Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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ARTHUR F. JOHNSON. N. A.
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Design ana Construction
of
Power WorKDoats
by
Arthur F. Johnson, N. A.
^4
Library
Copyri^Kt in
tlie
and
Entered at Stationers* Hall, London
1920
All Rights
Reserved
Tjl/^
ti
Naval
is
architecture as applied to
power worJi-
game
the
more absorbing.
When
it
is
realized that
this
country must be
of our
of
no small factor
of
the problem.
4G5333
Table of Contents
Advantages and Chapter II Analyzing Operating Conditions Chapter III Buoyancy, Draft and Displacement Lines Chapter IV Laying Down and Fairing
Chapter
I
Classifications
5 9
15 19
the
Chapter
Design
Chapter VI
Application
of Steel Construction
Steel
25
29
Wood and Transverse Framing Chapter VIII Design of Longitudinal Framing Chapter IX Bulkheads Demand Careful Planning Chapter X Hull Planks Fenders^Bilge Keels Boats Chapter XI Decks for Wood and Deck House Chapter XII Constructing Chapter XIII Companions Hatches Awnings Chapter XIV Mats Davits Winches Windlasses Chapter XV Anchors Towing Deck Drainage Chapter XVI Auxiliary Machinery and Quarters Chapter XVII Food Storage, Heating and Lighting Chapter XVIII Painting Structure and Sheathing Chapter XIX How Concrete Power Boats Are Built
Chapter VII
Steel
the
33 37
43 47
53
59
65
71
75
79
83
87
Appendix
Appendix
II
Designs
Power Workboats
93
101
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List of Illustrations
Page
Fig.
Cost Chart of Power Vessels Under Normai. Building Conditions (Commercial) Fig. 2 Cost Chart of Large Power Vessels (Commercial) Under Normal Building Conditions Fig. 3 Character Curves Sternwheel Power Boats (Wood) Less Than 100 Feet Long Fig. 4 Hull Proportions Sternwheel Power Vessels Over 100 Feet Long Fig. 5 Hull Proportions Power Tugs Over 60 Feet Long
1
|
| |
|
6
6
7
7
Character Curves Power Lighters 7 Hull Proportions Small Screw Vessels (Wood) 8 Shows Water Pressure Acting on a Floating Vessel 9 Illustrates Relation Between Draft and Displacement
1 1
j |
8 8
10
11
11
|
|
Fig. 10
Indicates the Utility of Reserve Buoyancy How External Force Causes Heei.ed-Over Position 12 Path of Water Around a Box-Shaped Hull 13 Gradual Stream-Line of a Properly Formed Vessel
| | j
| | | | |
12
12 12 14
IS
Various Forms of Fig. 16 Various Types of Sterns Fig. 17Sterns for Shallow Draft Vessels Fig. 18 Paddle Wheel Stern Fig. 19 Illustrating a Typical Body Section Fig. 20 Stem of a Wooden Tug Fig. 21 Stem of a Small Power Workboat Fig. 22 Stem of a Large Vessel 2S0 Feet Long Fig. 23 Stem of a Large Wooden Vessel
Fig. is
Fig. 14
Lines of a SO-Foot
16
17 17
| |
| | | |
18 19 19 19
20
20
Fig. 24
Construction
Clipper
| j
| j j |
of
Spoon
Bow
for
Stem of Auxiliary Sailing Vessel Fig. 26 Construction ok Bottom Girder of Large Wooden Ship Fig. 26a How Keel Bolts are Countersunk Fig. 27 Keel of a Wooden Schooner Fig. 28 Keel of a Wooden Tug Fig. 29 Keel of a SO-Foot Workboat Shallow Draft Vessel Fig. 30 Keel of Overhung Transom Stern of Auxiliary Schooner Fig. 31 Fig. 32 Stern of Tug or Lighter With Single Deck and Guard Timber Transom Stern for Small Boat With Metal Rudder Fig. 33 Fig. 34 Compromise Sterns Seldom Used on Workboats Shallow Draft Stern With Stern Wheel Fig. 35 Fig. 36 Longitudinal Section of Wooden Tunnel Stern Boat Fig. 37 Cross Sections Showing Different Tunnel Construction Fig. 38 Bar Stems and Method of Scarphing Fig. 39 Three Types of Keels of Steel Vessels Fig. 40 Methods of Fitting Keelsons Center Keelson with Innercostal Plate F"ig. 41 Fig. 42 ^Transverse Section of Double Bottom Fig. 43 Construction of Overhung Transom Stern Attaching Guards and Rails Fig. 44 Fig. 45 Construction of Rudders and Strut Bearings Elevation and Plan of Sternwheel Vessel Fig. 46 Fig. 47 How the Bottom Plating is Dished for Tunnel Stern Fig. 48 Stern (Or Bow) of Double Ended Steel Ferry Boat Fig. 49 Construction for Tugs and Power Lighters Fig. 50 Transverse Framing of Large Wooden Vessels Frames for Shallow Draft Vessels Fig. 51 Midship Section of Steel Tug or Lighter Fig. 52 Fig. 53 Where the Main Deck Overhangs the Hull Shallow Draft Vessels Have Straight Frames P"iG. 54 Steel Stanchions and Stanchion Heads Fig. 55 Fig. 56 Longitudinal Stringers and Shelves For Wooden Tugs; Frames for Shallow Steel Vessels Sections Showing Fra.vie Construction Fig. 57 Cross
Fig. 25
20
20
21 21 21
|
|
21
21
22
22 22 22 23 23
23
1 i | | I
| |
I | | I I
25 25 25 26 26 26 26
I
| |
|
27 27 27 27 29 30
30
30
31 31
1 I
|
| | | |
|
32
33
|
| |
34
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List of Illustrations
Page
Fig. 58 Fig.
Fig.
Steel Side Keelsons with Transverse Framing 59 Hatch and Cockpit Coaming Construction 60 Cross Section of a Tug with Longitudinal Framing
35 35
36 38
|
Fig. 61
Fig.
What Happens When the Bow or Stern Compartment is Flooded 62 Transverse Watertight Bulkhead of Wooden Vessel Longer Than 125
Fig. 63
Fig. 64
Fig. 65
Transverse
Feet
38 39 39
| |
|
Fig. 66 Fig. 67
Fig. 68
Cross
Fig.
Watertight Bulkhead for Small Wooden Vessel Minor Bulkheads for Cabins, Etc .Steel Bulkheads and Fastenings for Wooden Vessels Shows Method of Fitting "Shoes" at Bulkheads Where Keelsons and Stringers are Cut Construction of Tank Bulkheads for Oil and Water; Also Metal Bulkheads for Minor Compartments
Sections of Various
40 40
41
| |
I I |
Fig. 69
Fig. 70 Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.
How Decks are Classified 71 Drawings Showing Contour of Decks and Sheer 72 Methods of Laying Deck Planks Cross-Section of Wooden Deck Construction 74 Construction of Decks of Steel Vessels
17i
Plates are Ln'troduced Fitting Hull Plating to Frames Construction of Fenders and Bilge Keels
43
;
44
45 45
| | j | | | | |
4g
48 49
50
50
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig. Fig.
and Double Bottoms 76 Contour and Construction of Wooden Deck Houses n Construction Details of Steel Houses 78 Watertight Doors, Air Ports and Dead Ligh f s 79 Construction of Hinged Windows and Skylights 80 Wood and Steel Companions 81 Detail Construction of Companion Slides and Hatches 82 Watertight Hatches and Manholes 83 Construction Details of Ladders and Rails 84 Awning Stanchions and Fittings 85 How Pole Mast and Boom is Fitted 86 Construction and Install.\tion of Steel Masts, Also Boom Crotch 87 Davits and How They are Installed 88 Winches, Windlasses and Ground Tackle 89 Anchors, Chocks and Hawse Pipes 90 Towing Bitts and Knees 91 Chocks and Cleats 92 ^Fuel or Water Tanks, Flat Side Type 93 Installation and Equipment of Fuel Tanks
of
Construction
Ceilings
54
55
1 | | | |
56
57 59
60
61
I I
I i | I
I I
62
63 65 66
67 68 72
"j-x,
| | | |
|
"ji
75 76 76
Detail of Inlet Connection for Pipe Suctions from Sea Detail of Soil
Fig. 95
Fig. Fig.
1
1 |
77
I I
I I I
Built-in Refrigerator in Cabin Trunk 96 Construction of Refrigerator Door 97 Interior of Stack with Tanks
98 Ventilating
77
Power Boat
7g
79
| |
j
80 80
Fig.
Fig. 99 Fig.
Ventilating
and
Equipme.mt
|
I I
I I I
I
Fig. 101
Fig. Fig.
102 103
100 Pipe
I I I
Fig. 104
Fig. 105
Fig.
106
Equipment 80 Transom Berths 81 Bilge Keels and Sheathing 84 How Wood Sheathing is Fitted on Wooden Hulls 85 Typical Section of a Concrete Hull Under Construction 88 Metal Clips Used to Support Longitudinal Rods 89 Method Used in Holding Rods in Place for Pourinc; Forms 89 Molded Guide Bar Punched to Receive Rods. This is a Very Satisfactory Method Used with
Excellent Results
of 89
90
I
I I |
I
| I | |
|
I I I
I
Fig. 107
Stanchions and Girders Figs. 108 and 109 Bow and Stern Construction for a Concrete Workbjat Fig. 110 Details for Attaching Miscellaneous Fittings
Construction
90
91
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sign
Army
Transport
a
naval
and marine
engineer, h: has
had wide
experience in th:
S. Engineer's Department
and
in shipbuilding yards
and
as Designing
Mr. Johnson,
tion
tion,
Produc-
Manager
Chicago,
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CHAPTER
HE
points
should
be
understood
by
owners,
operators
and
builders.
three
setting forth the general characteristics of the numerous uses to which this type of craft has been adapted. From the very first, good engineering portended success of this class of
general power workboats may be classified under main headings: First, service in which engaged; second, material of which constructed; and third, type
In
of propelling machinery. respect to service, the first consideration whether the waters navigated are to be "open"
and
arrangement
With
is
can be no sounder logic than that chemical energy as contained in fuel will produce maxisince
there
or
sea
mum
the
tion
power
nearest
of the
when converted
practicable
into
to
mechanical
the
energy
of
at
"sheltered;" that is, whether the vessel or to operate in rivers and harbors.
riers
is
to
go
to
location
point
applica-
power. Whereas, in steam-propelled craft, the latent energy in fuel was first converted into heat of gases due to
combustion, these gases then transmitting their
heat
boiler,
(wooden or
in
construction
has
been
The steel) or auxiliary sailing craft. these being identical with that of steamers, thoroughly treated in other works of ship
design.
e s s e Is
to
water
in
a
;
coastwise,
harbor
traversing or
this
generating steam turn passing to the engine, losing considerable heat content
in
Ferries:
en route; in a combustion
(a) (b)
Fast
passenger.
ergy
place
engine conversion
in
all
the
en-
Passenger
freight.
and
takes
(c)
(2)
the
cylinders.
Car.
This
not
Tugs.
(3)
(4)
Power
lighters.
Tank
boats:
(a)
Water.
Petroleum products.
go storage due to lesser space occupied per horsepower, but also the
abolition of heat
losses
(b)
(5) (6)
Trawlers.
Shop boats:
Repair boats: (Machine shops) (Welding plants) Pumping and
(a)
for
boiler
feed.
These were at
bustion
advantages
first
offset
by
(7)
practical defects in
com-
engine
from
ly
fine-lined
relative-
fast
vessels
of
to
from
200
50
or
60
feet,
feet in length.
Dependin
ing
65 feet x 16 feet
engine.
She
is
radical
innovations
and is powered with a 110-horsepower Standard-Corliss owned hy the Puget Sound Tow Boat Co. and has given her owners great service
run
may vary
10 to
speed
from
20
The tendency to let others pay for the experiindustry. ments incidental to practical perfection delayed progress in
in
miles (statute).
maximum
development.
Their characteristic arrangement is to afford Sleeping, mess accommodations and sanitation for the large craft on long runs and maximum seating, (seldom more than for one night)
passenger accommodation
: ;
power
boats,
particularly
those
using
the
lighter
short sanitary and sometimes messing provisions for relatively runs not exceeding one day (sunrise to sunset)
have practically replaced the small steamers of foregone days, and the ones requiring considerable power and cheap fuel have long since shown the desirability of
effort should be engines valuable experience of operators diesel
;
Jitney
Boat
in
for
this
Commuters
connection has been
the
recent
innovation
an hour's "jitney boat", making runs from points within run of a city or railroad depot, and used for transporting
in power boats. This is particularly desirable with respect to the smaller vessels, where ordinary powerboat construction would prove fragile and the essential
of design
ferries lines
of
miles),
relatively
full
200
feet
are
becoming
in-
welding.
at
With
the
prevailing
prices
the
is
past
this
as
well
as
that
deterioration
creasingly popular as sources of profit, The holds and main deck are employed
for
ture
freight
storage and
the
facilitates
the
superstruc-
and as long as steel excecds $0.03 per pound, this would not be desirable, however,
present,
of
for
desirable
material,
inland
waterways.
houses
passengers.
cargo
Composite
vessels
arc
those
steel
with
this
heavy weights, the hoisting winch being geared from the main engine or being an indelifting
boom forward
wooden
For
is
hull planking
and
framing,
boats
scarcely
in
under
a
100
feet
long,
desirable
construction,
is
(l-l-}^-3) of concrete, with passing Y^-'mch mesh, is used for the hull. This is molded or "shot" onto galvanized wire mesh supported
mixture
gravel
There is a singlependent machine. ended type for voyages of more than one-half hour or so the ones for short
;
though
larger
ones
it
being
the
e.x-
tensively employed.
Wooden
construction
is
most
inches.
em-
and
frequent
trips
as
well
as
the
car
ferries
being
double-ended.
They may
universally employed and desirable for vessels less than 100 feet long. This
is
be propelled by screws or paddle wheels, Tugs comprise probably the most nu-
due
to
the
facility
in
working the
material,
in
steel skeleton reinforcing work with a leaner concrete (1-2-4) or The (1-3-5) again using fine gravel. determines its density of concrete
life,
bodies
merous
boats.
class of the commercial power Their lengths are from 35 to 150 feet and speeds (when not towing)
that
building yards and also to the fact vessels up to this size are amply
strength
as
its
well
crete,
strong
light,
when
built of
wood.
Steel,
if
too
as
If
and
from 8
to
12 miles.
in
Many
of the con-
ventionalities
design could be or dispensed with to the ultiimproved This mate betterment of the whole.
tug
has not the requisite stiffness and If the steel corrodes through quickly.
is
made
the
heavier,
vessel
is
care
must
of
be
taken
disin
ard
are
for vesthe ships are molded, standmetal molds may serve for nuhulls,
that
will
be
elaborated
to
upon
tug's
The
is
essential
subsequently, success
not
merous
to
but
if
be
built,
is
the "gunning"
the fact
that
od
in
more
desirable, particularly
great
pulling
power
a
at
slow
view of
more
requiring
this
manner.
resulted
in
Molded
crudeis
hulls
have
(0.9 to 1).
Power
are modified types with large decks and hold space for cargo and a boom for loading. Tank boats, as their name implies,
would
unless
require
excessive
power
carry
water
aft
or
refined in form.
in bulk, the
form being
(at
the
engines
the
arrangement of the propelling machinery together with the means of converting the power
generated into propulsive thrust will not be elaborated upon except wherein they affect hull construction or arrangement.
tanks.
in
utility
They
the
in
attained
no-
toriety
recent
war
by
their
mine
sweeping.
machine shop tools, welding plants and apparatus are becoming numer-
Shop
boats,
carrying
The power
plant
itself
may
any
:
be
combustion
of
(a)
engines
of
one
measures
87
finest feet
for
halibut
ous.
They
to
the
following types
Diesel
view
equipment
operating on two-stroke or
cycle
oil
or
oil
engines,
in-
size
and
four-stroke
heavy
14
stead of requiring the cripple to visit the shipyard. Workboats used for salving and wrecking purposes carry a miscellaneous equipment, such as pumping
fuel
using (between
defuel
Power workboats of wood are much more substantially built than are pleasure craft and it is to establish standards and details
sels
in
grees
is
i
e c ted
as
spray
into
apparatus
divers.
and
machines
for
handling
these
is
practical
ves-
the
air
cylinders
with
With
that
this
work
undertaken.
and
ignition
becotning
Steel
profitable.
Reinforced
concrete
By
that
material
of
construction
is
meant
which the prmcipal strength members and hull are composed. Steel
is
where a considerable same form and size of vessels are produced. It is no longer an experimental construction, barges and
tion,
particularly
"Semidiesel"
engines,
tillate
or
heavy
distillate
number
of
the
tion
using kerosene or disfuel with hot bulb ignior spark. These engines
to
seagoing vessels now building being the result of observing, for years, those
already in service.
are
similar
machines,
ily
but
in
vessels
over 100 feet long, though it has been used in pressed form for small power
Concrete
Watcrivays
(c)
200 to 600.
and
boats.
Gasoline
stroke
engines
cycle)
(usually
four-
viding they are full lined, could -be built of light galvanized steel shapes and
plates,
Steel and concrete having nearly the same coefficients of expansion and the
fact that painting, copper
troleum
ignition,
sheathing and
low
compression
and
riveting
being
replaced
by
spot
be troubles
of
Advantages and
between 350 and 800 revolutions
per minute,
(d)
ular
if
Classifications
light
fuels
do
not
attain
pro-
hibitive
prices.
Gas
producer
oil
plants
using
coal,
with engine shafts, with attendant reduction in space occupied by machinery of a given power.
wood or
Diesel or
other
gaseous
fuel.
when prop-
Paddle
vessels)
wheels
are
of
(at
side
in
or
stern
of
high
powered, commercial power boats. An interesting departure from this generality is the government tug Manteo which has a 100-horscpower, 2-cycle, dicsel engine and which is only 50 feet long. "Semidiesel" engines, a rather vague and incorrect term, arc excellent for
small
and operated they have They proved practical and economical. consist of a producer proper, where fuel
designed
is
desirable
efficient
shoal
because
of
propulsion
buckets
water under
fa-
and also
caused
to
give
off
its
combustible
repairing
damaged
with water vapor. fuels used may be wood, coal of a low grade or residue combustible
tion
through striking submerged ol)stacles. The practical range of revolutions in paddle wheels is between 20 and 40,
rendering necessary a reduction in speed from engine to wheel. This is accomplished through belts, gears, a combination of these.
chains,
The
heavy duty service providing the operSuch engines ator understands them.
should be more extensively utilized than they now are, noi only because of the
saving
if
material.
The gases generally pass through where foreign matter is removed by spray or other means and
"scrubber"
or
Propellers
in
Tunnel
Boats
in
fuel,
but
their
rugged
con-
The arguments
arc
:
some
There have been properly attended. sad experiences, however, when inexpertly handled.
Gasoline,
by
against producer plants Excess weight and space occupied the plant, and skill necessary to
operation.
ter
one-third
the
proper
engines, of heavy duty design, are usually direct connected to the propeller and are the
light
or
distillate
The propulsive mechanism of commercial power boats may be propellers or paddle wheels.
Propellers
upper tip of blades, are frequently employed for shallow draft propulsion. Though the wheel diameter is restricted
are
most
commonly
em-
most generally
in
Sometimes, employed. order to conserve space and weight, small, high-speed engines (900 to 1200 revolutions per minute) are installed with a reduction gear to the propeller
shaft.
ployed where light draft is not a factor This is because of their proin design.
tected location
and revolutions comparatively high, excellent results have been obtained in In these, this way, even in tow boats.
the
out-of-the-way
propellers
present
which
This system
is
comparatively re-
against docks, towed vessels or by rough seas. Another reason is that higher
revolutions with efficient propulsion render them adaptable to direct coupling
an advantage over the projecting paddle wheels, and the lightened and less roomy machinery afford lighter draft on a
given
crease
size
in
of
vessel
cent in ships, though long used in autoIt mobiles. promises to become pop-
vessel
CHAPTER
essential in selecting ^^^^^HE m C\ a design of power boat a require^^ J careful study of the ^^^^ the service
first
is
II
routes are
shorter between
the
points
and
question
of
inents
in
and delivery may aflfect total time in transit and portage charges. Fast water freight would work well in
conjunction with passenger traffic. It is not very many years gone that travelers preferred canals to stage coach and the
sections of this country and a greater proportion in many foreign lands than It consists of is generally supposed. sizes from in items variegated many large pieces of machinery to small boxes,
cases, castings, etc.
This will determine the general arrangeof power, equipment, ment, degree
amount of
terial
It
is
fuel,
stores
and construction, etc. assumed that one undertaking the construction of a commercial vessel
will
analogy
still
applies
in
insofar as comfort
in
and
restful
conditions
water travel
car.
It
is
Bulk freight lends itself most agreeto storage and terminal loading of coal, It consists and discharge. brick, petroleum, ore, grain, etc., and
ably
surpass
those
sleeping
renders
specially
possible
fitted
the
to
design
the
of
vessels
familiarize
himself
with
these
re-
quirements by careful study of the local conditions at the terminals and through
the trade route
ply.
merely a question of providing every and shortening time in convenience are not insurmountable transit which
difficulties
carry
particular
in
commodity.
class
is
Maritime
profitable
in
traffic
this
also
and
constantly
affects
is
to
in
many overnight
runs.
increasing
hull
volume.
Freight
freight
is
of
That which
in
will deteriorate
holds or being most expeditiously stowed on deck in the open or under cover.
delay
shipment
(mainly edibles)
of
these
The amount to be carried per voyage is dependent upon length of the trip (in
distance as well as duration).
If the dis-
(3)
(4)
weather.
The
first
will
tance
is
ber
of
under cover.
readily
The design
of
as
in
On a short ship that profit may result. run the assumption that gross expense
of
to
service
may
be
roughly
subdivided
into
the
total
conveyance is inversely proportional tonnage conveyed, does not necessarily hold, since the increased time for loading and discharging may be excessive
when
considering
the
loss
in
vessel's
er
slow.
ment.
depth,
(d) Bulk.
Again, width
the
and
The
most
ocean
1
first
of these
on
wharves
euvering terminals
and manspace
at
a n d or
may
size,
be
af-
routes,
services
considerations
fecting
conprotransis
pro-
portions
and
even
land
portation.
There
reason
that
to
suppose
reliable
Thus
tively
with
well
comparanarrow and
river
and
adminis-
shallow
sharp
with
locks,
bends,
way
this
runs,
much
of
revenue
earn-
ent
design
from
none
rail
too
that
with
permissible
a wide, deep
operation
railroads,
with
the
since
have
arisen
Tlie
Work Boats
times,
contracts
having
been
awarded
not necessarily to the lowest, but rather to the most responsible bidder, as deter-
mined by
boat yard.
capital
If a certain
fund
a
construction
of
power
:
the
vari-
ous
sizes
of
derived
as
at
amount
Fig.
1,
hand
to
an
82-foot
could be
built
maximum
standards and two 87-footers of simplest character in normal times. At present the costs would be higher the above
about 70 feet long, with all refinements and two 40footers which would be little beyond
vessel
hull,
sum affording
On
given
other
is.
range
In
length could
1,
hand, to be
60-foot
if
vessel
its
of
cost
at.
built,
be
a
similarly
arrived
(wooden) would range between $7500 and $23,750. The maximum figures are most nearly
Fig.
tug
in
mean
rates
for
ordinary boats.
Beam
from the first mentioned natural limilawhereas the normally formed tions, screw vessel is desirable where these obstacles
Varies on
Given Length
is
this
material
the
gain
in
For a given length of vessel, the beam (width) and the depth may vary
This variation is limited considerably. in the case of beam, by its effect upon
stability
are
absent or
to
negligible.
and carrying castrength, durability pacity, for contrary to general supposiweight of a wood vessel is greater than that of a steel one having equal strength, while the interior volume of the wooden one, representing cargo capacity on given dimensions, is also less than that in the steel hull. The costs here plotted represent retion, the
total
How
When
Determine First
Cost
Also to
increased
to
in
appropriate type and its lengths have been decided upon, it becomes necessary to determine the probthe
resist
The degree
sacrificed
to
which
stability
able
first
cost
and also
may
be
the
other
dimensions properly applicable. The ideal condition with respect to funds would
be that in which these were ample for the most desirable type of vessel. Very often this is not the case, and modifications in design must be resorted to. If the total costs of numerous vessels
in a class are plotted as ordinates
sults
been
upon
abscissa
it
will
lie
vessels'
all
lengths,
the
resulting
spots
curves,
this
minimum amounts
requisite for building type of vessel for any length. Figs. 1 and 2 are "cost charts" of
this
nature,
the
smaller
vessels
having
cost
ordinates to large scale in Fig. 1, while the larger vessels' prices are
modified to suit the limits of Fig. 2. It will be observed that the screw
vessels
the
is
in Fig. 1 are more costly than shallow draft paddle vessels. This because of the more complex form
and
rugged
structure
of
the
former,
carefu!
strain?
more workmanship to
requiring
of
elaborate
and
the
withstand
by
plies to Fig. 2,
will be
apfurther
noted
that
steel
vessels
are
most
ex-
maximum
rarely
rmmiT
in
design.
These proportions are graphically depicted in Figs. 3 to 7, and dimensions for any length selected from these cannot
in
fail
to
strength,
stability
hull at mid-length is an index to strength, just as the depth of a girder determines ability to resist
deflection.
The depth of
deeper
vessel
on
stronger
given than a
the engine to drive the hull dimensions have been selected, is the next consideration. Too many vessels, particularly in the "small boat" class, have either too much or too little energy in the machines driving them, for a vessel may be over as well as
Power of
whose
is
resistance
direct
impossible of a
to
calculate
boat
by
is
This
the
because,
like
having
forms may vary considerably. There is at present no precise mathematical formula for that peculiarly warped surface of a hull, and until this is established (which will only be after
hull
through
first
the
"method
of
com-
foretell
the
energy
dissipated
between
parison".
The
most
sign
ate
;
of
these
in
feasible
power
engine and the point of expenditure of Adding to this the propulsive thrust.
cost of a series of models, also the ex-
the
second,
though
does
it
years
to
of
investigation)
the
only
ways
are
:
sels usually
more
reliable, is
pense
of
conducting
the
tests
at
and
properly
predetermine
occasionally
anticipated,
not
engines,
results
particularly
is
produce in un-
equipped model testing basin, the method does not at present justify its adoption for small commercial boats.
properly
usual
install
forms.
Since
impossible to
in the model,
In
these,
allaround
working
so that
qualities
resist-
machinery to scale
fit
minimum
(b) By actually towing a model of the vessel, to scale, and deriving the
or
to
miniature
propellers,
is
thereto,
to
considerable
experience
necessary
given predecessors of
ance
at
speed,
like
unless
proportions have proven uneconomical, the result of observing their features (favorable or not)
will
sults.
ordinarily
produce
Figs. 3
to
excellent
re-
To
this
end.
have been
These
boats
in
are
characteristics
class
of
many
each
and may be
considered representative.
Working Out
the vessel
Details
is
Assume
80-foot
that
the
to
be an
stern
3,
wheel
towboat of
of
wood.
hull
In Fig.
ing
we would
for
limits
particulars
Length, 80
feet.
Beam,
Depth
Draft
between
of
16
feet
and 20
and
feet
6 inches.
hull,
SZyi
inches
51
inches.
in
between
1 1
1 1
1
1 1
: 1
:
1 1
M i
l
is
drive
the
speed,
narrowest
the
the
in
minimum
higher
power
the narrower boat will probably produce the maximum speed figure, while in the beamier boat this
in
power
will
result
speed
mum
and minimum.
consideration
is
The next
mined
facility
that of fuel
by
of
considerations
economy,
and
per
fuel
light
distillate
about
pint
of
per
is
horsepower
high
the
hour.
This
figure
test
for
consumption
with
engine
on the blocks at the factory, but it must be understood the ordinary working
conditions
sional
lect.
in
the
boat
will
prove
less
overheating
these
and
perhaps
neg-
pate
by providing fuel
conditions.
will
for
diesel
at
0.7
engines
lb.
be
estimated
per
horse-
from
the
In
our
chosen
vessel,
at
62
horse-
power,
that
burning
gasoline
or
distillate,
many pints or 7^ gallons would carry the wider boat eight miles and From this the the narrower one ten. tank capacity could be determined, depending upon facility of re-fueling. If
the
capable of re-filling
tanks
of freight.
to
It
re-fuel oftener than once per working day, and, of course, if the voyage
this,
once per
feasible.
The
erned
not
in
these cannightly,
home
port
which case necessary plumbing, lockA study ers, etc., must also be installed.
of
arrangement
sufficient
will
later
be
made,
it
being a somewhat
boats in the same class, many of which have been ably described by current
magazine contributions.
deci-
design have now been gone over, bringing us to the stage at which details must be understood
with
respect to
and perfected.
CHAPTER
III
C^\
of
30 to 60
If
vessel
will
in
pounds
float
in
water.
than
cargo
in
salt
the
ability
to
float.
By
cubical box,
this
we mean
made
Experiment
on
Flotation
of
steel
sheets
54
inch
thick
and that a certain portion of the hull Now should be above that surface. if the total weight of a boat be divided by its total watertight volume in
resulting figure is the pounds per cubic foot or the "density" If this weight per unit of the vessel.
the six plates forming the sides would weigh 10 pounds each, making a total
Take
in
shallow
tray
carefully.
Then
This
cubic
feet,
the
less
than the
either
weight
salt
cubic
foot
of
or
tray water, taking care that it is just on the point of overflowing into the tray but that none of the water gets into the tray. Now weigh a
full
the
of
of
volume
foot
is
cubic
sink.
greater of water,
than that of a
the
vessel
will
water, the steel box will float. In fresh water we could put a load of 2 pounds in the 60-pound steel box
fresh
wood which is about wide as the bowl. Place the block carefully on the water in the
square block of
half as
and
has a weight of 62.5 cubic foot, while salt wa64 pounds for an equal cubic foot of solid iron pounds and would sink A cubic foot salt water.
this
it
would
still
float.
In salt water
bowl.
flow
The block
into
will
float
in
the
Fresh water
load could be 3^2 pounds. thus see that the difference be-
We
A
490
weighs
in
fresh or
tween the total weight of a floating body and the weight of an equal volume of water represents the cargo carrying capacity and that the same
carefully out of the bowl and lift the bowl from the tray, being sure that
no
more
water
SCANDIA, SEA-GOING
10
the
block.
drawn and
the
level
keel.
Deducting the original weight of the dry tray from the final weight of the water tray with displaced will give the actual weight of the water. It will develop that the water displaced will weigh exactly what
the
form of hull is carefully volume is calculated to heights above the bottom of When the volume to each
its
X 10
X
144
75
41.67 cubic
feet
"water plane" has been determine the weight of an equal volume of the water in which
or
formed,
the
vessel
is
to
ing the
see
number
that
the
weight
hull to each
of a floating body is exactly equal to the weight of water it sets aside or displaces.
used for
dis^
imagine that while the block in the bowl, we had frozen the water in the bowl. Then if the block were removed a cavity would remain in the ice and this cavity would have exactly the shape and volume of that part of the block below the water level. The shape of this cavity is called the "underwater surface" of the floating body. If the water which overflowed into the tray were poured back into the cavity in the ice it would be filled and no water would remain in the
floated
tray.
Now
placement weights in preference to the pound, that the figures employed may not be too large. To convert
cubic
feet
of
hull
volume
to
the
(2240 pounds) of water displaced by that volume, divide by 35 for salt or 36 for fresh water. This is based on the fact that one ton of fresh water equals 35 and
number
of
long
tons
of salt water equals 36 cubic feet. Suppose that a chart is made where-
on heights above a given base line represent draft to scale. On the base line we can represent displacement in tons or in cubic feet by a horizontal scale measuring from left to
right. 2 feet
Then
draft
if
our
calculations
the
at
had shown
vessel's
11
illustrates
the
relation
be-
tween draft and displacement with and without cargo. When the vessel is the is light, "d" draft, "D C" the water line and the rectangle "D C E F" a cross section of the hull below wa-
"C B" is the center of gravity of the displaced volume and is called the "center of buoyancy". The upward
ter.
is
assumed
to
be
FIG.
cargo is placed aboard, the vessel's weight increases and the force of buoyancy acting in the light condition is not sufficient to support
it.
When
When
L.\
are
not
known.
The
vessel,
therefore,
level
sinks
to
the
new
water
"A B"
where
buoyancy
creased
ume L M G H plus the volume N P F E equals the original volume A D E 11, and since by taking B C F G from A D E H we get the same volumes as by taking L M B A and N P D C from the sum of L M G H and N P E F, we see that the added
end displacements
= 40 X 30 X Volume 40 (LA) feet; volume NPDC X 30 X (LA) feet. = 1200 X (LA) Volume feet; volume N P D C = 1200 X (L A)
LMBA
LMBA
-f
feet.
becomes
the
"d'
"
is
LMBA
original
to
plus
NP
LMBA
X LA
feet
NPDC =
2400
X LA'
1200 3000
DC
must equal B
CFG.
freeboard
Th's,
cubic feet.
and
"C
B'
"
the
new
the
buoyancy.
LA ^
the
300O
=
2400
is
1J4
feet
which
is
The height
the
Notice
"f"
is
that
the
of
deck above
the
"free-
"f"
has
been
reduced
is
"{'".
water
line
called
amount the
draft
5
reduced freeboard
in
measure of the weight which can be added to completely submerge the vessel by increasing the displacement by the volume "H K A B". This volume is called the "reserve buoyancy" and is necessary for stability and safety against sinkage.
board".
It is a
new
plus
154
=
the
The
feet.
6j4
Fig.
10
is
feet
long,
30
feet
40
What
In
the
is
and FN to be at a distance of from each end, or that the distance between them (B C) is 20 If feet. the draft (A H) is 5 feet before the bottom is punctured, what
deep.
Suppose
value
of
feet
bulkheads and also makes clear that the volume above the it L and outside original water line
of
Fig.
the
utility
of
reserve
that walls
will
buoyancy
can
be
(BCGF),
for
unless
this
buoyancy
indicated.
Assume
dent
inal
the
central
compartment?
of the orig-
box-shaped vessel has two or "bulkheads" (G M and FN) dividing it into three compartments, and that the vessel floats at the water
volume
displacement
ADEH
Then
100
feet
30
cubic
15,000.
Suppose that a hole is made in the bottom of the central compartment so that sea water enters between the bulkheads. Before this occurred the volume of the hull (B CFG) between these bulkheads displaced a certain amount of water and
line
W L.
15,000
regained in the undamaged ends, the sinkage (LA) will be greater than the freeboard and the vessel will not float after the accident. When some external force inclines a boat the conditions which exist in the heeled-over position are shown in The water line when upFig. 11.
right
35
water
15,000
or
fresh
water.
35
helped to float the vessel or rather to support as much of the total vessel's weight as would equal the water When water endisplaced.
tered
the
thus
Then when
lost
GF
the rectangular cross section R A S T. Point B is the center of buoyancy when upright and point G the center of gravity
of the vessel and
is its
ment
was at volume
WL
had
is
punctured
the
contents.
W'
L'
volume
20
of
30
the
at
new water
it
line
when heeled
over and
line
Therefore
the
amount
of
original
point
compartment
the
section
between the bulkheads no longer afforded buoyancy since the volume of sea water originally displaced rushed back into the cavity. Meanwhile the vessel's weight has not changed and since this weight exceeds the net
=
ND
zoid,
B'.
An
Observe
S
Analysis
that
cross
section
replaced by volumes
LMBA
feet
must be
plus
of the underwater
bedy has
N P D C
long
which
30
feet
are
and
whose center
This point
is
amount
plus
until
^jy'l
CDE
F,
the
vessel
will
sink
the weight of water displaced again equals the original amount. This sinkage is assumed to the water
W' L'. During the sinkage the water rose freely inside the damaged compartment to the level M N and no buoyancy could therefore be regained
line
in
that
compartment.
12
Coiistnicfion of
the
familiar bow and stern waves. This is affected by the form of hull and speed.
the
Sometimes wave
resistances
are
and
grouped
name
"residual
resistance".
because
frictional
resistance
the
only portion which can be fairly approximated by calculations and if this is subtracted from the total resistance
the
result
is
the
sum
of
wave and
eddy resistances.
FIG.
of
11 HOW
The power
would
buoyancy when heeled over and see that a change in the form of a vessel's underwater body causes a
When
M
in
is
below
the couple
we
reverse
direction
and
shift
of
the
center
of
buoyancy.
is then called upset the vessel. G negative. This unstable condition can
Now
equal
the
to
vertically
exist
if
the point
as with very
coming the resistances encountered, is the Effective Horsepower (EHP). Between the machinery which generates the power and the propeller or paddle wheel which converts the power
into
is
weight acting downward through G, which point is The two not changed in position.
parallel
the
The method
is
forces are a distance of G Z apart and are called a "couple". They tend to rotate the vessel in a direction opposite to the motion of a clock's
complicated for discussion in but can be obtained by consulting Attwood's work on "Theotoo
this
article,
in
the
machinery
parts,
etc.
There-
fore,
the
power
than
this
at
be
greater
of
retical
Naval
far
Architecture".
vessels
amount
loss.
The box-shaped
thus
we
have
Indicated
hands, or
in
Fig. to the
this
11
maximum
limiting
considered
would
upright.
The
magnitude
of
couple equals one of the forces times the lever arm "G Z". Let equal the vessel's weight (also the buoyancy or displacement in pounds in feet so when is or tons). multiplies it we have:
dimensions of length, beam and draft. Ease of propulsion plays, however, an important part in contributing toward earning capacity.
Resistance
Figs. 12
hull
When power
rived
the engines
is
de-
from indicator cards which show the work done by the gases in the
cylinders,
it
is
the
If
indicated
horsein
of
the
Moving Hull
the
engine power
torsion
the
it
actual
GZ
is
called the
Brake
1^
(E<
l'i(J.
12 PATH OF
and 13 illustrate the efifect form upon the resistance set up by the water when a vessel moves through it. Looking down on a box-shaped moving boat, the arrows in iMg. 12 are the paths taken by particles of water which are deflected when the boat
of
Horsepower (B
P).
power
lost
between
engine and propeller, the greater the efficiency and a measure of this can
be expressed by the ratio of P. This ratio I H P or B
EHP
is
to
called
is
the
"Propulsive
to
Coefficient"
and
W
ing
of
It
X GZ
to
Notice the sharp right passes them. angle turn or sudden changes in
direction of the particles' flow. These paths of flow are called "streamlines". The sharp changes in direction cause eddies at the
per cent in ordinary vessels. Of course it will be higher when B H P is used than with I H P
70
from 50
the foot
pounds tend-
in
the engine
turn
the
is
vessel
This product
"statical
will
stability".
be noticed that the force of buoyancy intersects the vessel's cenwhich is called ter line at the point the "metacenter". The distance G a is is the "metacentric height" and
crank
This
engine
efficiency
B
(a ratio of
I
P
)
portion.
should be from 80
direct
shown that all Experience has changes in direction of streamlines should be gradual as in Fig. 13 and
that
offset
H P
to
The
is
Z.
GZ
(
vessel
the
loss
per cent. surface to which a ship's hull formed or molded is known as the
92
sine of
angle
GM
GMZ)
"molded surface".
tion
is
It
is
parabolic
in
in
by the
facility
propulsion.
any direc-
Resistance up of three
(1)
to
propulsion
friction
made
distinct
components:
or
"frictional
a
If
Surface
hull
is
cut
by
number
the
of
re-
which depends upon the area of submerged or "wetted" surface and the smoothness and the roughresistance"
planes
various
directions,
sulting curves of intersection between the planes and hull surface show the
13 GRADUAL STREAM-LINE OF A
(2)
Eddy making
up
as a guide
in
by
is
to right itself
above and
G G
the
vessel
tends
is
called posi-
abrupt changes of surface conformation and is most serious at the after end of vessels.
The drawing
draft" "sheer "Lines."
made is more
called
the
often
the
13
1^'
MASS.
4-cycIe
I.abradore
36
feet
long
by
feet
inches beam;
driven
by
Lawley
2-cylinder,
engine
14
Constrtiction of Poiver
Work
Boats
o D H W
St
CM
o
o
O
tn
U Z
13
X
II
t4
CHAPTER
IV
They
cular
to
the
base
plane
and
the
HAST
will
hull.
permit,
the
principles
in-
are labeled in conformity to the watei plane, which cuts them from the hull
surface.
longitudinal
tional hull
center
planes surface in
"cross
in
The
called
upper
the
hull
limiting
line
is
sections"
which
of
shown
the
tures
every successful power-driven boat which must be molded into a homogeneous model, otherwise a boat ma}' be satisfactory in some respects and
entirely lacking in other requisites of
"sheer line"
and may be
performance. Now having mastered the principles of displacement, buoyancy, stability, etc., we will endeavor to apply them to the job in hand, of creating a design from which construction of the hull may be accurately carried out. Fig. 14 is the "Lines" for a SO-foot
or straight in elevation. It usually higher at the bow than at the stern and if curved, its lowest point is at about one-third of the length from the stern, the line rising
is
curved
The
usually
fullest
these
sections
is
characteristics
are
similar
where
the
section
to
the
forward
line
intersects the
at
half
the
"rabbet line."
The
in
plan
half
view
of
the
sheer
power
tug
and
consists
of
three
plan is widest and parallel to the longitudinal center line at about mid-length. From this it curves inward to the bow and stern
respectively.
the
breadth
point and depending upon the type of vessel, a "line of bottom" extends to the "lower turn of bilge". If the
line
of
bottom
line
is
produced
to
to
the
vertical
tangent
the
widest
views; a longitudinal elevation, a plan view or "half breadth" and an end The relative view or "body plan". location of these views is conventionally arranged as in the figure with the forward part of the boat or the "bow" toward the right hand. In the elevation and body plans a horizontal base line is drawn at the lowest point and all vertical measurements or "heights" are measured from
this.
is
At the extreme ends in the elevation two vertical lines are drawn
and are the "forward" or "after perpendicular" respectively. The distance between these is divided into ten or
point of the section, the height of the point where the two lines intersect above the lowest point of secContion, is called the "deadrise". tinuing from the lower turn of bilge,
the section rounds sharply upward to the point where it is tangent at the
vertical
line
showing
the
maximum
These
This vertical line is the "line of half breadth" and the maximum width of section to this line is the
width.
really
edge
"m o From
turn
beam."
the
of a
horizontal
upper
bilge
of
to
it
the
section
tical
may
the
be ver-
point
the
a
at
it.
where deck
vessel
cuts
side,
and
These latter
with
of
this
is
type
called
If
section
"wallsided."
load water
line
as
the
can
and
be
are
estimated
of
in
the
called
labeled
L,"
"3'
turn
the
the
in
are
6"
W
St r
deck
side,
6"W
L," "Designed
etc.,
L,"
and apa
i
pear as
the
g h
the
horizontal
lines
in
home."
ture
tial
is
elevation
and
by
a
not
body plans.
the
hull
is
Where
cut
to
efficient
de-
water
series
planes
of
longitudi-
nal
horizontal
v
e
s
The height
the
point
from where
can
only
in
be a
FIG. 15 VARIOUS
shown
FORMS OF STEMS
15
16
Tlic
Work
Boats
eye, free from sudden bumps or hollows and the volume of the underwater body should afford the proper and location of the displacement center of buoyancy under the center
of gravity. Proper stability and trim are dependent on the lines. In genthe location of any point on eral, the hull surface should be the same
height above base line in elevation and body plans, the same width from
the
longitudinal center plane in half breadth and body plan, and the same
longitudinal
location
in
the
elevation
A detailed description of the fairing process will be found in "A Manual of Laying Off", by Watson, while elaborated descriptions of displacement, stability and trim calculations are set forth in "Theoretical Naval
Architecture", by E. L. Attwood.
Forms for Bow or Stem The bow or stem may have one
the forms in Fig.
IS.
of
SHEEP
KNUCKLt
Coc/yrEit
^jr^HEE^
T/TAnson
and (b) are stems" with rounded or "plumb The former type is abrupt forefoot. extensively used on tugs, lighters and other small vessels under 150 feet Its name is derived from the long. fact that the portion above the water
(a)
line
is
"y^STElfN
Posr
vertical.
lfypDEn~-foiT
is a "raked stem", where the part above the water line slopes forward, (e) is the stem of a shal-
Fig.
15-c
'DE/iDWOD <^OTTO/^
Of KCEL
low draft vessel, differing from the ordinary plumb stem by the wide forward deck end which is used to push barges, (d) is a rounded stem, curved from sheer line to keel and used in is the spoon (f) tugs or lighters.
bow
It
is
used in some shallow draft work. has relatively high resistance and less desirable than type (e) though
FIG. 16 VARIOUS
to the upper deck at side ed depth."
is
TYPES OF STERNS
as great as 60 per cent of the length. The hull forward of the parallel middle
simpler in construction. Various types of after vessels' ends or sterns are shown in figures 16 and
17.
the "mold-
Tugs and
lighters
have rounded
When the deck is rounded up or "cambered" the crown of deck at center above deck at side is usually
per foot This curvature may of deck width. be more or less and is often entirely
to
body
is
the
"forebody", that
aft
body the
"after
the
amount
of
inch
body". If a
with a vertical surface between sheer and knuckle to which heavy fenders are attached. The rabbet line which was parallel to the
sterns
(Fig. 16-a)
series of planes is passed through the hull at varying distances from and parallel to the vertical
dispensed with.
to
Its
purpose
is
mere-
but since few ly vessels are on an even keel very often, camber can be omitted with attendant gain in simplicity of condrain
the
deck,
struction.
center line plane, the longitudinal intersections of these planes with the
bottom of keel amidships, rises at the after deadwood and merges into the The structural appendages counter. to which propeller and rudder are attached should be as narrow as practicable to reduce eddying. Fig. 16-c is an overhung
stern, the
in
plant
The
sections
forward
and
aft
of
Buttock
planes
appear
as
vertical
amidships are finer than the midship section and it is desirable to have the forward ones U-shaped at their lower endings, while the after ones
are V-shaped.
straight lines in the body plan and as horizontal lines in the half breadth.
may
slope
shown or be
vertical.
auxiliary sailing vessels. Fig. 16-b is the semielliptical stern used in large vessels. Fig. 16-d is
Employed
common
to
to
portion of the hull amidships has the same cross section as at the midship section, it is called the "parallel middle body" and it may be
a
When
Fairing the Lines The process of delineating a vessel's molded surface is called "fairing the lines". When "faired", the lines
workboats
struct.
It
because
is
difficult
con-
now
often
popular adopted
full
in in
cruisers
and
large
comis
should
be
smooth,
pleasing
to
the
transom stern
Laying
used
in
Down
17
transom
all
types.
The
or
cylindrical
V-shaped. Sterns for shallow-draft vessels are of the tunnel or paddle wheel type.
Fig. 17-a
half
shows
section
the
of a
elevation
plan
stern.
tLEVATIOh/i
and
tunnel
It was originated by the necessity for a larger propeller than could be fitted under the hull with the limited draft.
Section A-A
made
the
way
by the
cross section of the plan views. tunnel at any point in its length is the arc of a circle.
Fig.
tion,
FIG.
17 STERNS FOR
SHALLOW
UR.AFT VESSELS
18
is
the
outline
in
eleva-
plan
stern.
and
section
hull
of
edge
paddle
at this
is
indicated
by a
line
at
half
wheel
The
terminates
the transom, as shown, while the paddle wheel is overhung on two or more
girders.
the proper stem, stern, midship section and sheer line have been decided upon, they are drawn in on
the rectangular layout of water planes, buttock and cross sectional planes in
the line drawing.
When
width parallel to the center line at the forward end of the half breadth This surface on fore edge of plan. stem varies from one-half "to three inches and serves as a backing for half round iron bar which is tlie screwed to it and protects the stem All water lines end at this timber. line forward and on the half siding
of
which is bent through the points through which the line should pass. If this cannot be done, the batten should pass through a majority of the points and spring fair between them.
The corrected
in
line
may
then be drawn
section and the width of through whose spot the batten would
not
the
spring,
fair
should
be
that
made
that
of
line
on
section
and
deadwood and
keel
aft.
A
joining
the
is
trial
drawn
lower
The rabbet
drawn
in
line
now
load water line is now in the half breadth of proper at the midship section and
transferred to the proper water plane in the body plan. The section curve should then be corrected to pass through this new point and the other
fixed points.
height
above the bottom of keel amidships equals the depth of keel timber minus the thickness of garboard plank. The forward and after endings of the rabbet line depend upon the cross sections, but may be roughed in for
final
and after ends fixed from the points where fore edge of stem and rabbet line are cut by the load water plane in the elevation.
buttock
line
half
way between
Then two
sections
located
midway
fairing
line
later
on.
between amidships and the ends can be derived from the half breadth by trial their widths on the taking water line and the sheer line. These
widths are placed at the proper levels in the body plan, care being taken tliat the forward section is on the
right and the after section on the left The center line. vertical of the
A
keel,
center line arid molded beam line can now be drawn in the elevation, taking the heights from intersection of the chosen plane with the sections of the body plan and transferring these heights to their proper sections in the elevation. By squaring up from the
the half breadth to the elevation, longitudinal locations of points where the water lines and sheer line cut the chosen buttock plane, it is possible to
parallel to the longitudinal center line in the half breadth and body plans.
Then
the
width
of
forward
stem
height of sheer and of rabbet on these sections is measured from the eleva^WALhlVKY
tion.
of
the
water lines are then breadth plan by taking widths from the three sections already shown in body plan, and by finding the forward and after endings
Intermediate
in
drawn
the
half
Continuing this fairing process for remaining water lines, buttocks and sections, correcting all unfair
the
points as the
will finally
in the elevation.
These
water
lines
should
always
W/vtn.
Next the volume of displacement should be calculated as heretofore described and if the ship's weight is such as to result in proper draft and If this trim, the lines are complete. is not the case, the proper volumetric correction must be made before making the "offset table" which gives the molded surface dimensions of all the
lines.
"^^
final
check
on
the
fairness
is
FIG.
18PADDLE WHEEL
STEliX
diagonal planes, shown in the body plan of Fig. 14. The slope of these planes is such as to be at nearly right angles to most of the sections and to cut the bilge of the midship section. Such a plane cuts a curve called a "diagonal" from
obtained by passing
18
the
hull
Dimensions
of
the
at
Tl//^0Le
Hone
LiriB
different
lines
i
3HECR
the va
tions
o u
sec-
true
cambch
are
record-
plane
this,
the
horizontal.
To do
the
vation
water
keel
ter
center
is
line
in
the
plane, so that
half
and
breadth
those
giving
the curve as
it
shown
apdi-
really on the
true distances
along the diagonal
The
exact
from the
line
<eorro/^ OF HBlFIG.
distances
center
plane
to
19 ILLUSTR.\TING \ TYPIC.M.
lines,
BODY SECTION
the exoffsets
section
in
the
All
fig-
body
each
plan.
and
to
the
body plan and are then laid off below the center line in the corresponding sections on the
the
half breadth
plan.
diagonal
are
recorded
in
three
ures
panded
at the points
so found in the
feet,
inches
and
in
For example,
14,
half breadth.
on
of
Fig.
The
guide
offset
table
is
used
lines
as
in
the
the
heights at which the inclined plane cuts the transom and the half siding of stem are transferred to the
elevation
half
The
for
drawing the
the
boatyard to the full size of the vessel. This is done on a smooth floor
called the
directly indicates
and
breadth
plan.
inch stem.
1
This
9
at
feet
line
the
the
mold
loft
The
stern
lish
the
profile
should
be
longitudinal
original
CHAPTER V
Stem, Keel and Stern Design
^>^^^^HE
C*^ i ^ ^^^
called
fore end
of a vessel
is
stumps,
in
intersec-
the
the side
structure
the
stem.
wood or
material
to
of steel
composing the
Attached
and main roots diverging therefrom. The single knee forefoot is applicable to ..mail vessels only, being limited in use by the maximum size of knees
available.
It is
one arm of the knee being lower extremity of the trunk the other in one of the large
frames
are
as
in
notched
section
into
at
the
dead(1),
wood
Fig. 23.
frame
The construction
ed
in
of a
"spoon bow"
is
as indicatforto
Fig.
24.
One
or
more heavy
the stem are the side planking or plating, the longitudinal framing of
"bow timbers" extend across the ward hull end, being scarphed
receive
the
the hull, the forward end of the keel and keelsons, and some of the ex-
treme
forward
frames.
The
hull plank-
planking. into the shallow hull for longitudinal strength, terminate against the bow
Stem construction for wooden vessels is shown in Figs. 20, 21 and 22. Fig. 20 is the stem of a wooden tug
between 90 and 150 feet long. The stem log is backed by an "apron",
both timbers being fastened together with through bolts having countersunk heads riveted over ring washWhere the longitudinals end and ers. at the deck, these bolts extend through heavy knees called "breasthooks". The lower ends of stem and apron are scarphed to the stem knee and its backing timbers (called the forward deadwood) as shown. In Fig. 22 the
vessel, the deadwood heavier; while in Fig. 23, the stem of a large vessel (2S0 to 325 feet long), the forefoot is formed by two
;f,j,/--ia8" ffobfae/
Line,
/\-iA
stem of a larger
FIG.
20 STEM OF A
keel
at
WOODEN TUG
the while space between timbers; these timbers and the first beam and
floor,
filler
is
knees
keel,
the
stem,
filling
the
stem
and
are
is
fitted
with
filler
line".
also
fitted
at
the
pieces. intersec-
whole
backed
by
deadwood
timbers. Fig. 21
sel
"modstem
tion
(if
one with model bow. The stem and keel are connected by a natural crook knee, meaning one in which the grain follows a curve. These knees (formerly of
or shallow draft
scarphs bolted to knees The keelsons and and deadwood. keel scarph into the after knee, while
lower ends
in
the
space
hackmatack but now frequently of locust, oak or fir), are cut from tree
these
filling
between end portions of and the knee is fitted with a The extreme forward piece.
Auxiliary sailing vessels are fitted a stems" with afifording "clipper maximum outreach for the forestays with increased jib areas. Fig. 25 indicates construction of the upper part in wooden clipper (or overhang)
stems.
Keels form the strong center line girder connecting lower extremities of Since their stem and stern post. function is contribution of longitudinal
strength, structure
vessels
it
is
essential
be continuous.
this
feature
is
top waftr
necessary but is prohibited by limited lengths in which timber is obtainable. This in turn varies with kind
of timber.
.Sfopwotar
Oak
used
in
Srop^o^^''
FIG.
become
of
its
because
lengths,
FJG.
sizes,
long
WORKBOAT
FEET LONG
19
strength
and durability.
20
When
that
a
An
intercostal
filler
is
lilted
obtainable,
the
26.
The
between keel and keelsons while the frames have no joint in the center line. The lower keelson is shown notched over the frames.
Fig. 28
is
types
An
auxiliary schooner or large cargo carrier (ISO to 300 feet long) may
have
(^"'S''^^
an
31).
overhung
transom
extends
a
stern
securely
a
the
keel
and keelson of
trans-
The
keel
beyond
lower
rudder
post,
forming
verse
frames; while Fig. 29 is a similar detail of boats 50 to SO feet The keelson in the latter is long.
directly
on
the
keel,
forming there-
Both step-bearing for the rudder. ^'^rn and rudder posts mortice into '^e keel, the "shoe" between their lower ends being reinforced by natural crook knees
with a rabbet and having the frames butted on the center line. Additional longitudinal strength is contributed by the engine keelsons which are notched over the deep transverse floor timbers and extend as far fore
The
and
FIG.
aft
as
practicable.
23 STEM OF A LARGE
WOODEN
VESSEL
30 or
the keel
may may be
be as
of
in
same
Notice the way the beveled ends of timbers are cut to prevent feather At its upper and after end edges. the horn timber is let into the knuckle timber (Fig. 31), or the rim logs
all
(Fig.
32).
shaft passes through hole cut in a "shaft log" which has a stuffing box at its inboard end
a
The propeller
and
FIG.
is
morticed to
in
the
sternpost
at
its
outer terminus.
particularly
it if
it
be observed
log,
fastened with countersunk head bolts with ends riveted over ring washers,
the recesses at bolt ends being plugged
in
remainder
of
in
bottom
strengtli
so that
The reduction
may
justified
is
white lead.
I'ig.
(Fig.
a
26-a.)
and
ing.
is
made
32),
in
halves (secthis.
Fig.
facilitating
25
shows
longitudinal
hull
increase
strengthen-
line
bottom
of
conjugation
line
"keelsons".
large as 18
The
x
five
(as
18 inches each)
Drainage of bilge water in all these is effected through "limber cut in the frames as shown. Galvanized "limber chains" pass contypes holes"
such joints must be well coated with thick white or red lead and Shaft logs may be securely bolted. lined with a lead sleeve bedded in white lead and flanged at the extremities under flanges of stuffing box and
stern bearings.
together horizontally and vertheir tically, scarphs being spaced well apart to avoid excessive weakenbolted
ing.
used
fittings
here
at
and
its
Long
vertical
bolts
(b)
from keelson through the frames to the keel. Shorter tlirough Ijolts connect keelsons to frames outboard of the keel. The false keel is spiked to the keel proper over the metal hull sheathing and is readily detachable when worn. heavy planks adjacent and called the "garboards" are sometimes rabbeted into the keel (Figs. 27, 28 and 29) or
to
pass double
ance
about
the
The frames whose lower ends converge at acute angles at the stern are let into deadwood timbers and secureAbaft the sternly through bolted.
FIG.
2.5-CLlI.pER
The
P^^* 'hey butt against the horn timher, which IS rabbeted to take the
extra
the
keel
they may be fitted closely against the Where garboards keel as in Fig. 26. are of considerable thickness, they may be edge bolted to the keel.
joints cross
rabbet throughout the stem, keel and stern, wooden plugs called "stopwaters" are fitted across the joint (Figs. 17 to 23 and Fig. 26). These
Transverse
FIG.
Sacfign
l^onifudinal
5e,cticn
WOODEN
SHIP
The
hull.
tinuously thfough these holes so that when drawn back and forth the holes will be cleared of clogging matter. The "limber strakes" fitted in the
ceiling to the
wooden
is
schooner,
of
large
vessels
afiford
access
160
feet
long,
shown
in
limber holes.
ends as indicated in Fig. 31. of rudder post is securely bolted to the deck beams and forms the forward side of a watertight box or "rudder trunk" through which the rudder stock passes to the quad-
21
observed that the plank ends fit and are not too narrow. The flat iron shoe shown in Fig. 34 is
be
A stuffing box emor tiller. braces the stock at top of trunk unthe "rudder der bearing" support which carries the weight of the rudder
rant
The trunk
is
large
enough
to
permit
through the deck and is covered by a hawsers are upon which Sometimes the quadrant is Sterns of this type below decks. are common to tugs and lighters between 50 and 150 feet long Full transom sterns (Fig. 33) are
grating stowed.
.
properly
not
recommended
but
is
indicated
common
tions
descrip-
~hrouc\W'&o\f'-
FIG. 26a
be variously formed as previously described but the same general construction applies for all of them. Keel, deadwood, shaft log and horn timber have already been considered, except that where a metal rudder is fitted the shoe is formed by a casting as shown.
up transoms
or 90 feet long.
The
may
twisted and jammed. Shallow draft sterns with sternwheels are as indicated in Fig. 2iz.
The
a
rises
is
to
at or
is
The
hull
not
The rudder blade is formed by heavy timbers fitted as shown and Metal straps edge bolted together. assist in tying them together and are formed into sockets at their forward ends. Hinge bolts or "pintles" fit into these sockets or "gudgeons" and corresponding ones on the rudder post, the gudgeons sometimes having mebushings. Notice that the rudstock extends in one piece to the keel. Where this is impracticable the two lengths should be securely scarphed. Lugs called "stops" on the rudder post should bear against similar ones on the rudder stock, preventing a rotation of more than 45 degrees on each side of center line. Rudder chains, shackled to an eye on the rudder blade are led to pad eyes on each side of the stern and serve as emergency stops in event of
tallic
Hecho/i
Rabbtf
FIG.
formerly conextend but rudder stocks up to the house deck as shown. Bearings at the transom and house decks support these stocks and f^e tiller arms are linked together over the house or "texas". Multiple rudders are necessary because of the limited draft and unvessels
wieldiness
of
the
boxlike
hull.
The
28 KEEL OF A
WOODEN TUG
a
der
so
that
lead-lined opening in horn timber and natural crook knee bearing log.
russ
connects
stringer
horn ends
timber
to
keelson
or
Cheek
over
boats
to
this
will
be
under
steering
gear.
considered In event of
tiller
breakdown. Between the knuckle and upper deck, transom frames are fitted as in Fig. 31, the transom planks extending athwartships being fastened there The outline of transom forms a to.
breakdown
gear a spare
may be inserted through the deck plate shown in Fig. 33 and fitted over the square rudder head.
hull.
knuckle and a heavy timber conforms with it, being scarphed to take the ends of the hull and transom planks. The knuckle timber and rim logs
(Fig.
/fe/5on5
31)
form parts
of this
transom
ered under steering gear. The stern wheels, whose details of construction will be later taken up, are supported upon two or more overhung girders whose inboard ends through the main securely bolted
margin
log.
deck
FIG.
to
the
If
29 KEEL OF A 50-FOOT
the
hold.
WORKBOAT
Transom
are
desirable
/Tee/sons
sterns
for
properly
the
formed
hold
additional
space, the wider deck, the tendency to prevent squatting when under way and the facility of con-
storage
do not end under these girders it is necessary to provide auxiliary trusses The extreme or other reinforcing. outboard ends of wheel girders are connected by a heavy transverse timber and walkways are provided outside of the
struction.
They
to
do
not
Tfobbe,f
FIG.
vessel
difficult
steer
inspection and
27 KEEL OF A
WOODEN
SCHOONER
Stern
her uncomfortable in quartering seas unless they are extremely broad and flat underneath.
and
Vibration is minimized by hog posts tie rods as shown which form part
Compromise
general construction is as heretofore described. In Fig. 32 the main point of difference is at the
sterns
to
(Fig.
34)
are
shallow
hulled
boats.
whose
seldom
boats.
to
fitted
commercial
power
deck where heavy rim logs are shown and a guard timber is securely bolted to these. The rudder stock passes
are similar in structure stem, having a central ridge formed by the horn timber, a knee and the stern log. The planking scarphs to these timbers and care must
They
the
paddle wheels revolve in a clockwise direction, dip of the buckets being fixed by vessel's draft, but seldom exceeding 27 inches. The after deckhouse bulkhead is termed the "splash bulkhead" and is watertight.
The
22
Constrnct'ion of Pozver
Work
Boats
Fig. 37 ("a" and "b") are two cross sections at "A-A" of Fig. 36 for different tunnel constructions. Two or
cuts
sible diameter and the total thrust area must therefore be distributed. The tunnel should be a smoothly scooped out recess in the vessel's bottom and the propeller tips should fit into this with minimum practicable clearance (yi-inch if possible). The
highest point of tunnel should not be more than one-third the propeller diameter above the water line and
the
after
line
water
not
the
a
stern.
If
this
is
practicable,
'i
ho c
^tal
3e
fceel
FIG.
31-
opening with the stream flow when going ahead. This is to insure good backing qualities, the water tilling
shaft bearings fitted on each girder are bolted to timber pads. Wheel girders are designed as cantilevers to take the wheel weight but a high factor of safety must be employed to allow for the vibrational stresses. At the same time these overhung weights are not directly supported by buoyancy so that care must be taken not to trim the vessel by the stern. In most cases it is necessary to locate the engine and fuel tanks well forward to oflfset the stern
The wheel
weights.
Propeller-driven, shallow-draft boats are very successful if properly de-
FIG.
weights,
less
difficulty
in
obtaining
improved maneuvering qualities, greater free deck space and of hull compactness appendages. Higher speed of the propeller permits of lighter and better balanced machinery for the same power.
proper
trim,
Fig.
36
is
longitudinal
section
FIG.
when
flap
is
forced closed
by astern motion.
Cross sections along the tunnel should be circles with varying diameters
and
their
longitudinal
sterns
profile
in
the
tunnel.
Workmanship
must be
likely
wooden
tunnel
age
ture.
is
due
>
complex
struc-
In Fig. 37-a the tunnel is merely a watertight box with arch beams to
whici!
top;
is
fastened
has
a
the
metal
tunnel
fairwater
37-b
formed
bent into place, calked and fastened to arch beams inside the hull.
23
T"
I I
Stern
:
^[,g^^:li3^l^ ^
'
FIG.
A'
/UN hi EL Stern
FIG.
36 LON'CITUniNAL SECTION OF
.3he,lf
Fromt
Bcyom
Log
37 CROSS SECTIONS
24
KAMCHATKAA SAILING VESSEL RECENTLY CONVERTED INTO AK AUXILIARY FOR USE ARCTIC OCEAN AND BERING SEA
144
feet
AS A
WHALER
IN
THE
long
r^^
by
31
feet
beam by
15-foot
at
knots loaded.
Two
au.xiliary
Fitted with a 300-horsepower MacIiUosh & Seymour diesel depth. and a 20 horsepower gasoline engines, one 25 horsepower Burn-Oil,
engine,
engine
CHAPTER
VI
construction
will
as
here
to
considered
be
limited
according as they are on the vessel's bottom or sides), join at the stem, they
are
plates
Large
connected
by
horizontal
bracket
breasthook and floor plates are pierced with "lightening holes" cut from the
least affected part to
long.
Bar stems are ordinarily fitted in these and are scarphed to the plate keel or bar keel as in Fig. 38-a and b.
nected to the hull plating between frames by short "shell clips" and have their
(Section
Frame
The
length of these scarphs is nine times the thickness of bar stem and keel and the scarph faces are machined to
fit
FloorPIc;^^,?^'iPlatcX
Keelson Ro*6
closely
together
is
shell plating
is
connected
The (Fig. 38-6). flanged to the stem and thereto by through rivets
In
Gorboard StroKc
"iSide
a^boord
plote. Kee.1
Strode.
small ves-
BorKeel
Plo+c-
in
a single row of rivets is used but vessels more than 75 feet long two
of
(b)
Co.)
FIG.
zig-zag rivets are employed. bar stems join a plate keel (Fig 38-a) their lower ends are flattened out
rows
When
Keelson Or\
At one-twentieth of the
vessel's length
Floors
,KcHon
IS
from the stem a transverse watertight bulkhead extends from side to side and from keel to upper deck. This is the "forepeak" or "collision" bulkhead and the space between it and the stem is the
"forepeak". Deep transverse
floor
FowMd<rt'idn "Plate
2^/
Frame
lonTlate
Thrc' Keels
f\ooK
CUpi
To
F\oor.
plates
whose
Limber Hole
upper edges are stiffened by the reverse frames, connect the lower ends of frames
To
Floors.
and are cut to permit passage of the center keelson plate and angles (Section
FIG.
40 METHODS OF FITTING
KEELSONS
Frame
der angles
2).
Where
Keels
of
steel
vessels
are
of
three
types: plate, bar and side bar (Fig. 39a-b-c). Plate keels are common to large
steel
vessels
and
are
in
to
those
in
of
shallow
draft.
Bar
lighters
keels
used
general
and
feet
for
to 150
long.
Side bar keels are not extensively employed due chiefly to the difficulty of
obtaining good rivet connections through the five thicknesses of metal (two gar-
board
center
plates,
two
keel
bars
and
the
keelson
plate).
with
affect-
Section Fra me Z
^'a+e. Ke.e>l
ed by the size of vessel together with the method of making connection with transverse "floor plates" which are a
part of the discussed.
^Baf Ste-m
FIG.
framing and
will
be later
to
38 BAR STEMS
With
respect
these
26
keel
S+ringfrr
AvT^le^
CONSTRUCTION
Tanks
space
fresh
built
in
the
below
water,
floor
floor
fuel
The
tops
are
over
"innerbottom"'
or
"tank
top".
by an Center
f?udd&rTrunK
R'ljdde'f'Cou
partments
are
composed of continuous
Rudd&rFi-arn<
fc'Ast&i- Fi^aK
BulKhcad
girder or keelson plates with double keelson angles and top angles to the inner bottom plating. Fig. 42 is a trans-
in
dou-
bottom
they
the
full
tween
are
3l SoorphJ Sten Rar From} to R
peak bulkheads,
to
but
this
often
so
limited
spaces
under machinery
is
/^ Onh 1 C
*~Rote.Ke*l
compartments.
When
above them and extend continuously fore and aft; the floors may be cut at the center line to admit a continuous plate
"floors",
keelsons
may be
built
power
sterns
craft
or
be-
Passenger and cargo or au.xiliary sailvessels may be fitted with semior overhung transom sterns elliptica!
ing
(Fig. 43),
tween
angles
floors,
with
keelson
extends
aft
on top of floors. Fig 40 a is a continuous keelson on floors, attachment to upper edge of floor
being by rivets through the reverse frames on one side and a clip on
other
side
which
is
plates
is
the
of plates.
son
plate
by
TBulwark Rail
Bulwark BracKct
'*^J-
The
angles,
keelson
may
consist
of
two
angles
Fig.
as shown; of two bulb angles, four angles with a rider plate over the upper ones, whose long flange is horizontal, or four angles with a "foundation plate" under the lower angles and on top of
floors, a rider plate
Ugr-wa
kili
Pla+e' 11
intercostal
and
continuous
upper
Inner "Bott-oi"
'iitvtrie finable
being
fitted
over the
upper angles. When through keelson plates of floor depth are fitted (Fig. 40-6), the upper keelson angles may be above the floor tops, or (in small vessels) below this
level.
Fioar
FIG.
Frame
FIG.
42 TRANSVERSE SECTION OF
post
is
part of keelson girder may vary in structure as did the type Double clips are entirely above floors.
The upper
DOUBLE BOTTOM
angles. tions of
rudder
ends
their tops as
shown and
at their
lower
The
intercostal
plate
is
in
sec-
always fitted connecting the keelson and foundation plates to the floors. When a bar keel is employed the lower edge of keelson plate butts against it without
angle
connections.
In
the
case
of
frame space length which are the frames and heel pieces at keel and the reverse frames and reverse frame clips at floor top. With bar keels there is no lower keelson plate
cut
to pass
by a "shoe", form the "stern frame" forging. This is scarphed at its forward end to the plate or bar keel,
tapering down to the horizontal plate connection in the former case and being connected as for stems in the latter
instance.
Keelson
-e\a.te.
Intsrcos'+al
Atii)lei
,T
at least
Foondation
forward of the stern post which is "bossed" to permit passage of the center line propeller shaft, which passes through a cast steel stern tube to the
after
peak
is
bulkhead,
where
fitted
stuffing
box
fitted.
When
aperture
peller
no screw
^
FIG.
the prooverlap at or ccjme close to the center line. Fig. 45 is a twin screw frame and indicates the forged strut
necessary
unless
tips
-piate
which supports each wing shaft. The shoe under the propeller aperture section and exis of flattened elliptical
27
"gudgeons" which receive the pintles about which the rudder hinges and which may le bushed with metal or At the upper end lignum vitx wood. of the rudder post, heavy lugs are forged to form "rudder stops" which prevent greater angular swing than 45
degrees.
Bo++otTi Plafin^
their
rudder stock
coupled to the blade, as in Fig. 43, this connection being a horizontally or vertically transverse flanged or a scarphed
joint.
Rudder Construction
Double plate rudders
sist
of
forged
or
con-
with
in-
plates riveted
tervening space filled with pine well coated with pitch or other preservative.
Single plate rudders (Fig. 45) are composed of one plate riveted to forged arms on the rudder stock.
FIG.
46 ELEVATION
the vertical
distance between
just
sufficient
deck and
attach
knuckle
is
to
the
heavy guard shown in Fig. 44. Being common to tugs and lighters and consequently
constructed
rail
for
towing,
bulwark
forged
tiller or quadrant cannot usually be installed below deck due to lack of space, and is therefore covered by an
The
floddef
ash
may
same
characteristic
construction
as
(-Single;
Plo\Te;
was
this
out
is
under
wooden
hulls,
A
tom
tour
tunnel stern (Fig. 47) has the botplating dished to the tunnel con-
forged
in
conformity.
FIG.
much more
stern
readily
45 CONSTRUCTION OF RUDDERS
and simply
en
vessels.
fitted
in steel
than in wood-
All rudder heads must pierce the hull through some form of watertight bo.x or "trunk", at the top of which is a stuffing box and the rudder support bearing, surmounted by the steering arm or This trunk is connected to quadrant. the afterside of transom floor and
tion to the
the
deck
connection,
where
casting shown flanges to the outside of tunnel and has a bearing at the after end with the
The
shaped to permit unshipping the rudder. side and top trunk plates are connected by forged angles caulked water-
The
FIG.
47 HOW
IS
tight.
Aft of the transom floor ordinary transverse framing is supplanted by ra"cant frames" and diating beams,
strongly bracketed together and at their forward ends to the transom beam and
Cant frames are spaced around the knuckle at intervals equaling the ordinary frame spacing amidships.
floor.
LU+-111
watertight "flat" or short deck usually extends from after the peak bulkhead to sternpost, the space beneath
is too fine and congested for cargo stowage and is termed the "after It may store fresh water peak tank."
which
FIG.
28
usual
stuffing
The
screw
is
stern (or
steel
frames need not be fitted though they sometimes are, particularly in wooden
vessels.
der.
may be
formed
face,
normal
hull sur-
vessel,
shown by
1
Fig.
Heavy
longitudinals
should,
but
an unnecessary elabrudder
,.
.
tour of stern frame being the only radJ ^ r J1 ical departure from ordmary stern con.
struction.
the
this
relatively
type,
cant
however, be introduced to absorb the end thrust in docking. When side padA\ u j u die wheels are i employed the screw aperture is dispensed with and the sternpost is located close to inboard edge of rudI
^^^^-^^
^^^
forward
is
,
al,
'
locked on the center Ime either by ways ' a through pin from the deck or by locking the rudder stock.
CHAPTER
VII
watertight
hull
cannot be
in the vessel's
transverse planes)
may
local
be constant or gradually decreasing from keel to frame head at upper deck. The two sections of each frame
Limber holes must be cut at the lowest point of frame heels providing longitudinal drainage for bilge water In wooden to the pump suctions.
ships limber holes.
displacement would be thereby increased to an uneconomical degree; even assuming that the required strength could be brought about by
such
inner
chains
are
fitted
in
these
^ittrer Plank
cumbersome
construction.
An
lighters
to
have
49.
mid-
system of framing accordingly has been introduced to suitably reinforce the skin and is called the
framing.
It
similar
Fig.
The
the
frames center
cept
in
cross
line,
or
are
butted
to
at
tapering
at
reduced
deck.
molded dimensions
be
readily
the
Ex-
can
seen both
that
this
longitudi-
Now
the
FIG.
49
most
severe
strains
are
ordinarily
CONSTRUCTION
FOR
TITGS
longitudinal in character, which would make it desirable to run the principal framing in fore and aft directions. This is practicable in steel and small
extremely light construction, frames are sawn in sections with double timbers and staggered butts, through bolted longitudinally. Light frames may sometimes be bent to shape but this is not practicable with
large timbers which tend to split and are stiff. Bending is preceded by steaming the timber in a box and
then forming
wooden
is
keel to head.
Frames
straight
in
refined
surface
at
the
vessel's
extremities.
(a)
Wood
Framing
vessels
(100
feet
Except at the vessel's extreme end, frames are perpendicular to the At the ends where the inward keel. curvature of water line would entail extreme bevel with accompanying loss of frame thickness, the frames are
all
on
the
a
bottoms
timber
and
sides,
butting
against
called
the
"bilge log" at
Where
cannot
be
rigidly
constructed with longitudinal frames because the framing timbers are relatively short, the end connections between timber lengths weak, the timbers cannot be suitably bent and
beveled
placed nearly at right angles to most These radiating of the water lines. frames, called "futtocks", are shown
ir
Fig.
of the
ceiling
50 (a), vessel's
without
serious
loss
of
strength by cutting across grain, and finally the planking which is in narrow strips could not be properly fastened.
To run this hull planking transversely would seriously increase the of loss in result and resistance strength by the already comparatively
weak
structure.
and longitudinals omitted. bulwarks are fitted, one of the double frame heads passes through the deck margin planks to form a bulwark stanchion. Every alternate or third frame is thus ex-
When wooden
and always in the machinery space, heavy transverse floor timbers should be fitted at the lower point of frames These floors are on center line. sometimes introduced all fore and aft. Wooden deck beams extend in one length from side to side except where hatches or other deck openings necessitate cutting them (Figs. 49 and SO). In this case the resultant "half beams"
are
butted
against
or
mortised
into
heavy
bound
"carlins"
which
tended.
are some-
The
transverse
framing
of
large
wooden vessels is similar to Fig. SO. Here the frames, relatively heavy timbers, are sawn to shape and fitted in two thicknesses (doubler), with butts
of
connected to the Frame heads deck beams by continuous longitudinal clamp and shelf timbers, as shown. In wooden construction the deck beam ends do not always butt against nor lap on the frame heads, though At this should be so if practicable.
every third or fourth beam should be directly connected to frame heads by heavy natural crook timber
least
times sawn to a camber on their upper edges, the lower edge being flat and the ends reduced in depth. When beams are light enough to permit, they may be steamed and bent to camThe outer ends of beams should ber. be notched over clamp timbers and
kneed
sections
in
each
thickness
stag-
gered with those of the adjacent member of that frame. Butt joints at the center line are avoided and the molded dimensions of timbers (that measured
knees the intermediate beams landing on the clamp and shelf which are through bolted to these and the frame
heads.
frames, as previously deInner ends of half beams where the stanchions are fitted should have a natural knee. Hold beams consisting of heavy double timbers widely spaced, are introduced in larger vessels. The beam ends bear on hold stringers or shelf
to
scribed.
29
30
keelson,
and
were
shown
in
Leg
u^trfi
diagram of the
stanchion
Filhnj Block
Oftu^eett
latter.
Oul
When
floors
Frame
HttJs
are not cut at center lines the frame heels butt at this point and a heel
is
fitted
on the oppoEssential
FiavftE
A-9-(k)
side of floor.
Good Riveting
Reverse
Plank
is
Hull
FieonE 49
(i)
KIG.
50 TliANSVlCHSH
FliAMI.Xr;
OV
I.AliCIC
\\()l)l)i:.\
VESSELS
and ciamp, to which they may be kneed in vertical and horizontal direcstanchions mortise hold beams, metal cheek straps should be fitted (Fip. SO). Stanchions uccks supporting the
tions.
necting upper end of frames to deck beams, deck beams and stanchions
frames which stiffen the inner edge of frame angles and extend along the floor tops on side opposite to frames, form an inner flange to which keelsons, stringers and other members may be conveniently attached. The overlap of frames and reverse frames should be sufficient to ensure good riveting. When frames are of bulb, channel or zee section, reverse frames are fitted on upper edge of floor plates only, but ordinary angles and reverse bars are used at the ends of the vessel where the channels and "Z" bars would be difiicult to bend and bevel. Reverse frames at floor tops are single e.xcept under machinery foundations where they are
the
vessel's
Where
through
double
supporting these. Frames may be one of the various structural shapes shown by "Sections at A-A" Fig. 52. Angles and channel
doubled.
At
to
ends
it
is
necessary
are
fitted
in
deep
a
holds.
frame and their lower end or "heel" should bear on a keelson and have
-.1-1,
wooden
P"'""lr,?-:
knees.
metal strap is heel connections or the heel may notch over a keelson and be through
bolted.
keep the athwartship frame flange in a transverse plane and to bevel the shell flange in conformation to the hull form. This bevel (Fig. 52.) should always be "open", that is, the angle between flanges should never be less than 90 degrees. This is essential to good riveting. The lower ends of frames at the vessel's bow and stern are lapped at the keel and
riveted
(Fig.
49.)
together.
Stanchions should always be fitted at each corner of large deck openings and to every third intermediate frame at hatch cabins. The upper ends or "heads" should be strongly kneed to carlins and deck beams.
FIG.
DRAFT VESSELS
bars are most frequently used. They are spaced from IS to 27 inches apart and are in one length from keel to
deck.
Frame ends
the
at
keel
of
are
keel
de-
bending of steel frames to proper contour and bevel is performed by means of templates as guides which are secured to a heavy cast metal slab. The frame bar is heated, placed on the slab and bent
against
wcirh
I
The
When
should
fitted
in
holds,
stanchions
pendent upon
type
and
this
template,
the
standing
beams adjacent through a longitudinal girder fitted at heads. (Fig. 51.) In shallow draft hulls the hold
support
proportion to beam and length renders it imperative to introduce strengthening "trusses" running In longitudinally and athwartships. these trusses the girders at stanchion heads and keelson at heels are termed the upper and lower "chords". Diagonal tie timbers serve as compression
Rail
An^lt,
^"i
We.6 FVome.
depth
in
members against racking. (Fig. 51.) The longitudinals are from one to four in number depending on the
beam.
"transverses" are twelfth frame.
(b)
Steel
Framing
Floor And
Bil^t,
K
C^^orn
Fig. 52 is the midship section of a steel tug or lighter. The transverse framing is composed of frames exat keel,
Reve-rst
Frame
tending from keel to deck, floor plates knees or beam brackets con-
FIG.
Wood
same
being properly beveled at the Spring "clogs" of round bar iron clamp the horizontal frame
flange
time.
to
31
Dtfe
House [TexasJ
flange
the
"bending
slab"
being
driven into square holes closely spaced Bevel templates of light in the slab. wood or metal, cut to the proper slope which has been obtained from
the lines, are used as guides in properly beveling the standing flange.
structural shapes have been
successfully in many shipyards. The shell flange of frames must bear directly against the hull plating and since the longitudinal strakes of
this are usually lap jointed, it is clear that either the frames or plates must be joggled (Figs. 52 and 53).
The
a
fair
practice
of bending frames to
fitting liner pieces flange and outside hull
curve
shell
and
between
plates is still used but should be avoided because of the excess weight
KZ
LflJ
Jj
FIG.
from.
(c)
Where
the
the side frames are bent to the bilge radius and overlapped on the bottom
castles,
and
poop
plate
erections.
Passenger and ferry boats for inland waters usually have the main This overdeck overhang the hull. hang may be supported on brackets or be formed by a sudden hull protuberance
53a).
frames
it
(Fig.
54a).
In
small vessels
may
in
above
the
the
first
waterline
wale,
ible.
In
construction
(Fig. the
transverse framing resembles that for tugs or lighters, while in the second
angles
frames are knuckled to conform with the deformed hull surface. This
the
Square bilges with heavy bilge connecting the side and bottom plating may be employed and if the hull ends are properly modeled
will to
from 14 wide connected to the hull by single or double angles and faced with half round or angle "face bars". The outline of a web frame is indicated by the broken line in the midship section (Fig. 52). The lower ends of web frames fair into floors and are connected thereto by lapped
They
to
consist of a
web
42
joints.
The
to
manner
plates
in
reverse
frames.
this
not
are
prove
in
serious
Web
detri-
ment
ployed.
efficient
may have
beam
brackets
this
may
(Fig. 54b.)
Shallow draft vessels (Fig. 54) have straight frames on their bottoms and sides. The bilges are usually rounded
ally
late the bilges have occasionbeen cut at an angle and a flanged bilge plate fitted to forged frames.
Of
SJ/^ to 36 inches center line form transverse brackets at the lower ends of side framing. The depth at a distance from center line of J4 the half
deep
the
and a bracket may be introduced to This join side and bottom lengths. avoids furnacing the frames and is as
satisfactory
a
(Fig. 54c.)
beam must be
is
at
least
half
what
it
construction
as
when
frames (Fig. 52) are fitted on every sixth to tenth frame and at the ends of the large hatches or fore-
Web
on the center line for large vessels. With a flat bottom this sometimes permits of sloping the upper edge of floor plates downward and outward to save structural weight and gain hold
space.
It
is
upper
floor
small boats
in
usually
done
re-
gardless of the
consequent reduction
side
Where
the
frames
join
the
from the frames crossing the bottom of vessel at the upper edge of floors.
frames are of channels, zee bars, bulb angles, these may be run along the lower edge of the floors to the keel and a reverse angle bar be
If
or
FIG.
-Double
I2ft/f6e FrAfnelt
fitted to upper edge of floors on the Such opposite side to the frames. reverse bars overlap the frames at
the
(Fig.
S2d.)
32
The
Work
Boats
portion to their sectional depth renders it necessary to support them at intervals stanchions by extending to the vessel's bottom. The unsuplength should not exceed construction and must be less than this if heavy deck loads are carried,
Sometimes the channels, bulbs or zee bars are split at their junction with the floor ends and the upper portion forged to join the reverse bar on floor tops, while the lower half joins a
frame angle
(Fig. S2c).
at
The saving
cutting deck beams the severed beam ends are connected by angle clips to a strong longitudinal coaming plate which forms a girder supporting the deck sides between the hatch ends.
ported
15
beam
feet
for ordinary
Floor plates in machinery space should be thickened by 0.04 inches and the reverse bars be doubled at
their
tops.
Heavy
these
girder
beams
at
the
ends
of
forward
floors
and
:.t
are
of
brackets
tion
peak tanks at the ends of vessel, deepened to form strong the acute lower intersecthe
after
hull
sides.
In
openings take the abutlongitudinal coamings and are built up of a plate with upper and
deck
of
may
under
heads. the
be
ments
lower
angles.
These
heavy
beams
In forming
it
the
The
reverse
angles are also fitted at their tops, ana floors in after peak tanks some-
times
support
the
be
shaft
tube
which
was formerly common to split the section, bend the lower portion downward and weld a piece of plate into the forked opening at beam
former are termed, may be of solid round bars or of extra heavy wrought iron pipe welded to forged heads and heels. This type should
be
fitted at the
beam
corners of
all
hatches
and large deck openings. Fig. 5Sa shows a closely spaced pipe
stanchion with head having a vertical palm connected to a bulb angle beam. The heel is forged to a flat palm in this case, but if the stanchion steps
ends
lightened by cirholes cut at their
thus
formed.
This
expensive
.
or
elliptical
neutral
that
axes.
Care should
be
takr:
does,
method has been replaced by rivetmg beam and frame ends to a bracket plate (Fig. 52) whose inner edge may
be flanged
(Fig.
S3),
holes
on
steel
flat
the
heel
to
depth
of
the
flrtUI4+sVll^
Deck beams
g'A^^J'A
Lon^ft<^^ind1 Elavrftion
A+'Huiar"fhiy>
vertical
palm
head
is
p.
similar to the
fo|,_^_
r'
here shown.
If the
deck
beam
of
the
channel
section
stanchion head
may
the
and brackthe
ihe
have
tal
horizonin
at to
deck
palm as
here
frame
heel
shown.
to
The
degree
objection
closely
stanchions
of
spaced
is
the
obstruc-
may
the
troduce.
Widely
(Fig.
beam
the
brackets.
When
of
deck
is
steel
plating,
beams are fitted on SS-b-c-d-e) are now FIG. 55 STEEL STANCHIONS AND STANCHION HEADS each fitted to most vesframe while hold cargoes. sels with a wooden deck the steel beams Longitucarryin lightening holes may be cut. The depth ("d" Fig. S3) at the in- dinal and transverse bracket plates are on alternate frames. ner bracket end on deck beam should It is common to bend or "crown" connect the heads to the beam girders not be less than six times the diamedeck beams upward in a circular arc beams (Fig. 55b) while and deck ter of rivets connecting the bracket so that the heiglit at center above the heels are bracketed to foundations to the beam; while the depth "h" sides is ^-inch per foot of deck width on the inner bottom plating or the floor and length "w" of bracket sides on the particular beam considered. at tops (Fig. 55). In the latter case, brackframe and beam respectively, should This camber was formerly claimed to ets clipped to the reverse frames afford be three times the beam depth. contribute transverse deck strength double angle connection to tlie floors it In holds of considerable depth The faldue to the arching eff'ect. and the foundation channels extend introduce to all arch becomes of this is tliat widely necessary theory lacy thrusts are taken at the ends which It is at least three frame spaces. spaced "hold beams" which tie the sides <n this case are tne relatively flexible together and end on ship's desirable to fit all stanchions above
;
.<!hip's
sides.
Camber
drainage
ship
:'
is
now
em-
ployed
but
for
a
since
is
the
longitudinal
girders
in
ship's
zontal
brackets
are
fitted
at
hold
an
even
keel.
en
warranted, since the water cumulates on the high side of deck houses and coamings amidships. Flat deck beams or those with straight ridged sides rounded at the
center
line,
beam ends to these stringers and to web frames which should coincide in Hold spacing with the hold beams. beams are usually built up of a plate
with double upper and lower angles or of two channels back to back,
on
frames
Bracket
to
in
the
longitudinal
trusses.
plates
connect
the
stanchions
the
upper
to
and
lower
chord
angle
shapes
braces.
and
the
diagonal
are
of
beams
in
pro-
CHAPTER
Design
^^^^^HE principal strains set up in m C^\ ordinary vessels are longitu^^ J dinal in character and can be
VIII
of Longitudinal
the keel.
sel
is
Framing
treme deck and keel structure could be calculated from the well known formula
:
The
^^^^
its
best
understood
if
it
is
as-
of an equivalent girder and the longitudinal bending strains can be taken only by the hull planking or platthat
M
where
SI
equals
c
sumed
has
this
that a
wave
ing
and
be
such
fitted.
longitudinal
framing
is
as
may
the
M
6"
is
a crest amidships
and
When
deck
in
the
wave
to
sag.
crest
amidships,
is
a trough at the bow and stern. The length of a wave is measured behighest points of two successive crests or the low points of two
tends
to
and stern
up
is
hog
is
tween the
successive
keel.
the deck and compression at the In either case the midship section
per square inch. the rectangular moment of inertia of the midship section.
wave
the
is
The
that
lowest point of a trough and the This height highest point of a crest. is taken as one-twentieth of the wave
length,
change compression
versa,
is
is
the
vertical
distance
to
from
neutral
of
axis
keel.
so
that
mum intensity at the extreme top and bottom to zero at a point about halfway The between the keel and the deck.
plane of zero stress
axis. If
is
Strength
Ordinarily
it
of
is
Framing Defined
not necessary to perand extensive
since
by a
point
circle.
on
form
this
complicated
for
calculation
strength,
the
exthe
of a rolling
the
moment
section
of
inertia
of
the
established
Wave
Action
vessel's
Causes
water
Strain
line
When
wavy
the
has
contour, the maximum longitudinal strains are set up in the vessel by a wave of its length. Where the crests
were calculated about the neutral axis and the greatest bending moment for hogging and for sagging were derived from curves showing the
midship
longitudinal
distribution
proper sizes and disposition of the hull structure. For steel vessels this has
been
particularly
well
accomplished
by
of
hull
in
and
buoyancy,
the
stress
the
weight ex-
the large marine insurance societies such as the American Bureau of Shipping, The of Lloyd's Register Shipping,
are at the
bow and
and
is
Bureau Veritas,
etc.
stern
the
trough
ships
it
amidbe will
displace-
8+ern
,Holl
Stem
Plank
Here
are
the
various
structural
members
acdi-
tabulated
to
seen
that
is
cording
the
ment
ed
concentrat-
at the
ends and
process
the
to
weight
the
is
greater at
proper
midlength
due
to
scantlings.
Large
vessels
machinery and cargo, the tendency would be for the unsupported middle
wooden
JTmnsverie Frames
body to
hull
in
sag.
this
The
case
3^
Boffoin \,oneii'tud\na\6
Coniitvoofiort.
FIG. 56-
thoroughly,
since
marso
wood
terial
as a ship
has
been
resembles
beam
the
reverse
true
and
wood
con-
will
doubtless
the
supports.
This
tinue
materia!
hulls less
up
compres-
composing
and
tensile
strains
stretch
tending
to
LONGITUDINAL STRINGERS AND SHELVES FOR WOODEN TUGS AND FRAMES FOR SHALLOW STEEL VESSELS
33
chapters
scantling
tabular
34
table for
Coiistriirtion
of Pozver
Work
Boats
to receive the engine, or should rest
commercial power boats will be appended and duly explained, with a view to facilitating the construction of commercial power boats. If the above theory held in practice, the be longitudinal framing would strongest on the vessel's bottom and at the deck and little or none would be needed at the sides. This is not quite
true in practice because the
vessel
are covered by the false keel. The keelson timbers are also bolted together by
vertical bolts between the frames and by horizontal bolts uniformly spaced to
the
tops
of
transverse
fastenings.
When
it
is
not
practicable
to
incor-
porate the side keelsons with the engine keelsons, the latter should be of considerable length. The timbers to which the engine is bolted are usually too close together to pass the large flywheel
may
be
subjected
stresses
angle.
to
hogging
is
and
the
latter.
The added
labor
whole
it
rolled
the
of
most
this
internal
combustion
engines.
toward resisting the longitudinal strains and even disregarding this condition it
necessary to reinforce the ordinary transverse frames by side longitudinals to withstand the local bending introis
cutting
away
material
at
the
notches
For
reason these local timbers are bolted to and inboard of a keelson on each side and the difficulty of passing the flywheel is obviated by the thickness of the foundation timbers.
If
it
whether
In
all
this
elaborated
construction
is
justifiable.
where wooden longicomposed of more than a single timber and it is impracticable to extend these in one length from
cases
tudinals
is
not
feasible
all
to
extend
angle
the
are
engine
keelsons
fore
may
butt
against
forged
if
stem to stern, the butt scarphs in the various timbers should be carefully dis-
particularly
these
are
of
It is not customary to fit more than than one side keelson in large wooden since the ceiling timbers on vessels,
the the
inside
of
line
transverse
to
frames
are
from
center
the
bilge
made
extra heavy. Care should be taken to stagger the end joints of adjacent and neighboring ceiling timbers in the same
way
in
as
for
center
and
side
keelsons,
may
Steel
side
keelsons,
number, are
consist
fitted in transversely
vessels as in Fig. 58
(a)
They
steel
of
continuous
longitudinal
'?\ank6eami,
Lon<(i"ti/is(iti<i
Centered On
Is.
floors to the
between the
(b)
fitted
They
FIG.
angles or a built up girder connected to the floor tops by a reverse bar clip having at least three rivets. The inter-
extend as
for and
aft
as
possible.
They
8
in
are
feet
is
not
more
than
posed so that no two joints are at or near the same point. By this means
the
loss in
midship
section.
There
the
butt joints
is
have their upper edges between the continuous keelson angles and are notched to permit passage of the frame, reverse frame and
costal
plates
riveted
conjunction with and directly above keel. Side or "sister" keelsons are
reverse
slip.
vertical
clip
joins
to
the
wooden
vessels
and
with
steel
intercostal
plates
to
each
be
floor
while
save
of
in
between the center keelson and the lower turn of bilge. "Bilge keelsons"
are at the turn of bilge. "Engine keelsons" are fitted under the main engines and should carry the machinery vibrational
keelsons
in
trans-
lightening
holes
may
cut
conin
49.
weight.
Bilge keelsons are usually part the heavy bottom ceiling timbers
Side or
large
sister
keelsons
as
are
in
fitted
wooden
there
is
vessels
Fig.
large
framing.
of
Fig.
49
indicates
the
disposition
keelsons in a large wooden vessel (from 100 to 300 feet long). The center keel-
one on each side hold stanchions should step on it and be connected thereto with natural crook timber knees
but
of
the
Where
center
line
the
wooden vessels (Fig. SO). Small wooden vessels usually have two or more square bilge keelsons sprung into
frames
of
(Fig. 49). Steel bilge
son
side
is
by
Where
should
prac-
keelsons
consist
two
form
angles
or
bulb
midal fashion. Long vertical bolts pass through each keelson timber and each transverse frame, the bolt ends being riveted over countersunk ring washers. Those timbers directly above the keel
are vertically bolted to it at each frame and the countersunk lower bolt head?
back on the
framing
(d). Steel
at the bilges.
and
alignment of the engine bed casting does not conform with the top of the continuous side keelsons, auxiliary timbers of proper shape and dimensions should be bolted on top of the keelsons
engine
keelsons
lower
edges
riveted
the
reverse
35
frame edges, to which they are securely joined, with short angle clips in addiAn tion to the reverse frame angles.
fit between the stringer angles and between the frames to the shell plating where an intercostal
.
The engine
base
is
bolted
to
continuous
widely separated.
Where
wooden
sons
Clamps
in
^,
as
the
case
of
mtercostal
plate
may
r.
.i_
vessels, one of the engine keelshould merge into a side keelson, the keelson plate being deepened locally
Clamps
inner
ings
arc heavy timbers on the edges of frames under the endof beams. They may be of a
clip
secures
its
outer edge.
6i<'a Keelsons ii Ooublffi Bo'tt<jm.
proper height for receiving the engine base. Transverse brackets clipped to the keelson plates and the reverse
to
the
Continuous
R.aerTk-ts
^Keelson
'Bari.
.n\erc06Ta\
and
(.)
Keelson Tlore
-
lA/aTerti<iVit
or/ ^bmc<<eX^lc>oi^
Stringers
All
sel's
CW
FIG.
CCJ
(d)
are covered term "stringers". The location by determines the nomenclature of each
the
stringer, so that
:
on the vessingle
eral
plank with
timbers
Good
at least
practice
calls
for
side
stringers
this
may
be
Or sevThrough
every
feet
and
may
require
additional
sterns,
short
Hold stringers are those between (a) the bilge and the lowest deck.
(b)
on
deck
etc.
tiers
called
"uper
deck
stringers",
"lower
stringers",
"hold
beam
stringers",
used should be bolts transversely through clamps and frames or vertically through clamps and beams. One or more timbers under beam ends may be fitted inboard of clamps and are called the "shelf". These assist in tying the beams to the frames and
are through bolted to both. The forward and after endings of stringers, clamps and shelves should be
as
in
overhung
where
slope of the ship's sides creates excessive length of unsupported side framing between decks.
Stringers located
Panting stringers are fitted at the bow between the endings of continuous side stringers. Heavy breast hooks or bracket plates connect the ends of these at the stem. These panting stringers serve to reinforce the fine forward hull against
the
(d)
Short
stringers
at
the
vessel's
Fig.
56,
tions to breast
heavy
local
strains
set
up
by
en-
countering waves.
Carliitgs
Large
side
wooden
vessels
usually
have
deck
beams
and
to
the
rendering
of
to
Wherever
or
it
is
continuous
stringer
outer
angle
the
these
large openings in the decks so that the beams must be cut, a serious loss of deck strength results. It
is
other
Upper deck
called
to
stringers
are
sometimes
plates
plating.
necessary
so cut
to
compensate
by
for
the the
"margin planks" and are fitted wooden vessels. If the frames extend
through the stringer to form bulwark stanchions, a continuous stringer timber is fitted inboard of a notched margin
plank
plank
filling
usually pass up through slots in the outer edge of the stringer plate and the continuous
stringer
In
lower
decks
the
frames
weakness
sliort
caused
butting
which
at
angle
edges,
is
fitted
the
the
hatch
these
or
opening.
frame
being
the
In
wooden
vessels
longitudinal
fitting
closely
around
This
and
be-
stringer plate
tween the
frame heads.
notched
,
may
the
Hatch
and
the
continuous
stringers
inboard
of these.
When
weather
deck,
on
top
Lower deck
struction
tinuous
timbers, side l)y side or one above the other such as the hold beam
stringer.
Side with
l)()Its
stringers
may
lie
fitted
in
line
the
lower
fender
with
through
be
se-
thereto.
All curely
wooden
through
the
to
stringers
should
to
bolted
every
frame
lie.
and
beams on
bolts
if
which
pass
they
The
shelf
vertical
timbers
should
the
1)eams.
Timbers should he
long
36
knees
their
to
the
beam
at
heads.
deck
beams
should
their
be
morticed
ends.
the
inboard
Heavy
carlings at horizontal
timber
knees
should
connect
the
ends
of carlings to the
beam
at ends of the
employed in smaller fishing boats, the coaming may be a continuous heavy oak plank extending above the deck as in Fig. 59c. This is securely bolted to a carling which fits between the coaming and the inner edges of the heavy cap rail may be let upper edge of the coaming round molding is fitted plank and a at the junction of coaming with deck
over
the
trusses
may
be
wooden Frames
or
of
steel
Longitudinal
Wood
The
hull
is
opening against which they butt. Naturthese knees should not ordinarily obstruct the hatch opening but should
ally
frames.
fitting of most of the internal framing in a fore and aft direction becoming very popular and properly
be
fitted
lings
In light pleasure boats these longiare peculiarly desirable with "V" bottom hulls. This is because the
so.
tudinals
connections
where
possible,
should
be
through bolted.
Coamings and
Sills
Wood
coamings are shown in cross section by Fig. 59 (a and b). The upper edges are fitted with angles or a special steel molding in which the
relatively
slight
section
and
permits the use of wide planks light longitudinals are fitted over
The edges of all deck openings should have heavy coaming timbers fitted above the carlings and deck beams at ends.
These coamings reinforce the carlings and prevent wash of considerable moisture
into
wooden hatch covers rest. Steel hatch covers will be later taken up. The ends of cut deck beams are clipped to the
shown, and a margin plate is fitted on deck all around the hatch opening. This margin plate is
each longitudinal plank seam. In power workboats with shipshaped hulls it is impracticable to fit planks wide enough to allow for sufficiently
coaming
plate,
as
heavy longitudinal frames at each seam. To lighten the frames in keeping with the plank width should not be attempted
without
the
hatches.
They are
rab-
shows
tudinal
verse
forTank
iKtiX Sui-Vablf
Cariit,
Holrfs
\.on<tituci\nal Fi'aniri<^ WiT>i
feet
Doutie Bottom
necessary
to
fit
filling pieces
the widely spaced transverses, so that the plank seams between longitudinals are
This which are self-propelled unless the bottom is sheathed with metal, because the roughin
done
is
not
construction.
for
vessels
ness
of
the
to
surface
lost
is
increased of
skin
travel
with
respect
the
is
direction
in
and
more power
resistance.
{BolbfliUlCia.-Cd.inocii,)
frictional
FIG, 60--CKOSS
beted
at
their
upper
the
edges
to
Longitudinal steel framing is not used vessels of smaller sizes, but has been considerably employed in barges and box-shaped hulls. In steel shipin
coaming angle.
lower
be
fitted
building
this
is
known
as
the
"Isher-
lugs
to
support
girders
hatch
the
portable covers.
to
The
should
nels to
edge with
stiff
of
coaming
angles
plates
wood"
under
built
system,
that
is
or
chan-
having name.
been
patented
form a
hatch.
Fig. 60
of
the
Sometimes
is
lower
over,
on
the
When carlings are fitted below the lower edges of deck beams, heavy filling pieces should be fitted between the ends of deck beams which extend over the carling. This provides solid timber between the carling and the coaming or lower deck house sill which rests on top of the inboard beam ends.
through bolts in wood construction should pass through solid timber, for if there were a space between the timbers in which the bolt heads are
All
flanged
Deck girders over the heads of stanchions and supporting the deck beams are fitted of wood or steel if the
stanchions
draft hulls
to
in
framing. Continuous bulb angles spaced from 20 to 27 inches apart extend fore and aft on the inside of the shell
plating and under the deck. sel's ends where the girth
is
At the
of
ves-
section
less
are
widely
spaced.
Shallow
stop
than amidships,
it
is
necessary to
at
which are not deep enough be rigid have longitudinal trusses the holds. These consist of a conlower girder or chord on and upper chord under
the
the
the
common
to
stop
all
tinuous
bulkheads
transverse
bottom,
when
the bolt
was
tightened.
deckbeams and stanchions between these chords at intervals of from 3 to 6 feet. Diagonal braces extend from the foot of one stanchion to the head of the
next
in
Heavy transverses which are merely web frames spaced from 10 to 12 feet
apart,
cockpits
such as are
zig-zag
manner.
These
hold
CHAPTER
Bulkheads
'LL
sel
IX
Demand
Careiul Plannmgf
hands of
It
are
are
called
"bulkheads."
to
in
They
nary house.
ing
to
what correspond
walls
classified
the interior
an ordiaccord:
water from flooding the entire hold. Tlie vessel then sank until the volume of water which the damaged compartment had originally displaced, was regained by the intact parts of the hull on each side of the damaged compart-
will
when
clockwise). these
They are
strength
their
and purpose as
(a)
Structural:
oil
Non
watertight,
watertight,
(b)
tight.
etc.
The symmetry of the regained buoyant volumes caused the vessel to settle parallel to her original water
ment.
plane.
Fig. vessel
61
act in the same straight there will no longer be a tendency to rotate the vessel and since the forces are equal but opposite, the vessel will then come to rest.
two forces
line
Accordingly
let
V/'L'
be
the
in-
Divisional, partitions,
when
in
the forces
Bulkheads running across the ship are called "transverse" and those extending fore and aft are "longitudinal
bulkheads." Steel or wood
shows
wliat
occurs
in
to
vessel's
weight
more usual and less favorable manner of having a compartment near the bow
when
damaged
the
are
vertically
(z-z).
the
final
same
under-
straight original
The
water volume
may
head construction. heads are fitted in the holds of most vessels, their object being to minimize
the the
or stern torn open to the sea. water that the Suppose plane (W-L) is that at which the vessel
floated
and
It
(ARTD) will equal the displaced volume (EFVD) of is the final center (B")
possible to calculate the posiof inclined water plane the
buoyancy.
is
before
the
compartment
danger
of
sinkage
by
confining
(RSTV)
(B)
will
was
damaged.
the
The
seawater to any compartment in which the hull may be damaged by collision, grounding or other accident. Transverse bulkheads are most effec-
represent
point of center
tion
buoyancy of the original underwater volume (DEFV) and the point (G)
the center of gravity of the vessel's These two structure and contents.
is
(W'L') and consequently the effect upon the vessel of flooding any compartment. This calculation is involved and of too great length to be considered
here.
Tanks containing fresh water, water ballast or for fish preservation in trawlers are also The fitted with watertight bulkheads.
tive for this purpose.
For
complete
refer
to
dis-
points are located on the axis (X-X) which is perpendicular to the original Now when the water line (W-L).
sea
course
on
this
subject
number
stalled
of
varies
of vessel.
The
Nearly
verse
all
Collision
Bulkhatd
water
enters
wood's text book on "The cal Naval Architecture" or to Biles' "Design and Construction of Ships."
Notice
at the
AttTheoreti-
(RSTV),
that
the
freeboard
is
less
damaged than
the
at the intact
end
to
the
water
to
line
(w-1),
which
is
greater at
vessels
have one
trans-
parallel
watertight bulkhead called the or "forepeak" "collision" bulkhead. This is fitted near the bow and should be on a transverse frame. In large vessels the distance abaft the stem is one-twentieth of the vessel's length, but in vessels less than 125 feet long this distance is greater (from oneeighth to one-sixteenth of the length). There is also a watertight bulkhead at each end of the machinery
(OKPH)
must
the draft
A D
at the
The
quality
equal
displacement
(HFTV)
(B')
known
The
dif-
halfway
RT
of
and
the
between end OD
of
this
is
the
is
the
left
bulkhead center
of
new underwater
the
it
to
the
ference in feet and inches between the draft S V at the low end and A at the high end is called the "change of trim" and is equal to the sum of F S and A E. But F S and A E are
damage as assumed, the force of buoyancy would act through the point B' and upward
on the
lar
line
If (B). after 1)
the
vessel
in draft
from the
the
original
to
new water
W'
trim"
L'.
is
of
ments
in
which
fuel
is
carried
in
(y-y) which
line
is
perpendicu-
separate tanks.
steel vessels)
When
to
the
(w-1).
of
the
hull,
Therefore, the "change equal to the sum of the draft at the forward and
Change
of
gravity
and along
also perso that
must be of especially
construc-
be produced by moving a weight from its position on the vessel, to a point nearer the bow or
stern.
may
the
need
of
one
foot
cause
change of one
bulkheads
by assuming that a central compartment of a box shaped hull was punctured and that the bulkheads in this comthe partment prevented inrushing
was
demonstrated
opposite directions as shown and separated from each other by the distance (h) between (x-x) and (y-y).
moment
to
These two forces form what is called a couple and would tend to rotate the vessel in the direction taken by the
Large ships are so designed that if two hold compartments adjacent should be flooded, the change of trim will not be excessive and the vessel
37
3S
planks with a layer of canvas in thick white lead, tar or paint between them, form the bulkhead proper. The seams of these two thicknesses of planking are at right angles to each other, one set running vertically and the other horizontally; or both sets being at complementarj' angles of 45 degrees to the vertical ship's center line.
bolted
FIG.
61 WHAT HAPPENS
IS
will
float,
or
if
three
remote
leaks
in.
Steel bulkheads
partments are flooded the vessel will not sink. Small vessels can with difficulty be made to conform to such requirements, since the increased number of bulkheads necessary would make the hold compartments too small to carry
cargo economically. Again, wooden bulkheads or steel bulkheads in wooden hulls cannot be
made waterbut do not necessarily make the vessel "nonsinkable." This term is a fond dream concocted in the fertile
steel
vessels
can
be
tight,
imagination of laymen. In very small vessels such as lifeboats where the holds are not used to carry cargo, watertight metal tanks are sometimes built into the hold
planks are through between two deck beams at their tops and between heavy bulkhead margin timbers all around their Canvas strips thickly coated edges. with thick lead and called stop waters, are fitted between the bulkhead plankIn very ing and the margin timbers. heavy construction all the bulkhead planking and margin seams should be calked, particularly if one of the compartments is to form a permanent water tank.
The
bulkhead
A
to
steel
fit
made
absolutely watertight in case of hull damage. This is because the seams of the hull planks would ordinarily "start" for some distance
compartments and they afford sufficient buoyancy to float the boat if the If these exterior hull is damaged.
tanks are also punctured, their utility ceases and the boat will sink.
around the bulkhead edges may be substituted for the margin timbers and canvas stop waters or calking should also be used in the
closely
seams where the bounding angle fits against the bulkhead planking and the
longitudinal ceiling.
on each side of the point of impact, permitting the water to leak around the margin of the bulkheads to the
other compartments. Bulkheads serve to retard the leakage and to save the vessel if action is quickly taken and the pumps have
sufficient
Heavy
enforce
side.
Wooden Bulkheads
Fig.
the
62
is
bulkhead
vessel
ceiling
in
the
four
apart
and
should
is
be
logs
longer
than
The
at least four
the
which
not
longitudinal
stiffeners
The
one
other
capacity
to
discharge
the
should
be
the
bulkhead
and
on
the
Heavy
natural
crook timber knees or forged metal brackets connect the ends of bulkhead stiffeners to the deck and ceiling.
Where
practicable,
stiffeners
should
terminate
on
keelsons
and
stringers.
The
for
the
thickness) in small boats 50 feet long); to four inches each layer (eight inches total
total
in
thickness)
vessels 325
feet
long.
;i
.m]L
i
TrQn6\jeri>e 5ect'lon
FIG.
Lor\ef\fuclinCi[
Elevation.
62 TRANSVERSE WATERTIGHT
transverse watertight bulkheads small vessels in which the ceiling planks are not fitted for strength, may be constructed as in Fig. 63. In this case the only longitudinal framing which passes through the bulkof
l-.ead
The
consists
of
keelsons,
stringers.
39
i>HELF
head planking and the marginal framSteel bar staples are ing. angle forged to fit around the longitudinals which pass through the bulkheads. In this connection it may be remarked that watertight bulkheads were not fitted in holds during the period when wooden ships were predominant.
5IOe .STRtN&KR.
BuUKHEftD
PL-ANtriNtr,
Longitudinal
of
wood
are
construction is identical with that for transverse bulkheads when they are used.
resisting and accomplished by covering the side toward the engine room with a layer of asbestos mill board or other insulator. Galvanized sheet iron is tacked over this insulation. Yellow pine or fir planks are used for waterfire
in
render bulkheads
FIG.
this
tight bulkheads.
Divisional
or
minor wooden
bulk-
compartments
They may
verse
be
A quarter round or other molding is neatly fitted around each beam. Galvanized sheet iron, zinc or lead should line the bulkheads in shower or bath compartments to protect the
64-c.
spaces should be completely shut oflf from the other compartments by exthe tending bulkhead longitudinal sheathing between the beams to the deck or cabin top overhead as in Fig.
used with
The
the
over
wooden
staves.
extending athwartships it is desirable that they fit against a transverse deck beam (Fig. 64-a). The lower ends of bulkhead stavings are
set
When
into a
grooved
driven
top
sill
as
shown and
blind
the
planks
at
home then
the splash. Tongue and groove bulkheads may be of V chamfered or of beaded planks (Figures 64-d and e respectively) and vary in thickness from ^-inch to IJ^-inch. Bulkheads of composition wallboard in combination with are staving shown in Fig. 64-g and h. The wallboard varies from 3/16inch to S/16inch in thickness and the sheets are
wood from
boats and the object of using wood is to lighten the minor bulkheads, thus reducing the total structural weight
and
gaining
fixed load
on a
These may
bottom. If the height is more than seven feet (unsupported planks) and the thickness is less than one inch, an intermediate horizontal studding should be fitted
nailed
and
securely
tacked
molding strip is board seams and may be of stained wood, thus affording a paneled affect.
to
the
they are more nearly so than wooden ones in wooden vessels. The common
practice is to make the bulkheads enclosing the machinery space of steel, for fire resisting and to build the bulkheads in holds outside the engine room of wood in wooden vessels.
When
64-g,
between
timber
feet
vertical stiffeners of 2
x 4-inch
four
the
is
solid as in
Fig.
spaced
not
more
than
ployed,
but
Where
continuous
inner
wooden
apart.
This same reasoning applies to panels (Fig. 64-f), but the studding should be lighter and the paneling be fitted on both sides thereof (Fig
64-k).
[b]
(d)
g^SS^^^^^^^
Lc)
(e)
living
grooved to receive the bulkhead sheathing and is fitted under the transverse deck beams (Fig. 64-b), This leaves an open space for ventilation between the top of the bulkhead and the deck above. This space may be left open or fitted with a grill of
which
i^
r&G-
Bn
mid
^i^m
^^
K%a
fe^aa
ma
(h)
wood
or metal.
pantries,
Galleys,
baths
and
toilet
FIG.
40
(b)
and the
rolls.
The steel companies publish tables stating the standard widths of plates for each thickness and the layout of bulkhead plating should be such that
standard
possible.
terial
plates
The seams of bulkhead plating are lapped and single or double riveted. The plate edges of seams in watertight bulkheads should be planed to a slight bevel and should be calked after
Calking of steel plates will be taken up in connection with shell
riveting.
(c)
plating,
as
will
also
scantling
tables
appended
riveting. to
The
this
Web
St.ffener
series of articles, sets forth the proper thickness of steel bulkheads, the size
and spacing of
FIG.
ceiling
rivets
and
stiffeners.
65 STEEL
is
fitted
strength
of
recesses
plugs.
filled
Rivet holes in seams should always be punched from the "faying" surfaces which are those bearing together at
the seam.
to its
bulkheads fit inside the ceiling (Fig. 6S-a) and steel have double margin angles. Sometimes wooden margin timbers are fitted on both sides of the steel bulkhead plating which is bolted to them. (Fig. 65-b). Canvas stopwaters in white lead are
wooden
vessels,
the
steel
on bolts radiating opposite sides of the bulkhead should be staggered as shown in (Fig. 65-a
These
stiffeners
angle
or
bars,
and
between the margin angles or timbers and the ceiling. Through bolts spaced between the ones joining the margins to the bulkheads, exinserted
prevent local weakening of the frames due to material cut They should also clear the away. bolts or spikes which fasten the hull planking to the transverse frames. Bulkhead plating in holds varies in
b),
to
bulb
plates
angles,
in
must
be
deep web with angles conjunction and d). 6S-c fitted. (Fig.
channels
fitted
vertically
at
18
thickness from 5 pounds per square foot (5^-inch thick), to IS pounds per square foot (5-8-inch thick), the width and depth of bulkhead regulating the
thickness.
Deep
stiffeners
bulkheads
on the opposite side of platfitted. ing to which vertical ones are about are stiffeners spaced Horizontal
four
feet
where
the
countersunk
over
are
apart.
the
The number
of
plates
in
bulk-
Bulkheads
In
Steel
Vessels
in
7^
steel
vessels
are
similar
to
those in
that the marginal angles are riveted to the shell plating and the stiffeners are bracketed at No stop waters are fitted their ends. and all the angles and rivets are
bulkhead.
Keelsons and stringers may be cut at the bulkhead and secured there-
and angle clips in the pass through openings made be then and bulkhead plating watertight with forged staple angles These or "shoes" as in Fig. 66. alternatives also apply to longitudinal frames where the vessel is so conto with bracket plates
or
may
structed.
FIG
66-SHOWS METHOD OF FITTING "SHOES" AT BULKHEADS WHERE KEELSONS AND STRINGERS ARE CUT
Observe that the vertical stiffening of bulkhead angles are on the side on which the plating away from that
Bulkheads Demand
plating is joggled for seam laps; that the vertical seams of bulkhead plates
Careful
Planning
41
If the surface is rectanguthe depth. the pressure load will be equal to the pressure per square foot times
lar,
are
that
located
in
between
case
of
stiffeners
and
In any fluid the "hydrostatic head." pressure increases with the depth and is equal to the weight of a cubic unit
with wooden decks (Fig. 66) a steel deck plate is fitted under the deck planks for one beam space on each side of the bulkhead so that the upper stiflfener brackets may be riveted to it.
the
vessel
the liquid multiplied by the depth the surface acted upon below the surface. Thus the weight of fresh
of of
the
area
of
a
is
whose center
sidered.
at to
foot
wide
conit
depth
By computing
depths
that
result,
the
a
pressure
series
necessary for piping to pierce watertight bulkheads, a flanged joint is fitted at the bulkhead plating.
it
Where
is
water is 62.5 pounds per cubic foot and the pressure on an area one foot square at a depth of 10 feet below the water surface would be 10x62.5
or 625 pounds.
Center of Pressure
It
is
successive
scale
at will
and plotting
depth,
of
points
curve
may
is
be drawn.
pressures
a straight
since
the
widths
usual
to
Tank Bulkheads
Steel
assume that
all
the
designed to carry water, oil or other fuels in bulk, require heavier bulkhead construction than was the case in those where
Compartments
against sinkage was the main The severe object of installation, stresses due to washing of the contents from side to side calls for closer
safety
pressure load on a submerged surface is concentrated at a point called the center of pressure. This is located on the surface at the level corresponding to the center of gravity of an area formed by a curve showing the variation of the pressure load with
the center of gravity of the triangular area between the pressure curve and the bulkhead is two-thirds of the subare
constant
and
surface.
It
possible
to
calculate
the
strength
of
bulkheads,
require
made
subdivision so that longitudinal bulkheads are usually fitted on the vessel's center line and "swash bulkheads" are
fitted
fluid.
to
cut
down
the
surge of the
These swash bulkheads are merely flanged plates, stiflfened vertically and extending between the ends and sides
of
:;0!!OllOiiO
-i-
the
compartment
continuous
cut
in
(Fig.
light
67-a)
or
may
be
plates
with
(Fig. 67-b). large Vertical angles about 24 inches apart stiffen the light swash plates and connect them to the watertight bulkheads
at
holes
them
^iOjiOiiOiiO
:CDi|O0
(ci)
Swash the tank ends and sides. bulkheads are spaced from 8 to 12
feet apart.
=1!
by
beams
angle
longitudinal
stapling
to
fitted
beams
to the
prevent
often the
beams are
expense
strength.
centerline bulkheads Longitudinal have double angle bars all around their margins, affording connection to the keel plate, deck plating and transwhich the verse bulkheads against longitudinal bulkhead terminates. bulkheads forming Longitudinal
wing tanks are located on side keelsons and usually have a single large margin angle. The lower plating of watertight and
oiltight
bulkheads is usually heavier than the upper strakes because of the greater pressure imposed on the lower of the bulkhead portion by the
42
is
from
previous
successful
is
riveted
directly
on
top
of
this
practice.
plate.
struction has a paneled appearance on the side where these seam straps are.
stififening angles support bulkheads at intervals of three feet and wooden sheathing or paneling may be fitted on the stififener side by
The vertical stififeners of longitudinal bulkheads are located at each transverse ship's frame and are of the
same
size
The intermediate
for bulkheads
stiffener
support
Vertical
on the
these
as
those
for
transverse
bulkheads of the same depth. Web stififeners are on every fourth transverse frame of longitudinal bulkheads and on every keelson at transThese web frames verse bulkheads. are formed of a tapered plate secured to the bulkhead by a vertical angle and having double face angles on
their vertical outer edges. bracket plates connect the
lovifer
Brackets
support
this
shelf
from the bulkhead at every stififener. Bulkheads in vessels with longitudinal framing have horizontal stififeners at
their
strips
bolted to
Partitional
steel are
bulkheads
in
of
the
same
level
as
the
hull
Fig. 67-e,
deformed f and g,
side frames
and bracketed
to these at
stififeners
junction. are at
Deep
every
vertical
web
to
deep
8
"trans10
of galvanized sheet corrugated or paneled. The corrugated types (Fig. 67-e and f) require no vertical stififening but
Flanged end
trans-
verse" at
feet
present
decks.
difificulty
in
fitting
at
the
of
web
stiflfener
plates
to to
the
the
gins
verse
floor
plates
and
deck
Minor
Steel Bulkheads
and
be
en-
plating.
may
of
riveted
or
steel
bulk-
touch
transversely
or
In
longitudinally:
(a)
(b)
(c)
space between the margins and the hollows of the bulkhead sheathing may be filled with wood blocks or with light cement. Sheet metal panels may be nailed
to
wooden framework
to
form a very
plate bulkheads consist (Fig. 67-d) of an upper and lower coaming plate connected to the decks
Minor
attractive
stringers
if
of
frames.
shown
by angles. Lighter plating is fitted between these coamings with vertical butt seams which are covered with a wide butt strap as shown. This con-
ventilation and Spaces requiring such as galleys, bakeries, etc., may be fitted with partitions of heavy galvanized wire mesh with a metal frame bolted to angles at the decks.
light
(Fig.
67-h).
CHAPTER X
Hull Planks
J ^ ^^^^
surface.
Fenders Bilge
section.
Keels
of
^^^^^ HE hull planks of wooden vesm C\ sels are usually put on with
the longitudinal seams butted, forming a smooth exterior
at the butt. End or scarphs of garboard planks should be well clear of those on the neighboring planking, keel and other
The number of planks is then counted and the girths of several end
sections
the vessel are
divided
into the
same number
of parts.
The
These
are
called
"carvel"
longitudinals.
planked hulls (Figs. 57, 62, 63 and 65). Small boats are sometimes "clinker" built, that is, the longitudinal hull
The uppermost
the
the
line
hull
plank
is
follows
of
sheer
It is
made
of oak.
plank
remaining hull
fit
planks are tapered to fit fair at or near these points of division, but should not be too greatly reduced in width at the end frames. A minimum width for the reduced ends of onehalf the
practice.
together.
and bevelled to
It
is
sheer profile.
is
good
caulked
and
to
manship
inside
vel
require construct
careful
worksince
fit
properly
to
called the sheer plank and is of the same thickness as the other hull
the frames
of
must be notched
planking.
the
car-
planking.
so
Where much
less
system of hull planking has all seams calked with one or more
Hull planking between the garboards and sheer plank is generally of imiform thickness (from J4 inch
that
excessive
reduction
result
if
in
plank
widths
would
of
the
same
at
number
vessel's
planks
were used
the
the
depending upon size of vessel. Sometimes in large vessels the bottom planking is from J/^ inch to 1 inch thicker than the side plankThe width of these planks ing.
inches)
to
extremeities,
number
of
be reduced by fitting one wide plank at the ends of two narrow planks
ones.
is
may
Such a plank
with
is
a "stealer"
and
fitted
a butt
block covering
the
or more planks immediately next to the keel are made thicker than the rest of the hull planking and are called "garboard planks" or simply
"garboards."
One
planking
into a rabbet
at
on the stem
Small vessels (up to SO feet long) have but one garboard plank from six to eight inches wide and from
1J4
this point should be very accurate. The after ends of planks in transom sterns cover the ends of the transom planks and are fastened to the transom rim log. A sheet metal flashing is tacked over
and
the
workmanship
inch to
to
2^/2
inches thick.
feet
from 50
garboards
100
long
the
after
from 2^ to 4i4 inches thick and from 6 inches to 12 inches wide. Larger vessels have two or three garboards up to 6 inches thick. Occasionally, when two or more garboards are
keel
is
wear
68 HOW STEALER PLATES ARE
fantail
and
wood grain against In overhung or decay. sterns where the after plank
INTRODUCED.
varies vessels
in
fitted,
of
the the
planking.
Where oak
with curved frames. Greater widths than eight inches are not employed in this case because it is difficult to fit the inner surfaces to the outer edges of the transverse frames. Thin planks may be steamed and bent to this transverse curvature but thick planks are slightly hollowed with an adz, since they tend to split when bent transversely as well as fore and aft. Vessels with curved frames straight or slightly such as barges and shallow draft craft have planking up to 12 inches wide, the objections to transverse bending
ends terminate on the horn timber, the plank ends are notched to a rabbet on that timber, care being taken that the nibbed ends are not too
nearly a feather edge. If the planks cannot bend to the hull form due to the warped nature of the surface, it is necessary to
"steam" them.
This
is
done by build-
ing a box long enough to take the longest planks and closing the ends. The whole is then calked and a steam
pipe introduced at one or both ends with a drain pipe at the center. After the planks or other timbers which are to be bent, have been put into the
being absent.
Tapering
the
plank width. Garboard plank ends less than 2 inches thick are butted between frames, a "butt block" to which the plank ends are riveted, being fitted
being
three
times
the
Planks at
the
Ends
In fitting hull planks they are spaced (girthed) on the midship section and are of maximum width at this
off
through one end, the turned on and permitted to flow until the planks have become This time is less for timbers pliable. of small section than for large timbers. A hot water bath may be used for light planks instead of the steam box.
box,
usually
is
steam
43
44
Hull
may
be
secured
to
more
three.
than
eight
inches
wide
have
Flush
plating
(e
commonly
butt joints of hull planks should
employed.
Screws
Rivets
The
be
(b)
(c)
(d)
Spikes Bolts
between frames and butt blocks are fitted between the frames at the
other vessels where the appearance of plate seams would be undersirable, are
built
as
in
(e).
Screws and rivets are used in small where the plank thickness is Brass screws not over two inches. best and should have heads are countersunk in the planking, the holes
vessels
The plank ends should plank ends. be through fastened to the butt blocks and butt joints should be widely placed in neighboring planks, to prevent loss of strength in the hull
structure.
The lowest
to the keel,
is
"strake" of plating next the garboard strake and sometimes thicker than the other
is
bottom
hull plate
wooden plugs in The screws should extend two-thirds of the way through
being
closed
with
against which the upper deck stringer It is fastened, is the "sheer strake."
is
thick white
lead.
the
and
in
heavier than the lower side plating extends above the deck to a
the framing.
Copper
should
or
have
Figure 68 (a to f). The "in and out" system of plating (Figure 68 a and b) is perhaps the most common, the
/y
height permitting two rows of rivets the sheer strake butt joints to be above the stringer angle. In large vessels the strake of plating below the sheer strake is made heavier than
to the
\
//7
the remainder of the hull side plating upper turn of bilge. Ordinarily
side plates from sheer strake to bilge are of one weight and the bot-
the
tom
to
plates from the garboard strake the are of one weight, bilge slightly heavier than the side plating.
Since the greatest tensile and comstresses are amidships, the plating at bow and stern may be
pressive
C TajbereU Z/'ners)
lighter than that for a distance of one-fourth the vessel's length on each side of the midship section. Where severe local stresses are encountered due to panting at the bow and around the propeller bossing at the stern, the hull plating is made the same thickness as amidships on the same strake.
is to operate in heavy doubling plates are fitted at the bow near the water plane. Doubling plates are also introduced where
If
the vessel
ice
floes
openings
in
the
hull
entail
loss
of
!^
strength, such as at large ports or sea suction and discharge orifices for
%
FIG.
_
shown
fitted
machinery piping connections. At the points where long bridges, forecastles and poops end, diagonal doubling plates are fitted to prevent weakness arising from the sudden loss of material in the cross section
of the hull.
68-A METHODS
Where
hull
is
the
girthed
at
section
of
the
so
that
reduced
the
the
bow and
of
countersunk holes plugged The inner rivet ends extend through the frames and are hammered or clinched over washers.
in
washers
as
stern
number
plating
as for screws.
manner.
The
be frames
Galvanized iron spikes with round heads may be used in very heavy planking in conjunction with through bolts. One or two spikes and one bolt are introduced in each plank at every frame. The spikes should be
driven in holes drilled sliejhtly smaller than the spike and the -ke shank '.o remay be "ragged" or rou^.
joggled so that the shell flanges fit over the staggered shell If the frames are bent to plates (a). a fair curve liners must be fitted
may
be
amidships would become very narrow, stealer plates are introduced to replace two strakes
strakes
fitted
(Figure 68-g).
between their
outer
hull
shell
flanges
and
avoid
are
the
The
plates
plates
hull
(b).
is
Joggled
use of frames.
plates
liners
(c)
the
widths
tables
obtained
steel
shell
with
(d)
is
it
"faired"
of the of
Clinker
plates
not
girth
the
midship
Care
necessary to employ this system at the vessel's ends when "stealers" which will be
extensively
used
but
lapped
It
joints
is
strakes.
two
fastenings
per
frame.
Those
metal
Hull Planks
together
Fenders Bilge
Keels
45
because of the
tight
rivet
difficulty
in
making
this
connections.
For
reason the shell angles of keelsons, tank margins, stringers or other longitudinal framing should be located between the longitudinal seams of the hull plating.
If
flat
bottom and
sides,
from
the
pansion."
at
This drawing
the
is
made by
frames "expanding" their proper position on the vessel's length and drawing in all frames (transverse and longitudinal), decks, keelsons, stringers, bulkheads, margin angles of double bottoms, bilge keels,
transverse
side fender angles, etc.
of the
tom
69 CONSTRUCTION OF FENDERS
steel
their edges parallel to the center of keel and having the width at the midThe side plates are ship section. drawn in parallel to the expanded
moving
diately
the
weakened
imme-
to the upper fender over that portion of the hull which is vertical or nearly
is not necesor stern where the sides overhang to such a degree as to render it superfluous.
so.
sheer
girthed
line
in
the
frames
or
the
stern
should
be
sary at the
bow
punched.
drilled after
body are divided into the of equal parts in which there are plates on the midship section, and fair lines representing the center line
middle
number
the plate has been fitted to the hull. Where two thicknesses of plating are
riveted
Tugs
are
together,
the
size
of
rivet
should
plate.
be
governed
Fenders
by
the
thicker
since they have the lower fender running to the bow with sometimes an
longitudinal plate laps are drawn through the points of division. Stealer plates as necessary are introduced
of
at the
additional
bow
fender.
Tugs
also
extreme ends.
shell
expansion cannot be applied in ordinary plates for vessels having the usual shipshaped hull, because such a hull has a "warped surface" which means that it cannot be "expanded" or rolled out onto a
The above
should be fitted harbor with side fenders to protect the hull when rubbing against docks or other These fenders are constructvessels. ed of heavy wood securely bolted to
All
vessels
have the space between the upper and lower fenders filled with wood This minimizes as in Figure (69-a).
the
if
likelihood
of
damaging the
hull
crude
plane.
Plates
for
these
vessels
are
and having a flat or oval facing strip of metal which is spiked to the fender logs with round spikes having countersunk heads. The
the
hull
structure
precaution is improved upon by "swinging" fenders of hard wood which are suspended from pad eyes
as
in
ordered from a model on which the shell has been laid out just as it
would
appear
when
fitted
in
place.
of fenders varies with the freeboard and they are usually from three to six feet apart.
number
use the
When
not
in
swung up on
The
plating
vessels,
of
in
hull
small
double riveted in medium sized ones and treble riveted in largest ones. Butt joints of hull plates are double, treble or quadruple riveted. At one quarter of the vessel's
length,
The upper fender is at or near the upper deck and follows this deck from stem to stern. The lower fender at the lowest is near the water line point of sheer and is usually parallel
deck to reduce the resistance which would be considerable if their Fenders ends dragged in the water. of steel with hollow half round sec-
may be riveted to the hull (FigThe space between these ure 69-c). steel fenders and the hull may be
tion
empty or
filled
with cement.
bow and
in
the
in
are
sels
maximum,
it
so
that
large
ves-
is
common
row
of
additional
seams
at
these localities.
The
given
the
size
in
and spacing of
rules
riveting
published
by
Hull rivets usually have countersunk points on the outside, the rivet filling the hole in the plate and being The countersinking slightly convex. extends nearly through the plate. All rivet holes should be punched from the faying surface and slightly smaller than the rivet diameter. The holes should then be reamed to proper
size
for
the
rivet,
the
reaming
re-
Wooden
bilge keels
If the vessel's sheer line is continuous from bow to stern, the upper hull deck is made watertight ex-
paddle
surface in
the
direction
of
are
roll.
The
the
located
usually through bolted to the vessel's frame and sometimes to clamps, stringers and bilge keelsons. (Fig.
69-a).
Steel
cept inside of deck houses which may be built upon it. This upper deck is
usually the
of
which
will
vessel
be their effect. served that they are far enough under the bilge curve not to project beyond the vertical hull sides and thus strike
docks,
etc.
the
fenders
to
and
single
bilge
keels
are
riveted
the
shell
plating
and
or
(Figure 70-b). When the continuous upper deck is not the main strength deck, the next deck below
them
all
may
be
of
bulb
e
angle
f).
it
constitutes
the
top
of
the
hull
tee angle
(Figure 69
and
They
proper.
Then
They must
is
also
be
far
enough up on the
outer edge
the
vessel's
be formed of a bulb plate connected to the hull by single or double angles or a tee bar (Figure 69 b and
may
bottom.
These
consid-
erations limit the width of bilge keels, whose construction is shown in cross
section by Figures 69 a-b-d-e-f and g. These keels are located at the mid-
Sometimes a plane plate is employed, the outer edge of which is re-enforced with a steel half round bar on one or both sides (Figure
d).
length and lie in a diagonal plane. They should coincide with the flow of the stream
dle
of
the vessel's
Large vessels have bilge keels formed of two flanged plates with a stiffening bar at their outer edge and the space between the plates filled
69-d).
second or "main" deck are lightened and merely serve as a shelter to the space between these two decks. Such a lightened upper deck is a "shelter," "shade," or "awning" deck and is found in vessels carrying cargo above the main deck. The freeboard of such vessels is considered from the second or main deck to the water
plane (Figure 70-a). Cargo vessels often have "deck erections" (Figure 70-c) where the hull
are extended above the main deck to produce a "forecastle," "poop" or "bridge." If these erections (sometimes called islands), are short, they do not assume the stresses set up in the hull by hogging or sagging on
sides
lines
so
that
to
they
do not introduce
with
yellow
pine
in
pitch
or
with
propulsion. Usually it is satisfactory to place the bilge keel in the plane of a bilge diagonal.
resistance
the hull
Their
one-third to of the vessel and the ends should be faired into the hull surface by a curve which gradually reduces their width.
is
from
Sometimes
bilge
in
keels
carry
away
heavy weather or
proper and those in the superstructure above the hull. Their number varies from one in small vessels, to eight in the largest. The names of decks vary with their location and the purpose which they serve, there never having been a standardization of the terms
It is becoming popular to number them in order, from the topmost down or the reverse. The confusion in naming decks forming
the
waves,
light
being
therefore
of
of
rela-
tively
construction.
When
the
hull
longer
length,
than
one-tenth
it
applied.
letter or
stresses
rivets
so that
in
their structure.
The depressed
spaces
no serious leakage
event.
If
occur
this
the bilge keels are formed of a plate attached to angles or tee bars, the rivet connections to the hull
are
part of the hull has not been serious as that concerning those
as
in
the
structural
bilge
and the
the
plate
connecting
is
strength to the vessel, while superstructure decks are merely light plat-
main deck included between the poop, bridge and forecastle, are termed "wells." Poop decks are sometimes only half of the normal deck height of eight feet above the main deck. Such lowered poops (Figure 70-d) are called
on
the
bar so that
torn
off
forms or shelters.
quarter decks.
CHAPTER
Decks
'LL decks exposed
er
to the
XI
for
sels.
weath-
vessels
either
the
weather deck
in
is
of
should be properly drained and should afford a foothold when wet. The first of these
the
bare
or
suitable material.
Sheer
Is
Determined
is
drainage pipes or "scuppers" in gutters or "waterways" around the deck margin and by the introduction of large openings or "freeing ports" in the bulwarks if the
results
is
obtained
by
fitting
Amount
(a)
of sheer
is
arbitrarily
de-
termined and
(b)
governed by
vessel
round up (called purposes. "camber" or "crown" of the deck) is a measure of the deck height at the center line above the level at the ship's side and a customary determination
thereof
is
The
Given a certain depth of hold it is apparent that the raised forward and after deck will result in greater freeboard, so that the decks will be
in water. rough dryer Double ended vessels such as ferry boats have a "reversed sheer," i. e., the deck is higher amidships than at
The thickness of deck planking and method of its installation depend upon the deck where fitted. If the deck is a part of the hull and contributes to the vessel's strength, and if the traffic on the deck is heavy so that excessive wear in the deck planking
may
made
relatively
from two to four inches thick. The width of deck planks varies from 2J^
to
6 inches.
All decking should be laid with the grain of the wood vertical and wher-
one-quarter
the
ends.
inch per foot of deck width at each The deck is point in the length. then arched to the arc of a circle
f)
Straight sheer lines (Fig. 71-e and are becoming very common in
design.
(a)
vessel
which passes
through
the
points
at
tages are
tion,
each side of the deck and the raised center line. point on the vessel's
(Fig.
71-a.)
(b)
ever planks rest on beams, plates or other structural members, the bearing surfaces should be painted before the planks are laid. The plank seams may be straightened parallel to the
longitudinal center line of the deck, or they may be curved parallel to the side of the deck. The outer boundary of deck plankis fitted with a wide "margin plank" against which the deck planks are butted with "nibbed" ends at the bow and stern or where curved deck openings cut the plank seams at an acute angle. (Fig. 72-a and b.) Planks laid parallel to the deck side have a wide "kifig plank" on the center line against which the plank ends are nibbed over wooden butt blocks fitted underneath.
amidships
the
for
given
freeboard
at
bow and
the stern.
Naval
vessels,
Instead of this rounded form, the decks may be sloped on each side of the center line where a circle joining the sloped sides eliminates the sharp ridge which would otherwise appear.
(Fig.
71-b.)
power yachts and the famous English "turret deck" ships first employed straight sheers.
ing
applicable
in
The first design to vessels. to small vessels operchoppy water where more is needed forward than aft.
Since a vessel is very seldom on an "even keel" that is perfectly upright, and because even with cambered decks the water does not drain
well
ating
freeboard
The deck is pitched as in (Fig. 71-e) and the degree of rise varies from one
foot for every 25 feet of length, to one foot in SO feet of leng*h. larger pitch applies to shorter
sels.
when
decks
ships.
may
is
listed,
the
(Fig.
down The
ves-
expense of sawing or bending wooden or steel deck beams and affords a deck which is satisfactory for all
practical
If
the
profile
of
is
the
vessel
with
purposes.
and
18
"Sheer" is the upward curve of the decks at the bow and stern of a
vessel and
is
the bow.
This forecastle
to
may
be
from
inches
eight
feet
above
common
to
most
vessels.
The lowest
point of the curve showing the deck elevation is called the "lowest point of sheer" and is located amidships or else between the midship section and the stern. (Fig. 71The heights of the forward and d.)
after
the main deck. The low forecastles are used in small boats and the ones
of
maximum
If
height
of
in
the
profile
deck
end"
above
the
lowest
"rise
straight sheer appear inferior to that with curved, the bulwark rail may be curved as in (Fig. 71-g) and the deck made straight.
Yellow pine, white pine, teak, mahogany, oak or fir are the woods used for Of these the decking. pines and fir are most general in commercial vessels. Oak is sometimes used for margin or king planks. Teak and mahogany are employed in yacht work. The lumber should be close grained, free from knots, checks and other defects and well seasoned. Planks should be planed smooth on all four
sides, the vertical
Wooden Decks
decks are most frequently employed in all types of vessels, mainly because of the good foothold which they afford when wet. In many
sheer sheer
at
The
rise
of
Wooden
bevelled to allow for calking. Planks up to 1^ inch thick blind nailed or screwed to the
may
be
wooden
bow
in
than
of
the
is
stern,
while
in
the
greater
small
degree than
sheer
large
ves-
deck beams, screw heads being countersunk and plugged with wood. Light wooden decks on steel beams or
47
4S
L
Canttr)
Circular Arc
6fr<itjht
Lint
..
Fhf Deck.
La)
(cj
f?i6* fif
SJifor FhruiarJ
DecJe
tanUr
^X
V Fr0et>card
J/of>td /iff: 2
Lej
Sfrat^h't L/n4
Decks for
up the bulkheads.
ing
Wood
49
which a cement or bituminous compound is laid as a substitute for wood. Decks planked with wood may have their beams fitted on alternate frames, the timber being stiff enough to support itself over the intervening span Steel plated or with ordinary loads. cemented decks should have beams on
down
the
pers
should
beams
plating
and
is
riveted
them.
10.2
The
pounds
7.6
pounds to
cemented or
Cockpit
tiled
inch) per square foot (3/16 inch to in small vessels such as tugs and has
floors
level
73-h)
are
be-
an
overhang
low the
of
the
bars as
74-d).
as
are not usually fitted in vessels more feet than 65 They should long. always be at least six inches above the
introduced,
plain
in
house
74- (1)
margin
or
load
water
line
so
that
the
sea
water can drain freely through scupshould be shipped. pers if waves Such cockpits are termed "self bailSometimes ball or flap check ing."
valves
house side plating extended up to form a waterway. (Fig. 74-m.) The house top plating in large vessels may
every frame. A wide heavy "stringer plate" forms a marginal girder for all decks in steel vessels and is connected to the shell
are
fitted
in
the
scupper
pipes
(<Z;
and these prevent the sea water from flooding the cockpit by washing back A waterthrough the drain pipes.
tight
base
board
is
installed
all
around the edges of cockpit floors to a height of from six to twelve inches, while tongue and groove vertical ceiling sheaths the sides to the main deck. ing
of
cockpits up
deep
the
5i'9^c.)
coamcockpit
fCJ
extends
all
around
(Fig.
at the
main deck.
Decks Steel
Steel vessels' decks
Vessels
m '!:/^i;^m'/^m^^:;=iimfmf^,
M
VlifiW/^yK^??M'^^/^X^A>J'X
may be wooden planking on steel beams, steel plating on steel beams or composition cement material on light steel plating.
In
of
(Fig.
74-a
to
c)
the
construction
top with tongue and groove planks nailed to wooden battens which
are
fitted
on house
(f)
in
the
bosom
of
the
steel
beam
angles. These angles have their at their lower horizontal flanges edges and are riveted to margin
r^
^mss
around the upper deck house and coaming. The wooden beam strips
plates
are
side
bolted
to
the
vertical
steel
beam flange with countersunk bolts. The house top overhangs the side
and end house bulkheads and a continuous
the
molding angle is clipped to overhung beam ends. A margin plank extends around the deck edge and the canvas covering is lead
flashed to
it.
The scuppers
are close
margin plank and their pipes pass through the overhang to the deck below. shows a house top Fig. 74-(b) which overhangs to the vessel's side, forming a shelter to the deck below. The beams of the lower deck house are similar to those in 74-(a) and
against
the
I
FIG.
terminate
in
steel
which
angle
of
this
is
riveted
a
through
plate.
covered with wood planking or a composition deck cement (Fig. 74-e). Half round steel molding bars are usually riveted at deck edges for apbe
by
a
(f)
continuous
stringer In lower
through the
tinuous
side
stringer
to
sheer
Stanchions
pipe,
solid
other
structural
marginal
below.
of
deck
structions
the
margin
a
steel
girder
are
shown.
house with light plating joggled over
Fig.
74- (c)
is
top
steel
pearances as shown in the figures. Hull decks exposed to the weather in steel vessels are more strongly built than the superstructure decks. They may be composed of steel beams partially plated over and covered with wood planking; of steel beams covered with steel plating; or of steel beams covered with light plating on
stringer
angle
a
the
reverse
riveted
clip
to
the the
on
these are of bulb angle. Intercostal clips join 74-h.) (Fig. the edge of such stringer plates to
frames
if
the
shell
tween
frames
filled
with a
50
Frame
haffen
'oeJ<:.
'Cunt Beam 6.
T?e.moveD Toihoui
Sefims.
^Anchor
Clip.
ie)
ircEL Oeckt-'Fi-OTCD.
FIG. FIG.
I)c/it
T/a^f
Ce/7/'ni:i
75 CONSTRUCTION
OF
CEILINGS
AND
DOUBLE BOTTOMS
specified
in
wood block, cement or a forged or a cast shoe of angle section. Tie plates from six to eight inches
wide are fitted under the deck planking and serve to connect the deck
should
be
in
is
to
the
in
Steel
weather
is
decks
consistency
employed
to
the
street
while
the paint
the
locality
footing.
operate.
This
insure
and ends. Margin plates are around all deck openings to take the planking ends and to re-enforce
sides
fitted
against weather.
Watertight lower decks are fitted over deep tank tops and are completely plated over with steel beams Where side deck on every frame.
Bonding
bolted
plating
of
flat
metal
the
the
are
the locally
74-n.)
fit
weakened
structure.
are
(Fig. cut to
or
deck deck
margins butt against the hull plating or steel bulkheads pass through them,
continuous the around frames and the bulkhead stiffeners It may be necessary, (Fig. 74-i). particularly if the hull has a slope as at the stern, to cut the frames or the bulkhead stiffeners and bracket them above and below the deck (Fig. 74In this case a continuous mark). gin angle passes all around the deck and the frame; brackets are cut to These brackets are clear this angle. at least three times the depth of the
it
is
deck plates and are bolted to the deck beams as in the case of
over
wooden
vessels.
The thickness covering (Fig. 74-p). deck of covering ,is composition from one to two and one-half inches.
stapled
necessary margin
to
fit
angle
A
n)
is
(Fig.
to
74-f
and
In
12
inches
CeihViq
inboard of the stringer angle against the margin plank or the composition deck covering. The object of fitting planking or other deck covering over steel decks is to afford a secure foothold when the decks are wet.
Veael
may
If
be subis
for
planking.
asphalt
FIG.
75 CONSTRUCTION OF CEILINGS
or stiflfener angles to which they are fastened and have their inner edges flanged. All steel deck beams except those
frame
Decks for
abaft
sterns)
Wood
51
timbers are fitted between the frames where the ceiling joins the hull sides and "cargo battens" are installed inside the vertical side framing and on the bulkhead stiffeners in package or miscellaneous cargo holds. These battens may be in built up sections bolted to the reverse frames, in single strips bolted to the reverse
the
transom
(in
overhung
bilges.
The extend athwartships. beam at the frame to which the sternpost is connected is called the transom beam. Aft of this the beams radiate (Fig. 74-n and o) to coincide with the cant frames previously described.
strength
steel
vessels
and
are
If dry bulk about two inches thick. cargo such as grain or coal is carried, the ceiling should be "dust tight"
These
"cant
beams"
are
by building it of two thicknesses of one inch planks with the seams staggered. Where keelsoms project above
tops in single bottomed vessels, it is necessary to fit padding timbers to protect the structure and
the
floor
bracketed to the transom beam and to the cant frames. In cargo holds it is necessary to prevent package freight or bulk solids
frames or
battens
in
in
single
strips
supported
7S-b).
Cargo
from
floors
cargo from damage. Ceiling on double bottoms is raised some two inches above the inner bot-
ships
longitudinally
framed are
The battens
bottom.
a
This
is
done
by
building
tom
plates
wooden platform called a "ceiling" on the floor tops (Fig. 75-a). Ceiling timbers are framed together in sections which can be removed for inspecting,
timbers
are usually IJ^x 4-inch timbers spaced about 6 inches on centers. Large wooden vessels have perma-
and are spaced about four feet apart. This is to permit moisture on the inner bottom to drain the bilges
without
vessels
Tank
liquid
cleaning
or
painting
the
damaging
the
cargo.
Fill-
the
spaces
be-
52
ONE OF THE FAMOUS "AKK MODEL" FISHING BOATS BUILT AND OPERATED BY THE SOUTHWEST FISH COMPANY OF VERMILION, OHIO
CHAPTER
Constructing tne
houses arc usually fitted above the hull proper to prohouse.
XII
Deck House
the
service
in.
OECK
vide
ally
living
or
operating
ac-
commodations.
of wood in wooden vessels and of wood or of steel in steel vessels. The structure is made as light as possible without being too weak to withstand
the
No gain is experienced by rounded house ends particularly in low speed vessels, and it is becoming customary to make the house front straight with rounded corners. This affords more room in the house and simplifies construction.
Deck house
to the
engage
a certain
ley,
number
sides
may
be
parallel
rough
seas
or
to
support
other
houses,
in
lifeboats,
etc.,
which
may be
is
tance
above them.
afford a
of gravity by the presence of excessive topside weights, for if made too heavy,
especially
in
This
engine room and toilet spaces could be placed in one deck house on the upper deck, there must be a passage outside the house on each side of the vesor a large hatch may be resel, These quired on the forward deck. factors will limit the width and forward ending of the house.
messroom,
upper
Then perhaps
large
boats.
small
the
vessels
vessel
with
large
deck
erections,
would
be
rendered unstable.
The house
sheer
line
of
follow the
hull
being
sheered
flat
and
as
cambered
previously
are
deck, or
de-
"decks."
The forward
sometimes
Sometimes the house side is straight and parallel to the longitudinal center line, but unless the vessel has a long middle body, care must be taken not to reduce the interior house room too greatly. It may be posforward house sible to build the sides straight and parallel, tapering
the
after sides
hoisting winch may be needed forward, further affecting the forward end of the house. If the vessel is to tow astern, heavy towing bitts must be placed on deck behind the deck house. These bitts should
boom and
be
located
as
as
far
forward
of
the
stern
affect
end
of
deck
houses
perpendicular to the sheer line at that point or else they are at an angle
half
passage at
steering the
easy
will
end
of
the
deck
house.
way between
a vertical
line
and
one perpendicular to the sheer at the point where their lower edge strikes the deck (Fig. 76-a). The after ends of deck houses are usually vertical.
The
usual
height
of
deck
Figure
elevation
76-d
of
is
cross
sectional
For
structuial
simplicity,
particularly
measured from the top of the planking under foot to the top of the planking overhead, is from seven to feet. Sometimes in shallow eight
draft river vessels the height than this, as much as 10 or
is
typical
wooden deck
house
"sill"
side.
is
with straight sheers, the forward and after deck house ends may be square
to
this
more
feet.
12
The lower coaming or heavy timber and is sebolted on top of the deck
of
the
will
deck.
Another
discussed
be
and windows."
Pilot houses are usually higher than other deck houses which may be abaft them on the same deck. This
permits of placing
in
the
after
above
houses,
astern.
the
transom windows end of the pilot house top of the other deck
the
stopwater of flannel dipped in thick white lead should fit between the sill log and the deck planking to prevent leakage under the house sides into the cabin. In Fig. 76-t the house is a trunk built over a deck opening
to
deck
ends may be straight across the deck and joined to the house sides with a radius of from nine to This is eighteen inches.
nearly always done at the after end, but the forward end, particularly of
house
so
helmsman
floors
can
are
see
and
the
the
sill
is
bolted
directly
Pilot house
raised
above the normal deck level to enable the wheelman to see through these windows and close down over
the bow.
houses is more often rounded. In lower deck houses the rounded forward end is laid in by taking a radius equal to the forward width of the deck house. An arc is drawn with
pilot
this
radius,
is
its
center
being on
the
Small boats may not have sufficient depth of hold to permit the machinery to be entirely below the In this case head upper hull deck. room and ventilation are obtained by building a low deck house or "trunk"
supports the Here the deck planking is fitted close beside the outer edge of the sill and the seam thus formed is calked in the same way as for the other deck seams.
carling cut beam ends.
which
frame work of vertical stanchions erected on the sill. These stanchions are from two to four inches molded and usually four-inch sided,
is
This
whose
feet
arc
by one equal
then joined to the house sides to one-quarter or onethird of the forward house width. Pilot house fronts may also be drawn
The
house
close
having their lower ends notched into the sill and their upper ends into the "cap" or upper coaming timber. The vertical stanchions are spaced
from
the
is
two
height
to
by the accommodations
as
must endeck
of
three the
fit
feet
apart.
sills,
At
it
window
in this
way
is
diameter
well
as
the
is
external
common
to
horizontal
strut
arrangement
which
influenced
by
timbers
between
stanchions
and
53
54
notched
fitted.
beams
quarter
stituted
often
molding. Care should be taken that the seams of inner and outer sheathing
planks are parallel to the edges of doors and windows. All sheathing should be blind nailed to the stud'iherr.
sub-
dings and
hammer marks
should not
^ Deck
Home iide
show.
in a deck house sometimes panelled but only in saloons of passenger boats. Usually
is
it
/Trunk-
JT
is
under side
(c)
smooth and neat manner. Deck beams are sometimes boxed in with light sheathing to make them appear massive.
Where
render
it
considerations
desirable
to
of
draft
eliminate
un-
composed
This
of
board.
terial is
compressed
tfe-inch to
composition pulp
-fV-inch
it
wall
mathick
will
from
Oufer
dMeolfmje
Coantjfi^
>fii/iA
Or s;/r
not absorb moisture. It is obtained in sheets from three to five feet wide and should be carefully fitted.
Sfc^ueiir
Molding
inch
strips
of
2
thick
by
to
ih
.
Coemine r/aTe
Coam/ne'P^'^*
should fit over the joints and the intermediate Wallboard nailings. should be nailed at not more than 6-inch intervals along the edges and intermediate rows of nails should be not over 18 to 20 inches apart so that buckling will not ensue.
Pilot
Oeek-P/tre.
Houses
of
Wood
in
Wooden
fitted
i-lG.
on
as
the
case
sometimes
built
diagonal brace logs are into the house framing. The cap is above the tops of
usually
pine
al-
houses or of light deck houses in shallow draft steamers. Pilot houses of wood are to minimize
of
pilot
though
the
effect
of
window frames and may be under the house top beams with filling
blocks between them, or may be at the ends of the beams. Various wood house tops have been considered under "decks" in Chapter XI.
especially
for
the
inside
sheathing.
from
the
to
compass should be
render
the
non-magnetic
in
is
now
usually of tongue
and
fl-
grooved planks.
The
outside
sheathing
is
from
Long steel holding down bolts are passed from the upper side of the cap to the under side of the beams or cartings on the deck below. These rods are from J^-inch to ^-inch in diameter with nuts over washers on The their upper and lower ends. rod spacing is from six to eight feet and they should be located close to a heavy stanchion so that when tightened up they will not cause a spring in the cap or carling.
inch to J^-inch thick, the planks run horizontally and the whole is usually
less reading marked. Even with this precaution a steel vessel which pursues a fixed course for a considerable period, or
error
A half round painted a light color. molding may be fitted at the level of
the
which lies at a dock, will become polarized by the earth's magnetic lines of force, so that the vessel itself is
one large magnet which
the
will act
window
sills.
compass needle
affect
nets
each
just as In other.
usual
to
make
The
is
it
of
V"
chamfered
tongue
sheathing and the
stained.
and
groove
from
is
vertically.
in
^-inch
which
ship
If
is
carries
the
finish
natural
wood
or
"swung
around
How
Sheathing
is
Fastened
is
fastened
outside and also usually inside of the The material used in comframing.
"wash board" or lower molding plank from four to six inches high and ^-inch thick extends around the inside of deck house sheathing and partition bulkheads
as
in
turned
the
are
binnacle
compass
and
used,
avoided.
Fig.
76-d.
similar
purposes
of
strength
and
be-
House
The upper coaming
7.6
55
plate
is
relatively
slight
in-
between the upper and lower coaming plates and is stiffened by vertical angle bars bracketed at their tops
from
foot
when
and
to
10.2
pounds
steel
when
the
comat-
pass
properly
to.
constructed
and
and
ally
sometimes
j4-inch
to
10.2
at
their
bottoms.
tended
Fig.
76-f
house to a steel pilot Observe the deck plate to which the house sill is bolted and also the firring strips on the steel deck beams to which the light decking inside of the house is nailed. The lower deck house or "texas"
a
wooden
from
deck.
Its height above the square foot). deck beams is from 9 \o 12 inches, so that it need not be cut where doors are fitted but the door sills
rest
of
shallow
draft
river
vessel
is
on its upper edge. The lower coaming angle is of the same thickness as the lower coaming plate. The
vertical
sometimes attached to a vertical steel coaming plate as in Fig. 76-g. Here the coaming plate is riveted to a deck plate by a coaming angle and the sill timber is bolted on an inverted angle bar several inches below the The outer top of the coaming plate.
sheathing should cover the top of the
enough
deep deck
from 6 to 9 The upper coaming angle is of the same thickness and has flanges from 2^ inches by 2J/2 inches to 3 inches by 3 inches, single riveted to the coamThe ing plate and the house top. tops of window and door frames fit against the lower edge of the upper coaming plate. The intermediate house side plating weighs from 5.1 to 7.6 pounds per square foot (from i/^-inch to -ft-inch and is cut out where winthick) dows and doors are fitted. Someand
times
this
planking, being from 2J4 to 3j4 inches high and secured to the coaming
plate
plating
extends
to
the
house
plate
is
top
and
no
upper
exterior
coaming
deck
angle
or
tie
coaming
be
plate
and
single riveted to the deck plating and is from 2^/2 to 3 inches wide. The tie plate is from 8 to IS inches wide and weighs
of the be flush with butt straps fitted to the seams on the inside (Fig. 77-c) or it may present a paneled appearance by fitting these butt straps on the outside of the
fitted.
The
may
extreme after end of the "texas" is exposed to constant splashing from the stern wheel and is therefore made This can be done either watertight.
with two thicknesses of closely fitted tongue and groove planking running at right angles to each other, or by making the bulkhead of light sheet steel or galvanized corrugated steel.
Steel
from
foot.
7.6
to
10.2
seams between the upper and lower coaming plates (Fig. 77-a and b).
h-^'-lf^
Deckhouses of steel are sometimes on wooden vessels such as tugs which navigate rough waters.
fitted
r^
i^J
{<^J
The
in
such
is
a
'Vertical
shown
lower
Bo-tt
itrvf
76-h
where
is
tlie
steel
6f,^finer^^
coaming
plate
bolted
log.
sidewise
through a heavy
sill
The lower
coaming angle is riveted to the coaming plate and secured to the deck by bolts with countersunk heads which pass vertically through the sill A canlog and deck beams below.
vas
or
Arxjie
t
i
stopwater dipped
red
lead
is
in
thick
white
the
to
i!
inserted
between
sill
fT
(
coaming
angle
and
the
log
is
prevent leakage.
An
in
alternative construction
given
in which a steel deck on the beams under the deck planks. This plate is through bolted to the deck beams and the lower house coaming angle is riveted to it and to the lower coaming plate Steel houses in steel vessels (Fig. 77-a, b and c) have their side and end bulkheads composed of: A lower coaming piate which is 1. secured to the deck plating or to a tie plate under the deck planking by a lower coaming angle. 2. An upper coaming plate which fastens to the house top with an upper coaming angle in one of the
Fig.
is
76-k
plate
fitted
^uuu
of C") f*''^
zih
Uanqiiodina
Vieui
of
tie)
frtm
OiXtiide sf-Houif.
which
fits
FIG.
56
Doors are of the same material as bulkheads through which they afford a passage, except that somethe
may
be
"bumped"
closed
out
the
as
an
or
by
electric
motors.
Sometimes
so
in
alternative.
is
When
by
door
fitted in
steel
doors
are
fitted
are
to
ar-
and
watertight
bulkheads.
They
are
ranged to hinge and clamp shut with dogs or to slide vertically or horizontally.
"dogs" which clamp door on the wedges plate with handles on each side of the The bolt about bulkhead as shown. which the dogs pivot, passes through a bronze bushing and has a nut on
held
tight
over
bronze
that
case
The
hinged
watertight
Doors
joiner
doors
78-a
watertight
through
to
bulk-'
in
The door
heads
;ind ier
are
similar
those
used
of
inches wide by opening 5 feet 6 inches high and has rounded corners to prevent weakness at these
2 feet
building
construction,
being
are
wood
hcav and
deck
slide
above
in
or
from
below.
They
panelled.
They
of
usually
fitted.
cast
steel
points.
is
continuous
to
forged
frame
the
bulkhead
bear
angle "arch" or
riveted
"arch"
than
be
doors
buildings
should
times
carefully
Someare
which
the
horizontal
sliding
is
doors
this
used
as
in
where
space
restricted,
such
is
strength lost by cutting out the bulkhead plating. This frame angle bears against a rubber gasket on the door, the gasket being secured to the door fasplate by rabbeted steel strips
machine with tened composition The door plate is stiffened screws. by an angle around the edge or the
the and force bulkhead when closed. The door may be raised and lowered by means of a pinion and rack or by a threaded spindle passing through a fixed nut on the door.
guide
staterooms,
satisfactory
but
in
type
door
against
not
practice
since
difficulty
if
Deck
steel
The
of
in
wood
halves
or so
rack
shaft
or
the
spindle
are
that
the
part
may be opened
and
the
sliding
for
ventilation.
halves
is
together
on
the the
lower half.
lower halves upper and of such doors together. Pilot house doors may have glass fitted in the
holds
{<^J
i
upper
the
half,
but
will
if
care
is
not
taken
V
Section /)-/)
glass
be
broken
offers
frequently.
Wired
this
plate
glass
solution
of
difficulty.
Deck house doors have their upper and lower edges parallel to the sheer and their sides vertical. This custom renders doors very expensive unless the sheer is a straight line when
all
is
necessary
for
to
fit
bulkhead
in
in
passages
case
is
strength
only,
which
the
bulkhead
"arch"
re-enforced
is
by
sides
bounding
the
hull
(k)
omitted.
Openings
are for
light
in
the
of
called
"ports"
and
or
are
for
employed
furnishing
loading
cargo
and
air to
en
as
in
woodsmall
the
be
ones,
as
that
hull
i_r
(<d)
decks have large swinging ports at the sides of the wells. These are not com-
mon
to
power
side
vessels
and
will
not be
studied.
Small
as
I
ports
the
often
also
serve
doors
large
to
in
with
tion.
They
and
strongbacks
Kia.
by
dogs
is
.\I1!
edges
gasket
fitted
around on
tlie
the
House
spaces
57
This
which
bears
against
type
the
is
angle
and
apart.
preferably
three
frame
danger
of
the
was
formerly
reduced
outshutters
framing
arch.
in
This
seldom
by
side
fitting
wooden storm
windows.
taken
shutters
employed
Stock air ports are carried by most ship chandlers and can be selected from
their
The
and
could
be
down
the
stowed
of
catalogs.
Fixed
Air
a
ports
(Fig.
78-b)
plate
in
consist
of
ports
or
"side
lights"
admit
light
circular
glass
is
a a
metal
casting
are
in
frame
riveted
glass
thick,
which
or
is
hinged
to
to
only to spaces in the hull which near the water line or are placed The steel doors of deck houses.
glass
is
Since
plate
if
introduction
shutters
glass,"
are
this
not
the
panes
is
are
of
ma-
The
glass
woven
in
bolted
the
hull.
The
J^-inch
circular
fraiTie
in
from
.>^-inch
to
of
to
The
size
depending of an
upon
airport
the
is
diameter.
bolted
watertight riveted or
the
crete.
will
shatter
under
fall
expressed
glass
open.
out.
fitted
with wired
into
Air
ports
pipes
and
are
will
fixed
ports
near
the
cases.
small
hawse
bars
boats to
18
or
as
Drop
a
windows
sheathing.
when
open,
fit
pocket
the
The rim
is
is
fixed
"anchor handling."
house
in
A
so
sill
recessed
grip
usually
of
brass
or
com-
top
of
the
sill
sash
the
should
pro-
position
cast
steel
is
metal,
is
ject
above the
raised.
Windows
of
the
drop
or
in
is
glass
secured
brass
ring
the
rim
circular
of
is
cross
section
which
quarter held in
the
by a round
place
is
hinged deck
in
be
The
a
hinged
to
cover over
the
may
the
present
increased
light
and
ventilation
which
The
per drain
by
small
machine
introduced
screws.
Cement
they
liable
afford,
to
although
they
in
are
more
seas.
appearance. pocket is lined with sheet copor galvanized sheet iron with a
pleasing
to
usually
between
cover
the
the
glass
breakage
rough
the
outer
deck.
The
sash
Some"dead-
a
is
cast
metal
of
or
hinged
inside
over
glass
rim
on
is
the
vessel.
This
to to
usually
the
close
deck
the
hinged up overhead.
in
and
Its
hooked
use
the
is
becomes
case
glass
is
rubber
gasket
packed into a groove around the edge of the deadlight cover and a similar
gasket
is is
on the
Circular
ridges
glass
rim
port
is
bear
is
on
closed
these
gaskets
when
the
the
and
the
when
the
vessel.
cover
down
water
are
of
eyebolts
and
into
prevent
entrance
of
Three
the
hinged
nuts
provided
spaced
port
with
butterfly
equally
around
edge
the
into
lugs
ports
are
against
the
hull
by
screwing
is
down
the
gasket
fitted
frame
while
securely
and
a
to
ring
the
over
gasket
fits
frame.
The
frame
of of
inside
outside
planking
or
plating.
Usually
the
hull
square
airports
of
the
maximum
because
the
hull.
light
diffusion.
This
is
of
the
excessive
thickness
of
Air ports should be spaced midway between the frames which should not
be
cut
in
fitting
the
ports.
Care
air
should
ports
be
in
taken
the
hull
not
to
locate
closer
than
two
FIO.
79 CONSTIiUCTION OF
niN(ilCI)
WI.NIIOWS
AND SKYM(;I1TS
58
skylight
in
coaming
Steel
to
the
79-e) usually the sash. The steel coaming is riveted to a plate top which is cut out in way of the hinged sashes, the opening being sur-
skylights
rounded by an angle
of to
bar.
the
sash
minimize
strip
are
edges. Light metal strips screwed to the sash secure the gasket. StiflF-
ening
the
lights.
angles
or
tee
bars
of
is
coaming
and
is
tops
The coaming
riveted to an
C.
This
craft
is
operated
by
captain
slides
in
groove
the
in
the
sides
of
the
frame
over
a
and
bottom
(Fig.
pushes
79-a).
slide
out
Pilot
ridge.
house
vertical
windows
brass
sometimes
(Fig.
on
and may be opened or closed from within by means of a lifting gear. The covers are hinged at the center and the frames must be watertight.
beams Vv-hich have been cut. margin plate surrounds the skylight opening and is riveted to the beams and the coaming angle. In small skylights through which it is not necessary to remove machinery or fittings, the deck beams extend
across
the
opening
of
to
maintain
deck.
the
necessary
strength
the
rods
79-b).
Win-
at house corners are sometimes installed, but should be avoided if possible because of the cost of the special panes and
dows
with
curved
panes
How
Wooden
Skylights
Are
have
Fitted
skylights
wooden
sash.
Hinged windows
the
(Fig.
79-c)
have
upper part of the .'ash in two sections hinged together. There is a deep channel at the top of the frame with clearance enough for vhe sash to raise over the ridge on the
A hook hinging open. on the house beams keeps the window open. Hinged windows are mostly fitted in the bunk cabins of small vessels or in the after ena of pilot houses which are raised above the deck house enough to permit the
sill
before
coaming bolted to the carlings and end beams of the skylight opening. Engine room skylights should be portable to permit removing machinor renewal. ery for shop repairs The gabled skylight ends are connected at the tops by a heavy ridge timber to which the hinges are A drainage groove fits all screwed. around the edge of the sashes to
prevent drip into the cabin below. This groove drains to the deck at the ends of ridge timber and at the Unless the sides of the sashes. light panes are of wire glass it is necesary to fit a metal grid over
Skylight lifting gear (Fig. 79-e) be of several diflferent types but a usual one consists of a vertical shaft having a handwheei which can be turned from within the cabin. One or more bearings support this
may
shaft
to
and
is
its
the
at
light
worm
tical
upper end of
a
this
ver-
shaft
to
actuates
worm wheel
shaft.
keyed
horizontal
or
The may
not be enclosed in a casing (Fig. 79-e). The horizontal shaft has one or
levers keyed to it at one end and pinned to the lower end of a corresponding number of links as shown. The upper ends of the links are pinned to bearings on the skylight
helmsman
Skylights
steel
to
see
astern.
(Fig.
them
79-d)
for
protection
objects.
fits
of
wood
or
by
or
falling
(Fig.
79-e)
usually
hinge
up
"tarpaulin"
by means of the worm, wormwheel and horizontal shaft, will raise The or lower the skylight shutters. wormwheel acts as a lock on the
levers
worm
the
for
skylight.
Some
quadrant
as
in
have
to
slotted
bar
pinned
the
slots
shutter
in
(Fig.
79-d).
The
the
ouadrant
light
lifted
engage a pin on the skycoaming and the shutter is from the deck above to the
reouired
amount
lights
of
opening.
78-c
Deck
fitted
(Fig.
and d) are
nary airports, sidelights or skylights cannot be provided. They may have a cast bronze frame in which the
circular
(Fig.
78-c),
to
less
the
deck
planks
glass
or
plating.
of
edges
capacity
as
rectangular in thick
with
lead
beveled
white
between
same
power
and
Coli/er
CHAPTER
Companions
are openings in
the
to
XIII
may
be opened to a degree
deck
the
affording
headroom without throwing it completely back upon the deck. Companions of this type are difficult
and
should be
door closes against this angle at the top and sides while a reversed angle at the top of the coaming plate forms a sill. The side and back plates together with the door are of from S.l
to
10.2
pound plating (%
with
single
to
54
inch
80-a
is
sliding
companion
each side joins the deck beams at the ends of the hatch and the intermediate beams which were cut are notched into the A coaming is bolted all carlings. around the hatch to the deck beams
carling
at
deck.
height steel companion hatch with deadlights in the sides. The coaming plate and connections at the deck are the same as for deck houses and a continuous corner angle bar is riveted to the
a
full
thick)
riveted
Companion
double
types
doors
in
may be
The
or are
divided.
as
sides,
front
and
back.
The
steel
They
are resorted
and
carlings.
The
front of the
com-
panion has double doors which vary in height from 30 inches to 6 feet 6 inches. If these doors do not afford
full headroom, the top of the companion slides back as shown to permit entrance.
The
back, or it
sliding top
may
slope
straight
on girders as shown may be rounded as in Fig. 80-b. The minimum width of deck opening should be 30 inches and the length
traveling
varies
according to the slope of the ladder so that the head of an average man would not strike the deck of the opening in coming up.
r-ane^erie SecTion.
lon^ffuelina/
Companion Slides
of
small
lf^* M WT^^P'M^M J
'
Ul
coammg or sill is not sufficient to permit the fitting of doors which are
full headroom height (6 feet 6 inches above the deck), have a companion slide or hinged hatch over the
of
81-a and b). The same, as for companion hatches and has brass metal strips fastened to wooden guide pieces with countersunk screws (Fig. 81-b). The door closes against the front of the sliding top and is usually secured by a hasp and padlock. If the hatch is on a cambered deck and slides athwart(Fig.
slide
is
low doors
the
lb)
ship, slide
drain
strips
is
holes
as
are
cut
If
in
the
shown.
the
com-
ir^'
hinged, the construction is the same except that the slides are omitted and hinges are fitted to the cover at the side away from the door.
It
is
panion top
\-
also
desirable
sides
to
install
rods
at
the
of
the
FIG.
59
60
Coiistrnction of Pozver
Work Boats
Watertight steel hatches when small called "manholes" or "scuttles" and may open into tank compartments below decks as well as to the weather. Manholes to tanks which are seldom entered should be bolted
are
^ra/r7 ha/e
closed as in Fig. 82-a. The opening should not be less than 11 inches wide by IS inches long with circular ends.
3rass
forged
channel
the
ring encloses
plate
angle cover
Defa,7 cf
^Me
bolting on the upper flange as shown. A gasket of hemp or canvas fits between the cover and the coaming ring. The tank, bulkhead or deck plating which has been cut at the manhole, has a re-enforcing plate or "doublcr" riveted all around the opening
to
compensate
for
the
lost
strength.
Manholes
arc
fitted
common
elliptical
to
The
Tar/^au/ffj'^.
manhole
the
thicknesses,
upper
plate of
is
in
two
is
which
t:"^
Lej
(k
rarrower than the lower. The plates are riveted together and a gasket is fitted on the shoulder as shown in
3ech
z.
Woferf/ahT i^ooden Match.
y^^or///^0
[)
7Pech
Two shoulder bolts are through the cover plate and "strongback" bars fit over the screwed er.ds of these bolts, extending across the narrower dimension of the manhole. Nuts over washers tighten the cover against a flanged manhole ring. Hinged manholes fitted with "dogs"
Fig.
82-e.
riveted
arc as
'Beam.
shown
in Fig. 82-c.
They may
KIO.
be square, round or elliptical and have a number of forged lugs which engage hinged bolts with wing nuts around tlicir edges. The hinges have an oval slot on the pin to permit of tightening
for
the
cover.
is
which they swing open is sage restricted. The hinges and locks should be extra heavy and arrangements should be made to hold the doors open by brass hooks or by Rubber topped bufspring catches. fers should be on all doors which interior or exterior open against joiner work having a fine finish. The deck immediately in front of companion doors is subjected to severe wear so that treads of hardinto
employed
oiltight
watertight
or
rabbet on its upper edge and the hatch cover fits securely into it. If the hatch is small the top may be in one piece, usually rectangular,
ing
has
A plate hatches with hinged covers. coaming from 9 to 48 inches high surrounds the hatch opening and has
coaming angle at the deck. If the coaming height exceeds 20 inches it
a
is necessary to stiffen the plate with A rubber brackets and angle clips. gasket at the upper edge of the coaming plate is clamped thereto by an Cast or angle or by a flat iron bar.
wood
at
decks
brass
or
iron
plates
filling
by
a pattern or
or lead
tongue and grooved planks with a rabbeted frame and short beams. Hooks on the coaming engage eyes on the cover frame and Sometimes clamp the hatch closed. hinged hasps on the cover fit over on the coaming, and pins staples through the staple hold the cover down. If the hatch is hinged, a padlock on one staple may be used and the hooks also be fitted at the sides.
composed
of
forged steel lugs riveted to the coaming, attach the hinges and the ring
bolts.
the deck in
I low
front of doors.
(Fig.
81-e.)
non-watertight,
or
Watertight hatches are fitted over all compartments opening onto decks exposed to the weather. Wooden hatches are difficult to keep
tight.
Large wooden watertight hatches have sectional covers on portable beams resting in the notched and A rabbeted upper coaming timber. heavy canvas tarpaulin is stretched over the closed hatch by tightly means of an iron bar which is wedged into metal lugs on the coaming. (Fig
81-f.)
hatch is more than 24 inches cover plate should be strengthened by an angle around the Hatches smaller than this edge. usually have a flat bar around the for of the cover strength. edge Hatches more than 48 inches square should have stiflfeners of angles or bulb angles across the cover at intervals of 24 inches.
If the
square,
the
Deck
scuttles
are
of
cast
less
steel
or
18
They
consist of a
coam-
composition metal,
not
than
Companions
nor more than 24 inches
in diameter.
HatchesRailsAzvnings
lb)
61
They
or
plating
in
circular
gasket
varies
having a depressed ridge on which a rubber the cover bears. The cover
and
from J^ to 5^ inch in thickness, is roughened on the upper surface and has two hinged ring bolts which lie flush in depressions and by means of which the cover may be
lifted. The cover is tightened against the ring casting on the deck by means of six bolts with heads resembling
horizontal cams, or else by a central bolt which screws into a bossing on a hinged strongback under the scuttle.
special
wrench
scuttle
is
provided
to
^aiJcft
tighten
the
fastening
bolts.
When
stow
the
cover
is
removed a
cast
iron grating fits into the opening This grating aflords ventilation.
in
and
may
de-
three
scuttle
clips
on
bulkhead
in
near the
or
may
the
rest
pressed
Steel
lugs
is
under
closed.
cover
when
the scuttle
cargo hatches usually have wooden covers which rest on portable A beams in the hatch opening. tarpaulin is stretched over the top of the hatch in the manner described for
(C)
wooden
hatches.
of
metal or of
inclined.
athwartships in vessels for rough water service, unless this arThis rangement cannot be avoided. is because of the danger of falling
the vessel is rolling. In passengers' living spaces stairways are usually built with a slope of 45 degrees and with good wide treads
extend
and ornamental railings. These sometimes turn from two athwartship sections to a "grand stairway" opening in the saloon. Curved stairways are not recommended for use on vessels, it being better to change the direction of the stairs by introducing a
landing. All ladders
side
to
KIO.
the
risers
are
omitted.
is
Sometimes a
strip of
canvas
lashed
cement
filling
in
grooves
thereon.
The
are
composed of two
pieces which are parallel and fastened at the top and bottom ends the decks.
front edges of the treads have sheet brass strips to reduce the wear. If risers are installed they are protected by polished sheet brass "kick The hand plates" neatly tacked on.
rail
is
under open ladders to close the openings between treads, particularly in side ladders which lead from the deck to the water. Such ladders are supported by forged arms from sockets
on
the
side
of
the
vessel
and have
fitted to cast or
forged sockets
Horizontal
rungs
or
on
the
pieces
"risers"
and
are
spaced
fitted
apart in vertical
to
The
wide.
wooden gratings at the top and bottom. They are arranged to hoist up
by a
in
block
and
tackle
on
small
davit and to be
Engine
Steel ladders
treads
in
con-
close
Sloping
and are generally fitted in the engine rooms. The side strips are from to inch thick and at least 4 inches wide. The treads are cast
struction
the hold during the voyage. Instead of a pipe rail a rope is led through forged stanchions around the gratings and down the sides of the
ladder.
ribbed or roughened top and bolted to the sides by angle iron clips. "Subway" or similar gratings form an excellent tread for such ladders.
rails
iron
with
hatch
at the top of the sheet brass covering is tacked over the door sill at the top of the ladder and the treads have a
coaming
ladder.
No risers are fitted and are always of metal. Vertical wooden ladders have
the
the
Vertical steel ladders to holds and compartments entered only at intervals, are composed of two flat bar stiips with round or square bars for These rungs are riveted into rungs. the side bars. Sometimes the rungs
are forged to a
same construction as
62
in
Fig. 83-g to
1.
Fig. 83-c
is
of
standard pipe
of
y (fnb
Lmoleum. ruUer, or caSf irva ////ej
"Rail
It
consists
/?/3er
(a)
spaced from 3 feet 6 inches t6 4 feet apart having standard flanges screwed to their lower ends. These flanges are screwed or bolted to the deck If such rails are planks or plating. fastened to the upper edge of a sheer
strakc,
it
is
necessary
the
to
to
weld
a
the
lower
end of
pipe
forged
//ty.fce
'I'i'
^
A'e'/r
palm as in Fig. 83-d. The pipe rails arc from 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet 6 inches above the deck, and there may be two or three of them. The top rail is usually from 1 to lj4-i"ch pipe screwed to the stanchions by a
standard "T."
at
fr^
r' iX'P'/'e-
Where
the
rail
turns
aaPi
,: /i^'
"L" or
be
the
"T" may be
The
same
internu-diatc
size
rails
may
rail
Ccj
and the stanchions, but are usually from % to 1 inch in diameter. Their connections to the stanchions are by crosses.
as
the
top
^^^ M
i^J
Side outlet "T's" are fitted at turns. Forged or cast rail stanchions may replace those of ordinary pipe (Fig. 83-d), the sizes and connections being
as
shown.
The
rails
in
this
case
Sometimes the pipe rails are pipe. replaced by a single wire rope or "life line" the passed through forged
stanchions.
vessels
Occasionally
in
Frame
^xftDileiL
:x.
(AJ
metal Metal grab rails (Fig. 83-m) have small or cast stanchions forged screwed or bolted to the sides or top of deck houses. Wooden grab rails
are
passenger wood on
shown
plain
in
Fig. 83-o
and
83-e
p.
FIG.
83 CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF
bulkhead.
LAPIIKIiS
AND RAILS
have
inches
clear
of
the
Again
the bar rungs may rivet through two of the vertical bars which stiffen the
out of the way. Means should be provided for hooking the lower ends of such ladders to the deck above
and f) ornamental stanchions supporting a top rail and having metal clips screwed to the deck. The
rails
Wooden
(Fig.
or
sides
are
of
light
planks
or
rope
netting.
On a non-watertight steel bulkhead forming a chain locker partition or a swash bulkhead in a deep tank, semicircular
holes
may
be
cut
12
inches
horizontally and 9 inches verThese holes tically to form a ladder. should be at least 4 inches wide to fit the foot of an average man.
apart
The width of ladup. constantly used should not be less than 27 and preferably 30 inches. Ladders occasionally used may be as narrow as 10 or 12 inches. Rope ladders with wooden rungs are called "Jacobs ladders" and are
ders
when hinged
"Bulwarks" or rails solidly enclosed for deck drainage openings, are fitted on tugs and the lower decks of cargo and passenger vessels. They tend to prevent waves from washing over the deck but are not desirable if
except
heavy seas are encountered, since they trap the water and make it difficult
for
the
vessel
to
free
itself
of
seas
on masts and in ventilators or trunks between decks to form emergency exits. Where a
fitted
Ladders are
Rails should be fitted around the edges of all decks, around all openings in the deck except at the point of access, at the margins of tops or house tops which
all
which have been shipped. Metal bulwarks have plating from 10.2 to 25 pounds (Fig. 83-g, h and k) which is riveted to the upper edge
of the sheer strake.
rail of
channel
cabin
fre-
bulkhead at the top, grab rails should be fitted above the ladder (Fig. 83-b), or the rail should extend above the top of the ladder so that a person may stand erect when coming up or
going down.
It is often necessary to hinge ladders at their tops in order to lift them
are
or bulb angle is riveted at the top of the bulwark plating and stanchions of
quented by persons.
fitted
at
the
sides
trunk
cabins,
around the front of pilot houses, in passageways and at tops of ladders. Open rails may be of metal or
forged round or structural steel support both the bulwark and rail as shown. Wooden bulwark rails are
wood
or
(Fig.
83-c of
to
f).
Closed
or
rails
bulwarks
metal
wood
are
on passenger vessels and tugs. In the former case the rail is of 2 x 4-inch or 3 x 6-inch hardwood, bolted to an angle (Fig. 83-k), the bolt heads
fitted
Companions
holes the countersunk and being plugged with wood. Tug rails are of oak 4 X 8-inch to 4 x 16-inch. The height of bulwarks in tugs is In 18 to 24 inches above the deck.
HatchesRailsAzvnings
63
passenger vessels the height corresponds to that of open rails. Wooden bulwarks (Fig. 83-1 and n) have stanchions formed by extending the upper ends of frames
The
as
rails
are
of
same
rails
height
those
log,
on
steel
bulwarks.
Small
of
a
power
low
single
and with a rail on top. "Scuppers" or drainage ports are cut at intervals in wooden bulwarks.
shown
Awriiig
Stancliions
and
are
Fittings
fitted
Awnings
sun.
of
canvas
over
for shelter
from the
They may be stretched over a frame and lashed at the edges; in or, larger vessels, may have a wooden ride bar and spreaders (Fig. The canvas is white or khaki 84-a). colored and of No. 4 or No. 6 weight. Small boats have awnings rolling over a rounded pipe frame or of the "automobile" top type which folds down.
may have
space between and the edges of the canvas may overhang the ship's sides. It is conventional to install a canvas "eyebrow" over the windows at the front of pilot houses (Fig. 84-b). This is painted green underneath but does not afford real protection from the glare of the sun which is reflected upward from the water to the
eyes of the helmsman. The eyebrow serves to keep rain oflf the pilot house windows to an extent but is not really needed.
FIG.
FITTINGS
Canvas "weather clothes" lashed to the rails at the front and sides of the bridge protect the occupants from the wind. They sometimes extend to the
64
CHAPTER XIV
Masts
MOST
commercial
sole
booms are
and
fitted
with
block
and tackle
foot
oif
height
called
in
common
"rake."
sails
XN
by
flags
boats
the
use
of
known
as
"running
rigging."
and
in
is
and rigging is for cargo hoisting and for signaling either or by radio telegraphy, comas "wireless."
sails
Since the wind pressure against the tends to bend the masts for-
vessels
without
need
be
raked
monly
rigged
known
to
Vessels
they are inclined backward backstays will have a greater spread and the mast be subject to less strain. This backward imclinaward,
so the
tion
is
appearances.
Most
sprit
at
sailing
vessels
have
bowgreat
the the
stem
to
afford
in
light
breeze,
from
-J^-inch
to
^-inch
per
spread
of
forestays
and
permit
are not properly "power boats" and will not be considered in detail here. The
rigging
siderably
fitting
is
complicated
according
sails.
to
the
In
the
sails
are carried by
in
from one
four masts
vessels which are "square rigged" and from one to seven masts on "fore and aft" or "schooner" rigged vessels.
The
mas-ts
are
at
named up
the
to
four
and beginning
forward one as "fore," "main," "niizzen" and "jigger" or "jury." So, if there are two masts, the forward one is the "foremast" and the after one the "mainmast."
If
there
are
three
masts,
the
forward one is the "foremast," the center one or second one the "mainmast," and the third or after one is the "mizzenmast." The fourth mast
or
"jigger"
ships
as
is
not
common
has
its
in sails
square
fore
rigged
and
and
aft
a rule.
Masts are a single pole or in two lengths on modern vessels. If in two lengths, the lower piece is the lower mast and the upper section is the top mast. The poinit at which the topmast is fastened to the mainmast is also that at which the strong ath'wantshlp guys or "shrouds" support
ma'Sts
the
is
in
is
all
also
to fit longitudinal guys These "stays" to the masts. are "backstays" if cm the after side of th,e mast, "for est ays" if on the
necessary
called
horizontal
and "springstays" if nearly so between two masts. The stays and shrouds are fixed and have no blocks or tackle on them except means for tightening
side
forward
or
ing
rigging."
Ropes used
sails,
for
hoistFIG.
spars or cargo
IS
FITTED
65
66
Work Boats
d:ecks
or
the
top
it
of.
shaft
tunmel.
(CO
Oi)
o o
m^TP^'^r/)7/9/l.
necessary to fit heavy stanchions under the deck supportinig the mast or to introduce a transverse bulkhead. The foundations must .be braced athwartship by heavy knees in bottomed vessels, single but steel vessels with double botrtoms
is
In
this
case
require merely a heavy doublinig plate on the tank top at this point.
into
nvasts should be mortised foundation timbers. Steel ma'sts are riveted to the foundation
Wooden
the
^9if /^AT'/y^X'.?
dV^ast
iby angles as shown. At the point where masts pierce the upper or main stremgth dteck they must be rigidly secured against deflection by a structure call'ed the
gird'ers
mV^'^
"partners."
This
conisists
ol
deck)
aft
of the
mast
with connecting longitudinal car lings to the deck opening. There should be but one set of "partners," the spar being free to' dieflect between this point, the hounds andi the The decking is locally foundation.
/>?/fiT
roa/ro/PT/o/ro-
strengthened by nuargin planks in wooden vessel's or hy doubliag plates w^ith an angle rinig or clips im steel
vessels
(Fig. 86-e-f
/>7/)ir /zii/A'^/ir/o//'
and
g).
H
-3ooiv
Crafc/j-
Partners on weather decks must be made watertight at the wedges hy fitting a canvas or metal hood. Structural masts have stapled partner anwithout wedgiing and calked gles
If mast the passes deck house top which is of light construction the partners are on the next lower strength deck and a flexible canvas hood is tacked watertight around the opening where the mast pierces the light super-
watertight.
through
structure
deck.
W orkhoats
it
CltOTCH
is
customary
carrying jiljsails of larger area. Sometimes the bowsprit has an extensioin spar or jib boom at its outer end.
The Where
from
"rig"
these
of are
vessel
is
named
its
sails.
and is greatest at the point where the mast passes through the upper deck. Here strong wedguig called llie "partners" is fitted, the mast tapering upward to the hounds and downward to
the
rectangular and hung a spar at their upper edge, the being fastened at its middle to
is
duction
at the part
called'
"square
verti-
loading of heavy carpivoted at its lower end to a point on the mast just above in 85. This the partners as Fig. is (point pivoted in two directions so the outer end of the boom can be either elevated ("topped") or swung horizontally in transferring the cargo from the wharf to the vessel's deck. Two forged rings (a) are
go.
The boom
is
When
the
sail
forward
is
Steel masts
edge of the
attached
to
the mast, the vessel is "fore and aft rigged" or "schooner rigged." Pole maists as fitted to commercial power boats are similar in arrange-
power boats, being confined to large The mast may be seagoing vessels.
a
fitted tightly to the mast and a strong vertical pin (b) with an eye and shoulder at its upper end is passed
solid
steel
tube,
built-up
stiffened
inside
with
aagle
bars,
tube a
structural or built-up
a
"fl" section, or
through vertical bearings on the forA niut side of the mast rings. or split pin is at the lower end of
ward
the
ment to
wood
that
in
is
and are usually ot vessels up to ISO feet long, where the pole is of such
l^'ig.
85
latticed girder.
large
vertical
out.
pin
to
prevent
it
from jumping
is
pronged forging
height as to be obtained in a single length of the proper maximum diameter to withstand the stress due to the The cross section is circular loads.
usually fitted on, the center keelson as in Fig. (86-h-i and k), although sometimes where the hold is deep the
It is
tightly fitted to the lower end of the boom and engages the eye in the pin on the mast by means of a
strong
horizontal
masts
extend
to
one
of
the
lower
Masts
al
67
ley
The
thoug'h it a latticed
enid
may
steel
At
a
the
free
of
the
boom
forged
ring
The with usually four eyelets. (f) lower of these eyes (g) receives the
lifting tackle
The
uippcr eye
oif
block
tihe
"topping
lift"
tackle
which naises or lowers the boom. Swinging the 'boom from .shiip to dock is done by the "vanigs" 'which attach
to
(SJ
3uaJr//fa^
the
eyelets
lon
eaioh
side
of
the
end ring. The vang on the side toward the dock is of fixed length so the 'boom -with its load is free to swiing tcward the 'Wharf but cannot
swiu'g
icuitward
beyo'uid
Seckfti,
the
hatch
When the vessel is und^er opening. way the boo'm is lowered to a horizontal P'Oisition and supported at its outer end by a "boom crutch" (Fig. This is a portable structure of 86-mi). forged bars or structural shapes with a semicircular depression, at the tO'p into which the boom fits and is held by a cover piece hinged or bolted over. The lower ends of the crutch bolt to flush castings or angle clips on deck.
Davits
are
Davits are really small cranes and employed for hoisting or lowerlifeboats
ing 'anoho'rs,
ladders.
or
Occasionally
-handled
a
with iblock an'd falls is installed on deck at each side 'of the hatch instead of the customary mast and boom. Fig 87 (a)
cargo
is
davit
/
il'<"
.^
^
Jj
,^
<y
sh0'W:s
typical
fcar.
davit
.made
of
forged round
at
the sides
'of
^
FIG.
mient
is
drilled
bolt
gear
is
hung.
cleat
is
welded
of
to the
davit
below
the
curve
the
overhung
arm
for securing the hoisting 'line. Soimetimes this cleat is served to the
87Hb).
davit 'with
support ibearin.g i.s situated on the vertical shank just helow the curve of outreach. This bearing 'should be metalline or bronze bushed as .shown amd is usually an
wire.
audi
capgo'
davits
Fig.
as
is
in
'an
Fig.
87
(a
and
b).
anchor
davit.
Large vessels with heavy bo-atis sometimes have rotary davits of structural I-beaims bent to shape. Special davits of the pivoted-, link or quadrant types (Fig. 87-d to f) are also used in large vessels but will not be de-
independent forging o'r casting sedeck 'house, curely bolted to the cabin trunk or .bulwark rail, dependiii'g upon the lo'cationi and utility of the davit.
If
lig'hten
the boat.
Oars
wiith
nowlocks
scribed
at
in detail since they are too bulky and expensive for use in most
smaller
vessels.
all
pulling and steering purposes are in the boat, also a "breaker" or sni-all cask of water and a tin of sea bisfor
cuit.
is
hood
bearing to prevent leakage. The lower end of .the davit is roundcdi and rests on
a
fitted
above
this
light
line
with
all
cork
power
date
boats and should accoimmothe maxim-um number of pervessel is apt to carry. lifeboats for large vessels are
Oif
fitted
through eyes
provided.
hardened
steel
ibutton.
in
step
sons
whi'cli the
Some vessels with bearing 'casting. open 'bulwarks have the davits at the
rail,
The
usually
the
of
making
it
necessary
to
fit
boat"
type
or
isteel.
They
cradles
and
davit
is
at
each
68
The lifting tackle end of the boat. is shackled to patent quick-releasing hooks at each end of the boat. These hooks will collapse and release the tackle when (he boat is water borne
or
solid
m'tal
rod
with
s'hackles
at
barge
least
vessels
should
It
and turnbuckles, spans from the head of one davit to the other when the Wire rope boat is stowed inboard. guys wit'h turnbuckles and thimbles
secured to davit head and
are deck.
one
lifeboat
fitted
gasoliine
sible
to
when
is
the
to
outside
are
in
of
each
in
not be posthe passenboats but liferafts are then on the deck house to make
engine.
may
accommodate
all
s'hortage.
These
rafts
may
down
with a
so
the
held
be
of
piontO'Ons
with
top
lines,
slatted
wiooden
pliat forms
on
and
minimum
delay.
at-
carried
on
the
house
with
locks.
buoyed
life
oars
tendant
tops
the
or
rail
trunk
top
the
in
most
is
power
between
Modern
ring
the
ill
types
resemible
secured in the chocks by lasihings from a canvas cover which stretches over a ridge bar and is fastened all around fhe In tinnes of danger when gunwale. the boat may be needed quickly, it is swung out over the vessel's side and lashed to a spar fitted wiith heavy
Ordinarily
boat
is
boats.
the
When
arm by
distance
elliptical
buoys and
have
rope
causing an excessive
davit
nets
center.
usual
method
of
side
Small power vessels use their lifeboats for dinghies and such boats are
either
flat
boat
over
fitted
bottomed or
dories.
They
between
the
as
known
the boats stowed on a slatted By this platform over these beams. arrangement -the davits can be at the vessel's side and the boats dropped clear of the rail.
and
and
have lig'ht davits, or if light enough, are lifted over the side by
hand.
In
general,
that
precaution
Should
be
taken
into
the
lieak due to drying out of the planking. Metal lifeboats should be kept well painted. Tackle and releasing gear isihould be frequently overhauled and kept free from
paint.
be
Src/m
launiching
"V^ P^a/^M
yarUa/
:Siaft
Winches are machines for hoisting cargo and are fitted at the base of masts or to derrick close posts hatc'hes. They may be hand, steam or electric driven and -consist of one more drums attached through or mechanical gearing.
hand powered winch The power is applied by turning crank (a) which is keyed to shaft (fo) and also carFig. 88-a
is'
for
small
boats.
W""
ries
the
is
pinion
(c).
--^%7^.
lYau/i*
(d)
which
carries
the
pinion
The
Shaft
wheel
(g)
and
the
carries
Cham'
Sf'ud L ink Chaif?
rope
is is
wound.
on which The
hoisting
entire
mech-
anism
supported by bearings in the pedestal castings (k) which are bolted to the deck through a bed plate. Gypsy heads may be fitted on each
((S)
Pel/can I'i'ook.
end of the drum shaft (h) and are If the used for swinging the boom. winch is to be used for topping the
boom
to
lift.
an additional drum
the
lead
is
necessary
take
from
is
If the
Ijy
winch
the
driven
ty,
the
principle
of
is replaced by the two horizontal steam shaft driven cylinders, or a w^orm or motor engine. electric gasoline by an
crank
pins
FIO.
.\
may
drive
Masts
winch from the main propelling The winch is controlledi by engine.
the
throttles
the
69
(Fig.
or
controller
for
applied
to
power
for
holding the
the
and drums.
of
or engine which may 'be close to the windlass on the same deck or, in large vessels, on the deck belo'W.
Fig.
made
in
chain
for
letting
88
(c)
and
(d)
is
diagram
in
rela-
A
all
showing a
tion
typical
windlass
is
fitted
shafts
is
dfums
to the
mooring or anchor
dhain
gear.
on the winch.
The anchor
stored in a conv
Capstans (Fig. 88-h) are used for handling towlines at the towing titts or on the forecastle and for war-ping the vessiel. They corisist of a drum
with
tical
whelps
shaft
driven
through
eng^ine
ver-
by an
or
motor
partment called the "chain locker" at The the forward end of the vessel. inner end of the dhain is securely shackled 'to a ring or pad eye on If the bottom of the chain locker. there are two anchors it is necessary 't'o fit a central bulkhead in the
ch'ain
no't
Hawise pipes 'are of cast iron or and consist of a deck ring casting to which is rabbeted' the pipe itself. The deck ring is extra heavy on the after side 'to allow for wear by rubbing from the anchor chain. Doubling plates and closely spaced
steel
beams with
tion
carlings
form
foun'da-
operated by inserting long wooden capstan hars into the sockets shown and
loicker
become
tanigled.
having the crew push these bars when walking around the barrel. Small electric capstans with motor inside the drum may be obtained and work very satisfactorily.
thro'ugtli a chain pipe which pierces the deck and has a rem-ovable wo'oden or sheet steel cover fitting snugly
under the deck ring casting. The are countersunk li'oldinig d'O'wn bolts on the upper ends with girommets and washers under the nuts.
up
The
is
liO'wer
'or
end
fl'ange
of
'the
chain
the
hull
pipe
bolted
riveted to
by
face
at
around' the
of
chain to keep
locker
in
water out
weather.
an
elliptical
with
rolled
the 'chain
W'et
Windlasses are used solely anchor 'handling and warping vessel. They are hand operated
fitted
for the
and
in
co'mibination
'small
with
or
.moioring
bitts
on
vessels.
Windlasses
engine
The chain >then passes around the which 'is merely a large wild'cat, chain sheave with jaws fitting the The iwildoat 'may be 'on a links. horizontal shaft as shown or it may be on a vertical shaft under a capstan.
and the frames are extra strong this poin't. Usually one or m'ore
of
the transverse frames are out to pass the hawse ipipe, in which case short
local
stringers
join
ad'jacent
is
the
cut
frame
frames.
to
ends
to
the
intact
doubling plate
flange
of
fitted
under the
'pipe,
with
independent
motor
From
the
large
The locaare used on large vessels. tion is near the bow close to the
hawse
pipes.
the wildcat 'the 'chain passes to upper end of the chain pipe in
vessels,
'at
shell
the
strengthen
the
'provide
or
'through
side
chock
'bow
sto'pper
on
in
is
deck
sm'all
each
of
the
A
shaft
vessels.
chain
vessels,
against wearing 'away when hoisting All airports or lowering the anchor. near 'the anchor sh'ould have heavy
by bearings in pedestal castings. Gypsy heads are usually keyed to the 'Outer ends 'of this
sup'ported
shaft
installed 'between
the wildcat
to
and
it.
One
or
the horizontal
The chain is attached to a rapidly. shackle on the upper end of the anchoir
pedestal 'bearings and a screw operated cone clutch thro'wn in or out 'by a wheel causes the wildcats to revolve with the horizontal shaft or to remain' station'ary
w'hjle
the
shank.
consists of links, the
Anchor chain
size
Haw'Se pipes are not usually fitted on vessels less than 125 feet long, in which case the anchor chain passes (Fig. 89-f), t'hroiuigih a moorin'g chock passing througth the bulwark or foreIf there is no bulwark, castle side. an O'pen 'chock usually with a roller on a bronze pin (Fig. 89-g) is used to hold the anchor 'chain in p'osition. In small vessels the anchor is attached to a wire rope or manila
the
the link is
(f)
composed.
bar
of
the shaft
turn's.
it
A
'fast
brake
if
on
show
chain, used.
desired.
link"
sally
The main 'shaft is driven through a worim and wo-rm wheel by a motor
A
to
shackle
the
with
is
its
pin
connection
anchor
shown
hawser instead
of
to
chain.
SlillMAiaM':
CIIASKI!
1017, mostly
made
yacht and lioat Iniildeis in tlic United States a wonderful record for seaworthiness and reliability
l)y
They
penetrated every
iiart
of
tlie
70
"IIAAKU.X"
southern
Alaska
canning
company's
herring
seiner
and
cannery
tender
CHAPTER XV
Anchors
'NCIIORS
(Fig.
cast or
in
Bitts
type of
TowingDeck Drainage
are
are
varied
flukes
89-c-d-e)
and
are
swelled
hinged
the prevalent design. They conof a metal shank with two curved
metal arms terminating in strong triangular flukes. The upper end of the shank has the usual shackle for attaching the
open to shank but are prevented from swinging beyond this by stop lugs on the fluke Stockless anchors are housed in body.
the
shaped as shown with a and connecting them about the pin. The flukes can 45 degrees on each side of the
heavy
fitted
foundation
body
on a
be
steel
should
increased
thickness
or
doubling plate under all bitts. On wooden or concrete decks a pad of timbers from 1^ to 3 inches thick should be under the 'bitts. The metal
posts
have a
in
use
(Fig.
are
cored
out
to
decrease
the
89- A).
weight.
this
is
a
at
wood
or
bar
iron,
turned
right angles to the plane of the arms. This type of anchor is still considerably employed in vessels without hawse
pipes.
An anchor
lift
a to
davit must be used to anchor on deck by means of block and falls which is hooked
this
Mushroom anchors (Fig. 89-D) are mostly used on small vessels and lightWhile their holding powers are ships. perhaps the most certain it is difficult to stow them in the larger sizes because of their bulk. Lightships have the hawse pipe through the stem at or near the water line and the anchor can consebe housed securely without quently
fouling the the dished
ship's
side.
Sometimes
ing
bitts
in
small
single
vessels
the
are
or
double
towhard
wood
posts
These wooden
beam
against
their
after
sides.
hole
to
cut
in
blade
of
serves
take
the
shank.
ly
tackle.
is
The
by
size
all
anchors
specified
not in use. Sometimes a "billboard'' or sloping platform is built on each side of the deck close to the bow. The stocked anchor is then lashed in
place on the billboard and arranged to launch itself when a tripping device is released by pulling a lanyard.
Large tugs may have a mainmast to which is secured a strong steel hook for towing. The hawser is looped over this hook and a hinged "keeper bar" is closed over the hook opening so the hawser cannot jump
off
stating Bitts
their
weight
in
pounds.
the
hook.
bitts
The towing
are
located
aft
thus
the
far
discussed
are are
Bitts or "bollards" (Fig. 90-A to D) mainly used for towing or for large usually of
vessels.
of
deck house or
only
of
trunk
and
are
used
are
when
the
the
mooring
with
the
Towing
(Fig.
sides
bitts
towed
vessels
astern
one
cast
steel
90-A)
of a
bolts
to
With
chain
this
the
the
side
anchor anchor
to
two
posts
on
opposite
line.
Three
(a)
as
precautions
should
as
be
far
taken
vessel's
center
Strong
bitt
Locate the
so
bitts
forward
will
down
hawse
turns
over
pipe,
practicable
that
the
vessel
difficult
if
through
reto
not
steer
be
to
the
tow
the
on
deck.
is
however,
much
venient
stockless
as
less
than
con-
(b)
Make
the
the
using anc h o r s
a
deck
:
under
bits
towing
strong.
(c)
If
extra
below described.
is
Whenever
pipe
the vessel
does
in
much towing
sometimes
small
vessels
this
witha
the
bitts high
above
that
out
pipe,
stockless (Fig.
anchor
is
enough
deck
so
the
the
89-A-C)
This
is
hawser
may not
too
rail
used.
the
bear
on
the
mcst
prevalent
at
of
this
anchors
heavily at the
seas
stern, in
which case
following
would
deck.
come
deep
on
sea
with
at
chain
shackle
catat
upper
of
end,
ting
shackle
at
Large
point
balance
the
The
bout
in
deck equipment
is
given
71
72
They keeping it at a constant tension. also have a yoke or frame of structural or cast steel which guides the hawser to the bitts or towing engine
and keeps it raised above the stern rail. The towing hawser when not in use may be coiled on the ash grating over the rudder quadrant at the after end of the deck, or it may be reeled on
harbors
and
fairly
the
deck
set
and
securely
etc.
bolted
to
the
ters
the
barges
are
framing,
clamps, of bitts
are
usually
located
at
each
side
of
rail
the the
deck.
bitts
With
are
as
a
in
high
bulwark
(Fig. 90-B),
the
rail
on the deck center line near the bow, for riding at anchor or towing when backing away from the vessel being These bitts of steel or wood pulled. usually have the windlass secured to them in vessels up to about 130 feet long. Larger vessels have an independent windlass.
(/^)
.Deck
[S)
Niggerhead
on
Tugboats
head"
boats.
(Fig.
90-D)
is
common
of
steel
in
tug
This
may
be
bolted
on top of the deck and extending above the rail, or of wood as shown on the
sketch.
The
or
size
of a of
its
bitt
is
indicated
by
the
diameter
posts.
"Cleats"
cavels
(Fig.
lines
spars in the rigging. They are of cast steel or cast iron and their size is
stated
tip
as
tip
the
to
of
the
length horns.
at
in
inches
from
deck
When
the
on
they
inside
are
located
of
water
lead
Cham
I
way
margin.
The
the
>har)k
lines
from
on
mooring
bitts
i^-"''"'
F/ukti
''f:/^/..
(^J E/eyof/00
or "chocks" 91-B and C). "Mooring ports" or "Bulwarks Chocks" are similar to Fig. 89-F, but usually lead straight through instead of at an angle as shown for this special one which is at the bow. Open chocks (Fig. 91-B) are usually one forward and aft of each mooring bitt cleat. chocks or Closed (Fig. 91-C) are less frequently used due to
the
difficulty
of
passing
lines
them.
the line
to
through prevent
Vessels
are mostly
used
in
large
have
been
tF-J-P/i,
previously described. They are apt not to function if care is not taken to keep the roller well oiled and the pin clean.
@ yy@
FIG.
VL-^y
@ V ^,
PIPES
Roller
chocks
are
top of the
led
slide
If
rail aft
through on the
instead
rail
the
towing
spools
house
thus
weather.
All
ened locally to embrace them. Flanges on the bitt casting provide for bolting
securely to
the the
rail,
wooden bulwark
have towing bitts and hawsers for use in emergency. On the western rivers of th? United
States the towboats having stern paddle wheels push the barges which are se-
Sometimes
instead of
ings
ness.
bitt
has
rail in towing, there should be two half round or half oval iron bars on top of the rail to pre-
vent
two as shown
always
cored
are
excessive wearing of the wood. These guard irons are fastened to the rail log with countersunk head screws.
curely
against
lashed
the
together
wide
or an open
strong posts called "stack knees" (Fig. 90-E) brace the towboat bow against
the nest
90-C)
small
bitts
ordinary mooring bitts (Fig. may be used for towing. In wooden power boats the side
be
weather
Decks and housetops exposed to the are provided with means for
the rain
draining
or
sea
water
by
deck
"scuppers"
and
are
"freeing
of
barges.
may
hardwood
posts
through
Scuppers
openings
ports." the in
Anchors Tozving
at
Deck
Drainage
73
the
low points.
They
a
consist
of
deck
slotted
bronze
which carries
off
trunk tops have the pipes close to the house sides and turned outward at the bottom ends. Light upper decks with
perstructure decks and house tops have the scupper pipes discharge onto the The downcomer lowest weather deck.
pipes
1
the stanchions
supporting these
sides. in small boats
decks
is
the
vessel's
'E/eifaf/ot^
(A)
Cleat
are
of
to
2 inches
of
the
through
long
shal-
low
at intervals
of 6 or 8
deck.
edge
Deck
If ports cut into the log rail. is a ridge at the deck margin, caused by the deep margin planks, the
there
32.
Elevaf/on
Cfyoc/r
on/Tt/t/int/
f/evaf/of)
^/z>
'SjT-r
13)
elevation
n^i-j
\
CO
T/or,.
C/?oc/c
in
@
FIG.
waterway
lead
the
formed
is
drained
by
scupper openings
hold
with strainers.
Pipes
sides.
from these openings down into and out through the vessel's The main deck scuppers in steel
are
vessels
Tranti/er^e
S/er^/tn
usually
elliptical
to
fit
waterway angles and still be large enough to carry off the water. The lower end of the scupper pipe at the
between the
ship's
side
has
a a
or
propre-
through the scuppers. If scupper pipes have right angle turns in them, there is a screwed plug at each corner for
cleaning out
openings
free
in
quickly
the
of water which comes aboard The ports sometimes through waves. have a outhinged flap opening ward, but modern practice is to just a large opening and stiffen the edges with a bar. A grill of iron rods is fitted over such open ports.
cut
deck
FIG.
90 TOWING BITTS
A.ND
KNEES
74
Tiic
Work
Boats
Tyi>ical
"Ilandliner"
Fleet
of
Seine Fish-
ermen
liners
and
at
HandBoston
Fish
Pier.
and
Trawls.
There
to
Baiting are
400
Hooks
Each
Tub.
Unloading
at
Catch
Pier.
the
Fish
CHAPTER
Tanks
may
ing
liquid
XVI
Auxiliary
is
Mackinery
Quarters
tically
fuel,
CANKS
Large
potable
bricants,
welded and re-enforced by an exwelded on. The spherical form and may be welded or lap riveted to
ternal butt strap, also dished heads have a
protected
slotted
gravity plumbing
have parts of the hull especially constructed to form cargo, fuel and drinking water tanks. Such construction has been considered in previous articles. Concrete vessels also have their tanks formed by the hull.
steel vessels
the cylinder shell. All tanks should have filling pipes, drain pipes, gage pipes, vent pipes and manholes or hand holes.
Reflex gages consist glass columns. cf heavy plate glass in a metal frame. 'ihc front glass has vertical "V"
to
the out-
petroleum tanks and should liave a return bend at their upper end, fitted with a wire mesh screen. Naturally the vent should connect to the
Iiighest point in the tank.
grooves in it and causes the liquid to appear dark as it rises between the two glass plates. Float gages have a twisted metal ribbon extending from a horizontal dial in the tank top to
the
bottom
of
the
tank.
strip
The upper
Wooden
liquid
vessels
to
are
not
used
for
large
built
While cargo any extent. tanks have occasionally been in such hulls by calking the
ceiling
wooden
and
the
Filling pipes may lead to screw plates in the deck arranged to receive the contents of the tank through a hose or a large funnel with strainer.
If such a pipe is too long there is danger of its breakage through unequal expansion and vibrations of the hull and tank top. Therefore, the filling pipe sometimes ends just below the deck plug and has an independent Such a filling connection may cap. serve as a vent for water tanks if small holes are drilled just below the
has a needle attached. A small cork or hollow metal float slides up or down the ribbon as the level of liquid varies, but the float is prevented from turning by vertical guide rods. As a result the ribbon turns the pointer as the float rises or falls. Pneumericators are frequently in large tanks
and
that deterioration
is
As
hulls
use^ advantage of having the tank contents observed at some remote point.
afford
the
ments.
These
may have
sides,
properly formed to fit into the hull and re-enforced by stiffening plates, or else they may be cylindrical drums which are riveted or welded. Built-in tanks have their sides, top and bottom re-enforced by angle stiffeners at two-foot intervals, while transverse and longitudinal swash dia-
cap.
: ;
to
connections are for sucpipes to the point at which the tank contents are utilized or disSometimes a screw plug is charged. fitted to a flange at the lowest point so that the tank may be entirely
Drainage
tion
type of measuring instrument used and are sometimes dispensed with if the contents are measured through the
filling
pipe
by means of a calibrated
In
this
phragms
liquid
spaced
six
to
twelve
feet
sounding rod.
case a small
contents.
to
re-enforcing plate should protect the tank bottom where the rod strikes.
holes
is
through
cut the
The kind
of gages
depend upon
size
emptied and dried out. Sediment chambers may be fitted to fuel tank discharge lines to catch and retain impurities or foreign matter. The suction is at a point near the top of such chambers and a clean out plug is at the bottom. This precaution is not considered necessary if
the fuel
is strained through fine copper screen as the tank is fitted.
away
heads are flanged to the side plates and the plate edges should be planed before
flat
"wash."
The
tubular
danger
are
subject
to
and
should
be
bends
calking.
foundation timsupport the tanks as indicated while chocks at the sides and ends prevent lateral motion. For painting or coating of tanks see Article XII. Cylindrical tanks are composed of a rolled shell with a lap riveted longitudinal seam and or "bumped" "dished" heads. Some tanks are "seamless welded," meaning that they
bers or
"cradles"
consist
Heavy
transverse
ends
two deep capsule shaped circumferential seam at the middle of the length. This seam
of
with
FIG.
02 FUICL
Oil
75
76
be connected
long
to
when needed.
being
The
sufto
lamps should be
insure
able
FtUinj
see
amination or repairs.
If
electric
power
ties
at
the
up,
and
with
voltage of the ship's circuit agrees that on shore, it is well to fit plugs outside the deckhouse so that
current
lines
if
may
tended periods.
Furl
Pipe
'Z^ a^
Guard Strips
i^,-j..:a^^ga
OfCK Plate
The wiring on decks and elsewhere except in the living quarters should be in metal conduit, with standard metal junction boxes. Wood molding may be used in the living spaces.
filling Pipt
DfTAIL /IT /I &C/IRD STRIPS VVHCPE FUEL SUPPLt PIPE TO EN&IHE CROSSES FLOOR
fig.
^Drein Pluf
5DIMe'mT CHflMPE/f
Filling Pipe
(b)
water
breaking the pipes and Valves and pipes should be within access at all times and clearance around the outside of tanks should be sufRcient to permit of cleaning and painting the tanks and surstraining or connections.
The caway. pacity of the set varies with the number of lights on the vessel. A storvessel
is
not
under
tanks,
(c)
fixtures, fire lines,
tions, etc.
age battery
line"
is
No pipes rounding hull structure. should be threaded to the tank plating, but riveted flanges of cast steel or heavy plating should take the screwed connections.
Auxiliary machinery for hoisting purposes has been discussed in a That for pumping, previous article. lighting and miscellaneous purposes is
located in the engine
may
tor
is
afford current
idle.
The main engines are usually fitted with two water pumps of the plunger or the centrifugal type, driven from
the
crankshaft these
or
the
camshaft.
the
One
water
room
of
if
possible
engine.
and
is
usually
part
the
other nonconducting material is fitted near the generator and has the usual volt meters, ammeters, rheostat, switches, fuses, ground lights, automatic cutouts, etc. The various circuits should be arranged to lead direct from the switchboard and to be indeThis is particularly impendent. portant in the case of the running
liglits
of
for
pumps
circulates
draws
It engine cylinders. from overboard supply through a sea connection on the hull, Be careful near the turn of bilge.
its
cooling the
that this location will provide against danger of stopping up due to the ves-
will
always
strainer
"tell-
tale" should
Electric generating sets vary from one-half to five kilowatts capacity and are
the
helmsman
if
the pipe opening to prevent from entering and clogging the A pipe line to the circulating pump.
solids
covers
All running
driven
by
combination
for
electric
chain or belt from the main engines. Independent sets of standard com-
valve in the suction pipe, close to the sea connection, provides for closing off the sea water in case of damage
to the pipe line, or
if
the
pump
is
to
location
run-
mercial
makes
are
preferable,
since
they do not require running the main engine if light is desired when the
regulated by the
be used for draining the bilges. The cooling water passes from the
circulating
ets
of
Navigation,
pump
and
discharges
line.
overboard
at
or
varj'
Cani/a5
PAclfin* In
White Lend
the
Frequently the cooling water discharge pipe is tapped into the exhaust pipe from the mam
near the water
engine.
latter
considered
ample
boat,
less
for
the
their
average
small
work
since
The
power consumption
is
and they
InM Valve
Hvtl
Plank, n^
Lights in the living quarters should Frosted be tasteful and ornamental. globes add to their attractiveness and
soften their glare.
in machinery spaces, pasLights holds and on deck are in vapor tight fixtures ard should be guarded
water pump may be arranged to draw from the bilges by connecting to the This gives the boat bilge manifold.
additional
of
pumping
facilities
in
case
emergency, when the sea injection valve may be closed and the bilge
water discharged through the cylinder
jackets of the main engine.
sages,
by
wire.
In
FHOM
5ei\
holds and tank spaces, plugs be fitted so that portable hand lights
cargo should
not
in
fitted
larly
the
as
bilge
pump,
drawing
directly
Tanks
from the bilge suction pipe lines and It may also discharging overboard. be piped to the sea connection which admits water to the circulating pump, and thus used to provide sea water on deck for washing down or fire purposes.
77
sign and the observance of due precaution when in service. Most fires
fuel
the
fuel
pipes
is
and
fittings
fifty
because no allowance
made
the
Hot water systems require an expansion tank located in the top of the engine room or the stack. This tank has an overflow connection to the deck outside and is piped to the radiators and to the cool water inlet of the heater. The heater should be below the
top
of
level
feet
vibration
and
have an auxiliary gasoline engine which drives a generator and sometimes an air compressor and water pump as well. This pump is piped to the bilges, the fire and deck service and the sanitary service, through a manifold in the engine room. A. hand-operated bilge pump should be fitted on all power boats.
length
usually
expansion,
or
of the radiators
pipes and
repair.
(c)
the
flammable gases
age.
through the radiators to the expansion tank and then down to the heater
again. coal bin
or fuel
tank
is
located
fol-
piped to flush closets, urinals, for water supply to baths, wash bowls and even for cooking purposes, on boats operating
sanitary
The
system
is
The first of these causes will be taken up under ventilation; the second has been discussed under fuel piping and the third may be avoided as follows. Fit a sheet metal drip pan
under
the
all
The heater
lowing
is
fittings:
Thermometer,
Pressure gage.
Water
fuel
black
copper, and of width and depth to catch and retain all drip from the machine under
engines. or galvanized
or
Damper,
Drain plug.
Air
relief
valves
should
be
on
all
which
installed.
slight
drainage
Sttniner
slope should be given the bottom of the pan and there should be a large well or "sump" at the low end, from
bailed
ili</e
o/ Hull
may
be galvanized
^
DETAIL OF
SOIL PIPE DlSCHHROE
Sheet
fieitl
Scren/ed
COHNECriOH
Ncie: Prain f>it>es Scupper Outlet J jre'H
*bue WW not h
and
leirels
pumps, supplying pressure starting the main engines, blowing the whistle, affording a head in the water or fuel tanks when these are low
Air
for
Flanged
DET/\\L OF
down
in fresh water.
in
the
hull,
are
sometimes
radiators and the entire system should be carefully drained through cocks at the low points, in case the vessel is laid up during freezing weather.
in
sea
water
for
flushing
and
Power
should
waters
have
some
purposes. Pressure
provided through overhead gravity tank which may on top of the deck house or the cabin trunk. Connections to the sanitary supply tank are a filling pipe, a discharge line, an overflow, a vent pipe
is
an be
system. When small oil flame heaters, securely fastened to the deck may be in each compartment to be heated. The deck and bulkheads near all heaters should
form
of
similar
except
may
be
to
fitted in the
heated com-
be
and a drain plug. It is essential that the tank be protected against freezing. Boats with a ventilating stack may
have the tank
in
this.
protected against the heat by a sheet of asbestos board covered with sheet metal.
partments
Larger boats
have
central
heating
plants of the hot water or steam type, with piping to the radiators in heated
spaces.
on brackets, to cast iron, pressed steel or brass ones of the upright or the wall type. Pilot house radiators and
piping within ten feet of the compass should be brass, because of the effect
of iron
Mention has been made of pipe connections on deck for washing down and fire uses. Brass capped plugs at the sides of deck houses, with hose racks on the bulkheads nearby, should be on boats from about 75 feet long
Vessels smaller than this upward. have fire buckets in racks on deck and chemical fire extinguishers, located where readily reached in case of
fire.
or
oil
may burn
in
coal
room or the galley. ized or black iron smoke pipe carries the heater gases to the stack, when
such
is
the
or
steel
on
the
magnetic
needle.
Otherwise the smoke pipe projects above the cabin or trunk and has a metal cap or hood to exfitted.
on
clude
rain
water.
hood
turns
with
the
this
in-
pipes from machinery and on all hot pipes where extreme temperature will endanger personal safety or result in
loss in efficiency. Tubular boilers
Fire Losses
Are Preventable
The majority
of fire losses in
creasing the draft by ejection effect. There should be about one square foot of heating surface in the radiators to each fifty or seventy cubic
feet of space to
gined vessels sometimes derive their heat from the exhaust gases of the
main
engines,
be heated.
auxiliary
78
Tlic
Work Boats
ply for these
is usually from the sea, on salt water ships fresh water is from the ships' tanks and salt water i.; provided as well. Lavatories and sinks in galleys or pantries should have spring faucets to minimize waste of water. They discharge into the soil pipes and some-
but
/ce Paoi^
;?
Oi/re."
^
^/^
?^ij^
I
!
r rr
fixtures
above mentioned
I'
LJUl
should be of porcelain enameled iron, with nickeled brass fittings so they can be kept clean and sanitary.
Hand pumps
linings, are fitted to galley sinks (he fresh water supply system.
from
FIG.
95 Bt'ILT-IX
of
liKFRIfiERATOK
I.N
Vessels
this
type
use
electrical
auxiliaries,
close to the ship's side and to the source of water supply as practicable. Lavatory and toilet spaces should be easily entered without undue disturb-
In sone harbors the discharge of waste from plumbing fi.xtures is prohibitive and vessels navigating such waters require a large tank in the liold. The waste matter from these tanks is forced overboard by com-
pressed air, steam, or a pump for that purpose, after the vessel has got away from the prohibitive waters.
Plumbing Fixtures
Plumbing fixtures are too often not installed where their presence would introduce low additional cost while affording real comfort and sanitary
This applies to nearly all power workboats, which should at least have a self-flushing water closet and lavatories with running water.
surroundings.
ance of the privacy of living quarters. Water supply pipes may be galvanized wrought iron, with valves having bronze stems and seats. Discharge or "soil" pipes may be wrought iron or
lead, terminating in cast iron flap valves at or near the water line on the
If the pipes have bends (which should be avoided) there should be a clean-out plug at each turn in the
hull.
Messing Equipment
Messing equipment
to
is
that
devoted
rooms and
serving of the food. Canned food supplies or those such as rice, beans, flour, sugar, etc., which
crew is quartered on board imperative that bathing and galley plumbing fixtures be fitted; for a clean and well fed crew means a neat
If
the
pipeline.
it
is
The deck
never be of
in
toilet
wood
to
which tends
odors.
ship.
bowls should always be located in a well lighted and ventilated space, partitioned off from the rest of the living quarters by odor There should be at tight bulkheads. least one bowl for every twelve or
closet
"soil"
Water
Tiling in cement or plain cement are best suited for such decking.
keep relatively long without refrigeration, are termed "drystores." Lockers or storerooms with shelves and bins for such stores may be located in the liold and should be dry and well ventilated.
Wooden
against getting
decks
the
should
be
of
likelihood
protected moisture
The discharge or persons. pipe should be large (at least three inches in diameter). Too much
fifteen
emphasis cannot be laid on this point, for clogged bowls are a cause of dissatisfaction and disgust. The flushing water should be taken from the sea and the bowls located above the load This will water line if practicable.
eliminate the necessity for pump type closets if the boat has a sanitary presBowls if below the sure system.
having a watertight sheet lead, zinc or galvanized iron pan fitted tightly all around the compartment and extending at least up onto the bulkheads. This "flashed" metal should extend at least six inches above the Plain cetop of the tile or cement. ment decks in toilet spaces should have portable gratings of oak or ash.
Vegetables should be placed in boxes or bins, in the open air if possible but with covered tops. Such vegetable lockers may be located on top of the cabin or trunk to which they are securely fastened. They consist of oak or pine slats with a raingrilled
proof hinged top. Vegetable lockers of strong wire mesh are desirable in
larger vessels. Small bins or
jars in the to provide an
galley
should be
diate
fitted
imme-
The corners
water
line,
should always be
of
the
pump
and
type.
should be generously rounded (coved) and drainage provided at the low corners by scupper openings having perforated brass strainers. Pipes discharge from these scuppers into the soil pipes or the deck scupper pipes.
supply for cooking. Perishable supplies such as fruit, eggs and other dairy products, meats,
etc.,
These
reached from the galley and may be either built into the ship or of standard commercial type strongly secured in place.
shoiild
be
easily
Urinals are fitted in larger vessels should be of a type readily cleaned, not subject to clogging.
All
sanitary
fixtures
Where
fitted,
these
bathtubs should
or
showers
located
are
be
apart
2..S
from the
should
be
as
toilet spaces and should have running hot or cold water. The sup-
CHAPTER
XVII
arrangement where there is a separate galley, is to have the refrigerator in one corner with its top just below the
in
vessels with diesel engines or in large vessels. The burner atomizes the fuel
a
selves.
compartment
within
them-
trunk.
The
and cold stores may be passed through a window directly into such
Still
carbon
chloride
or
sulphur dioxide, ethyl dense air as the cooling The smallest of such maa
capacity
a box.
of
of
ice
by
electric
They
on the main deck may have a door in the deck house at the refrigerator. Both these arrangements prevent the
soiling
by air, steam or mechanical means. Coal ranges are usually fitted in vessels above 100 feet long. There is a fuel locker close to such ranges and they have a tank attached for heating water. This may be piped to the hot water sanitary system if desired.
All ranges are securely fastened in place by screws, angle lugs, or stay rods. There is a nickeled guard rail on top of the ranges to prevent pots
of
interior
of
the
cabin
or
combustion mowalls
trunk
when stocking up
Drystorcs
tors.
The
outside
refrigerator
are
of steel or
grooved,
thick.
Canned food supplies or those such as rice, beans, flour, sugar, etc., which
keep relatively long without refrigeration, are termed "drystores." Lockers or storerooms with shelves and bins for such stores may be located in the
tJtjTeiv
The
has
building tarpaper layer layer of insulating material paper. four is inside the paper and is from
of
or
and pans from sliding ofif. The deck and bulkheads near ranges are protected against the heat by sheet asbestos covered with galvanized iron.
to
thick.
is
The
best
of
Jma^th^^*s
off
pure
block
cork,
usually fitted
two layers with the Sometimes a secseams staggered. ond layer of thick paper is between the two thicknesses of cork, while a
final
always inside the Ground pressed insulating cork, mineral wool or even air cells are often used to form the refrigerator walls but these are not recomThe insulation should be mended. packed tightly and fastened by ce-
paper coat
is
material.
FIG.
86 CONSTRUCTION OF KEFRIGERATOR
DOOR
Beside the ranges, sink and plumbhave food for cooking. This dresser may serve as a mess table with hinged stools attached or arranged to stow undering thus far mentioned, galleys dressers for preparing the raw
neath.
Lockers
and
drawers
under
hold and should be dry and well ventilated. in Vegetables should be placed boxes or bins, in the open air if possible but with covered tops. Such vegetable lockers may be located on top of the cabin or trunk to which
ment, not by nails or other metal fastenThe inside ings zvhich conduct heat.
refrigerator
jjorcelain
grilled
Racks and age for cooking utensils. shelves on the bulkheads are provided for the dishes. These shelves have covered fronts with a Y-shaped slot
walls
are
of
sheet
zinc,
they are securely fastened. They consist of oak or pine slats with a rain
them so that dishes are put in at the top and cannot slide out when on the shelf. Cups and other china dishes
in
Vegetable lockers proof hinged top. of strong wire mesh are desirable in
larger
vessels.
from
hooks
layers.
There-
should be at the top of the box to insure circulation. The air in refrigerators should be kept
as dry as possible.
If ice is used it is placed in the upper part of the refrigerator on a metal shelf which has pipe drains to Air spaces above and at the bilges.
The decking of galleys in small boats may be linoleum, while in larger ones it is usually tile.
galley there
cooking. supply Galley ranges vary from small blue flame kerosene stoves with one or
for
two burners
oil
to
meals are not served in the may be a saloon, although this is not common in workboats. Berthing accommodations are not needed in boats which have short runs
it
When
or coal.
a
but
ities
is
the
sides
of
the
ice
provide
cooling
circulation.
Refrigerator doors are double rabSmall beted with rubber gaskets. boats may have refrigerator boxes opening on top located in the holds
or under locker seats.
with sheet metal so that the stove is out of the way when not in use. A small fuel tank is usually fitted to such kerosene stoves and sometimes there is a small
in
drawer lined
convenient
hand operated air pump to generate pressure in the tank. Oil burning ranges use fuel oil of
ro
emergency use. To this end hinged bunks of galvanized pipe may be installed in the forehold or even in the wings of the engine room. The berths may have lashed canvas or spring bottoms and mattresses. Bedfor
ding
is
Sometimes cushioned
80
Paf-.
Small iron, galvanized or painted. cowls on yachts are sometimes of polished brass. The cowl is mounted on a fixed trunk fastened to the deck by an angle ring. This trunk may extend to any desired distance below the deck and the part below the deck ring may
be circular or rectangular. Sometimes it is necessary to offset the trunk below decks so it will not prove an obstruction.
PLAN
\//Ewa/=^
eLEyirif^
W/ND
99 VENTILATING EQUIPMENT
is
tor trunk
PIC
and the upper edge projects the slightly beyond the bottom of opening. The metal forming the cowl and welded or riveted to is bumped A pipe or half round bar split shape. re-enforces the edges of the cowl
opening.
Types of Windchutes
form-
cushing berths when extended. The ions are designed to fit the extended transom and serve as mattresses. Cushions are filled with hair or buoyant fibre such as kapok. They may be
Mushroom
Ventilators
in
cargo
ventilators are not "wind catchers" as is the case with the cowl They are merely "up comers," type. meaning that they release impure air
Mushroom
vessels and are simply a long canvas trunk which has an opening near the
top.
Wing
flaps
at
the
sides
of
the
and shelving drawers Lockers, should be provided wherever possible or by utilizing unoccupied corners
spaces under berths and
seats.
but do not admit a fresh supply. They consist of a short pipe fastened to the A screw deck with an angle ring. down cap covers the top of this pipe and seats on a watertight rubber
opening help catch the air and force down through the trunk. The enit
tire
A central gasket or a ground joint. rod with acme or square screw threads in a guide is turned from below by a
handwheel or crank, thus raising or
canvas windchute is suspended from the mast or rigging by its hooded top and the lower end passes through a hatch into the compartment which is being aired out.
Airport
windchutes
be
are
of
galvan-
and deopen
of the
Means
of
Ventilation
for ventilation are:
The
(a)
usual
means
(c)
Cowl
ventilators,
(6)
mushroom
(d)
ventilators,
wind chutes,
(c)
vent
skylights
and
or
Cowl
ventilators
may
be
fixed
to be turned portable and are arranged 'into the wind" by shafting and gears
The cap projects lowering the cap. over and down around the outside of the pipe, so the vent may be opened Mushroom slightly in rainy weather. vents may be of cast steel or bronze. They are usually fitted over toilet mild spaces or living quarters where
circulation of the air
is
signed
airports
hull.
to
pushed
through
so
deflected
compartments
by ship chandlers
preferable to
COy^l VENTILATOR
A7U3Hf?OOM
VNT/LATOf?-
"goosenecks" are pipes or tank over spaces and consist placed of standard pipe extending above the deck with a return bend at the top. A standard pipe flange connects the
Vent
Forced ventilation
large
tional
is
employed on
the
in
convena
sys-
power
workboat.
Such
tem has a central blower plant taking air from vent cowls and forcing it to
remote spaces in the hull through sheet metal ducts or conduits.
H/INOiBS To
MerAL
few of the cardinal principles of might well be discussed and should be borne in mind when designing power workboats.
ventilation
First:
Warm
down
and
impure
air.
air
Is
lead
well
into
ventilated
compartment, therein. open from the highest points but poor exhaust form good Skylights
MANPUe To Tuan Firam Bei. oiv^
FIG.
while
exhaust
vents
supply ventilators.
98 VRNTILATING EQUIPMENT
Second:
The motion
of air currents
81
FxAne-}
=iES=
/'
r
H/N6P -P/P^ S^f^TH-
X-I.
c/fi^fi
3^1^ r/f^
5LIPIN(S
TRAN50M B^PTM
FIG.
is
from
aft
forward so
be
at
that
after
supply
vents
should
the
ex-
Fourth: Gasoline fumes are heavier than air and tend to accumulate in
the
bilges.
end
of
compartments and
haust vents at the forward ends. Third: A mild air current well distributed is more eflective than a
and see that the circulation is diagonally upward by staggering the supply and exhaust vents about the compartment's centerline.
Arrange
in
for
circulation
engine or fuel tank spaces by using an open rather than a ceiled type of structure.
low
down
82
llARY
p.
Equipped with 80-horsepower Wolverine engine. Patrick Murphy This has been the most successful craft in New England waters
CHAPTER
XVIII
taken
to
worm and
chemicals
mostly
^i
Wood
"fungi." in the
their
protect
a
the
structure
When
against
various
elements
marine growth and animals. Steel will corrode, decompose by electrolic action or become fouled with marine growth. First consider briefly the causes and
prevention of decomposition in wood. Decay is brought about by micro"molds" or called plants scopic
properly sheathed with metal, hulls not attacked by the teredo or the wood louse that other insect, The teredo is not found (limnoria). in cooler salt waters (temperatures below SS degrees), nor in brackish
are
Creosote
Creosote
coal tar)
tives.
it
is
Best Preservative
oil
(creosote
is
or dead
oil
of
waters.
is
The wood
coasts
of
It
louse
New
and
Mexico
states.
subject to taint) and the living quarters are remote from the treated timbers. Vessels such as shal-
cargo
These
tiny
organisims grow
as
parasites,
lives
only
in
kill
pure
it.
salt
low
draft
lighters
or
self-propelled
wood
fiber
and
water.
How
to
Prevent Decay
barges, which do not carry cargo in The the holds, may be creosoted. wood should be cut and trimmed to
fit
wood
is
constantly
kept subIf
merged
the
in water,
is
it
Prevention of decay in timber has its initial step in seasoning ot drying out the moisture from the green
before
being
treated.
It
is
then
creosoted.
moist atmosphere at ordinary temperatures, it will decay If moisture is held in the rapidly. wood and cannot escape (as when green timber is painted) decay will set
in a
in.
wood
wood.
Green wood contains from half to three-quarters of its total weight in water. Seasoned wood (air dried) has from 10 to 20 per cent of its dry This reweight in contained water.
duction
the
of moisture content lessens tendency for fungi to grow and assures a minimum of shrinkage and
Creosote is a by-product from the manufacture of coke or illuminating It is the residuum of tar after gas. Its the light oils have distilled off. chemical composition is very involved. It varies in weight as purchased and
Sapwood
Different
decays
more
rapidly
The the heavier grades are the best. timber to be treated has the coal tar
creosote
forced
into
its
wood
cells
Forms of Decay
rot",
warp
after
becoming
being
air
part
dried
of
the
a
under pressure.
as "carbolineum" are applied with the brush as substitutes for creosote.
Different
rot",
rot",
vessel's structure.
"brown
latter
is
Timbers
The
not seriously detrimental to strength of the timber and occurs in the sapwood of pine or other evergreens. Such timber is treated by dipping into a solution of 5 per cent solution of carbonate of soda heated between 130 and ISO degrees Fahr. Decay which exists in the heartwood of living trees, ceases when the tree is cut and does not spread to other sound pieces of wood nearby.
is tendency to split or "check." minimized by painting or creosoting the ends of the logs, or else by driving "S" shaped wedges about J^-inch thick at the base onto the log ends. Small timbers are sometimes put into a concentrated salt solution where they remain from a day to a week to
have This
of
seasoned
and
cut
timber
is
ducts and
cells in the
wood and
Softwoods which are exposed to the weather wear away. This is known
as
"weathering."
Where
various
the
Teredo Works
of
checking while seasoning. They may be dried in bone charcoal which also prevents checking. Kiln drying is usually done in a large heated and ventilated building through which the lumber passes in successive steps. It comes in at one end as green wood and leaves at the other end of the building in seasoned condition. Soft woods can be dried
prevent
their
forced in to replace it. There are various methods for performing the
processing, some more economical as regards use of the fluid or less apt to break down the structure of the wood
Surface Preservatives
preservative coatings are divided into (a) fillers, paints, (c) varnishes.
Surface
for
(b)
wood
kinds in the salt waters of warm climates which attack wood by The teredo worm is best boring. known of these. It has a hard horny
head, a long
of gills.
more
tures
than hard
Fillers
pores
of
of strength.
in
tail
do not
When it has penetrated the surface of a timber, the teredo works along the grain and does not cross seams which have been tarred or
calked.
compounds
to
Fresh water
kills
the
teredo
moisture and decay or by coating with elastic waterproof pigments. The saturating process is little used in boat building, the preservative
exclude
ments, etc., they will not be discussed here. Paints for wooden surfaces contain
a basic
with an
83
84
the level at which the This line is the upper limit of the "boot topping." The hull below water if not sheathed with metal, should get at
above
boat
floats.
least
two coats
of
good copper
this
paint,
but do
surfaces.
not apply
hull
paint
to
iron
The
a priming coat and two finishing coats of the selected color. Black, white, dark green are the usual hull colors
used
is
for
work
boats.
Boot topping
wood decks, gratings and trim are usually finished natural. All these except decks and
gratings should be varnished.
FIG.
Deck houses and superstructure are sometimes of the same color as the hull above water. Often lighter shades are used, white, gray, reds and buffs being most frequently employed. Canvas decks are finished in grays or
buff
White lead, zinc white (oxide of zinc) and leaded zincs (mixtures of zinc oxide and sulphate of lead) are used for the pigments. The lead and zinc pigments are mixed in best paints because zinc alone sometimes causes check and scale, while lead gives rise to scales or blisters. These basic pigments in paint are improved by adding small percentages of finely ground crystal salts, barium sulphate (barytes), oxide of silicon (silex) and aluminum silicate (climaclay), being most often used.
obtained by adding colored pigments, the more usual of which are lampblack, umbre, ochre, sienna, chrome yellow and Prussian
desired tint
is
Turpentine is the most commonly used paint thinner although petroleum distillates of about the same weight and quickness of evaporation sometimes give good results. Driers when mixed with
tract
after
laying.
Spars are usually varnished. Stacks may be any distinctive color with markings or insignia. Life boats are of the same color as deck houses.
Rails,
fixed
paint
at-
awnings,
life
rings,
etc.,
oxygen
the drying.
be
in
light
such
as
Varnishes are made by melting tree gums in oil and thinning with turFor outside work use a pentine. "long oil" varnish, i.e. one containing
a
Two
or
three
all
coats
are
the
usual
practice for
painted
surfaces.
large
oil.
amount
of
oil.
The
to
best in-
The
amounts
select
a
When
mills
it
of
The
best
way
varnish
or
steel is received from the has a coating of "mill scale" iron oxide which protects it
blue.
Pure raw linseed oil is the best for general paint use on wood. It causes rapid drying and gives a hard finish. Boiled and raw oils are mixed for
metallic paints. for Substitutes
linseed
oil
of the user or his friends. Many socalled "varnishes" are not at all satis-
After being built into temporarily. the hull most of this scale has rusted
off.
Wooden Hulls
is
clean the contact surface with wire brushes and apply a thick coating of red lead or other steel
together,
The following
are
the
a brief
outline
of
for
usual
parts
painting
boats.
of
procedure
structure
to
menhaden
is
fish
it
oil,
paints because
wooden work
All
the
be
apt
to
darken
oil
and to take
is
dust.
China
wood
used
for
water
after proofing paints being tested with driers by heating. Corn oil and cotton seed oil are sometimes used but dry very slowly. Injurious effects are brought about by use of petroleum or rosin oils. These tend to produce checks and dry slowly. Paints are sometimes sold in paste form to be thinned when used by addChief among these are zinc ing oil. iron and lead oxide pastes.
is bought dry as a rule mixed with free litharge to About 10 get best protective results. to IS percent of litharge is added to the red lead and causes the forma-
permanently covered over, such as where timbers are joined or on the inside of hull and outside of ceiling
in
made
red
lead
The first coat is the or other selected anticorrowhich parts above water
finishing
re-
sive, after
ceive
sired
two
color.
final
coats
of
the
line
deis
painted
before
assembling.
wood and
steel surfaces
The
"anti
coat below
water
a thick coating of red or white lead and a layer of tar felt should be used. All surfaces to be painted should Knots be smooth. sand-papered should be touched up with shellac. Wood bruises caused by heads of fastenings should be plugged with wood All large or puttied up if small. calking and filling of seams should be done before painting begins.
if
fouling" paint containing chemicals, principally mercury oxides, iron oxides and zinc oxides dissolved in
and alcohol. Anti fouling dry quickly and can be put on during a day in drydock. The usual marine growths are retarded in
shellac
paints
Red
lead
and
is
First
fill
all
seams
fair
over
calking,
plane
the
surface
the
and
mark on
"water
line"
smooth, which is
by these paints, but the effect wears off and the paint must be renewed after the steel has been scraped, usually once every six or nine months.
Wooden
hulls
to
be
used
in
salt
85
infested
be
by sheathed
with
tzi
only
metal
sheathing.
It
is
the
prohibitive
cost
of
Yellow metal (copper alloys) has also found extensive use. For power workboats an excellent metal and inexpensive relatively
sheathing This has
greater
less
is
galvanized
sheet
iron.
ing subsequent obstacles. All metal sheathing is from 1/32inch (about No. 20 B. & S. gage) to
1/16 inches thick.
The wooden
coated
limit of
hull
is
with
thick
pitch
This is the metal sheathing. usually from 4 to 12 inches above the A layer of tar felt load water line. is sometimes used under the sheathing
instead of pitch. The metal sheets are then fastened on with tacks of similar material.
Care should be taken that all seams and are tight. No buckles should be in the sheathing and this is avoided by fastening successive sheets
lap
FIG.
SIIE.4THING IS FITTED
ON WOODEN HULLS
to
area
of
each
Sometimes
if
the
sheathing
is
on
too tightly it will split after the vessel has been launched. This is due to
expansion of the hull planking when absorbing a certain amount of sea water. If there is no danger of damage to the wood from borers where the boat is built, it is well to launch
the
hull
later
sheathing is used, or if of iron when copper or brass sheathing is fitted, protection against galvanic action in salt water should be provided by using zinc strips on the iron or steel bronze. the or copper parts near These strips are rapidly eaten away and must be renewed about every six or nine months when the boat is It 'S best to avoid this drydocked. source of weakness by making all underwater fittings of the same or
electrically
and the sheathing for attached parts is put on after they have been fastened
in
in place.
(Fig. 101).
Wood
large wooden ships and is still often employed on barges or very heavy workboats. It is usually of the
same wood
is
fitted
the
those
as the hull planking and with the seams and butts of sheathing planks staggered with
of
the
hull
timbers.
(Fig.
102).
similar
metals.
are
as
Wooden
the
rudders
sheathed
the
hulls
in
sheathing is bolted to the planking and is of about half the hull Thick pitch is applank thickness.
plied
The
before haul
and
is
applied
sheathing
to
hull
and
the
wood
before delivery.
Where
Galvanic
How
If
to
Prevent
Action
used,
they
heads
break
oflf
frequently.
The
hull
attach the sheathing to the hull planks and should not extend through the
latter.
sheathing should therefore be between these appendages and the hull itself
soted
advantage.
86
Tlie
Work Boats
16 ton Auxiliary Schooner owned by Capt. S. B. Carrying a cargo of 200 bushels of potatoes. Mainpower plant four cylinder 40 H, P. Frisbie engine equipt with a Paragon Reverse Gear. In service seven years.
"
Bushnell.
CHAPTER XIX
How
CONCRETE
larly
in
as a boat building material has been employed to some extent for years, particu-
boats.
The
The amount of water used has a marked effect on the ultimate strength, best results being when the mixture starts to flow on a slope of
35
plained in books on naval architecture as previously noted. In these calculations the vessel
is
taken as a
of
is
float-
ing girder
tion
secde-
degrees
is
vessels have
shown
will just
may
sels
practically eliminated
alone
compression
in
but
weak
are
in
tension.
Steel rods or
mesh
,the
are
highly
of
satisfactory.
When
little
therefore
imibedded
M
Here
foot
== c
mass and so
disitributed
as to absorb
M
the
is
the bending
unit
moment
tensile
in
known
this
material
work, such results would warrant a hearty endorsement of concrete small boats of every type, especially if numbers are constructed from
the
ship seem to
in
This steel is called the "re-enforcing" and concrete so Strengthened is termed "re-enforced
concrete."
tons.
is
S
I
maximum
stress.
or
compressive
is
same design.
advertised boats widely have been crudely designed although successful with respect to strength, carrying capacity and seaworthiness. This may have resulted in a popular
Several
impression that graceful designs cannot be made of concrete. As a matter of fact, the concrete vessel can be as well designed as those of other
Sheering strains are also absorbed by the steel rods which run in two directions; longitudinally and transversely. Sometimes wire mesh or metal lath is used in conjunction with steel rods to prevent formation of hair cracks. The steel should be well protected against corrosion since it will expand and crack
or "spawl" the surrounding concrete and give rise to rust streaks. There is no danger of this if the rods are
at a
the
moment
of
inertia
of
the
midship section.
is the distance from neutral axis extreme upper or lower point of the section under stress. For cargo vessels and others of
to
ordinary
form,
M =
is
Where
tons,
30 to 35
the
displacement
in
L
30
is
result
striven
for
since
the
origin of shipbuilding.
Concrete
land
itself is a
mixture of Port-
from the surface and have been well coated with the cement. Pockets and porous spots are avoiided by tamping the concrete around the steel and
vibrating
the
or 35
For
hold
depth
20.
the
low as
cement with coarser aggregate such as sand and gravel or stone. In marine work, lighter materials are sometimes substituted for the sand and gravel, thus lightening the conin loss appreciable In an ideal concrete the strength. particles forming the mass are grad-
rods
is
during pouring.
Since there
unit stress S is taken as 16,000 pounds per square inch tension for
The
mine
or
crete
without
not
ed as to
the
terial
size,
the
voids
are
between
filled
strength
First
load,
resisting
local
strains.
re-enforcing steel and 850 pounds per square inch compression for conThe section of greatest sheer crete. is at about one-fourth of the length from each end. The greatest allowable sheering stress is 250 to 300 pounds per square inch in the concrete.
the
usual
weight,
buoyancy,
and that the cement fills the smallest voids and thoroughly coats each particle in the mass. The ingredients are mixed with water to a pasty consistency, then poured between wooden molds or "forms" and allowed to harden or
by the
bending curves are calculated for both light and load displacements with the vessel assumed floating on a wave whose length from crest to crest equals
that of the vessel.
sheer
and
moment
hogging
or
sagging.
Transverse frames are not but should be spaced as determined from local
"slab" calculations.
face
is
Here the
hull sur-
clearly ex-
87
88
Then
(see
strength
formulas
upward
total
on re-enforced concrete) the stresses and proportions of concrete and steel are
Johnson"
determiined.
&
After the in round bars). sectional area of steel has been calculated to withstand the tensile
of
where best results are desired should be referred to some competent authority on the subject of concrete vessels.
and
number
are
de-
Fig.
103
is
typical
section
of
Deck
are
strains
in
slab
calculations
none are
from deck loads or if head of water of four feet may be taken on the main deck as representing a wave which
obtained
carried, a
by dividing this required total area by the area per rod of the size. selected Usually it is most economical to use rods between J^" and %" in diameter. Larger rods are used in stanchions and framing.
rived
concrete
the
hull
under
construction
on
Notice that the building ways. concrete hull with its reinforcing bars and structural framing is encased in wooden molds or "forms" which are
supported
trusses
combined
downward
thrust
of
Smaller rods are used in hulls of unusual thinness (less than 154" thick).
The
forms
exact
inner
is
the
outside
deck load and the side thrust of the water outside, whose head is equal to
of
re-enfor-
molded depth. Bottom loads are net from downward weight of hold cargo, downward thrust of deck load through and stanchions and upward sides thrust of buoyancy on outside due to head equaling the molded depth. In all calculations the number of steel rods is found by assuming them
the
to be of standard commercial diameters (from one-sixteenth of an inch
The
theories
for
medium
sized vesthick
fitted
strength of re-enforced concrete are complex and cannot be discussed here at length. Prospective builders or owners are recalculations
from 5^-inch
to 2-inch
pine or
ferred
typical
to
the
numerous
on
articles
and
scaffolding out-
concrete ship design published within the past year. Radical departures from these deplans
signs
out material
or
even
conventional
ships
framing
to pre-
When the vent getting out of line. hull has been molded and the concrete has hardened or "set", the forms are removed or "stripped" by taking
down
form
scaffolding and sections of the then unabove bilge, bolting and stripping the bilge forms and finally the bottom forms are
the
Tifi/sf
stripped as follows: First take down alternate cribs under the bottom, strip
forms which the removed cribs cribs the had replace supported, under the exposed concrete, after which the remaining cribs and panels may be taken down and all the cribs replaced under the bare hull.
the
The
side
reinforcing steel
is
placed
in-
of
forms.
and supported by the outer Then the inside forms are put
the
up as
gresses.
Owing
framed nature of the inner hull surface these forms are in small sections so they can be quickly erected, and also to permit their removal through whatever size hatch, scuttle, door or other opening may be in the particular compartment after molding
is
finished.
When
and
the
the
fittings
reinforcing steel and all piercing the hull are in plact next operation is molding the
concrete.
is
applied
to
is
to
adhere
crete
coating or wash of lime forms so they will not Then the conthe hull.
FIG.
How
concrete.
89
is in
the
beams,
frames,
floors,
keel-
consists
th'in
of
a or
number
"slabs"
of
relatively
A' T'/re-c^sr ^i/p^vkt
FIG.
supported by the internal framing. Usually the hull steel runs longitudinally and transalthough some ships have versely, been built with the rods diagonal and and at right angles to each other.
panels
(from J^
absorb
y%
inch
in
diameter)
There are many kinds of rods and more methods of spacing and securing them in place. Rods or bars are of two principal kinds, (a) the plain rounds and (b) the deformed bars. The plain round bars are sufficient
the sheering stresses in each member. The girders and stanchions are calcu-
tudinal angles is riveted together and erected in the forms. The spacing of
Some enfor all practical purposes. gineers contend that deformed bars
are
these angles is about four feet in each direction and they are very light. The round bars are then threaded
to the con-
and perhaps this is so. At any rate, the round bars if properly spaced and secured give excellent service and
crete
or laid into the punched by unskilled laboi. Bulkheads are constructed and reinforced the same as the shell. All
through
slots
on deck, and bottom slab areas which they For stanchions this area support. is the distance between them in each direction. For frames it is their spacing on the ships side in bending and half the distance between ships side and the first row of stanchions in compression. For beams and girdlated to withstand the loads
side
ers
it
is
their
spacing
times
their
stuffing
boxes
or
answering
Regardless
all
requirements.
type
of
of
the
rod
se-
must be supported at the correct distance from the surface of and at their proper the concrete spacing between centers in both dilected these
aperatures must be located in forms before molding begins. The number of rows of reinforcing
forced concrete
construction.
/A'i/ee ^ajrf?i
not securely If rods are rections,. held in place they will sag toward or to the surface of the concrete, thus becoming exposed when forms are
stripped
to
^^
FIG.
and
requiring
the
be cut out at such spots so the rods can be bent into place. The rods are also apt to slide on one another and become irregularly spaced
IN
depends
on
required.
takes place. This w'ill the structure and proundesirable voids. The sim-
general rule is that diameter of rods ihould be less than one-fifth of the thickness of concrete in which imbedded.
Fig.
prevent
local
weakening
to join at
of
the
structure.
and usual way to support bars by small concrete blocks or metal them and the outer clips between
(Figs.
forms
104
and
105).
These
are spaced closely enough to carry the rods without appreciable sag and
remain imbedded in the concrete after forms have been stripped. The rods are prevented from slipping on each other by wiring them
together at
alternate
wire mesh or expanded metal is fastened to the outer row of bars to prevent the formation of hair cracks in the concrete. Columns or "stanchions" and girders
row Sometimes
one
shows two rows of one row of transFigs. 105 and 106 show of bars in each direction.
104
and
by
them
binding
Special clamps are made which grip the butted ends of rods similarly to an outside pipe nipple. Best of
wire.
all
the butted ends can be welded. Since the girth of cross sections on
hull
the
becomes
stern
less
it
toward
is
the
are
constructed
as
in
Fig.
107.
bow and
than
amidships,
intersections
or
Extra
heavy rods
(from
J4
inch
to
by welding them at these points. These are the methods usually employed
crete
flat
the rod spacing will vary throughout the length of all types of vessels except
for
shore
structures
of
con-
ciple stresses being run up and hooked over as shown. Stirrups and binding
those
with
box
sections
such
as
When
the rods
slabs
curvature.
They
have
been
but
used
are
in
many
vessels
not
most positive and economical for this purpose. Some type of molded guide
flat iron, angle or other strucshape which can be bent to the curvature at any transverse section and then slotted or punched to re-
bar of
tural
would be
FIG.106 MOLDED
GUIDE
better.
BAR PUNCHED TO RECEIVE RODS. THIS METHOD USED WITH EXCELLENT RESULTS
IS
VERY S.\TISFACTORY
90
than
the
half
their
spacing
are
the
T
ia
Rods
I
at
Ep3
stem
and
stern
of
steel
run
hull
irer/ti/r
over
at
to
the
other
side
luMlij
struc-
ture
Fig.
bow
of plate
construction
for
the
concrete.
A
"T"
"V"
bar
or
form
the
cut-
L--J
Secriorf
water and are anchored into the concrete as shown (107-b and c). The rod ends pass through the anchors and hook over.
Stern construction
carefully studied.
If
is
a point to be
the conventional
"deadwood"
necessary
to
cast steel stern frame by large steel plates anchored into the hull. There must also be a deep and heavy block
of
concrete
is
which
strength,
Fig.
reduces
is
weight and
109
very crude.
FIG.
a considered type stronger, simpler and lighter. It was used in two classes of concrete vessels designed by the writer and has
proven successful. The line of counter is produced to its intersection with the keel '.vhich it joins by a circular arc. The cross sections at any point of this stern are "V" Care shaped. should be taken not to have flattened
sections
in
the
vessel's
difficult
to
properly.
The
rud-
der
cast
is
the hull.
A
se-
being
or
twin
screw vessels. Iron pipe or sheet steel tubes form the rudder trunk and also
receive
the stern
tube.
All hull fittings are similar to those previously described and are bolted through the concrete with wooden
8a w
>
SoHPi-fi-re
pads on the deck to which they are Short lengths of pipe one' eighth inch larger in diameter than the bolts are inserted in the forms before molding and the flanges for attaching the fittings can be drilled from templates taken of these pipes after the concrete has set. No anchor bolts should be used if possible and then only where the attached equipment is not likely to need removal for repairs or replacement.
attached.
BomPiatb
Portland cement, sand, coarser aggregate and water are used. The cement should be such that about 78
per cent of it will pass through a wire gage of 200 openings per inch. The sand should be clean (free from
loam or other impurities) and should feel sharp when rubbed between the
fingers.
FIG.
The
over
108
be
not
How
for
it
Concrete
will
Built
91
They
tions
relieve congestion in crowded secand can do the transporting more
rail
2j/i
inches
inch.
thick,
and types
be constantly increasing.
When we
advantages
those
The
siderably
many
over
or truck methods.
found good for all watertight parts of the hull such as shell, bulkheads, watertight
many
decks,
tanks
etc.
found for such craft, particularly in the central and eastern portion of these
United States; when we awake to their even greater importance than their numerous blood sisters, the pleasure power
boat,
itself.
They promote commerce and can bring the market to many now isolated producers, whether these be farmers, manufacturers,
fishermen,
rely
Two-thirds of a part of cement, one part of sand, one and one-third parts
of gravel. The aggregate components are screened to size before mixing
others
who
on
transportation.
It
is
described
prosperous
future
presents
herein
the
work
for
will
and are thoroughly mixed while dry before adding the water. Concrete mixing machines are used for large work and the work of molding should not stop when it has been once started on watertight work. The mixture
or "batch" is poured through chutes and conveyed to the proper point in wheelbarrows. The first of these schemes is best calculated to produce
Power workboats
many
M/i.1. /^-r-r/te/YyvsAT^ .
good
results.
is carefully tamped in place and the reinforcing rods are vibrated during pouring to release all
The concrete
CoMor^r*
l^/B^K
air
bubbles
leaner
and
prevent
formation
(1
]/mtSBj.S i/P
of voids.
A
part
cement,
parts gravel)
chions,
may
girders
and
is
members
where
Wtooerr
watertightness
required.
tr^"->y74irFki.T.
used
Fused shales and clays have been for hull concrete and found
^jrrrt. ^^/trr
amply strong.
tion of weight
They
result in a reduc-
for
^zz^
^*e /i^erA 'fvattMcr
.A"
''"'^^'^'"''J^ir'^^-'^-*T5^^-^ /
~f/^ dims vg
tween
fused
and
120
pounds
for
the
has been used for hulls only, deckhouses and other superstructure having been of wood or steel. There is, however, no reason why concrete cannot be used above decks except in the lightest
partitions.
There are many reasons why concrete barges and workboats should
be
the
used
in
the
future,
especially
if
main points of design for particular sizes and types become less numerous through compromise and
quantity of production.
Regardless
hulls are
/y/gM-A<gc^
Fh,MDATl/uVi.
of
that
whether
steel
power
boat
wooden,
writer
feels
their
number
FIG.
APPENDIX
Working Tables
from 20
of Scantlings for
Power Workboats
to 100 Feet
^iiiimMiiiiiiiiiiiiniiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiN
ml
APPENDIX
II
Typical
Power Workboats
u
IOC
H
03
102
103
o
0)
(G
PL,
I
\o
CO
104
106
107
|2
Si ll Is
2
n^
"^5 s i$
CO "=
" ^ z
^
a) 5J
t(
3 "f d
o,
a;
-s^s
S-!
+- -a
a
-
Z* 3 C -
^^ 2 o, >
^ "O
< > 3
[Ij
S M g ^ .ti <^ 2 =
-o
bS
5&=
I*
s.
109
y <a
i.
en
d) CO 05
U
c
A Dupg
CO
+j
o
I
c/:i
DO
^:^ liSOn
110
w
en en
.s
W >
s
'^
>"
^^
2 O
g 2
111
B a
1 T3
h
.s
sg
05
O
PQ
|4
at
-s
<>
H
c a
DX3
[Cub "
55
tl-
I-
H "o Oi. O*
1
tz;
J.
-=-s
H
CO
O ^
^3
j
<
I'E
tin
09 -<
:
n u g
n
k U
u
^
e
>,
112
Power Towboat
Length over
for
Harbor Work
Beam,
oil
engine
An
I
-'-
is 73 leet over all, 18 feet loaded draft. The follows the general smaller type of steam harbor towboats,
interesting features and by using a gas engine running on low cost fuel she will be able to handle tows that would not pay a big steam tug to handle, as well as saving money owing to the smaller crew and no fuel expense except when under way.
She is designed to handle any ordinary work in a harbor such as a 20 per cent larger steam tug would be required to do, and can go in shoaler water than a steam She would be especially adapted tug of similar power. to canal towing and river work and still is seaworthy enough to do sound and coastwise work. Her freeboard to deck at bow is 6 feet 10 inches and least 2 feet 11
inches;
at
stern
feet
inches;
so
she
will
be
quite to
113
This book
last or stamped on the date to which renewed. below,' Renewed books are subjea to immediate recall.
^'*"^*^^*SEMECEJfT
LD
21-100m-2,'55
(B139s22)476
VF 00372