Aminiya School

Physics Grade 8

RESISTANCE
Learning outcome

Students should be able to...

State that resistance = p.d/current and use the equation resistance= voltage/current in calculations describe an experiment to measure the resistance of a metallic conductor using a voltmeter and an ammeter and make the necessary calculations discuss the temperature limitation on Ohms law use quantitatively the proportionality between resistance and the length and the cross-sectional area of a wire. Calculate the net effect of a number of resistors in series and in parallel Describe the effect of temperature increase on the resistance of a resistor and a filament lamp and draw the respective sketch graph of current/voltage Draw circuit diagrams with power sources (cell, battery or a.c mains), switches (closed and open), resistors (fixed and variable), lamps, ammeters, and voltmeters State that the current from the source is the sum of the currents in the separate branches of parallel circuit Do calculations on the whole circuit, recalling and using formula including R = V/I and those for p.d in series, resistors in series and resistors in parallel To make a current flow through a conductor, there must be a potential difference or voltage across it. Copper connecting wire is a good conductor and a current passes through it easily where as a similar piece of nichrome wire is not so good and less current flows for the same potential difference i.e., nichrome wire has more resistance than the copper wire. Resistance is the opposition to the flow of electrons. SI unit of resistance is Ohm ( ) Larger units are Kilo ohm (k ) and Mega ohm (M ) 1 k = 1000 1M = 106

The resistance of a wire depends on its dimensions as well as on the conducting ability of the material from which it is made.

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Notes/Term 2/2009

Aminiya School

Physics Grade 8

Factors affecting resistance Length: Doubling the length of a wire doubles its resistance, R L Cross-sectional area: Doubling the end on area of a wire halves it
resistance

1 A

The filament of the bulb is made of very thin tungsten wire because tungsten has a higher melting point Material: A nichrome wire has more resistance than a copper wire. So heating elements are normally made of nichrome. Higher resistance offers higher heating effect Whenever a current flows through a resistance, heating effect occurs. This principle is used in heating elements and also in the filaments of bulbs. The heating effect occurs because electrons collide with atoms as they pass through a conductor. The electrons lose energy and atoms gain energy and vibrate faster. Faster vibrations mean higher temperature. Connecting wires used in circuits have a low resistance as possible so that energy wasted as heat is kept to a minimum

L A

Temperature: For metal conductors, resistance increases with

temperature For semiconductors, resistance decreases with temperature In metals conductors, as Temperature increases atoms gain energy and vibrate faster. This opposes the free movement of electrons. So resistance increases Constantan and manganin, both copper-based alloys, are often used in standard resistors because their resistances change very little unless they are heated strongly. Semiconductors like silicon and germanium are insulators at room temperature. As temperature increases more and more electrons become free to move. So it conducts as its resistance decreases

Thermistors have a high resistance when cold but a much lower

resistance when hot. They contain semi conducting materials. Some electrical thermometers use a thermistor to detect a temperature change. Carbon is not classed as a semi conductor, but its resistance decreases with temperature

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Notes/Term 2/2009

Aminiya School

Physics Grade 8

RESISTORS
Devices specially made to provide resistance are called resistors. In a simple circuit, they can reduce the current flow. In more complex circuits found in radios and TVs, they are used to keep currents and p.d at the levels for other circuit components to function properly. A length of thin nichrome wire makes a simple resistor. In some, the resistance is provided by a thin layer of carbon, while other contains a long this alloy wire coiled to take up less space.

Circuit symbols

Variable resistors (Rheostats)

It is used for varying current. In hi-fi equipment, rotary (circular) variable resistors are used as volume controls.

Above figure shows a variable resistor used to control the brightness of a bulb If the connections are between A and C it acts as a fixed resistor and If connected between A and B, resistance can be varied Moving the sliding control of the variable resistor to the right increases the length of resistance wire in the circuit. This reduces the current and dims the bulb
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Aminiya School

Physics Grade 8

OHMS LAW
Increase the p.d across the ends of a conductor and a greater current flows. But the current depends on the conducting ability of the conductor as well as the p.d across it. Some conductors offer more resistance to a current flow than others. In 1826, Georg Ohm carried out experiments with different metal wires to discover how the current through each depended on the potential difference applied across its ends. These can be summed up in a law known as Ohms law which states The current flowing through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its terminals, provided temperature and other physical conditions remain constant. Materials which obeys Ohms law is called Ohmic conductor.

Resistance is calculated using the equation Resistance (R) =

potentialdifferenceacrossconductor (V ) currentthroughconductor ( I ) V I

R=

Resistance of a metal conductor is defined as the ratio between the potential difference across the conductor to the current through the conductor If potential difference is expressed in Volt(V) and current in Ampere(A), then resistance is expressed in Ohm ( ) i.e.,

Ohm ( ) =

Volt (V ) Ampere( A)

A conductor has a resistance of 1 if a current of 1A flows through it when a potential difference of 1V is applied across its ends. EXPERIMENT TO MEASURE RESISTANCE

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Notes/Term 2/2009

Aminiya School

Physics Grade 8

Resistances up to 50 can be measured using the circuit shown below.

The current through the resistor of unknown resistance R is set to any convenient value by adjusting the rheostat and note the ammeter reading (I) and the voltmeter reading (V) then R is calculated using the formula
voltmeterreading ammeterreading

R=

For greater accuracy, a range of corresponding voltmeter and ammeter readings can be obtained and a graph of current against potential difference is plotted as shown below. The value of x/y gives the unknown resistance R

The circuit shown is not suitable for measuring high resistances. If the resistance is high, the current through the resistor is small, and the small current drawn by the voltmeter adds its effect to the reading on the meter

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT FILAMENT LAMP DOES NOT OBEYS OHMS LAW

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Notes/Term 2/2009

Aminiya School

Physics Grade 8

The current through the filament of the light bulb is varied by adjusting the rheostat. As the current is increased from a low value, the temperature of the filament rises. When white hot, the filament is at a temperature of more than 30000C Typical potential difference and current values are given in the figure (a) The graph in figure (b) shows that current is not proportional to the potential difference

The calculations of p.d/current show that the resistance of the filament becomes greater as the temperature rises. Voltage-time graph

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Notes/Term 2/2009

Aminiya School

Physics Grade 8

Resistance increases as temperature increases (Filament lamp)

Obeys Ohms lawResistance remaining Constant (Fixed resistor)

Resistance decreases as temperature increases (Thermistor)

Resistors in series and parallel

Combined Resistances of resistors in series If two or more resistors are connected in series, they give a higher resistance than any of the resistors by itself.

The effect is the same as joining several lengths of resistance wire to form a longer length If resistors R1 and R2 are in series, their combined resistance R is given by the equation For three of more resistors, the above equation can be extended by adding R3.... and so on.

Combined Resistances of resistors in parallel

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Notes/Term 2/2009

Aminiya School

Physics Grade 8

If two or more resistors are connected in parallel, they give a lower resistance than any of the resistors by itself.

The effect is the same as using a thick piece of resistance wire instead of a thin one. There is a wider conducting path than before. If two resistors R1 and R2 are in parallel, their combined resistance R is given by the equation

For three or more resistors, the equation can be extended by adding 1/R3, ...and so on. If the above equation for two resistors is rearranged, it becomes

Bulbs in Series and Parallel

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In seriesn

In parallel

Aminiya School

Circuits and Switches

The bulbs are connected in series. The bulbs share the potential difference (voltage) from the battery, so each glows dimly If one bulb is removed, the other goes out because the circuit is broken

The bulbs are connected in parallel.

Notes/Term 2/2009

Physics Grade 8

Each gets the full PD from the battery because each is connected directly to it. So each glows brightly If one bulb is removed, the other keeps working because it is still part of an unbroken circuit

Aminiya School

Physics Grade 8

If two or more bulbs are to be powered by one battery, as in a car lighting system, they are normally connected in parallel. Each bulb gets the full battery p.d. Also, each can be switched ON and OFF independently

These two show two alternative ways of drawing exactly the same circuit as that shown in the first figure

Basic circuit rules

There are some basic rules for all series and parallel circuits. The particular current values depend on the resistances and potential differences. The equation V = IR always applies to every resistor.

When resistors or other components are in series: The current through each of the components if the same The total PD (voltage) across all the components is the sum of the PDs across each of them

When resistors or other components are in parallel: The PD (voltage) across each component is the same The total current in the mains circuit is the sum of the currents in the branches

Resistor colour codes

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Aminiya School

Physics Grade 8

4. Calculate the effective resistance in each of the following

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Aminiya School

Physics Grade 8

5. Calculate the ammeter reading in each of the following circuits

(a) In Fig (a) what is the value of current flowing when the switch is open? What current flows when the switch is closed? (b) In Fig (b) what current flows through the ammeter when the switch is closed and the variable resistor set to zero? What current flows when the switch is closed and the variable resistor set at 20 ohm? (c) Using fig (c) explain why no current will flow when the switch is closed? What effect will there be on the circuit if the switch remains open but A is joined to B? What effect will there be on the circuit with the switch closed with A joined to B?

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Aminiya School

Physics Grade 8

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