optimal reflection coefficient
Example of LNA design
Design of a LNA at 20 GHz with a BiCMOS 0.25 m technology
1
4
7
10
13
0,1 1 10 100
I (mA)
F
m
i
n

/

G
a
i
n

m
a
x
.

(
d
B
)
20
30
40
50
R
n

(

)
1
4
7
10
13
0,1 1 10 100
I (mA)
F
m
i
n

/

G
a
i
n

m
a
x
.

(
d
B
)
20
30
40
50
R
n

(

)
1
4
7
10
13
0,1 1 10 100
I (mA)
F
m
i
n

/

G
a
i
n

m
a
x
.

(
d
B
)
20
30
40
50
R
n

(

)
Noise parameters and gain for a SiGe HBT versus Ic
Input
Output
i i
54
I
c
(mA)
Fmin
Gain max.
Rn
I
c
(mA)
Fmin
Gain max.
Rn
I
c
(mA)
Fmin
Gain max.
Rn

opt

in i
b
croissant
i
b
croissant

opt

in i
b
croissant
i
b
croissant

opt
and
in
variations versus Ic

opt

in
*
L
e
croissante

in
L
e
croissante

opt

in
*
L
e
croissante

in
L
e
croissante

opt
and
in
* variations versus the degeneration
inductor L
e
value
increasing
increasing
increasing
increasing
Amplifier linearity 1/4
Several measures exist for evaluating the linearity of an amplifier power performances
The compression point (the simplest)
P
out
(dBm)
Linear extrapolation
1dB
P
out-1dB
Energy conservation:
P
out
P
in
P
th
P
Linearity =Sophisticated Modulation Techniques = Spectral efficiency
55
P
in
(dBm)
Linear Region Compression Saturation
Slope=1
P
in-1dB
P
out-1dB
= 10. Log (G
lin
.P
in-1dB
) - 1
P
th
= P
dc
+ P
in
P
out
= P
dc
P
in
(G 1)
When P
e
is increasing then P
th
increases as well.
This can be done only if G is decreasing
P
dc
AM/PM Conversion
When changes in the amplitude of a signal applied to a non-linearity cause a
phase shift.
Particularly a problem for power amplifier used in communication systems based
on phase-modulated signals (as QPSK )
Amplifier linearity 2/4
At a circuit output, P
out
can be expressed versus the input P
in
as follows (1
st
degree
approximation):
P
out
= A.P
in
+ B.P
in
2
+ C.P
in
3
+ ....
P
in1
= P
1
.sin (
1
t)
If two signals are applied: P
in
= P
in1
+ P
in2
with
P
in2
= P
2
.sin (
2
t)
Then P
out
= A.(P
in1
+ P
in2
) + B.(P
in1
+ P
in2
)
2
+ C.(P
in1
+ P
in2
)
3
+ ...
And developing:
2 3
56
P
out
= A.P
in1
+ B.P
in1
2
+ C.P
in1
3
+ .... (output for excitation 1)
+ A.P
in2
+ B.P
in2
2
+ C.P
in2
3
+ ... (output for excitation 2)
+ 2B.P
in1
.P
in2
+ 3C.P
in1
2
.P
in2
+ 3C.P
in1
.P
in2
2
+ ... + K.P
in1
m
.P
in2
n
+ ... (cross modulations)
Mixing products lead to intermodulation signals which order is |mf1 nf2|, with m et n algebraic.
3rd order intermodulation (the more annoying because the closest of the carriers)
3C.P
in1
2
.P
in2
= 3C.P
1
.sin
2
(
1
t).P
2
.sin (
2
t)
= .P
1
.P
2
.cos (2.
1
t). sin (
2
t)
= .P
1
.P
2
.[sin [(2.
1
+
2
)t]. sin [(
2
-2.
1
)t]]
2
3C
4
3C
Amplifier linearity 3/4
o
o
P
out
Freq

1

2
2
1
-
2
2
2
-
1

2
-
1
2
1
2
2

2
+
1
3
1
3
2
2
1
+
2
2
2
+
1
Spectral illustration
57
P
i
i . P
1
i 1 OIP
i
P
2
2 P
1
OIP
2
P
3
3 P
1
2OIP
3
i
Slope=1
Slope=2 Slope=3
o
o
Intermodulation level IMD
i
or C/I
i
(dBc)
Ratio between the power of the carrier and the power of the ith
intermodulation product, given for an input power level.
Decreases when P
in
is increasing.
Ex. IMD
2
= P
1
P
2
et IMD
3
= P
1
P
3
Interception Point (dBm)
Power characteristics
Amplifier linearity 4/4
Adjacent Channel Power/Leakage Ratio (ACPR or ACLR), expressed in dBc
This parameter quantifies the intermodulation when a complex signal is treated by a real amplifier. It is the ratio
between the power in the main channel and the power of spurious generated in adjacent channel.
( )
( ) ( )
2
1
6 4
3 5
2
10 log
f
f
f f
dBc
f f
Dsp f df
ACPR
Dsp f df Dsp f df
(
(
(
=
(
(
+
(

Linearity measures for complex signals
Main Main
Adjacent Adjacent
58
Noise Power Ratio (NPR) en dBc
White noise is used to simulate the presence of many carriers of random amplitude and phase, passed
through a narrow band-reject filter to produce a deep notch (typ. >50dB) at the center. The depth of the notch
at the output of the amplifier is the measure of the NPR (MD products tend to fill in the notch).

Main
channel
Main
channel
Adjacent
channel
Adjacent
channel
Main
channel
Main
channel
Adjacent
channel
Adjacent
channel
Amplifier dynamics, power efficiency
Dynamics
It is the ratio between the output power P
d1
when theIM3 level equals the noise floor output
power and the noise floor output power P
N
(the
minimum output detectable power).
Power efficiency
Energy conservation:
P
th
+ P
out
= P
dc
+ P
in
Efficiency :
In case of high power applications, the Power
Added Efficiency (PAE) is preferred:
dc
out
P
P
=
P P
o
59
The efficiency must be maximum for:
-A longer battery lifetime (mobile terminals)
-Thermal management (lowering the thermal
dissipation from HPA, satellites, base telecom
stations, etc)
dc
in out
PAE
P
P P
=
D
dB
P
d1 dBm
P
N dBm
in
Slope =1
Slope = 3
Dynamics
Noise floor
Power amplifier operating class 1/4
The operating class (A, B, C) is a function of the bias point location via the conduction angle
Class A
60
Classes B and C
As the conduction angle is decreasing the power efficiency is increasing.
A maximum near 100% can be theoretically obtained with = 0 but gain and power will be near 0
Power amplifier operating class 2/4
Classes D and E
The source signal is not sinusoidal (near a square signal) power transistors are commuting
Class D 2 transistors
Theoretical efficiency of 100%
But, the transistor is commuting during some time and dissipates
power because I and U are simultaneously non null.
Operation under 1GHz;
High power amplifiers (1kW)
+V
dd
L
Modulation
Voltage Current
Power dissipation when
I 0 and U 0
61
-V
dd
R
L
C
L
Modulation
Class E 1 transistor
Target: optimize wave forms to be better than the class D
Rise / fall times of currents are shifted compared with voltages
This results in a lower power dissipation during commutation
Theoretical efficiency of 100% but some limitations remain:
- The non-null Ron resistance
- The non-null saturation voltage
- Losses into passives
+V
dd
R
L
C
p
C
0
L
0
L
Power dissipation lower
than the class D
Power amplifier operating class 3/4
Z = @ 3f
0
0 elsewhere
Class F and variants
These classes use harmonic tuning of their output networks
for combining these harmonics with the fundamental. This
achieves higher efficiency and can be considered a subset
of Class C due to their conduction angle characteristics.
62
Z = @ f
0
0 elsewhere
Power amplifier operating class 4/4
Summary
Class
Transistor
operation
Conduction
Angle [rad]
Output power
Efficiency
max.
[%]
Gain Linearity
A
Current
Source
2 medium 50 good good
B medium 78,5 medium medium
C 0 < < low 100 low low
D
commutation
good 100 low low
E good 100 low low
F good 100 medium low
63
A trade-off between efficiency and linearity is always
to be solved
Power Efficiency => Switching PAs (class D, E, F)
Linearity => Class A, AB, B
These important performances for a power amplifier
can be optimized by specific circuits and techniques,
Circuits for efficiency optimization
Circuits for linearity optimization
Techniques for high output powers
P
out
(dBm)
P
in
(dBm)
P
in-1dB

PA- Efficiency increase

Doherty amplifier
RF
Input
Output
Power
control
Line
Doherty amplifier
Typical
amplifier
64
Main amplifier PA
1
: biased for class AB or B
Auxiliary amplifier PA
2
: class C
this amplifier enter into operation when the input signal reaches a fixed level (P
outmax
/ 9)
The efficiency has a good level on a large input power level range.
Line
PA- Efficiency and linearity increase
Envelope Elimination and Restoration Amplifier (EER) or Kahn amplifier
The amplitude envelope and the phase
information are processed by 2 different high
efficiency amplifiers (Class C, D, E, )
Problem: propagation times must be
adjusted (equal) to be able to restore the
envelope of the output signal.
PWM: Pulse Width Modulation
65
Bias adaptative Amplifier
The bias is driven by the envelope
The amplifier stays biased near the saturation,
where the efficiency is the best
The bias is applied from the envelope
requirement, the linearity is optimized as well
PA- Linearity enhancement 1/4
Push-pull Amplifier Balanced Amplifier
66
Passive couplers are cumbersome:
- monolithic integrated applications in millimeterwave frequency range, low output power
(because losses of couplers)
- Hybrid technology for high output power applications
Several topologies exist for couplers as: Marchand coupler, branchline hybrid, rat-race hybrid,
Wilkinson coupler, Lange coupler with g/4 on a channel for 180phase difference
Feedback
Used for low RF frequencies (f< 1GHz) because this principle needs
transistors with high open loop gain value to be efficient in the close loop
operation.
Potential problems of stability
PA- Linearity enhancement 2/4
Analog Predistortion
The aim is to connect in front of the PA a device which presents the opposite non-linear
characteristics, as the overall exhibits a linear transfer.
Close loop analog Predistortion:
The most general problem is to choose F
1
and F
2
such that F
2
(H(F
1
(x))) is a linear function of the
input variable x.
F
1
(x) H(x) F
2
(x)
x
Open loop analog Predistortion:
67
Close loop digital Predistortion
PA- Linearity enhancement 3/4
68
Feed-forward
Open loop operation:
- Frequency broadband
- Unconditionally stable
Difficult design but nice results:
Linearity very high enhancement (levels of
spurious can be 60 dBc)
Drawback: low efficiency, 10 % max.
+
-
Various other circuits exist
Like LINC amplifiers (LInear amplification using Non-linear Components)
Balun (180hybrid)
PA- Linearity enhancement 4/4
69
Outphasing Technique which consists in the transformation of the phase and amplitude modulated
input signal into two phase modulated signals. Difficulty is in the realization of the AM/PM converter.
Resultant signals are with constant envelope
Amplifiers operate at their maximum efficiency (near saturation)
Outputs are out of phase recombined (the envelope is restored)
Conclusion:
The main difficulty is to improve the linearity without lowering
to much the efficiency
Network of amplifiers with Wilkinson couplers
Bus-bar interconnection
PA- Power increase
70
Bus-bar interconnection
Two amplifiers on a bar
The dimension between two amplifiers must be small
compared to
g
(powers must be in-phase combined on the
output)
Stubs and LC for matching (which can be distributed
The aim : optimizing the nonlinearity operation for maximizing the frequency conversion.
A large amplitude signal is requested (see slide Linear and Non-Linear operation ).
Non-linearity : v
out
= A.v
in
+ B.v
in
2
+ C.v
in
3
+ ....
Frequency conversion: multiplication and mixing
If only one signal is applied on the input: v
in
= V.sin (t)
Then
f 2f 3f
= FREQUENCY MULTIPLICATION
v = V .sin ( t)
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) [ ] ... t 3 sin t sin 3 .
4
V
. C t 2 cos 1 .
2
V
. B t sin . V . A v
3 2
out
+ + + =
71
v
in1
= V
1
.sin (
1
t)
If two signals are applied: v
in
= v
in1
+ v
in2
with
v
in2
= V
2
.sin (
2
t)
Then (see slide 54 on intermodulation)
v
out
= A.v
in1
+ B.v
in1
2
+ C.v
in1
3
+ .... (output for excitation 1)
+ A.v
in2
+ B.v
in2
2
+ C.v
in2
3
+ ... (output for excitation 2)
+ 2B.v
in1
.v
in2
+ 3C.v
in1
2
.v
in2
+ 3C.v
in1
.v
in2
2
+ ... + K.v
in1
m
.v
in2
n
+ ... (cross modulations)
+ B.V
1
.V
2
.{cos[(
1
-
2
)t] - cos[(
1
+
2
)t]}
Two frequencies are generated: difference (f
1
- f
2
) and sum (f
1
+f
2
) =MIXING
These frequencies are called Intermediate Frequency (I.F)
Frequency conversion: non-linear device
A: PN-diode and bipolar transistor
(non-linear conductance and transconductance)
Well suited for multiplication (high order, n>2)
B: Schottky diode or Field Effect Transistor
(non-linear conductance and transconductance)
X
Y
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 1 2 3 4
A
B
(

|
|

\
|
= 1
U
v
exp . i . i
T
be
bo c
2
v
| |
72
Other diodes
(non-linear capacitance)
Some diodes can be used as variable capacitance (varactor)
when reverse biased: for example Schottky diode and Step Recovery Diode (SRD).
Schottky diode: with 0,5 < < 2
Well suited for mixing and multiplication by 2
2
T
gs
dss d
V
v
1 . I i
|
|

\
|
=

|
|

\
|

=
B
a
0 j
a
V
1
C
) V ( C
0 -1 -0.5 -0.25 -0.75
Applied voltage
C
a
p
a
c
i
t
a
n
c
e

(
p
F
)
Noise and noise conversion
v t V
0
t cos
0
t t
Near the carrier
=The BF noise is converted by the non-linearities of the device: converted noise
RF Signal
+ HF noise
- BF Noise sources
- HF white noise
Amplified RF signal
+ HF additive noise
+ BF noise modulation
converted noise
Amplitude
noise (t)
Phase noise (t)
HF Device
Ex. amplifier
Frequency conversion: noise issue 1/2
noise
AM noise
PM noise
73
BF noise
HF noise
Additive noise
Converted noise
HF noise
Additive noise
Converted noise
(1/f noise and trapping/release noise, if this last noise is present)
Far from the carrier (HF Noise)
= white noise which a noise floor. Two situations are possible:
additive noise floor converted noise flloor
(thermal noise, ) (BF thermal noise conversion)
Modulation of the BF noise floor by the fundamental signal :
C Noise and signal (f
0
) at the device input
C Modulation of the BF noise by the signal
(because device non-linearities)
C Spectral aliasing of noise
C Output signal (f
0
signal and converted noise
added with HF noise)
Frequency conversion: noise issue 2/2
74
added with HF noise)
Modulation of the BF noise floor by harmonics generated by non-linearities of the device
Near carrier noise deterioration of a n order multiplier output
Multiplier of n order = multiplication by n of the noise level present at the output
This noise deterioration is measured with CNR (Carrier to Noise Ratio): CNR 20log n
General example of a varactor diode multiplier
The diode is used as a variable capacitance (varactor) versus the applied voltage (the diode is
reverse biased)
- When the signal (high amplitude) is applied = the impedance variations generate harmonics
- Principle: the circuit is optimized for an order n harmonic amplitude as high as possible and for
suppressing all others, which must not be found on the load (non-linearity + filtering)
Frequency conversion: diode multiplier 1/4
75
Main characteristics of this topology
- The capacitance is the main non-linear element = reactive component = low noise and low
conversion losses (no resistive divider lines/non-linearity)
- Narrow band because the reactive nature of the non-linearity
- Multipliers with frequency up to 150 GHz can be designed with Schottky diodes used as varactor
SRD diode Multiplieur
The characteristic C(V) is highly non-linear = high order multipliers
General example of circuit
- Input band-pass filter = impedance matching for f
0
, z
out
= 0 for all other frequencies (harmonics must not disturb
the source)
- diode and inductor L
e
= synthesizing a pulse generator
- output resonant circuit = centered on the nth harmonic , output impedance matching @ frequency n.f
0
Frequency conversion: diode multiplier 2/4
76
Main characteristics of this topology
- The efficiency of the frequency conversion is varying with 1/n.
- Applications up to 20 GHz.
Resistive diode Multiplier
The diode (PN or Schottky) is forward biased
Limitation if n > 2 because the frequency conversion efficiency decreases a lot as n increases
General example of circuit
Input band-pass filters (output) used as resonators
impedance matching @ f
0
(2 f
0
)
z
in
(z
out
) = 0 for all other frequencies
Input: the source is loaded by the diode and its series resistance, the
cathode is connected to ground via the output resonator (all the
source voltage is applied on the diode).
Frequency conversion: diode multiplier 3/4
77
Output: the power is provided to the load by the diode with its anode
connected to ground (all the diode voltage is transferred to the load).
Main characteristics of this topology
- Broad-band frequency conversion
- Applications beyond 100 GHz
Balanced Multipliers
- the topology rejects naturally some intermodulation products (the power is less scattered)
- the output power is higher
- Input and output impedances of the circuit are higher (x2, generally)
Frequency multiplier with even order n
2 parallel diodes connected in series
Even harmonics are kept after the output
transformer (180passive coupler)
Well suited for frequency doubler.
Frequency conversion: diode multiplier 4/4
78
Frequency multiplier with odd order n
2 anti-parallel diodes
Input band-pass filter centered on f
0
Stub
g
/4 (3f
0
) for output matching (the CC at the end
of the input filter is changed into CO @3f
0
)
Couple line output filter centered @3f
0
, Z
in
@f
0
Well suited for frequency doubler.
Advantages when compared to diode circuits
- Conversion gain
- Good efficiency (transistor biased in class B or C)
- Lower input signal amplitude (amplification)
- High output power
- no stability problems
Drawbacks
- High 1/f noise (FET)
= increase upper than 20.log(n)
Simple multiplier (TBH SiGe / HEMTs GaAs)
Class B or C amplifier loaded on a resonator centered on the nth harmonic
Z
load
= R
L
@n.f
0
Frequency conversion: transistor multiplier 1/2
79
Z
load
= R
L
@n.f
0
0 elsewhere
Simple multiplier with FET
Input:
g
/4 (f
0
) stub with a SC termination for MESFET biasing = SC @2f
0
Output: half-wave distributed filter. Several line sections which are
g
/4 @ f
0
(rejection),
g
/2 @ 2f
0
(transparent) and 3
g
/4 @3f
0
(rejection)
Frequency conversion: transistor multiplier 2/2
80
FET balanced multiplier (see diode balanced multiplier )
Frequency doubler based on push-push topology:
- odd harmonics naturally cancelled
-Even harmonics in-phase recombined: gain
-Z
out
divided by 2 : impedance matching easier
Multiplier Multiplication
order
Band-
width
Output
power
Stability efficiency Frequency
conversion
Noise Max.
Frquency
varactor
Any order low high critical
high
Low loss low
> 100 GHz
SRD diode Medium to
high
(high order)
< 20 GHz
diode
resistive
2 very large low good low loss medium
100 GHz
balanced
(diode
Depends on
topology
very large medium good medium
Low loss
(/2)
medium
Frequency conversion: conclusion on multipliers
81
(diode
resistive)
topology
very large medium good medium
(/2)
medium
transistor
simple
2 and 3
large
high
good good
gain
medium > 100 GHz
transistor
balanced
2 (push-push)
3 (other
topology)
Very high
(x2)
High gain
(x2)
Main difficulty for matching and sometimes stability because, in a circuit, a lot of
impedances are time-varying
Input signal spectrum
Output signal spectrum
Ideal
multiplier
Aim : to convert a signal spectrum which is in a RF frequency band (f
RF
) toward any other
frequency band (f
IF
) called Intermediate Frequency. This conversion is done mixing the initial f
RF
frequency with the frequency of a signal generated by a Local Oscillator (f
LO
).
As already seen two IF are present at the mixer output: f
RF
+ f
LO
and |f
RF
f
LO
|
= up-conversion : f
RF
+ f
OL
(transmitter)
= down-conversion: |f
RF
f
OL
| (receiver)
Frequency conversion: Mixing 1/3
82
Frequency translation toward any other frequency results from the multiplication of the two signal
RF and LO. A non-linearity is required, which will be driven by the large LO signal (LO pumping)
This translation can be done by:
- multiplier
- modulator
- mixer
For frequency conversion we need a non-linearity: x
out
= A.x
in
+ B.x
in
2
+ C.x
in
3
+ ....
Mixer model where x
RF
(t) and x
OL
(t) are
the input signals
If sinusoidal signals are applied, x
RF
(t) = V
RF
cos(
RF
t) and x
LO
(t) = V
LO
cos(
LO
t)
1
st
non-linearity order: f et f
Frequency conversion: Mixing 2/3
( ) ( )
( )
( ) .... x x x 4 x x 6 x x 4 x D
x x x 3 x x 3 x C
x x x 2 x B x x A x
4
LO
LO
3
RF
2
LO
2
RF
3
LO RF
4
RF
3
LO
LO
2
RF
2
LO RF
3
RF
2
LO LO RF
2
RF LO RF IF
+ + + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + =
( ) ( ) t cos AV t cos AV x + =
83
Useful output signals
(produced by the
multiplication)
3
rd
non-
linearity order:
3f
OL
, 3f
RF
,
2f
RF
f
OL
,
2f
OL
f
RF

f
OL
and f
RF
2
nd
non-
linearity order:
2f
OL
, 2f
RF
,
|f
RF
f
OL
|
1
st
non-linearity order: f
OL
et f
RF
( ) ( ) t cos AV t cos AV x
LO LO RF RF IF
+ =
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] t cos V BV t cos V BV
t 2 cos V
2
B
t 2 cos V
2
B
V V
2
B
LO RF LO RF LO RF LO RF
LO
2
LO RF
2
RF
2
LO
2
RF
+ + +
+ + + +
( ) ( )
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ... t cos V V V
4
C 3
t cos V V V
4
C 3
t 2 cos V V
4
C 3
t 2 cos V V
4
C 3
t 2 cos V V
4
C 3
t 2 cos V V
4
C 3
t 3 cos V
4
C
t 3 cos V
4
C
LO
3
LO
LO
2
RF RF
2
LO RF
3
RF
LO RF
2
LO RF LO RF
2
LO RF
LO RF LO
2
RF LO RF LO
2
RF
LO
3
LO RF
3
RF
+ + + + +
+ + + +
+ + +
+ +
Image Frequency f
im
This frequency is without any interest and is converted in the f
FI
band, just like f
RF
=This
conversion increases the noise level.
Frequency conversion: Mixing 3/3
Image
spuriou
s
Useful
signal
From previous slide:
=even degrees into polynomial produce intermodulation products of even order
=odd degrees into polynomial produce intermodulation products of odd order
84
Solution : image rejection before the mixing
If f
im
is too much close of f
RF
for a good filtering (high Q
filter often required), special mixer topologies must be
used, as topology of Hartley (called Single Side Band
SSB- mixer.
f
im
2 f
OL
f
RF
FI filter
RF
input
FI
output
Conversion gain saturation
Conversion Gain
Ratio between the power of the output signal at IF frequency P
FI
(f
FI
) and the power of the input
signal at RF frequency P
RF
(f
RF
). The IF signal is at frequency |f
RF
f
OL
| or f
RF
+ f
OL
.
1
st
approximation:
Because:
x
FI
t ... BV
RF
V
OL
cos
RF OL
t BV
RF
V
OL
cos
RF OL
t
G
c
P
OL
Frequency conversion: Mixer characteristics 1/4
G
c ,disp
P
FI
f
FI
P
RF , disp
85
The conversion RF/FI will compress because the 4
th
order of the non-linearity
= == = a compression point can be defined (like for amplifiers)
(Note: a compression will be produced as well by the
increase of the amplitude of the OL signal Gc can
not increase endlessly-. So, there is an optimum
where Gc is maximum)
x
FI
t ...
3D
4
V
OL
V
RF
3
V
RF
V
OL
3
cos
RF OL
t ...
P
FI
(f
FI
) [dBm]
P
RF
(f
RF
) [dBm]
Linear
Region
Compression Saturation
Linear extrapolation
Slope=1
1dB
P
out-1dB
P
in-1dB
Frequency conversion: Mixer characteristics 2/4
FI band
Center
FI Spectrum
S
FI
(f)
Intermodulation
Two RF signals are applied with f
RF

Because the 4
th
term of the non-linearity:
The output spectrum in the FI frequency band is:
BV
RF
V
OL
+
x
FI
t ...
3D
4
V
OL
V
RF
3
V
RF
V
OL
3
cos
RF OL
t ...
86
And the following characteristics can be defined:
C/I
3
Output interception point of intermodulation OIP
3
(here as well, as defined for amplifiers)
P
3
3 P
1
2OIP
3 Slope=1
Slope=2 Slope=3
or
A mixer can be considered as an amplifier (two port
network) with the input at RF frequency and the
output at IF frequency
Noise
The mixer is a two port network with RF input and IF output =
and
Single Side Band Noise Factor
No useful signal in the IM frequency band (just noise)
Friis Theorem is valid and can apply
Frequency conversion: Mixer characteristics 3/4
N k T G B k T G B
IF
IF
RF
RF
N
S
N
S
P
P
P
P
F =
N
a
= output noise part of the mixer
87
Double Side Band Noise Factor
Useful signals in the two RF and IM bands.
If we place an image rejection filter in front of the mixer, this difference of 3 dB between SSB noise
factor and DSB one is canceled.
So, assuming B
im
= B
RF
, a general relationship can be expressed as:
F
SSB
N
a
k T
0
G
c , f
im
B
im
k T
0
G
c , f
RF
B
RF
k T
0
G
c , f
RF
B
RF
F
DSB
N
a
k T
0
G
c , f
im
B
im
k T
0
G
c , f
RF
B
RF
k T
0
G
c , f
im
B
im
k T
0
G
c , f
RF
B
RF
F
SSB
F
DSB
1
G
c , f
im
G
c , f
RF
N
a
= output noise part of the mixer
G
c
(f
im
) = conversion gains for image frequency f
im
G
c
(f
RF
) = conversion gain for f
RF
B
im
, B
RF
= bandwidth around f
im
and f
RF
, respectively
T = system reference temperature (290 K)
Considering B
im
= B
RF
: F
DSB
= F
SSB
/ 2
Isolations
Isolations characterize the mixer ability to prevent the transmission of the frequency applied on one
of the accesses forward all others.
For example, on the IF output, only the signal at (f
OL
+ f
RF
), for an up-converter, or at | f
OL
- f
RF
|, for
a down converter, must be present.
A mixer is a three accesses device. So we can define:
- OL RF isolation I
OL RF
P
RF
f
OL
P f
The main isolation issue, because:
Frequency conversion: Mixer characteristics 4/4
88
- OL RF isolation
- RF FI isolation
- OL Fl isolation
I
RF FI
P
FI
f
RF
P
RF
f
RF
I
OL FI
P
FI
f
OL
P
OL
f
OL
I
OL RF
P
OL
f
OL
The main isolation issue, because:
- OL is the highest level
- The self-mixing of the OL generates DC
offsets which translate to self-biasings in 0
IF systems
Passive mixer
They are designed from diodes or from cold FETs with Vds 0V (=Ids 0 mA).
Their current characteristics are:
- A good linearity for RF signal
- A low power consumption
- A lossy conversion
Simple resistive diode mixer
- A coupler is required on the input to be able to apply both OL and RF signals
- Output OL filter for applying all OL power to the diode (without, this power is
Frequency conversion: passive mixers 1/2
89
- Output OL filter for applying all OL power to the diode (without, this power is
shared between the diode and the load)
- The operation is modulator-like:
- positive OL amplitude = the diode is on = high conductance
- negative OL amplitude = the diode is off = very low conductance
Simple reactive diode mixer
- Based on the use of a varactor diode is
-Same previous requirement for an RF and OL input coupler, and for an output OL
filter
- Mixing is generated by impedance variations (imaginary part of the impedance)
Frequency conversion: passive mixers 2/2
Simple resistive series transistor mixer
-No coupler requirement (3 accesses for a transistor)
-Cold FET (no bias on drain) : the transistor acts as a controlled resistor
-Pumping OL signal on gate
- V
DS
= 0V : this condition is kept with CC at f
OL
on drain and source
- CC for f
RF
on drain: all the RF power is applied between source and drain
- CC for f
FI
on source: all the IF power is transferred to the load
- Non-linearity: conductance g
DS
D S
90
Simple parallel resistive transistor mixer
-Cold FET (no bias on drain): the transistor acts as a controlled resistor
-Pumping OL signal on gate
-Non-linearities:
conductance g
DS
(the main): V
DS
= 0V kept with CC at f
OL
on drain
capacitances C
gs
and C
gd
: CC at f
RF
on gate (no V
GS
(f
RF
) variations)
-Conversion loss is minimized for an amplitude of the LO signal in the range
[V
p
; V
GSmax
] [pinch-off voltage, voltage for gate in conduction]
Mixer with LO on drain
- Non-linearities:
transconductance g
m
(the main): its swing is maximum if the transistor
is biased in ohmic region (V
DS
< V
DSsat
) and CC at f
OL
on gate
for v
GS
(t) = V
GS0
= 0V
conductance g
ds
and capacitance C
ds
-LO power is higher than the one of the OL on gate topology
Frequency conversion: active mixers 1/2
Active mixers
Designed from transistors only: bipolar (TBH) or FET (MESFET, HEMT, P-HEMT)
g
mmax
g
dsmin
g
mmin
g
dsmax
91
-A coupler is required on drain to be able to apply OL and retrieve FI
Mixer with two transistors or double-gate transistor
(similar to the mixer with LO on drain)
-Main non-linearity: transconductance g
m
(T
2
)
T
2
= common-drain ampli. for OL (CC at f
OL
on T
2
drain)
T
2
= common-gate ampli. for FI (CC at f
FI
on T
2
gate)
-Advantages of this topology:
the required LO power is highly decreased
good isolation OL/RF (low value of C
gd
)
no coupler required
-Drawback: the conversion gain is quite low because the poor transfer of
IF signal from T
1
drain to the output (no matching between transistors)
Frequency conversion: active mixers 2/2
Mixer with LO on gate
- Non-linearities:
transconductance g
m
(the main): V
DS0
is kept with
CC at f
OL
on drain (V
DS0
> V
DSsat
)
capacitance C
gs
- Conversion gain is maximized from a OL voltage
swing within the range [V
p
; V
GSmax
]
- A coupler is required on the input to be able to
apply both OL and RF signals
92
Mixer with LO on source
-Non-linearities:
transconductance g
m
(the main): pompage par V
GS
et V
DS
others: g
ds
, C
gs
et C
ds
Same characteristics as for mixer with LO on gate, but no coupler
required
CC at f
OL
on drain for an optimal pumping
CC at f
RF
and f
FI
on source for cancelling feed-backs (stability
problems, lower conversion gain)
A lot of mixing products are present at the output of a single non-linearity based mixer
=implementing a filter is useful when spurious are far enough, but it can be also useless, because
some spurious products can be in the IF frequency band.
The solution is to combine several single mixers, in a balanced topology
Simply balanced mixer for RF signal
2 single mixers, 2 couplers (RF & FI)
Simply balanced mixer for OL signal
2 single mixers, 2 couplers (OL & FI)
Frequency conversion: balanced mixers 1/3
93
s
2 1
A x
RF
x
OL
B x
RF
2
2 x
RF
x
OL
x
OL
2
C x
RF
3
3 x
RF
x
OL
2
3 x
RF
2
x
OL
x
OL
3
... k
i
x
RF
m
x
OL
n
...
x
FI
s
2
s
1
2Ax
RF
4Bx
RF
x
OL
...
2C x
OL
3
3 x
RF
x
OL
2
... k
i
x
RF
m
x
OL
n
k
i
x
RF
m
x
OL
n
...
This topology rejects:
=OL frequency and its harmonics
=all terms resulting from an even power of RF
This topology rejects:
=RF frequency and its harmonics
=all terms resulting from an even power of OL
Same mathematical developments
Frequency conversion: balanced mixers 2/3
Double balanced mixer
4 single mixers, 3 couplers (OL & RF & FI)
94
x
FI
8Bx
RF
x
OL
... k
i
x
RF
m
x
OL
n
k
i
x
RF
m
x
OL
n
...
=This topology combines all the rejections of the previous ones
=Only intermodulation products resulting from odd powers of signals RF or OL remain
Advantages: filtering is largely simplified, isolations are greatly enhanced, as gain and linearity
Drawback: large complexity and coupler requirement
+TRADE-OFF between rejection and circuit complexity
Balanced Mixers: summary
Characteristics
Mixer classes
Single cell
Simply
balanced
(RF)
Simply
balanced
(OL)
Double
balanced
OL signal harmonics rejection all even all
RF signal harmonics rejection even all all
Frequency conversion: balanced mixers 3/3
95
Rejection of
m.f
RF
n.f
OL

m even
- -
n even
- -
Number of non-linearities 1 2 4
Conversion gain
(assuming couplers without any loss)
G
c
G
c
+ 3 dB G
c
+ 6 dB
Normalized consumption 1 X2 (minimum) X4 (minimum)
Number of required couplers 0 2 3
Double balanced mixer
The RF signal is applied as a common mode through the
output transformer (FI)
At microwave frequencies, transformers are replaced by
couplers (power dividers or combiners, passive or active)
180:
- Example of Ratrace coupler
- Example of Branchline coupler
Frequency conversion: examples of balanced mixers 1/2
96
(source = www.microwaves101.com)
Cold FET double balanced mixer
Diodes are replaced by FET without any bias on drain (V
DS
= 0, I
DS
= 0)
This principle can not be used with bipolar transistors
Double balanced mixer, if 3 couplers are implemented
The linearity of this topology is very good
Gilbert mixer
T
1
& T
2
= differential pair for a conversion
voltage/current (linear transconductor stage)
T to T = transistors operating into commutation
Frequency conversion: examples of balanced mixers 2/2
97
T
3
to T
6
= transistors operating into commutation
(mixing stage)
Conversion current / voltage into loads R
c
This circuit is really popular because it is a nice
solution for integration. But performances are
quite limited (because trade-off between gain,
linearity and noise) and low voltage application
is difficult.
if V
RF
and V
OL
<< 2U
t
:
otherwise V
RF
<< 2U
t
and OL large signal :
V
FI
R
c
I
0
4U
t
2
. V
RF
V
OL
V
FI
R
c
I
0
tanh
V
OL
2U
t
.V
RF
Mixer
principle
Non-linearity G
c
Required P
OL
OIP
3
Noise figure
DC
consumption
Number of
couplers
Passive
single mixer
diode loss medium low bad Very low 1
Series
transistor
loss high medium medium Very low none
Parallel
transistor
loss high good medium
Very low
1
OL on gate good low medium good high
1
OL on drain good high medium good low
Frequency conversion: Mixers summary
98
Active
single mixer
1
OL on drain good high medium good low
OL on source good medium medium good medium
none
double gate medium low medium medium medium
Double
balanced
mixer
Gilbert Cell good low medium medium medium
3
Cold FETs loss medium Very good medium Very low
Frequency generation
Fixed frequency oscillators (ex. DCXO, DRO)
reference frequency in a system
dielectric resonators
(ceramic, sapphire, quartz)
Very high Q (Q
0
up to 10
9
)
well stabilized and low phase noise
Synchronized oscillators
between PLL et and oscillator
Tunable oscillators (VCO)
For frequency synthesis
Frequency generation
99
For frequency synthesis
Low Q (Q
0
= 10
2
maximum)
frequency can vary
when integrated, resonator LC, with C = varactor
Frequency synthesizer
PLL or DDS (Digital Direct Synthesis)
DCXO = Digitally Controled Crystal (abr.
Xtal) Oscillator
= frequency reference (quartz oscillator)
VCO = Voltage Controlled Oscillator
PLL = Phase Locked Loop
4 La gnration de frquences
4.2 Architectures doscillateurs
Circuits lectroniques
oscillants
oscillateurs
temps discrt
oscillateurs
temps continu
rsonateurs
- Quartz
- circuit LC
- circuits rsonateurs
dilectriques
sans rsonateurs
- oscillateurs en anneaux
- cellules RC
circuits
numriques
(DDS, ...)
oscillateurs
relaxation
100
- circuit LC
- circuits rsonateurs
dilectriques
- cellules RC (DDS, ...)
exploits de la BF jusqu'aux frquences RF (qlq GHz)
La limite HF circuits numriques ncessitant une horloge
trs suprieure la frquence max. synthtisable.
rgime satur/bloqu
applications BF
Signaux de sortie carrs
(bcp dharmoniques)
Rsonateurs = cellules bande troite
gnration de signaux quasi-sinusodaux
Technique de ralisation dpendante de la
technologie du rsonateur (dilectrique, quartz,
circuit passifs distribus ou localiss, etc...)
Dfinir conditions de dmarrage et
doscillation (voir en suivant)
4 La gnration de frquences
4.3 Conditions de dmarrage et doscillations 1/2
Oscillateurs temps continu et rsonateur
Conversion dune puissance continue fournie par l'alimentation en une puissance une frquence particulire 0
systme boucl sur lui-mme constitu :
- dun lment passif rsonant Q
- d'un amplificateur A rgnrant le signal cr la frquence f
0
dissipe par le circuit rsonant

Q
a a
Conditions d'oscillation, (conditions de Barkhausen)
Formalisme des impdances avec
R
A 0
R
Q 0
0
X X 0
Z
A
R
A
j X
A
Z R j X
101
Plan d'oscillation
Z
Q
Z
A
b
Q
a
Q
b
A
a
A
Formalisme des coefficients de rflexion
X
A 0
X
Q 0
0 Z
Q
R
Q
j X
Q
A 0
.
Q 0
1
A 0 Q 0
0 2k k
Conditions de dmarrage
R
A 0
R
Q 0
0
X
A 0
X
Q 0
0
A 0
.
Q 0
1
A 0 Q 0
0 2k k
ou bien
!
Z
c
Z
A
Z
Q
Pour appliquer correctement le formalisme des coefficients de rflexion
limpdance de normalisation Z
c
doit satisfaire la condition :
4 La gnration de frquences
4.3 Conditions de dmarrage et doscillations 2/2
Oscillateur en mode de transmission ou topologie parallle
A
Sortie

0
= pulsation o les conditions sont nonces
Conditions de dmarrage
fonctionnement quasi-
linaire de lamplificateur
Conditions doscillation
compression de
lamplificateur
Exemple
non-linarit dordre 3 < 0
ncessaire pour diminuer le
gain lorsque la puissance
augmente
102
Plan d'oscillation
A
Q
Sortie
Plan d'oscillation
A
Q
Sortie
S
21A 0
. S
21Q 0
1
21A 0 21Q 0
0 2k k
Oscillateur en mode de rflexion ou topologie srie

0
= pulsation o les conditions sont nonces
S
11A 0
. S
11Q 0
1
11A 0 11Q 0
0 2k k

0
= pulsation o les conditions sont nonces
4 La gnration de frquences
4.4 Caractristiques lectriques 1/3
=Frquence d'oscillation = frquence de la raie fondamentale
=Puissance de sortie du signal
=Accordabilit en frquence
Pour les VCO. Dpend de la technologie du rsonateur (Quartz, dilectrique, circuit LC, etc...).
=Puret spectrale = Niveaux des harmoniques par rapport au fondamental (loscillateur parfaitement
sinusodal n'existe pas)
=Coefficient de pulling = variation relative de f
0
/ variation de la valeur de l'impdance de charge
(minimis en isolant la sortie de loscillateur de la charge : isolateur, attnuateur, tage tampon)
103
=Coefficient de pushing = fluctuations de f
0
/ la tension d'alimentation
lalimentation change les caractristiques du transistor et donc la frquence o les conditions
doscillations sont respectes
K
push
f
0
V
dc
exprim en Hz / V
Technique de mesure :
On place successivement un CC et un CO sur la sortie en mesurant f
0
pour chaque configuration. On trouve
K
pull
f
0 CC
f
0 CO
Etude grand signal de loscillateur

Ps Pe
k.Ps
Posc
0
P(mW)
Pe(mW)
Ps-Pe
Psat
Psopt
Peopt
pertes (filtre, dphaseur ) considres dans
le coefficient k
dphaseur : phase de la boucle gale 2.n.
modlisation de la courbe Ps(Pe) :
Pe = k.Ps (pas de pertes dans la boucle) Posc = Ps Pe

|
|

\
|
=
sat
e o
sat s
P
P G
exp 1 P P
104
les caractristiques en puissance de l'oscillateur peuvent tre donnes partir des caractristiques de
l'amplificateur
le trac de Ps-Pe = Posc montre un optimum :
or
et
1
P d
P d
0
P d
P d
e
s
e
osc
= =
|
|

\
|
=
(

|
|

\
|
=
sat
e o
0
sat
e o
sat
0
sat
e
s
P
P G
exp G
P
P G
exp
P
G
P
P d
P d
0
0
sat eopt
G
) G ln(
P P =
|
|

\
|
=
0
sat sopt
G
1
1 P P
( )
) G ln(
1 G
P
P
G
0
0
eopt
sopt
opt

= =
0
0
0
sat eopt sopt max osc
G
) G ln(
G
1
1 P P P P
|
|

\
|
= =
( ) 1 G
) G ln(
P
P
k
0
0
sopt
eopt
opt

= =
f
BF
Bruit BF
f =
-
1
0

d
B
/
d
e
c
Bruit BF converti (multiplicatif)
S(f)
f
f
f
L
res
(f
m
)
Bruit HF (additif)
-
1
0

d
B
/
d
e
c
Bruit rsiduel
en sortie de l'amplificateur
Caractristique
en bruit BF de l'amplificateur
4 La gnration de frquences
4.4 Caractristiques lectriques le bruit dans les oscillateurs 2/3
Bruit en sortie dun oscillateur
Modulation du bruit BF du composant actif transpos la
frquence de sortie
Autour de la porteuse : bruit PM essentiellement
bruit AM limit par la compression du gain de l'amplificateur
Modlisation : bruit de phase L(f
m
) autour de la porteuse f
osc
fonction du facteur de bruit de l'amplificateur F
niveau de puissance du signal P
R
coefficient de qualit en charge du rsonateur Q
L
2F.k.T
P
e
S(f) = densit spectrale du
bruit BF en tension en V
2
/Hz
105
f
m
=
f
HF
Caractristique en bruit
de l'oscillateur proche
de la porteuse
L(f
m
)
f
BF
f
HF
f
f
osc
f
m
f
BF
-
2
0

d
B
/
d
e
c
-
2
0

d
B
/
d
e
c
-
3
0

d
B
/
d
e
c
Bruit HF
Bruit BF converti
2Q
L
f
osc
modle de Leeson-Cutler (1966)
L f
m
10 log
2 F.kT
P
R
. 1
f
osc
2Q
L
f
m
2
. 1
f
HF
f
m
bruit = processus alatoire et stationnaire (invariant dans le temps)
dBc/Hz
4 La gnration de frquences
4.4 Caractristiques lectriques le bruit dans les oscillateurs 3/3
Bruit en sortie dun oscillateur : mesure
P
s
f
0
DSP
f
f
m
L(f
m
)
RBW
P
N.SSB
L f
m
P
s
f
m
RBW
2
f
m
RBW
2
L f df . RBW
P
s
P
N.SSB
. RBW
L f
m dBc Hz
P
s dBm
P
N.SSB dBm
10log RBW
Incidence du bruit dans les systmes
- Dsensibilisation du rcepteur par un signal
-Dsensibilisation du rcepteur par l'metteur
106
- Dsensibilisation du rcepteur par un signal
provenant d'un canal voisin (Reciprocal mixing)
Bruit de phase de lOL du rcepteur
-Dsensibilisation du rcepteur par l'metteur
(systmes full-duplex uniquement. ex. CDMA) ou le signal
mis par un autre terminal proximit (Noise desensitization)
f
1
f
Fort signal issu
de l'metteur
f
2
Faible signal reu
par le rcepteur
signal
indsirable
f
1
signal
traiter
f
f
2
f
OL
f
FI
indsirable
FI
voulue
Noise leakage
through duplexer / antenna
Bruit de phase de lOL de lmetteur
4 La gnration de frquences
4.5 Exemples de ralisations 1/4
Oscillateur relaxation (temps discret)
Circuit peu adapt aux appli. HF
Oscillateur ligne retard
Ligne retard cellules RF cascades.
0< (E/S) < 270
oscille lorsque = 180(conditions doscillation)
107
Oscillateur en anneaux
Technologies intgres
utilise le retard de propagation travers une
porte logique pour dphaser le signal
La frquence doscillation dpend :
- de la technologie employe
- du nombre de portes cascades
Oscillateur rsonateur dilectrique
Exemple doscillateur micro-ondes topologie srie
4 La gnration de frquences
4.5 Exemples de ralisations oscillateur Colpitts et ses variantes 2/4
Oscillateurs Colpitts, Hartley, Clapp, etc bass sur des circuits rsonants LC
Principe de fonctionnement (Colpitts)
Oscillation = change dnergie entre L et C
au rythme de la frquence de rsonance
L
C
1
C
2
L
C
i
i
i
i
Z
C
2
.i - Z
C
1
.i
Modification du rseau prcdent en ajoutant une masse et un autre condensateur.
Charge de C
1
dcharge de C
2
et inversement : tensions aux bornes de chaque
condensateur en opposition de phase
0
0
1
LC
1 1 1
108
0
1
L
1
C
1
1
C
2
L
C
1
C
2
-A
Amplificateur inverseur pour compenser le
dphasage introduit par le rseau LC
1
C
2
Conditions doscillations
4 La gnration de frquences
4.5 Exemples de ralisations oscillateur Colpitts et ses variantes 3/4
Exemple doscillateur Colpitts
Utilise ici un FET source-commune, mais on peut varier
0
1
L
1
C
1
1
C
2
R
c
V
dd
L
C
1
C
2
Plan
d'oscillation
Circuit
rsonant
T
V
dd
L
C
2
R
T
C
1
V
dd
V
dd
L
R
C
2
C
1
V
dd
Oscillateur de Hartley Oscillateur de Clapp Oscillateur utilisant un quartz
Exemples avec des transistors bipolaires CC & BC
109
R
c
V
dd
L
C
1
C
2
Plan
d'oscillation
Circuit
rsonant
C
R
c
V
dd
C
L
1
L
2
Plan
d'oscillation
Circuit
rsonant
Oscillateur de Hartley
Circuit dual de loscillateur
Colpitts :
transformation L C
Oscillateur de Clapp
Colpitts modifi en rajoutant une capacit
C en srie avec linductance L.
Facteur de qualit en charge plus lev
meilleure stabilit en frquence
R
c
V
dd
Quartz
C
1
C
2
Plan
d'oscillation
Circuit
rsonant
Oscillateur utilisant un quartz
Variante de loscillateur Clapp en
remplaant le rseau LC par un
quartz : oscillateur Pierce
0
1
C
1
L
1
1
L
2
0
1
L
1
C
1
1
C
2
1
C
3
4 La gnration de frquences
4.5 Exemples de ralisations oscillateur Colpitts et ses variantes 4/4
Oscillateurs quilibrs
Fort intrt pour les circuits intgrs (transistors appairs, intgration, etc)
V
dd
Out
V
bias
T de
polarisation
Double paire croise (Colpitts quilibr) Topologies push-push Colpitts sortie f
0
et 2f
0
Rsistance
ngative
Rsonateur
accordable
L
r
V
bias
V
tune
V
dd
Out Out
L
r
C
2
C
2
C
var
C
var
R
b
R
b
T
2
L
c
V
dd
Out
R
c
T
2
L
c
Out
R
c
L
b
L
b
110
T
2
V
dd
V
tune
T
4
C
1
C
var
L
e
L
ee
T
1
T
3
C
1
C
var
L
e
L
ee
L
b
L
b
- Circuit oscillant C
1
C
var
L
b
- L
e
= inductance de dgnrescence
- Permet dosciller la frquence double de celle fixe par le rsonateur
- Optimisation du facteur de qualit faible bruit de phase
T
2
C
1
T
2
C
1
C
2
C
2
I
0
T
2
V
tune
C
1
C
var
T
2
C
1
C
var
L
b
L
b
Rsonateurs
accordables autour de f
0
Inconvnients :
- Rsonateur non-isol de la charge
(coefficient de pulling)
- petits transistors utiliser pour
limiter le temps de propagation de
lun lautre bruit !