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Health and Disease

Personal health

To maintain the state of good health individuals can concentrate on following


steps:

- Diet : inadequate or unbalanced diet may result in Nutritional deficiency


diseases and person will be more susceptible to other diseases.

- Personal hygiene : washing hands after going to toilet


washing hands before handling food
washing body and changing clothes

- Domestic hygiene : keeping cooking pots clean


keeping flies out of the house

- Clean food and water : wash vegetables and fruits well


When cooking heat in to high
temperature to kill
bacteria and tapeworm

- Not smoking : smoking causes lung cancers, bronchitis, emphysema,


atherosclerosis and heart attacks

- Exercise

Community Health

Steps taken by the community to maintain and improve standard of health


Clean drinking water
Efficient methods of sewage disposal
Education about diseases

Types of diseases

Infectious diseases : can spread from one person to another


Brought about by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses,
fungi and
protoctists

Deficiency disease : lack of food, vitamins or minerals


Anaemia – lack of iron
Goitre – lack of iodine
Kwashiorkor – lack of protein
Night blindness – lack of vit C
Scurvy – lack of vit C
Rickets – lack of vit D and calcium

Inherited disorders : cause genetically


Haemophilia – blood takes a longer time to
clot
Sickle cell anaemia – shape of the red blood
cells change
Cystic fibrosis

Auto-immune disease : cancer – cells reproduce at abnormal rate

Mental disorders : cause due to failure in the normal pattern of growth or


disturbance
in the production of hormones
Depression

Routes of entry

The ways that disease causing organisms are spread and access to human tissues :

- inhalation of mucous droplets containing pathogens through natural openings


such as mouth, nose (droplet infections)

- Contaminated food and water that is consumed


Pathogens already in food. Eg : tapeworm in pork or beef
Pathogens fall on already prepared food. Through
houseflies.
Unsterilized water

- Sexual contact
Venereal diseases : spread only through sexual contact (homosexual or

heterosexual)
STD (sexually transmitted diseases) : causative organisms are spread

by contact during
sexual intercourse
eg: Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, AIDS

- Contact
Contagious diseases
Fungal spores touching skin (skin to skin or skin and clothes)
Eg: tetanus causing bacteria can get into the body when contact with

broken skin

- Vectors piercing skin


Insects feed by biting through the skin of mammals and sucking blood.
Insects secrete saliva into the wound with anticoagulant to prevent
blood from clotting and that saliva might have pathogens which injected into the
blood stream of the host
Eg : mosquito, lice

Disease
Disturbance to the healthy state usually brought about by a disturbance of
homeostasis
Pathogen
Disease causing organisms
Eg : bacteria, viruses, fungi
Protoctists (single celled organisms such as plasmodium-causing malaria
and amoeba-causing amoebic dysentery)

Vector
Disease (disease causing pathogen) carrying organism
Transmits the disease without suffering from it
Eg : mosquito malaria

Housefly typhoid, cholera

lice typhus

water snail Bilharzia

Transmission
How the disease is spread from one to another
Eg: droplet infections
Contaminated food and water
Sexually
contact

Incubation Period
Time interval between entry of the pathogen and the time taken to show signs and
symptoms.

Symptoms – What the patient complains of ( eg headache,


dizziness)

Signs – What the doctor sees (eg rashes, enlarged tonsils, fever)

Infective Period
Period in which the patient is infective to others (the patient is still shedding
the pathogen to others).

Notifiable disease
A disease of worldwide importance where the WHO must be informed of every case in
order to control its spread.
Eg : cholera
AIDS
SARS
Bird flu

Endemic disease
Disease that is prevalent (common) at all times, but the number of
sufferers is
low (eg Malaria in Sri Lanka)

Epidemic disease
Sudden outbreak of a disease in a localised area where the number of sufferers is
high (eg Cholera outbreak in Colombo in 1999)

Passive immunity
Immunity a person is born with (acquired via placenta and lactation)

Active Immunity
Immunity brought about by infection and vaccines which results in the formation
of memory cells.

Immunisation
Vaccination of a dead or weakened pathogen
This ‘tricks’ the immune system to produce
-antibodies
-memory cells
This is a form of active immunity
Usually gives lasting protection against disease.

Antibiotic
Used against bacterial infections
Eg : Penicillin from Penicillium fungi

Prophylaxis – Prevention

Pathogenesis – Course of the disease within the body

Syndrome – Collection of different diseases

Body’s defense mechanisms

1. The skin
- physical barrier
- dead outer layer, cells contain keratin/cornified cells
- waterproof
- impenetrable to microbes
- secrete sebum; has antiseptic properties-kills bacteria

2. mucous membranes
- especially in mouth, vagina, nose
- epithelium of trachea produces mucus
- traps bacteria
- cilia beat and move mucus to throat
3. stomach has enzymes and acids (pH =2.0)

4. Tear glands
- secrete tears
- have anti-bacterial properties

5. Blood clotting
- heal wound
- prevent entry of pathogens through open skin

6. Phagocytes
- engulf bacteria

7. Antibody and Antitoxin production

The course of an infectious disease


Enemy : pathogen
Army : WBC
Victory depends on : relative number of the pathogen compared to the
number
of WBC

Why it is difficult to control the pathogens inside the body (problem for the
army) :
- microorganisms breed very rapidly / metabolism is very rapid
- blood is the ideal medium for pathogens to thrive and multiply (due to ideal
temperature and plenty of food)

pathogen enters the body


incubation period

pathogen multiplies in number

while pathogen multiply, they produce toxins, poisons and waste products
onset of signs and symptoms of disease. Eg :fever

meanwhile, phagocytes try to fight against pathogens.


So increase cell lysis and cell debris
may make symptom worst
pathogen gains access to blood circulation and numbers increase further;

lymphocytes start to look for correct antibody

the correct lymphocyte clones itself as an attempt to increase its numbers to that
of the enemy

the clone produces antibody


antibody clumps and kills pathogen
antitoxins neutralize any toxins
symptoms begin to subside

antibody level become very high


symptoms completely subside; recovery phase; restoration of health

memory cells and antibodies remain to give lasting immunity against that pathogen
memory cells allow future antibody production to occur sooner, faster and in
greater quantity
Questions

Q1) 2006 May


There are several ways in which the body prevents microorganisms gaining entry to
the cells.
a) Describe the role of each of the following in preventing the entry of
microorganisms into the body.

(i) the skin (4)

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(ii) the lining of the airways (5)

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b) (i) Describe how microorganisms that do succeed in gaining entry to the body
are then able to produce signs and symptoms of disease. (3)

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(ii) How does the immune system respond to an invasion of the body by
pathogens?
(8)

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total 20 marks
Q2) Some microorganisms cause disease in human and usually the person recovers
naturally from the disease.

i) Describe the stages in the course of a non-lethal bacterial disease and explain
what is occurring in the body at each stage. (from the time of entry of the
pathogen until normal health is restored) (15)

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ii) Explain why, having recovered from a bacterial disease, a person is unlikely
to suffer from the same disease on a future occasion. (5)

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Bacterial Diseases

Bacteria
- Prokaryotic organisms
- No true nucleus/ genetic materials are not organized into chromosomes and
into nucleus.
- Have circular DNA-plasmids
- No membrane bound organelles such as mitochondria, ER, Golgi
- Cell wall is made out of murein
- May have flagella for movement
- Reproduce by Binary fission

- Nutrition : phototrophic : use light energy to synthesis organic matter from


inorganic compounds
Saprophytic : obtain food from dead or decaying
organic matter
Mutualism : close relationship between living organisms
and both
get benefit
eg : Rhizobium, nitrogen fixing bacteria living in the
root nodules of legume
plants
E.coli, in the gut of
human, contributes for vit B
Cellulose digesting
bacteria live in gut of ruminants
Parasites : parasites that cause diseases are
pathogens

- Advantages :

1. as decomposers – digest dead organic matter into


soluble
inorganic
substances for green plants to use
decompose sewage,
so prevent water pollution
2. involved in nutrient cycles – eg : nitrogen cycle
Nitrification - Nitrosomonas
Denitrification
Nitrogen fixation – Rhizobium

3. use by humans in food production


eg : vinegar
yoghurt
cheese
single cell protein (used as
cattle food)

4. use in industry
eg : biogas (methane production)
producing antibiotics –
streptomycin

5. use in biotechnology
eg : producing Insulin (hormone)

- Disadvantages :

1. causing diseases
eg : cholera, tetanus, tuberculosis, typhoid, diphtheria,
gonorrhoea

2. spoil food

- Culturing bacteria

sterilised the (by heating until it glows The sterilise loop is


red) inoculating loop dipped into a source
of microbes

eg : spoiled food

Kills microbes or spores already


present on the loop

microbes are streaked onto sterile sealed with tape


fresh agar medium marked
with source and date
incubate in an oven
provide nutrient and water for microbes to placed upside down
grow
(to prevent any condensation
falling back onto agar)
- Testing antibiotics

To compare the effect of antibiotics :

Culture of bacteria grow on an agar plate


Discs of filter paper, each soaked in one antibiotic
Place on the agar plate (same distance between each)
Seal agar plates
Incubate
Examine the diameter of the clear zone (no bacterial growth)
Largest clear zone : best antibiotic

TYPHOID

caused by :

Transmission : Patients suffering from the disease pass the bacteria


in
(method of spread) their faeces and vomit.
i) washed into rivers and wells – spread by unsterilised
water
ii) Vectors such as houseflies and
cockroaches transfer
bacteria on their body from source to clean food and
water.
iii) Food-handlers not practicing good personal hygiene
eg : not cutting nails
not washing hands after use of toilets
Signs and Symptoms : Fever, diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal pain

Pathology : bacteria enter intestine


(cause of disease)

Multiply on intestinal wall (mucosa) producing many


toxins

these toxins irritate cells causing


i. increase peristalsis
ii. increase secretions (in an
attempt to flush out
bacteria and toxins)

severe diarrhea leads to dehydration

if uncorrected, dehydration leads to drastic fall in blood


volume and pressure which may be fatal.

Treatment :

i) antibiotic therapy to kill bacteria


ii) Rehydration (to correct fluid balance)
IV saline or in early stages ORF (same osmotic potential of blood so
helps restore fluid balance)

Prevention :

i) Boil water for a period of 10 minutes


Chlorinating well
Washing vegetables in chlorinated water
Cook food thoroughly

ii) Hygienic disposal of faeces


Efficient sewage treatment
Sewage should not be used as fertilization

iii) In kitchen ;
keep all garbage bins covered
throw all scraps of food
all prepared food should be covered
kitchen surfaces and utensils need to be washed and disinfected regularly
food handlers should wear gloves
separate knives and boards for meat and vegetables
washing hands after use of toilet
PHI paying regular visits to restaurants and hotels

Control measures :

- Educate the public


- Isolation of patients during epidemics (notifiable disease)
- Travelers going to typhoid zones should take the TAB vaccine (which offers
mild protection)
- Government must fund proper hygienic disposal of faeces
- People in close contact with the patient should take the TAB vaccine or a
dose of the prescribed antibiotic to prevent the disease.

Cholera

Caused by :
Motile bacteria, have flagellum

Transmission : contaminated food and water

Symptoms : severe, uncontrollable diarrhea


Dry skin, nausea, vomiting, tiredness, rapid pulse

Pathology : after incubation period of two to six days diarrhea begins


Bacteria produce toxins that irritate intestinal wall leading
to a
severe increases peristalsis
Danger is due to death by dehydration

Treatment : - Management of the patient using ‘rehydration’ methods


Eg : IV saline
- Treatment with antibiotics to kill bacteria
- Isolation of patient to prevent spread
- Incineration/burn of all utensils and linen used by
patients

Prevention : same as for Typhoid

Control measures : - Isolation of patient


- Inoculate people in an infected area
- Outbreaks of cholera should be notified to WHO
- Restriction on travel from infected areas

Tuberculosis (TB)

Caused by :

Transmission : droplet infection


spread through the air, when people who have the disease
cough, sneeze or spit.

Symptoms : - persistent cough


- appetite loss
- loss of weight
- coughed out blood-tinged sputum (blood contain mucus like)

Bovine TB by mycobacterium bovis that live in cow’s udder. Drinking


unsterilised milk will be the cause.

Pathology :
Bacteria settle in alveoli and bronchioles

Multiply forming colonies that form ‘tubercles’ in lungs

Tubercles increase in number, eroding healthy lung tissue and may even rupture the
lung (lung collapse)

To compensate the body produces large amount of sputum in order to flush out the
bacteria (phlegm cough)

Diagnosis :

Throat swab and planting of mucus – TB test on mucous


Mass chest x-ray

Treatment :
Problems have arisen due to resistance (by the bacteria) to the prescribed
antibiotic. For every TB patient WHO should be informed
Isolate patient and give them a well balanced diet

Prevention :
1. Immunisation programme : BCG vaccine (given at birth)
2. If there is an epidermic :
- Tuberculin test is carried out to check if the community has enough
antibodies. (inject a drop of dead bacteria under the skin and look for reaction)
- Mass chest x-ray
- Prevent overcrowding
- Public buildings and hospitals should be well ventilated
3. Bovine TB : Pasterisation of milk
Testing of cattle milk
Antibiotic theraphy
Diphtheria
Caused by : Corynebacterium diphtheriae
Immobile, curved rod shape bacteria
Diphtheria is an upper respiratory tract illness.

The tonsils are areas of lymphoid tissue on either side of the throat. Like other
organs of the lymphatic system, the tonsils act as part of the immune system to
help protect against infection. In particular, they are believed to be involved in
helping fight off upper respiratory tract infections.
Symptoms : sore throat
low fever
Difficulty in breathing
Adherent membrane on tonsils
Transmission : droplet infection

Pathology :
1 ) Bacteria reproduce rapidly on the fauces (is the posterior part of the mouth,
which leads into the pharynx) of the throat, releasing a grey exudate that is
thick and sticky.

This exudates coats the faucess and spreads rapidly so that it may block the
airways

Needs to be remove surgically

2) Diphtheria bacteria produce a powerful toxin that paralyses the heart.

Treatment : - removal of exudates


- anti-biotic therapy (to prevent transmission)
- anti-toxic injection into muscle immediately

Prevention :

1) immunization programme
“Triple” vaccine (DTP) – Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis (whooping cough)
The vaccine consists of a series of five shots, typically administered
in the arm or thigh, and is given to children at ages: 2, 4, 6, 18 months and 4-6
years. Adults at 10 years intervals.

2) Prevent overcrowding
isolation of patient
informing WHO
Gonorrhoea
Sexual transmitted disease

Caused by : Bacteria (Neisseria gonorrhoeae)

Transmission : sexual contact(skin of genitalia touching)


Due to mixing of sexual secretions

Symptoms : male –green/yellow discharge


Difficulty in urination
Female – usually asymptomatic (no symptoms)
Late stage may be difficult to urinate

Pathology : In male
When the penis comes in contact with the bacterium in the
urethral opening.
Bacteria multiply causing inflammation and discomfort.
As the bacteria multiply the infection spreads up
The urethra causing swelling and strictures (narrowing)
Long term effect – infertility

In female
Vagina and urethra get infected, but it rarely causes discomfort
But bacteria multiply and spread easily during sexual
intercourse.

Diagnose : sexual secretions or swab genitals

Treatment : antibiotic therapy(oral)


Antibiotic creams applied
Complete abstinence from sex

Prevention : use of condoms


Early recognition of signs and symptoms
Educate the public
Once patient is diagnosed you need to carry out contact tracing
Abstinence until cured
Treat patients and all his/her sexual partnars

Class test (2002 January)


a) Typhoid is caused by Salmonella typhi. The symptoms include a severe fever,
diarrhea and vomiting and if not treated typhoid can lead to death.
i) Explain why a higher fever, diarrhea and vomiting may lead to death if the
person does not have treatment. (5)

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ii) List four precautions that can be taken to prevent typhoid being transmitted
from one person to another. For each precaution, explain how it prevents the
transmission of typhoid. (8)

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iii) Some people carry Salmonella typhi in their body but show no symptoms of the
disease. Why could it be especially dangerous if such a person worked in a hotel
kitchen. (3)

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b) Some species of Salmonella cause food poisoning. Describe and explain two
precautions which should be taken during the preparation of food to ensure that
the food is safe to eat. (4)

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Viral Diseases

Virus

Structure :

- no cytoplasm
- no cell membrane
- no nucleus
- no cellular organization at all
- Protein coat around a DNA or RNA strand
- Out side a host cell no living characteristics
- Within host cell show reproduction only
- Obligatory parasite – need a host cell to survive
- Disease transmission – by water eg: polio
By droplet: flu
By vector: yellow fever
- Antibiotics are not effective for viral diseases

Reproduction of viruses

Influenza (flu)

Caused by : many different viruses (RNA viruses)

Transmission : droplet infection


(through saliva, nasal secretions)
Symptoms : fever, sore throat, runny nose, headache,

Sign : swollen lymph nodes in neck

Treatment : no drugs against viruses


Treat symptoms
Runny nose – piriton
Fever – Panadol

Prevention : - prevent overcrowding


- building should be well ventilated
- disposable tissue should be discarded

You can not develop lasting immunity for influenza because


many viruses cause it.

In humans, influenza's effects are much more severe and last longer than those of
the common cold. Recovery takes about one to two weeks. Influenza, however, can be
deadly, especially for the weak, old or chronically ill. The flu can worsen
chronic health problems. People with emphysema, chronic bronchitis or asthma may
experience shortness of breath while they have the flu, and influenza may cause
worsening of coronary heart disease or congestive heart failure. Smoking is
another risk factor associated with more serious disease and increased mortality
from influenza

AIDS (Acquired Immuno-Deficiency Syndrome)

Caused by : HIV (Human immuno-deficiency virus)


RNA virus

Syndrome is a collection of diseases

Transmission :

1) Sexual secretions – virus may be present in semen or vaginal fluids


Unprotected sex with homosexual or heterosexual
It has to involve the mixing of semen with
vaginal secretions
Usually following cell abrasion/scrap
(friction of penis with vagina often causes slight scrap that allow virus to
penetrate)

2) Blood – blood transfusions


Through open wounds
Heroin addicts sharing same needle
Haemophiliacs who require frequent blood
Health workers

3) Via placenta and breast feeding – from mother to developing fetus

Pathology :

Host cell – T Lymphocyte


HIV – RNA virus

The virus binds to receptors on T lymphocytes. Viral RNA is then injected into the
cell and copied to DNA by the enzyme “Reverse Transcriptase”. The viral DNA or
VDNA enter the lymphocyte nucleus and become attached onto human DNA as a
permanent part. As the lymphocyte divide so does the VDNA and the spread is rapid.

The VDNA can stay dormant for up to 6 years. When replication occurs, the VDNA
shuts down the effector T and helper T cells. So these cells can not produce
lymphokines nor can they help B lymphocytes to produce antibodies. This erases
all immunity to previous diseases and the body immunity system is severely
damaged.

Virus penetrates T cell

Injects its RNA


Reverse Transcriptase
RNA converted to DNA in host cell

Viral DNA penetrates host nucleus

Viral DNA fuses with human DNA

When the T lymphocytes are affected, the immune system is destroyed and previous
memory cells and antibodies are all wiped out. So a patient with AIDS has no
effective immune system and may even die of a simple cold.

Signs and Symptoms :

- The typical picture of AIDS is a collection of rare diseases that are usually
not seen together.
Eg : A rare form of skin cancer (Kaposi’s sarcoma)
Severe diarrhea all at the same time
Severe blood poisoning

- First a flu then months or years of good health.


Micro organisms infect the body causing repeated minor infections
Eg : fungal attacks of skin
Weight loss
Diarrhea
pneumonia
(Extra : The symptoms of AIDS are primarily the result of conditions that do not
normally develop in individuals with healthy immune systems. Most of these
conditions are infections caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites that
are normally controlled by the elements of the immune system that HIV damages. HIV
affects nearly every organ system. People with AIDS also have an increased risk of
developing various cancers such as Kaposi's sarcoma, cervical cancer and cancers
of the immune system known as lymphomas. Additionally, people with AIDS often have
systemic symptoms of infection like fevers, sweats (particularly at night),
swollen glands, chills, weakness, and weight loss.)

Traetment :

- Drugs that inhibit the enzyme Reverse Transcriptase can help reduce the
spread of the virus.
Eg : Zidovudin
- Symptomatic treatment
Treat the symptoms as and when they occur and try to manage the patient
- Treatment of secondary infections with antibiotics

Prevention :

- stick to one sexual partner


- use of condoms
- use disposable needles
- government should distribute free needles/ syringes to drug addicts
- Efective screening of donated blood
- All medical workers shoul wear rubber gloves
- Sex education at school and awareness
- Contact tracing (notifiable disease)
- Those at risk shoul be given immuno-enhansing drugs

Poliomyelitis

Extra : Poliomyelitis, often called polio or infantile paralysis, is an acute


viral infectious disease spread from person to person, primarily via the fecal-
oral route. The term derives from the Greek polio meaning "grey myelon”, referring
to the "spinal cord", and -itis, which denotes inflammation. Although around 90%
of polio infections cause no symptoms at all, affected individuals can exhibit a
range of symptoms if the virus enters the blood stream.[3] In fewer than 1% of
cases the virus enters the central nervous system, preferentially infecting and
destroying motor neurons, leading to muscle weakness and paralysis. Different
types of paralysis may occur, depending on the nerves involved. Spinal polio is
the most common form, characterized by asymmetric paralysis that most often
involves the legs. Bulbar polio leads to weakness of muscles innervated by cranial
nerves. Bulbospinal polio is a combination of bulbar and spinal paralysis

Caused by : RNA virus

Transmission : - droplet infection


- contaminated food or water
- houseflies

Signs and symptoms : ‘flu’ like symptoms for 3 to 4 days


Then paralysis

Pathology : biphasic disease

Phase 1 : - virus infects lymphnodes of the throat or intestine


- It rapidly multiplies and enters the blood stream
- This causes fever and flu symptoms followed by 48 hour of well-
being
- during this time the virus leaves the blood and invades the
cerebral spinal fluid of CNS

Phase 2 : -Virus attacks the grey matter of the spinal cord mainly in the region
where the motor neurones (cell bodies of motor neurone)
- killing motor neurones cause paralysis

Treatment : - No drugs to treat polio


- physiotherapy
- crutches
- iron lung (An iron lung is a large machine that enables a
person to breathe when normal muscle control has been lost or the work of
breathing exceeds the person's ability. It is a form of medical ventilator.
Properly, it is called a negative pressure ventilator.)

Prevention : Polio vaccine (oral) (immunisation) – shedule 2,4,6,18 months 4.5


years
Proper sewage disposal
Prevent overcrowding
Ventilation
Purification of water
Control of house flies
Fungal Diseases

Fungi

Structure

- Eukaryotic organism
- consist of multicellular filaments called hyphae
- hyphae forms mycellium
- cell wall is made out of chitin
- some fungi are single celled organisms eg : yeast cell
- eg : moulds (moulds on bread- Rhizopus, mould on dung – mucor)
mushrooms
yeast

- Reproduction :
Asexual reproduction – by spores produce from sporangium
Sexual reproduction

- Nutrition :
Saprophytic – depent on dead organic matter
Hyphae of fungi secrete enzyme on to dead matter
and absord soluble molecules
Parasitic

- Importance of fungi :

Helpful
1. Decay fungi (decomposers) – release nutrient for green plants from dead
organic matter
2. Yeast – respire anaerobically

Use Co2 for bakers (yeast act on sugar in dough, making it rise)
Use alcohol for brewers and wine-makers
Gasohol is ethanol brewed from sugar cane
3. Produce antibiotics – eg : Penicillium produces Penicillin
4. As Food
Natural – mushrooms
Certain yeasts, grown in fermenter vessels containing solution of
ammonium and other salts which is bubbled through with natural gas, are harvested
to give “single cell protein (SCP)” , very cheaply to feed cattle for more growth

Harmful
1. Decay fungi – spoil food
2. Plant diseases – eg : potato blight
3. Dry rot – destroy house timber
4. animal diseases – eg : athlete’s foot

Athlete’s Foot

Parasitic fungal infection of the epidermis of the human foot


It is typically caused by a mold (but in some cases a yeast) that grows on the
surface of the skin and then into the living skin tissue itself, causing the
infection. It usually occurs between the toes, but in severely lasting cases may
appear as an extensive "moccasin" pattern on the bottom and sides of the foot.
More commonly affects males than females.

Caused by : Tricophyton (mould fungus)

Transmission : foot needs to make contact with fungal spores


Eg : swimming pool walkways, sharing socks or towels, gym
floors

Symptoms : itchiness between toes


White patches (like a rash) on skin

Treatment : use of anti-fungal cream


Keep feet dry

Prevention : wear well ventilated shoes


Keep feet dry and clean
Make sure people wear slippers when walking on swimming pool
pathway
Dry gym floor and disinfect it regularly
Class test (Jan 2005)

a) describe how the fungus causing athletes foot obtain its food. (6)
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b) describe how athlete’s foot is passsed from one another. (4)
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c) describe measures that can be taken to prevent spread of athlete’s foot. (4)
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d) Describe how spread of schistosomiasis differ from athlete’s foot. (6)


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Thrush

Caused by : candida albicans (yeast like fungus)

Transmission : infants – white thrush on tongue (milk rash)


Adults – genital area mainly in women

- By contaminated nursery equipmant only in babies because they donot have a


stable immune system yet.
- Transmission to vagina due to weak personal hygene. Fungi usually live
harmlessly in the region of vagina and are prevented from spreading by bacteria.
Excessive intake of antibiotics kill bacteria allowing the fungus to grow – thrush
- sexual intercourse with an infected partner. Males are asymptomatic but they
may transmit the disease.
- Soiled underwear and towels

Symptoms : vagina – itchiness and a thick white discharge


Mouth – small white flakes coats the tongue and mucous
mambrane

Treatment : vagina – use of antifungal creams


Vaginal pessary to traet cervix

Mouth – glycerene to clean away fungus

Prevention : adult – boil and sterilise underwear


Keep genital region dry
Treat sexual partner
Do not overuse antibiotics
Practice good personal hygene

**** Thrush is common in women as the moisture and pH of vagina favour the growth
of fungus.

Infants – boil and sterilise all nursery eqipment thoroughly


Paracitic Diseases

Typhus

Caused by : lice (vector)

Transmission : spread by lice bitting scalp to suck blood and droppings enter
wound

Treatment : anti lice shampoo and specific combs to comb out eggs

Prevention : do not share combs, brushes, towels


No sex until cured
Regular checks in school
Regular washing of bed linnen and clothing

Worm infections

Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia)

Caused by : blood fluke called ‘schistosoma’

Schistosoma is a parasytic flat worm called a blood fluke because it lives in the
blood vessels of the intestine wall or the urinary bladder wall. The eggs are
layed in smaller blood vessels and the egg use their spines to vibrate and drill a
hole through the gut wall.
Therefore the eggs leak into the intestine where they are expelled along with the
faeces.
Within the human, the larvae enter through the lymph vessels. It first infects the
liver where the larvae develop into the adult worms. The adult worms then enter
the circulation and live in brances mainly of the hepatic portal vein.

Symptoms : blood stained stool or urine


Constant tiredness and sleepiness
Fever and abdominal pain

Treatment : worm treatment like vermox

Prevention and control :


- locate source of infection and inform people in that area not to use it for
drinking, washing and swimming
- boil / chlorinate water thoroughly
- do not use toilets that drain into rivers
- use biological methods to kill water snails
- use molluscicides (chemicals) to kill snails
- build bridges over canals
- dryout canals that are not being used
- provide water proof foot wear like boots for chilren to use
- use copper salts to kill snails (cheaper)
- educate people to stay out of infected water

Ascariasis and Amoebic Dysentry

Ascariasis Amoebic Dysentry (BIO)


Cause by

transmission

pathogenesis Round worm called Ascaris

Consumption of contaminated food and water

- Consumed eggs hatch into larvae


- Larvae enter blood stream
- Travel to lung where they enter alveoli
- crawl up the branchial tree to the throat
- swallowed again and enters oesophagus; finally the intestine
- adult worm lives in small intestine
Unicellular organism (similar to amoeba)

Consumption of contaminated food and water

- Amoeba reproduce in intestine


- produce toxins that causes severe colic pain and diarrhoea
Prevention and control (for both) :
- wash hands before preparing food
- make sure kitchen utensils and surfaces are clean
- store food ina fridge instead of keeping it outside. Prepared food kept
covered
- remove all refuse from kitchen
- proper disposal of sewage and faeces
- during an out break, salads and raw vegetables must be washed in chlorinated
water
- food taken out from fridgeshould be consumed immediately
- make sure all food is consumed before expiry date

Malaria

Caused by : Plasmodium vivax (unicellular organism)

Spread by : female Anopheline mosaquito (vector)

Life cycle of plasmodium

Transmission :
Mosquito’s adaptations : - pairs of peircing stylets (to pierce skin)
- proboscis to suck blood
- antennae to detect food source
- light body and quick reflexs to escape

When a mosquito bites a malaria victim, it suckes up the blood containing the
paracyte. The paracyte then lives in the salivary glands of the mosquito where it
undergoes developmental changes and matures
When the mosquito bites its next victim, it pierces the skin using its stylets and
first secretes a drop of saliva. The saliva contains an anti- coagulent that
prevents clotting so that the mosquito can suck up a liquid meal. That drop of
saliva would contain the parasite and mosquito allows it to gain direct access to
the blood circulation.

Pathogenesis :
- parasyte first infects the liver where it lives for upto 10 days
- then they re-enter the blood, where they infect the red blood cells
- development takes place within RBC’s, causing RBC’s to burst, releasing
parasites and toxins
- the bursting of RBC’s give rise to very high fever
- the fever takes place approximately every 48 hours

Complications of malaria :

- liver damage
- anemia
- cerebral malaria (one species of parasite plasmodium falciparum infects CSF
and brain)
- fever, vomiting, headache the persist due to dehydration and build up of
toxins

Treatment : anti malaria drugs - chloroquin


primaguin

Prevention :
Life cycle of mosquito

Hatching of eggs after 2/3 days


Siphon – breathing tube

Interuption of life cycle of mosquito (biological method)

- spray oil to cover water bodies (larvae can not breath)


- drain/dry up water bodies
- intraduce fish that will break surface of water
- intraduce predator fish that will feed on larvae eg : thilapia
- intraduce bacteria that feed on larvae
- release sterile male mosquitos to prevent mating
- prevent stagnation of water

physical/barrier method

- use mesh on windows


- use mosquito nets
- wear long sleeved shirts and trousers
- close doors/windows at dusk and dawn

chemical methods
- Use DDT/ insecticides on adult mosquito
- Insect repellant
- Mosquito coils, oils, tablets

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