UNIT 9

ELECTRONICS DEVICES: SEMICONDUCTOR FUNDAMENTALS

CONTENTS
1. Semiconductor Fundamentals
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Semiconductor Materials Silicon Lattice Types of Semiconductor Intrinsic Semiconductor 1.4.1 Generation of ElectronHole Pairs 1.4.2 Current flow in intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor 1.5.1 N type Semiconductor 1.5.2 P type Semiconductor Self Test Questions: PN Junction Diode biasing VI characteristics of diode Applications of Diode Diode Ratings Diode Testing Self Test Questions Introduction The Zener Effect Voltage regulation with Zener diode Power Ratings of Zener diode Applications of Zener diode Testing of zener diode Self Test Questions Transistor Fundamentals Transistor Classification

1.5

1.6

2.

P-N Junction Diode

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

3.

Zener Diode
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

4.

Bipolar Junction Transistors

4.1 4.2

4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7

Transistor Theory NPN Transistor Operation PNP Transistor Operation Transistor Testing Self Test Questions Introduction Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers 5.2.1 Biasing Techniques of SCR 5.2.2 V-I characteristics of SCR TRIAC DIAC 5.4.1 A typical application of DIAC Thyristors testing 5.5.1 SCR Testing 5.5.2 TRIAC Testing 5.5.3 DIAC Testing Self Test Questions Basic Principles of Light Light Sensitive Devices 6.2.1 Photoconductive cell (photocell) 6.2.2 Photovoltaic cell (solar cell) 6.2.3 Photodiode 6.2.4 Phototransistor 6.2.5 Light-Emitting Devices Self Test Questions

5.

Thyristors
5.1 5.2

5.3 5.4 5.5

5.6

6.

Optoelectric Devices
6.1 6.2

6.3

UNIT 9
ELECTRONICS DEVICES : SEMICONDUCTOR FUNDAMENTALS
OBJECTIVES: After completing this unit, the student should be able to: Identify materials that act as semiconductors. Describe doping process for creating P-Type and N-Type semiconductor materials. Describe what a junction diode is and how it is made. Explain the difference between forward bias and reverse bias of a diode. Describe the function and characteristics of a zener diode. Explain how a zener diode operates as a voltage regulator. Describe how a transistor is constructed and its two different configurations. Describe how to bias a transistor for operation. Identify common types of Thyristors. Describe how an SCR, TRIAC, or DIAC operates in a circuit. Identify the three categories of semiconductor devices that react to light. Identify major light-sensitive devices and describe their operation and applications. Identify major light-emitting devices and describe their operation and applications. Testing of diode, zener diode, and transistor, Thyristors using ohmmeter.

1.

Semiconductor fundamentals

Semiconductors are the basic components of any electronic equipment. The primary function of semiconductor devices is to control voltage or current for some desired result. Advantages of semiconductor are as follows: Small size and weight Low power consumption at low voltages High efficiency Great reliability Ability to operate in hazardous environments Instant operation when power is applied Economic mass production

Disadvantages of semiconductor are as follows: High susceptibility to change in temperature Extra components required for stabilization Easily damaged due to polarity reversal, excess heat application during soldering, exceeding power limits etc. Semiconductor Materials

1.1

The properties of semiconductor material fall between insulators and conductors. The semiconductor elements, Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are suitable for Solid-state electronic applications due to their unique properties. These materials have four valence electrons and which form crystal lattices, in which substituted atoms or dopants can dramatically change the electrical properties. In solid-state electronics, either pure silicon or germanium may be used as the intrinsic semiconductor, which forms the starting point for fabrication. Both Silicon and Germanium have four valence electrons, but Germanium is having more free electrons at a given temperature and a higher conductivity. Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor for electronics, because it can be used at much higher temperatures than Germanium. The below figure 1.1 shows the atomic structure of Silicon and Germanium. Each atom consists of protons, neutrons and revolving electrons. The electrons distribute among various shells or orbits round the nucleus. For example, in Silicon atom, the first orbit contains two electrons, the second orbit contains eight electrons, and the outermost orbit contains four electrons. The outermost shell is referred as valence shell and the electrons in it are called as valence electrons.

Figure 1.1 Atomic Structure of Silicon and Germanium The unstable material requires electrons to complete the valence shell. Such materials are called as active materials. These materials acquire electrons in its valence shell to obtain stability.

1.2

Silicon Lattice

Silicon atoms share their valence electrons with other silicon atoms in a process called covalent bonding. The process of covalent bonding results in formation of crystal. Each atom of crystalline structure has its own four electrons and four shared electrons from other atom. Due to eight electrons in the outermost shell, the silicon crystal is stable; hence it cannot support electrical activity.

Figure 1.2 Crystalline structure of silicon with covalent bonding 1.3 Types of Semiconductor The semiconductor materials are classified into two types Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor Intrinsic Semiconductor Intrinsic means pure. Pure semiconductor crystals are insulators or very poor conductors at room temperature. Extrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic means impure. Extrinsic semiconductor can be obtained by adding impunity into intrinsic semiconductor. The addition of impurity is known as doping. Here, addition of impurity means addition of other material so as to increase the conductivity of pure semiconductor. Extrinsic semiconductors are good conductors at room temperature. Depending on the type of impurity, there are two types of extrinsic semiconductors: 1. P type extrinsic semiconductors 2. N type extrinsic semiconductors

1.4 Intrinsic Semiconductor 1.4.1 Generation of ElectronHole Pairs A silicon crystal is different from an insulator because at any temperature above the absolute zero temperature, some of the electrons absorb the thermal energy and move to higher orbit, breaking the covalent bond. When an electron breaks a covalent bond and becomes free, a vacancy is created in the broken covalent bond. This resulting vacancy is referred as hole. The electron has a negative charge; its absence represents the loss of a negative charge. Therefore a hole has a characteristic of a positively charged particle. As an electron jumps randomly from one valance shell to other valence shell, it leaves a hole behind it. Each corresponding electron and hole is referred as electron-hole pair as shown in figure 1.3a. Therefore, in intrinsic semiconductor, number of electrons generated due to increased temperature is always equal to the number of holes. With increase in temperature, the number of electron hole pair increases. If a voltage is applied, then more electron-hole pairs are generated. Figure 1.3b shows the generation of electron hole pair due to thermal energy using band theory.

At absolute Zero temperature

At above absolute Zero temperature

(b) (a) Figure 1.3 a and 1.3 b A hole is created when an electron break its covalent bond 1.4.2 Current flow in intrinsic Semiconductor When pure semiconductor material is subjected to a voltage, the free electrons are attracted to the positive terminal of source. The holes move towards the negative terminal. Both electrons and holes contribute to current flow in an intrinsic semiconductor.

Figure 1.4 Current flow in pure semiconductor material At room temperature, very little current conduction is allowed. The amount of current flow is determined by the number of hole-electron pairs in a material. This current is highly temperature dependent. As the temperature increases its resistance decreases which allows the crystal to support current flow. In silicon for every 6 degree Celsius rise in temperature, resistance reduces to half value. While in germanium for every 10 degree Celsius rise in temperature, resistance reduces to half value. Thus germanium is more stable than silicon for temperature changes. Thus, the current flow in an intrinsic semiconductor is influenced by the temperature or application of increased voltage. However conductivity does not increase significantly hence, practically not used for manufacturing of electronics devices. 1.5 Extrinsic Semiconductor

In the previous section, we have seen that to increase the conductivity of pure semiconductor materials, a process called doping is used. Doping is the process by which small amounts of selected additives, called impurities, are added to semiconductors. Semiconductors that undergo this treatment are referred to as Extrinsic Semiconductors. There are two types of impurities: 1) Donor Impurity When pure semiconductor material is doped with impurity like pentavalent material (five valence electrons) then referred as donor impurity because it loses its extra electron to the semiconductor causing it to have an excess number of free electrons. e.g. arsenic (As), antimony 2) Acceptor Impurity

When pure semiconductor material is doped with impurity like trivalent material (three valence electrons) then referred as acceptor impurity because it reduces the number of free electrons causing more holes. e.g. indium (In), gallium 1.5.1 N type Semiconductor An N-Type Semiconductor is one that is doped with an N-TYPE or donor impurity. The effect of addition of pentavalent atom arsenic to the silicon base is as shown in figure 1.5 a Four valence electrons of arsenic form four covalent bonds with four valence electron of silicon atom. The fifth electron of arsenic does not have a chance to form covalent bond hence; it easily becomes free for conduction. Since this type of semiconductor has a surplus of electrons, the electrons are considered the majority current carriers, while the holes are the minority current carriers.

Figure 1.5 a Silicon semiconductor material doped with an arsenic atom Conduction in N-type material Current flow in an N-Type Material is similar to conduction in a copper wire. That is, with voltage applied across the material, electrons will move through the crystal towards the positive terminal just like current flows in a copper wire. Additional free electrons-holes are generated due to breaking of covalent bond. The corresponding electrons move toward the positive terminal while holes move towards negative terminal.

Figure 1.5 b current flow in N type material

1.5.2 P type Semiconductor A P-Type Semiconductor is one, which is doped with a P-TYPE or acceptor impurity. The effect of addition of trivalent atom Indium to the silicon base is as shown in figure 1.6a, three valence electrons of indium form three covalent bonds with three valence electron of silicon atom. The forth-covalent bond remains incomplete due to deficiency of electrons hence; it creates vacancy. The resulting vacancy is represented in figure 1.6 a by small circle. By controlling the doping concentration, the numbers of hole can be controlled. The holes in this type of semiconductor are the majority current carriers since they are present in greater quantity while the electrons are the minority current carriers.

Figure 1.6 a Silicon semiconductor material doped with an indium atom

Conduction in P-type material Current flow in a P-Type Material is by positive holes, instead of negative electrons. Unlike the electron, the hole moves from the positive terminal of the P material to the negative terminal. In addition to the holes provided by the acceptor atom, additional electrons-holes are generated due to breaking of covalent bond. The corresponding electrons move towards the positive terminal while holes move towards negative terminal.

Figure 1.6 b current flow in P type material 1.6 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Self Test Questions: What is a semiconductor material? Why silicon and germanium are considered as semiconductor materials? Describe the process of doping a semiconductor material. Which are the two types of impurities used for doping? How does doping support current flow in a semiconductor material? What determines the conductivity of a semiconductor material? Compare intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

2.

P-N Junction Diode

Semiconductor Diode, also known as a PN junction diode is created by joining P-type and N-type materials together. It is a unidirectional device. 2.1 PN Junction- Introduction

A diode comprises a section of N-type material bonded to a section of P-type material, with electrodes on each end. This arrangement conducts electricity in only one direction. When no external voltage is applied to the terminals of p-n junction, the junction is referred as unbiased. Under this condition,

At the junction, the electrons from n-type material diffuse into the p-type material and recombine with hole. Each electron when leaves the n-side, it leaves behind positive ions as shown in figure 2.1a. When electron falls into a hole on the p side, it makes a negative ion out of the trivalent atom that accepts this electron as shown in figure 2.1a. The ions are fixed in the crystal structure due to covalent bonding and they can not move around like free electrons and holes. Hence, ions are known as immobile charges. Due to recombination process of electronics and holes, large numbers of negative ions accumulate near the junction of p-side and large numbers of positive ions accumulate near the junction of n-side as shown in figure 2.1a. The negatively charged ions on the p side repel the electronics, which attempts to diffuse into p side. Hence, after some time, accumulation of ions on either side stops diffusion completely. This state is referred as state of equilibrium of p-n junction.

Figure 2.1 a Formation of diode by joining P and N type material Thus, in the state of equilibrium, at the junction only ions are present and there is no mobile free charge carriers like electrons and hole, this region is known as depletion region. In other words, a region near the junction where the electrons and holes are depleted is called as the depletion region or space charge region. Barrier potential or cut in voltage Due to the presence immobile ions on either side of p-n junction, an electric field is developed across the junction. This field is known as the barrier potential or cut in voltage. The polarity of this potential is shown in figure 2.1b. This barrier potential is fixed having value of 0.7V (typical) for Silicon and of 0.3 V (typical) for Germanium.

Figure 2.1 b Barrier potential At the junction, free electrons from the N-type material fill holes from the P-type material. This creates an insulating layer in the middle of the diode called the depletion region. 2.2 Diode biasing

Biasing is the process of application of external DC voltage to diode. When no external voltage is applied, diode remains in equilibrium state and there is no current flowing through it. In order to make the current to flow through the diode, biasing is applied. There are tow types of biasing: Forward Bias Reverse Bias Forward Bias: To avoid the depletion region, the electrons from the N-type area should be forced towards the P-type area and holes in the reverse direction. This can be achieved by connecting the N-type side of the diode to the negative end of battery voltage and the P-type side to the positive end i. e. forward biased condition. The free electrons in the N-type material are repelled by the negative electrode and drawn to the positive electrode. The holes in the P-type material move the other way. If applied DC voltage is less than the barrier potential of the diode, the free electrons do not have enough energy to cross the depletion region. When electrons enter the depletion region, ions will push them back into n-side. Hence, there is no current through the diode. When applied DC voltage is greater than the barrier potential of the diode, the free electrons and holes get enough energy to pass through the depletion region as shown in figure 2.2. As a result of increased number of holes and electronics starts crossing the junction, depletion region reduces, so barrier potential reduces. Hence, large number of electron and holes cross the junction under the influence of applied voltage and constitute the current flow. This current is known as forward current.

Figure 2.2 PN junction diode with forward bias When the negative end of battery is connected to the N-type layer and the positive end is connected to P-type layer [forward biased], electrons and holes start moving and the depletion zone disappears. Reverse Bias Current will not flow if the polarity of battery voltage is reversed i. e. the P-type side connected to the negative end of the Battery voltage and the N-type side connected to the positive end i.e. reverse biased condition. The negative electrons in the Ntype material are attracted to the positive electrode. The positive holes in the P-type material are attracted to the negative electrode. Due to the movement of electrons and holes are away from the junction, depletion region increases. Hence, no current flows across the junction.

Figure 2.3 PN junction diode with reverse bias

When the positive end of the battery voltage is connected to the N-type layer and the negative end is connected to the P-type layer [reverse biased], free electrons collect on one end of the diode and holes collect on the other. The depletion zone gets bigger.

Figure 2.4 Diode pictorial view and schematic symbol 2.3 VI characteristics of diode:

When a diode is forward biased the resistance of the P and N material and the external resistance of circuit limits the current flow. A diode conducts current in the forward direction only if the external voltage is larger than the barrier voltage. A germanium diode requires a minimum forward bias of 0.3 Volt whereas a silicon diode requires 0.7 Volt. The resistor is used to limit the forward current to a value that will not overheat the diode and cause damage. In a conducting state the drop across the diode is called as forward voltage drop (Ef) or cut in voltage. The amount of current flowing in the forward direction is called as forward current (If). It is a function of external voltage (E), the forward voltage drop (Ef) and the external resistance R and given by ohms law: If=(E-Ef) /R With 0V across the diode, there is no forward current. As you gradually increase the forward bias voltage, the forward current and the voltage across the diode gradually increases. When the forward-bias voltage is increased to approximately 0.7V, the forward current begins to increase rapidly. As you continue to increase the forwardbias voltage, the current continues to increase very rapidly, but voltage across diode increases gradually above 0.7V. When a reverse-bias voltage is applied across a diode, there is only a small reverse current (IR) through the diode. When the applied voltage is increased to a value called as breakdown voltage (VBR), the reverse current begins to increase rapidly.

Figure 2.5 Diode V-I Characteristics 2.4 Applications of Diode

The PN junction has a unique ability to offer very little resistance to current flow in the forward-bias direction, but maximum resistance to current flow when reverse biased. For this reason, the PN junction is commonly used as a diode to convert ac to dc. The PN junction's application expands to different areas-from a simple voltage protection device to an amplifying diode. Two of the most commonly used applications for the PN junction are the rectifying diode (converting ac to dc) and the signal diode (mixing, detecting, and switching signals).

Figure 2.6 PN junction diode as a rectifier 2.5 Diode Ratings

Diode ratings are the limiting values of operating conditions of a diode. Operation of the diode outside of its operating limits could damage the diode. Diodes are generally rated for: Maximum Average Forward Current, Peak Recurrent Forward Current, Maximum Surge Current, and Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV). A PN junction construction varies from one manufacturer to the next. Some of the more commonly used manufacturing techniques are: grown, alloy or fused-alloy, diffused, and point-contact.

Figure 2.7 PN junction construction 2.6 Diode Testing

Diode testing can be accomplished by using an ohmmeter, the substitution method, or a dynamic diode tester. The most convenient and quickest way of testing a diode is using an ohmmeter.

Figure 2.8 Diode Testing

If a diode is good, you will get a reading between approximately 0.5V and 0.9V, with 0.7V being typical value. If a diode is defective the meter indicates OL. 2.7 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Self Test Questions What happens when an N-type material is joined with a P-type material? How depletion region is formed? What is barrier voltage? What are typical barrier voltages for a germanium and a silicon diode? What is the minimum amount of voltage needed to produce current flow across a PN junction diode? What is difference between forward and reverse biasing? Draw a circuit showing forward biased diode. Draw a circuit showing reverse biased diode. How to test Diode using Ohmmeter?

3.
3.1

Zener Diode
Introduction

The zener diode is a silicon PN junction device designed to operate in reverse breakdown region. The applied reverse voltage at which the breakdown occurs is called the breakdown voltage of zener diode. This breakdown phenomenon is referred to as the Zener voltage or the Zener effect. Figure 3.1 (a) shows the circuit symbol of zener diode. If a zener diode is forward biased, it operates similar to a rectifier diode as shown in figure 3.1(b). The zener diode uses a p-n junction in reverse bias to make use of the zener effect as shown in figure 3.1(c). It is a breakdown phenomenon, which holds the voltage close to a constant value called the zener voltage. It is useful in zener regulators to provide a constant voltage, for improvement of regulated power supplies, and for limiter applications. The breakdown voltage (Vz) of Zener diodes is set by carefully controlling the doping level during manufacture.

Fig. 3.1 Zener diode symbol 3.2 Zener Breakdown

Zener breakdown phenomenon normally observed in Zener diode having Zener voltage Vz less than 5V or between 5 to 8V while avalanche breakdown observed in Zener diode having Vz greater than 8V. Zener breakdown When the semiconductor diode is doped heavily, the depletion region width decreases. Due to very narrow depletion region, the minority carriers do not have to travel a large enough distance in which to gain sufficient kinetic energy to cause effective collisions. Hence, here avalanche effect is not the major cause of breakdown. But, due to extremely narrow depletion region, a high electric field in the order of 3x105 V/cm exists across the junction. This field provides a high electric force, which breaks the electrons out of the covalent bond directly, rather than collision. Thus it converts the depletion region from an insulating material into a conductor. This is ionization by electric field, referred as Zener breakdown. Avalanche breakdown In reverse bias condition, the conduction in Zener diode takes place only due to minority carriers. With increase in reverse voltage these minority charge carriers tend to accelerate and their kinetic energy increases. Therefore while traveling in a p-n junction, they collide on stationary atoms and impart some of the kinetic energy to valence electrons present in the covalent bonds. Valence electrons, which break free under the influence of the applied electric field, can be accelerated enough so that they can knock out some more valence electrons by means of collision. This phenomenon is called as carrier multiplication. Thus in a very short time large number of free minority carriers get available for conduction. The carrier multiplication process is self sustained. This effect is referred as avalanche effect. A very large reverse current starts flowing through the Zener diode due to these large number of minority carriers. This phenomenon is referred as avalanche breakdown. VI characteristics of Zener Diode Figure 3.2 shows the VI characteristics of Zener diode. The forward characteristics of zener diode is same as normal diode while reverse characteristics differs. The breakdown process depends upon the applied electric field, so by changing the thickness of the layer to which the voltage is applied, zener diodes can be formed which break down at voltages from about 4 volts to several hundred volts. A high reverse current (IZ) flows when the applied reverse-biased voltage is high enough to cause breakdown in a zener diode. Initially very small reverse current flows and after breakdown the current increases rapidly. To limit this zener current, a current limiting resistor Rs is always connected in series with zener diode. The breakdown voltage of zener diode (VZ) is determined by resistivity of diode.

Figure 3.2 Zener diode VI characteristics 3.3 Voltage regulation with Zener diode

The Zener diode is connected in series with resistor RS to limit the current. The applied DC input must be higher than Zener diode breakdown voltage. Zener diodes are manufactured to have specific breakdown voltage rating, called, as Zener voltage rating (VZ).

Figure 3.3 Typical zener diode regulator circuit The input voltage may increase or decrease which increases or decreases Zener current accordingly. When Zener diode is operating in breakdown region a small increase in input voltage causes a large current to flow through Zener but Zener voltage remains same. Zener diode opposes change in input voltage because with an increase in current, its internal resistance drops. Thus Zener voltage remains constant irrespective of changes in the supply voltage. The change in supply voltage appears across series resistor RS because total voltage applied is sum of voltage across series resistor and Zener.

Cause equation for constant load resistance RL and input voltage Vin varied

Vin I IZ VZ Constant (for IZmin to IZmax ) V0 = VZ = Constant

When the load is connected across Zener the load current as well as Zener current flows through series resistor, hence the value of series resistor must be properly selected so that Zener current is adequate to keep Zener in the breakdown region.

Figure 3.4 Zener diode voltage regulator with load When the load resistance increases the load current decreases and the load voltage should increase but Zener diode opposes the same by conducting more current and the sum of load current and Zener current through the series resistor is kept same, thus maintaining same voltage across series resistor.
Cause equation for constant input voltage Vin and load resistance RL varied

RL IL IZ ( = I ILmin) VZ Constant (for IZmin to IZmax ) V0 = VZ = Constant

Similarly when load resistance decreases the load current increases, Zener current decreases and voltage is maintained constant. This action allows regulation of the output voltage irrespective of change in load current or supply voltage. 3.4 Power Ratings of Zener diode:

Maximum Zener current (IZM) is the maximum reverse current that can flow in a Zener diode without exceeding power dissipation. Reverse current (IR) is the leakage current before breakdown. Zener diodes are manufactured to have specific breakdown voltage rating, which is called, as Zener voltage rating (VZ). The Zener diodes having breakdown voltage greater than 5V have positive temperature coefficient (i.e. breakdown voltage increases as the temperature increases) while Zener diodes having breakdown voltage of less than 4V have negative temperature coefficient (i.e. breakdown voltage decreases as the temperature increases). Zener diodes having breakdown voltage between 4V and 5V may have positive or negative temperature coefficient.

Connecting forward biased PN junction diode in series with reverse biased Zener diode provides temperature compensation. The temperature coefficient of equal and opposite value is selected for proper compensation. 3.5 3.6 Applications of zener diode In emitter follower type voltage regulator zener diode is used as voltage reference In clipping circuits In protection circuit for MOSFET In regulated power supply Testing of zener diode

The testing of zener diodes requires a variable dc power supply. A typical test circuit is as shown in above figure. In this circuit, the variable power supply is used to adjust the input voltage to a suitable value for the zener diode being tested. Resistor R1 limits the current through the diode. With the zener diode connected as shown in figure, no current will flow until the voltage across the diode is equal to the zener voltage. If the diode is connected in the opposite direction, current will flow at a low voltage, usually less than 1 volt. Current flow at a low voltage in both directions indicates that the zener diode is defective. 3.7 1. 2. 3. 4. Self test Questions What is the unique feature of a zener diode? How is a zener diode connected into a circuit? What determines the voltage at which a zener diode breaks down? Describe how a zener diode voltage regulator maintains a constant output voltage?

4.
4.1

Bipolar Junction Transistors

Transistor Fundamentals

The first solid-state device discussed was the two-element semiconductor diode. The next device on our list is even more unique. It has not only one more element than the diode but also can amplify the signal. A semiconductor device that has three elements is called a bipolar transistor, also known as a junction transistor or TRANSISTOR. The term transistor was derived from the words TRANSfer and resISTOR. This term was adopted because it best describes the operation of the transistor - the transfer of an input signal current from a low-resistance circuit to a high-resistance circuit. Figure 4.1 shows the cross sectional view and schematic symbol for transistor The three elements of the two-junction transistor are (1) the EMITTER, which gives off, or emits," current carriers (electrons or holes); (2) the BASE, which controls the flow of current carriers; and (3) the COLLECTOR, which collects the current carriers.

Figure 4.1 cross sectional view and schematic symbol for transistor 4.2 Transistor Classification

Transistors are classified in two types according to the arrangement of their N and P materials. 1) NPN transistor 2) PNP transistor Their names, NPN or PNP implies their basic construction and chemical treatment as shown in figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 Transistor block diagrams. An NPN transistor is formed by introducing a thin region of P-type material between two regions of N-type material On the other hand; a PNP transistor is formed by introducing a thin region of N-type material between two regions of P-type material. In both types of transistor, the central layer is called the base, one of the outer layers is termed the emitter and the other outer layer is referred to as collector. The emitter, base and collector are provided with terminals, which are appropriately labeled as E, B and C. Two PN junctions exist within each transistor; one PN junction is between the emitter and the base; the other PN junction is between the collector and the base. The two junctions share one section of semiconductor material so that the transistor actually consists of three elements. The base region of transistor is very thin and lightly doped while the emitter and collector is heavily doped. But the doping level in emitter is slightly greater than that of collector. The collector region area is slightly larger than that of emitter. Since the majority and minority current carriers are different for N and P materials, the internal operation of the NPN and PNP transistors is also different. The theory of operation of the NPN and PNP transistors will be discussed separately in the next few paragraphs. To prepare you for the forthcoming information, the two basic types of transistors along with their circuit symbols are shown in figure 4.3. It should be noted that the two symbols are different. The horizontal line represents the base, the angular line with the arrow on it represents the emitter, and the other angular line represents the collector. The direction of the arrow on the emitter distinguishes the NPN from the PNP transistor. If the arrow points in, (Points iN) the transistor is a PNP. On the other hand if the arrow points out, the transistor is an NPN (Not Pointing in).

Figure 4.3 Schematic symbol for PNP and NPN transistor 4.3 Transistor Theory

A transistor must be properly biased by external voltages, so that the emitter, base, and collector regions interact in the desired manner. In a properly biased transistor, the emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is reversed biased. A forward-biased PN junction is comparable to a low-resistance circuit element because it passes a high current for a given voltage. While a reverse-biased PN junction is comparable to a high-resistance circuit element. 4.4 NPN Transistor Operation

A properly biased NPN transistor is as shown in figure (4.4). The base emitter junction is forward biased by applying positive potential (VBB) to base terminal with respect to emitter terminal. The collectorbase junction is reverse biased by applying positive potential VCC to collector terminal with respect to emitter terminal. The electrons get attracted towards positive potential, which creates electron flow from Ntype emitter towards P-type base. This constitutes emitter current IE. In P-type base the electrons combine with hole and constitute base current, IB and remaining large number of electrons cross the base region and move through the collector region to the positive terminal of external DC source. This constitutes collector current IC. Thus electron flow constitutes the dominant current in an NPN transistor since, most of the electrons from emitter flow in the collector circuit and very few combine with holes in the base. Thus, the collector current is larger than the base current.

Figure 4.4 properly biased NPN transistor In summary, total current flow in the NPN transistor is through the emitter lead. Therefore, in terms of percentage, IE is 100 percent. On the other hand, since the base is very thin and lightly doped, a smaller percentage of the total current (emitter current) will flow in the base circuit than in the collector circuit. Usually no more than 2 to 5 percent of the total current is base current (IB) while the remaining 95 to 98 percent is collector current (IC). A very basic relationship exists between these two currents: IE = IB + IC
B

In simple terms this means that the emitter current is separated into base and collector current. Since the amount of current leaving the emitter is solely a function of the emitter-base bias, and because the collector receives most of this current, a small change in emitter-base bias will have a far greater effect on the magnitude of collector current than it will have on the base current. In conclusion, the relatively small emitter-base bias controls the relatively large emitter-to-collector current. 4.5 PNP Transistor Operation

The PNP transistor works essentially the same as the NPN transistor. However, since the emitter, base, and collector in the PNP transistor are made of materials that are different from those used in the NPN transistor, different current carriers flow in the PNP unit. The majority current carriers in the PNP transistor are holes. This is in contrast to the NPN transistor where the majority current carriers are electrons. A properly biased PNP transistor is as shown in figure (4.5). The base emitter junction is forward biased by applying negative potential (VBB) to base terminal with respect to emitter terminal. The collector base junction is reversed biased by applying negative potential VCC to collector terminal with respect to emitter terminal. The forward biased Emitter-base junction causes the hole in the P-type emitter to flow towards base. This constitutes the emitter current IE. As these holes flow through the N-type base, they tend to combine with electrons in N region base. As the base is very thin and lightly doped, very few of the holes injected in to the base from the emitter recombine with

electrons to constitute base current IB. The remaining large number of holes crosses the depletion region and move through the collector region to the negative terminal of supply. This constitutes collector current IC. Thus hole flow constitutes the dominant current in a PNP transistor. Highly doped emitter ensures that the emitter current consists of almost entirely of holes in PNP transistor.

Figure 4.5 properly biased PNP transistor

4.6

Transistor Testing:

Figure 4.6 Transistor Testing

Each junction of a transistor exhibits a low resistance when it is forward biased and a high resistance when reverse biased. The battery in the ohmmeter is the source of the forward and reverse-biased voltage .A technician uses a multimeter's "diode check" function to identify the terminals on a BJT. There are only two places where a NON-INFINITE reading is obtained, and they are as shown in figure 4.6. From these measurements, we can determine type of BJT (PNP or NPN) and identify all three terminals

4.7

Self Test Questions 1. How does the construction of a transistor differ from the construction of a PN junction diode? 2. Which are the types of transistors? 3. What are transistors used for? 4. Draw the symbols used for identifying transistors. 5. What is the proper method for biasing a transistor? 6. What is the difference between biasing an NPN and a PNP transistor? 7. How to test transistor using Ohmmeter?

5.
5.1

Thyristors
Introduction

A Thyristors is a semiconductor device acting as an on-off switch triggered by a signal of very small power. The thyr- part of the name comes from the Greek word, door, indicating the function of the device as a gate or door. Thyristors are mostly used to electronically control AC, either as an on-off or static switch, or with phase control allowing the power to be regulated without producing large amount of heat, or requiring mechanical contacts. The basic thyristor is the silicon-controlled rectifier, or SCR, but the usual device for AC control is the TRIAC. 5.2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier

The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier referred as SCR is a solid-state device consisting of four alternately doped (PNPN) semiconductor layers, as shown schematically in the following figure 5.1. The four layers are sandwiched together to form three junctions. They have three terminals anode, cathode and gate. Basically SCR is a unidirectional device allowing current to flow in only one forward direction. The main advantage of SCR over power transistor is that it controls a large current with a small trigger signal.

Figure 5.1 Simplified SCR

Figure 5.2 Equivalent SCR

The figure 5.2 shows the four layer device divided into two three-layer devices. The PNP and NPN transistor are interconnected with regenerative feedback. The equivalent representation of SCR shows that anode is positive with respect to the cathode, and gate is open. If no gate voltage is applied, the emitter junction of NPN transistor is reversed biased hence it does not conduct. As the collector of NPN Transistor is connected to base of PNP transistor, it will also not conduct. So no current will flow from Anode to cathode of the device. If positive voltage is applied to the gate with respect to cathode, the emitter junction of NPN transistor becomes forward biased and conducts. This causes base current to flow through the PNP transistor, and the PNP transistor starts conducting. The collector of PNP transistor is connected to base of NPN transistor. Thus the two transistors hold each other in the conducting state, allowing the current to flow continuously from anode to cathode. This action takes place through the momentary application of gate pulse and the circuit continues to conduct even through the gate voltage is removed. Thus, SCR is made ON by application of positive gate pulse and turned OFF by reducing the anode to cathode voltage.

Figure 5.3 Schematic representation of an equivalent SCR

Figure 5.4 Schematic symbol for an SCR 5.2.1 Biasing Techniques of SCR

Figure 5.5 Properly biased SCR The figure 5.5 shows a properly biased SCR. The switch S is used to apply and remove gate voltage. The resistor RG is used to limit current to the specified gate current. AC voltage is applied between anode to cathode. When SCR is turned ON at the specified gate current heavy anode to cathode current flows through the SCR to limit this current and protect SCR from damage, RL is used. If the polarity of the anodecathode bias voltage is reversed it turns OFF the SCR and a small leakage current flow in the reverse direction.

Figure 5.6 Removing Power in DC Circuit When SCR is used in a DC circuit as shown in figure 5.6, the SCR can be turned OFF by removing power from the load. This can be done by connecting a switch across the SCR. When the switch is closed, it shorts the SCR. This reduces the anode to cathode voltage to zero, reducing the forward current below the holding current, which turns off the SCR.

Figure 5.7 Variable half-wave Circuit When SCR is used in an AC circuit as shown in figure 5.7, it conducts only during positive cycle of input. This means only half of the available power is applied to the load. Diode D1 blocks the reverse gate voltage on the negative half-cycle of the anode supply voltage. When the gate current is continuously applied, SCR conducts continuously for every positive half cycle. For every negative half cycle of AC, SCR turns OFF. It stops conducting until the gate current is reapplied and positive halfcycle forward biases the SCR. 5.2.2 V-I characteristics of SCR

Figure 5.8 VI characteristics of SCR The V-I characteristic of an SCR is as shown in the figure 5.8. With the anode positive, the SCR will trigger when sufficient current flows in the gate, as the gate is made positive with respect to the cathode. Once the SCR has triggered, the gate loses control, and the SCR continues to conduct as long as the current is above some small holding value. If AC is supplied, the SCR must be triggered at every positive half-cycle, since it stops conducting when the voltage reverses. This explains the great utility of the SCR in AC circuits, where turn-off is not a problem because of the polarity reversal. The SCR is valuable as a controlled rectifier, when it is triggered at some selected point in the cycle, called phase control.

5.3

TRIAC

A device that contains two SCR's back-to-back, but with a single trigger, is called a TRIAC. Switching characteristics of TRIAC is same as SCR, however TRIAC conducts for both cycles of the AC supply. As the TRIAC can control current in both directions, it is widely used to control application of AC power to various types of loads. It gives full-wave AC control with no extra components, and is very convenient. Figure 5.9 shows block construction and schematic symbol of a TRIAC. A TRIAC is equivalent to two SCRs connected back to back in parallel. Like SCR, TRIAC is a three terminal device. Instead of anode and cathode terminals, here the main terminals are referred as MT1 and MT2, since there is no fix polarity at terminals. The terminal MT1 is the reference point for measurement of voltage and current at the gate terminal. The gate terminal (G) is connected to the PN junction at the same end as MT1.

Figure 5.9 Block construction, schematic symbol and pin out of TRIAC A TRIAC can be used as an AC switch as shown in figure 5.10. It can also be used to control AC power applied to load as shown in figure 5.11, but a special triggering device is needed to ensure proper functioning of TRIAC, since the TRIAC is not equally sensitive to the gate current flowing in opposite direction.

Figure 5.10 TRIAC AC switch circuit

Figure 5.11 TRIAC AC control circuit

A TRIAC operates in the same way as the SCR however it operates in both a forward and reverse direction. To get a quick understanding of its operation refer to its characteristic curve below and compare this to the SCR characteristic curve. It can be triggered into conduction by either a PLUS (+) or MINUS (-) gate signal.

Figure 5.12 VI characteristics of TRIAC

Major considerations when specifying TRIACs are: (a) Forward and reverse break over voltage. (b) Maximum current. (c) Minimum holding current. (d) Gate voltage and gate current trigger requirements. (e) Switching speed. (f) Maximum dV/dt. The current rating of TRIAC is around 25 amperes, but SCR can handle current up to 1400 amperes. The maximum voltage rating of TRIAC is 500 volts, compared to 2600 volts for SCR. TRIACs are designed to operate at low frequency of 50 to 400 Hz, whereas SCR can be operated at 30,000Hz.

5.4

DIAC

The DIAC is a bi-directional trigger diode, which is designed specifically to trigger a TRIAC or SCR. Figure 5.13 shows the block construction and the symbol of DIAC. The symbol of DIAC is same as TRIAC without gate terminal.

Figure 5.13 Block construction and schematic symbol for DIAC The construction of DIAC is similar to a transistor. It has three alternately doped layers like transistor, but the doping concentration around both junctions in the DIAC is equal. The device is packaged like a diode. As both junctions are equally doped, a DIAC has same effect on current regardless of direction of flow. One junction is forward biased and the other is reversed biased. The reverse biased junction controls the current flowing through the diode. The DIAC remains off until the applied voltage in either direction is high enough to cause its reverse biased junction to break over and start conducting. The following figure 5.14 shows the characteristic of DIAC. The break over voltage is the point at which conduction starts to occur and causes DIAC to turn ON. The DIAC current starts rising to a value; limited by a series resistor in the circuit. Although most DIACs have symmetric switching voltages, asymmetric DIACs are also available. Typical DIACs have a power dissipations ranging from 1/2 to 1 watt.

Figure 5.14 VI characteristics of DIAC The main characteristics are: (a) Break over voltage (b) Voltage symmetry (c) Break back voltage (d) Break over current (d) Power dissipation 5.4.1 A typical application of DIAC

Figure 5.15 Phase angle control DIACs are mostly used to trigger TRIACs. Each time the DIAC turns on, it allows current to flow through the TRIAC gate and turns it on. Figure 5.15 shows a phase control for 120V AC. A DIAC D is used for triggering. The variable resistor and capacitor form a phase-shift network. When the voltage across capacitor reaches the breakdown voltage of DIAC, capacitor partially discharges through DIAC in to the gate of TRIAC and turns it on. This circuit is useful for controlling lamps, heater and speed of small motors. 5.5 Thyristors testing

5.5.1 SCR Testing: Connect the Ohmmeter as shown in figure 5.16A. Use the R x 1 range. The measured resistance should be high (greater than 1 mega ohm). Next, reconnect the Ohmmeter with reversed leads as in figure 5.16B. Again; the measured resistance should be high. With the Ohmmeter leads connected as in B, momentarily connect the gate to the anode. The Ohmmeter should now read low resistance (less than 1000 ohms), even when the gate connection has been broken. The SCR resistance instantly goes again high in both directions when either Ohmmeter lead is lifted.

Figure 5.16 SCR Testing 5.5.3 TRIAC Testing: Connect the ohmmeter as shown in figure 5.17C. The measured resistance should be high. Momentarily connect the gate to MT2; the resistance should go low and remain low even when the gate connection is broken. Reconnect the Ohmmeter with

opposite polarity as shown in figure 5.17D. The reading should again be high until the gate-to-MT2 connection is made, then go low as it did before.

Figure 5.17 TRIAC Testing 5.5.3 DIAC Testing: When the Ohmmeter is connected across the two terminals of DIAC, a low resistance indicates that the device is not open (defective). This does not indicate a shorted device. 5.6 1. 2. 3. 4. Self Test Questions Describe how an SCR is constructed. Explain how an SCR operates. Give some applications of an SCR. What is the difference between TRIAC and an SCR?

6.
6.1

Optoelectric Devices
Basic Principles of Light

The electromagnetic spectrum covers a wide range of wavelengths and photon energies. Figure 6.2 shows the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Light is a visible electromagnetic radiation. Light travels at a speed of 300x108 centimeters per second through vacuum. The velocity decreases in different mediums. Light is measured in wavelengths.

Figure 6.1 Visible light as part of the electromagnetic spectrum 6.2 Light Sensitive Devices

6.2.1 Photoconductive cell (photocell) The photoconductive cell is a light sensitive device. The internal resistance of this device changes with light intensity. Photocells are thin film devices made by depositing a layer of a photoconductive material such as cadmium sulfide (CdS) or cadmium selenide (CdSe) on a ceramic substrate in S-shape to allow greater contact length. Metal contacts are evaporated over the surface of the photoconductor and external electrical connection is made to these contacts. The photocell is the most sensitive photo device. It is useful for low light applications. It can withstand high operating voltages of 200 to 300 volts with low power consumption of up to 300 milliwatts. Slow response to light changes is the disadvantage of photocell.

Figure 6.2 Typical construction of a plastic coated Photocell

Figure 6.3 Schematic symbol for photocell

Figure 6.3 shows the schematic symbol used to represent a photocell. The arrows and the Greek letter lambda () in the symbol indicate light sensitive device. Applications: Photocells are used in photographic equipment, instruction detectors, relay control, automatic door openers and different test equipments to measure light intensity.

6.2.2

The photovoltaic cell (solar cell)

The photovoltaic cell converts light energy directly into electrical energy. A light sensitive P-N junction, made of semiconductor material silicon, forms a solar cell. When photons strike a photovoltaic cell, they may be reflected, pass right through, or be absorbed. Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate electricity. When enough sunlight (energy) is absorbed by the material (a semiconductor), electrons are released from the material's atoms. Holeelectron pairs are generated Special treatment of the material surface during manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell more receptive to free electrons, so the electrons naturally migrate to the surface i.e. towards the P-type semiconductor through an external path. The movement of electrons is called electricity. If an external path is not there, the process of generating free electrons stops. The more the amount of light falls on the cell's surface, more is the probability of photons releasing electrons, and hence more electricity generated. All light falling on solar cell does not create free electrons; hence the efficiency of solar cell is only 15 to 20%. The output voltage of solar cell is 0.45 volt at 50 milliamperes. They are connected in a series and parallel network to obtain the desired voltage and current output.

Figure 6.4 Construction and schematic symbol of Solar cell

Figure 6.5 Solar panel 6.2.3 Photodiode

The construction of a photodiode is similar to solar cell. It is also a light variable resistor and made from silicon. They are constructed as a simple PN junction or an intrinsic layer inserted between the P and N region forming PIN photodiode.

Figure 6.6 PN junction photodiode construction and biasing

Figure 6.7 construction of photodiode A PN junction photodiode operates on the same principle as a photovoltaic cell. A reverse biased voltage is applied across the photodiode, forming a wide depletion region. When light falls on photodiode, it enters the depletion region; the incident photons impart their energy to ions present their and generate free electrons holes pairs. These generated minority carriers swept across the junction such as free electrons are attracted toward positive terminal of supply and holes towards negative terminal of supply. Hence, a small current starts flowing in reverse direction as shown in figure 6.7. As the light energy increases, more number of charge carriers are generated and more current flows.

(a)

(b)

Figure 6.8 PN junction photodiode Characteristics The V-I characteristics of photodiode are as shown in figure 6.8a. The current flowing through a photodiode in the absence of light is called as Dark current. Dark current flows due to the thermally generated minority carriers. Therefore it increases with increase in temperature. The reverse current through a photodiode varies linearly

with illuminance above the dark current region. The variation of photocurrent with light intensity is shown in figure 6.8b. PIN Diode

Figure 6.9 PIN junction photodiode construction and biasing In PIN photodiode due to the intrinsic layer depletion region is wider, which responds to lower light frequencies. The PIN photodiode is more efficient over wider range. Due to wider depletion region, the internal capacitance of PIN photodiode is lower and hence it gives faster response to changes in light. But it gives low output voltage compared to other photosensitive devices. Advantages of photodiode High sensitivity High speed of operation

Disadvantages of photodiode Poor temperature stability Amplification is required External bias voltage is essential

Why photodiode is operated in reverse bias? In reverse bias condition a small reverse current (in A) flows through diode in absence of light. When the light is incident on it, the change in current is significant. If the diode is connected in forward bias in the absence of light is in mA and change in forward current due to light incident on it is not significant or even not noticeable. Hence photodiode is always operated in reverse bias condition. 6.2.4 Phototransistor

Phototransistor has two PN junctions similar to normal NPN transistor. It is used like a photodiode. Figure 6.10 shows the equivalent circuit for phototransistor. A phototransistor is a transistor that is sensitive to the input light intensity. Basically, a small lens focuses the light to the base, and this light interacts with the semiconductor crystal and generates electrons .The electrons are amplified by the transistor and appear as a current in the collector/emitter circuit. This current is called the photocurrent. A phototransistor has only two leads since the base is internally left open and is at the focus of a plastic lens. The output current of phototransistor is higher than photodiode but their response is slow as shown in figure 6.11.

Figure 6.10 Equivalent circuit and schematic symbol for a phototransistor

Figure 6.11 Collector Current (Ic) vs. Collector to Emitter Voltage (Vce) as a function of incident energy for phototransistor

Applications: i) ii) iii) iv) v) 6.2.5 Photo tachometer Photographic exposure control Flame detectors Object counters Mechanical positioners

Light-Emitting Devices

Light emitting devices converts electrical energy in to light energy. A light emitting diode (LED) is the most common semiconductor light-emitting device. Due to absence of filament the life span for LED is unlimited. A light emitting diode (LED) emits light when electrical energy is applied to it. The construction and biasing of LED is shown in figure 6.13. When the current flows through the PN junction of LED, it emits light as shown in figure 6.13. The frequency of light emitted depends on material used for construction. Gallium arsenide (GaAs) produces light in the infrared region, which is an invisible region. Gallium arsenide

phosphide (GaAsP) emits visible red light. Changing the phosphide content can generate different frequencies of light.

LED Symbol

LED Biasing

Figure 6.13 construction of LED and circuit symbol of LED For proper operation of LED, it is connected in forward biased connection as shown in figure 6.13. When forward biased the voltage becomes greater than 1.2 volts, LED becomes on and forward current flows. A series resistor RS is connected in the circuit, to protect LED from excessive forward current If at the applied voltage V.

Figure 6.14 Inside a LED While construction of LED, the P-layer is made thin so that light energy near the PN junction needs to travel a short distance through it. The LED package is designed for optimum emission of light. Figure 6.14 shows a commonly used package with lens which is used to gather and intensify light. Principle of LED operation

When forward biased voltage is applied to LED, electrons in N-region will cross the junction and recombines with holes in P-region. The free electrons in conduction band are at higher energy level than the holes in valence band. After recombination these electrons return back to lower energy level by releasing the energy in the form of light as shown in figure 6.15.

Figure 6.15 Principle of operation of LED Advantages of LED Small size, light weight Longer life High operating speed Different spectral colors

Disadvantages of LED Large power requirement Output power is temperature dependent Can be easily damaged due to over current and reverse voltage.

Common LED Packages

Figure 6.12 Common LED packages Applications

1. Seven Segment Display: LEDs can be arranged to form a seven-segment display. Figure (6.16) shows seven segment displays of LEDs used for digital readout.

Figure 6.16 Seven Segment display of LEDs for digital readout. 2. Optical coupler: An optical coupler consists of light emitting device LED, and a light sensitive device photodiode or phototransistor. Both of them wrapped up in one package, but with no electrical connection between the two. As the signal to the LED varies, the amount of light emitted by LED varies. The phototransistor converts this varying light back into electrical energy. Hence optical couplers are used to obtain high degree of electrical isolation.

Figure 6.17 Commercial optical coupler 6.3 Comparisons Comparison of LED and photodiode SN 1. 2. 3. 4. LED It is light emitting device It converts electrical energy to light Photodiode It is light detecting device It produces electrical current proportional to light It is always used in reverse biased mode

It is always used in forward biased mode Light is emitted due to recombination Photo current flows due to generation of hole of electrons and holes electron pair

5. 6. 7. 8.

Radiated power is temperature dependent constructed from materials such as GaAs, GaP, GaAsP etc. Applications: 7-segment display, optocoupler, indicator etc.

Photo current and dark current is temperature dependent Constructed from Silicon material Applications: Fiber optical communication, optocoupler

Circuit Symbol Circuit Symbol Comparison of Zener diode and PN junction diode SN 1 PN junction diode Zener diode

2 3 4

It is operated in forward bias condition Applications: rectifier, clipper, clamper, voltage multiplier etc. Diode V-I Characteristics: refer figure 2.5 Self Test Questions

It is operated in reverse bias condition Applications: voltage regulator, voltage limiter etc. Zener diode VI characteristics: refer figure 3.2

6.4 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Explain how a solar cell functions. Explain how an LED differs from a conventional diode. How does LED emit different colors of light? What type of bias is required to cause an LED to produce light? When compared to incandescent lamps, what is the power requirement of an LED? 6. In a common anode, seven-segment LED display, an individual LED will light if a negative voltage is applied to what element? 7. What is the resistance level of a photodiode in total darkness? 8. What type of bias is required for proper operation of a photodiode? 9. What is a typical light-to-dark resistance ratio for a photocell? 10. What semiconductor device produces electrical energy when exposed to light?

7.

Summary

 The properties of semiconductor material fall between insulators and conductors. The silicon and germanium atoms contain four electrons in the valence shells and are called as intrinsic or pure semiconductors. Doping is the process of adding impurity to the intrinsic semiconductors. A p-type semiconductor is obtained by adding a trivalent impurity to the pure semiconductor. Holes are majority carriers and electrons are the minority carriers in a p type semiconductor. A n-type semiconductor is obtained by adding a Pentavalent impurity to the pure semiconductor. Electrons are majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers in a p type semiconductor. The pn junction formed by combining. When no voltage is applied to the diode, electrons from the N-type material fill holes from the P-type material along the junction between the layers, forming a depletion region. When the negative end of battery is connected to the N-type layer and the positive end is connected to P-type layer [forward biased], there is no conduction as long as applied voltage is less than barrier potential. As soon as the applied voltage becomes greater than barrier potential large forward current starts and the depletion zone disappears. When the positive end of the battery voltage is connected to the N-type layer and the negative end is connected to the P-type layer [reverse biased], free electrons collect on one end of the diode and holes collect on the other. The depletion zone gets bigger. In a conducting state the drop across the diode is called as forward voltage drop (Ef). The amount of current flowing in the forward direction is called as forward current (If). The zener diode is silicon PN junction device designed to operate in reverse breakdown region and it is popularly used as a voltage regulator. Zener diodes are manufactured to have specific breakdown voltage rating, called, as Zener voltage rating (VZ). The three elements of the two-junction transistor are (1) EMITTER; (2) BASE (3) COLLECTOR. The term transistor was derived from the words TRANSfer and resISTOR. Transistor is called as bipolar junction transistor because the conduction in transistor takes place due to two types of charge carriers namely holes and electrons. Transistors are classified as either NPN or PNP according to the arrangement of their N and P materials. The relation between collector current, base current and emitter current is IE = IB + IC
B

 A Thyristors is a semiconductor device acting as an on-off switch triggered by a signal of very small power. The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier referred as SCR is a solid-state device consisting of four alternately doped (PNPN) semiconductor layers. SCR is made ON by application of positive gate pulse and turned OFF by reducing the anode to cathode voltage. A device that contains two SCR's back-to-back, but with a single trigger, is called a TRIAC. A triac operates in the same way as the SCR however it operates in both a forward and reverse direction. The DIAC is a bi-directional trigger diode, which is designed specifically to trigger a TRIAC or SCR. Light is a visible electromagnetic radiation. Light travels at a speed of 300x108 centimeters per second through vacuum. The photoconductive cell is a light sensitive device. The internal resistance of this device changes with light intensity. The photovoltaic cell converts light energy directly into electrical energy. A light sensitive P-N junction, made of semiconductor material silicon, forms a solar cell. Photodiode is a light variable resistor and made from silicon. The current flowing through a photodiode in the absence of light is called as Dark current. Light emitting devices converts electrical energy in to light energy. When the current flows through the PN junction of LED, it emits light. The frequency of light emitted depends on material used for construction. An optical coupler consists of light emitting device LED, and a light sensitive device photodiode or phototransistor.