N A S A TECHNICAL N O T E

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LOAN COPY: RETURN TO AFWL (WLIL-2) KIRTLAMD AFB, N MEX

SEXTANT SIGHTING MEASUREMENTS

FROM ON BOARD THE GEMINI XI1 SPACECRAFT

by Donald W. Smith and Bedford A. Lampkin

Ames Research Cefzzter Moffett Field Cal$

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE A D M I N I S T R A T I O N

WASHINGTON, D. C.

DECEMBER 1968

TECH LIBRARY

KAFB, " I

Illll1l0131709 lllllllllllllI lI l
NASA T N D-4952

SEXTANT SIGHTING MEASUREMENTS FROM

ON BOARD THE GEMINI XI1 SPACECRAFT

By Donald W. Smith and Bedford A. Lampkin

Ames Research Center

Moffett F i e l d , Calif.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

For sole by t h e Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific ond Technical Information Springfield, Virginia 22151 CFSTI price $3.00

SEXTANT SIGHTING MEASUREMENTS FROM

ON BOARD THE G E M I N I X I 1 SPACECRAFT

By Donald W . Smith and Bedford A . Lampkin Ames Research Center

SW R Y

The c a p a b i l i t y of a s p a c e c r a f t n a v i g a t o r t o make i n - f l i g h t n a v i g a t i o n measurements from on board t h e s p a c e c r a f t u s i n g a hand-held s e x t a n t h a s been s t u d i e d e x t e n s i v e l y . Tests conducted on board t h e o r b i t i n g Gemini X I 1 space c r a f t were designed t o determine t h e e f f e c t o f t h e a c t u a l s p a c e - f l i g h t envi ronment on n a v i g a t o r performance. The r e s u l t s show t h a t : (1) hand-held s e x t a n t measurement performance i s e x c e l l e n t p r o v i d i n g a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of measurement e r r o r l e s s t h a n 10 a r c seconds; ( 2 ) s p a c e c r a f t r o t a t i o n a l motion and t h e a c t u a l s p a c e c r a f t environment had l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e n a v i g a t o r performance; and ( 3 ) window-induced measurement e r r o r s i n t h e Gemini X I 1 s p a c e c r a f t were small and p r e d i c t a b l e . The o p t i c a l hand-held s e x t a n t appears t o have a p p l i c a t i o n t o on-board n a v i g a t i o n f o r f u t u r e manned space f l i g h t s .
INTRODUCTION

Earth-based e l e c t r o n i c t r a c k i n g systems have been used f o r e a r t h o r b i t a l n a v i g a t i o n of t h e manned Gemini s p a c e c r a f t and f o r t r a n s l u n a r and i n t e r p l a n e t a r y n a v i g a t i o n of v a r i o u s unmanned s p a c e c r a f t . I t i s planned t o u s e t h e s e t r a c k i n g systems as an element i n t h e primary n a v i g a t i o n system f o r t h e manned Apollo s p a c e c r a f t . I n t h e manned v e h i c l e s , t h e s e systems p r o v i d e a c c u r a t e n a v i g a t i o n measurements and r e l i e v e t h e crew workload a t c r i t i c a l time p e r i o d s i n t h e m i s s i o n . S t u d i e s of circumlunar n a v i g a t i o n ( r e f s . 1 and 2) and i n t e r p l a n e t a r y n a v i g a t i o n ( r e f s . 3 and 4 ) have i n d i c a t e d t h a t p r e c i s e a n g u l a r measurements ( s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of measurement e r r o r I 10 a r c s e c ) made w i t h an o p t i c a l device such as a s e x t a n t o r t h e o d o l i t e can b e s u i t a b l y p r o c e s s e d i n a com p u t e r mechanized n a v i g a t i o n system t o p r o v i d e s a t i s f a c t o r y midcourse naviga t i o n . Early i n the space-flight e r a , similar s t u d i e s l e d technical planners t o c o n s i d e r on-board systems f o r primary n a v i g a t i o n . A s i m p l i f i e d h i g h l y r e l i a b l e on-board n a v i g a t i o n system f o r manned o r b i t a l , l u n a r , and i n t e r planetary space f l i g h t is d e s i r a b l e :
1. To p r o v i d e a backup c a p a b i l i t y s u i t a b l e f o r s a f e e a r t h r e t u r n

from a v a r i e t y o f m i s s i o n phases
2. To p r o v i d e a b l u n d e r check f o r primary system e r r o r s

3.

To i n s p i r e t h e crew's confidence i n t h e performance of t h e primary n a v i g a t i o n and guidance system.

On-board n a v i g a t i o n o f a i r c r a f t and s h i p s h a s evolved i n t o a system t h a t depends t o a l a r g e e x t e n t on t h e u s e o f a p p r o p r i a t e t a b l e s and c h a r t s , a s e x t a n t , a c l o c k , and a s i m p l e computational form t o e s t a b l i s h v e h i c l e p o s i t i o n on t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . These s i m p l i f i e d systems are c a p a b l e o f p r o v i d i n g a p o s i t i o n d e t e r m i n a t i o n w i t h i n a mile . However, t h e n a v i g a t i o n of s p a c e c r a f t t h a t t r a v e l a t h i g h speeds o v e r l a r g e d i s t a n c e s where t h e consequences o f small n a v i g a t i o n e r r o r s would b e g r e a t l y magnified r e q u i r e s systems based on new s t a n d a r d s o f p r e c i s i o n i n b o t h s i g h t i n g and c a l c u l a t i o n . The problem o f s i g h t i n g p r e c i s i o n i s b e i n g s t u d i e d i n a c t u a l s p a c e f l i g h t by t h e A i r Force ( r e f . 5) and N A S A ( r e f . 6 ) . S i g h t i n g p r e c i s i o n has a l s o been s t u d i e d i n s i m u l a t o r s ( r e f s . 7, 8, and 9) and i n h i g h - f l y i n g a i r c r a f t ( r e f . 1 0 ) . The r e s u l t s of t h e l i m i t e d s p a c e f l i g h t and more comprehensive s i m u l a t o r and a i r c r a f t experiments i n d i c a t e d t h a t a hand-held s e x t a n t could b e used as a major element of a s p a c e c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n system. The g e n e r a l o b j e c t i v e of Ames' TO02 i n - f l i g h t experiment was t o make n a v i g a t i o n measurements through t h e window o f t h e s t a b i l i z e d Gemini space c r a f t w i t h a hand-held s e x t a n t :
1. To e v a l u a t e t h e a s t r o n a u t ' s a b i l i t y t o make a c c u r a t e s p a c e n a v i g a t i o n measurements u s i n g a s i m p l e i n s t r u m e n t i n an a u t h e n t i c s p a c e environment 2 . To examine t h e o p e r a t i o n a l f e a s i b i l i t y of t h e measurement t e c h n i q u e b o t h w i t h p r e s s u r e s u i t helmet o f f and p r e s s u r e s u i t helmet on - v i s o r down
3 . To e v a l u a t e o p e r a t i o n a l problems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e space

c r a f t environment
4 . To v a l i d a t e ground-based s i m u l a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s by compar i s o n of t h e i n - f l i g h t d a t a w i t h b a s e l i n e d a t a o b t a i n e d by t h e s p a c e c r a f t p i l o t , b o t h i n s i m u l a t o r s and u s i n g a c t u a l c e l e s t i a l t a r g e t s from ground o b s e r v a t o r i e s . The TO02 experiment r e s u l t s a r e compared w i t h b a s e l i n e d a t a o b t a i n e d i n a ground-based s i m u l a t i o n and w i t h o t h e r f l i g h t d a t a , and t h e p o t e n t i a l of t h e hand-held s e x t a n t f o r implementation o f on-board n a v i g a t i o n systems f o r i n t e r p l a n e t a r y f l i g h t i s examined.
EQUIPMENT
S ex t a n t Des c r ip t i on

The two l i n e - o f - s i g h t (LOS) s e x t a n t shown i n f i g u r e 1 was used i n t h e TO02 experiment. I t was designed t o measure a c c u r a t e l y t h e a n g l e between v a r i o u s types of c e l e s t i a l t a r g e t s .

Event timer sWitch

timer system connector

Filter prim ary

Figure 1.- Hand-held space sextant used in T002 experiment.

The view through t h e f i x e d LOS f i e l d o f t h e s e x t a n t i s imaged i n i t s f o c a l p l a n e through a p l a t e b e a m s p l i t t e r , o b j e c t i v e l e n s , and prism-mirror e r e c t i n g system ( f i g . 2 ) . The view through t h e s c a n n i n g LOS f i e l d i s r e f l e c t e d from an a r t i c u l a t e d scan n i n g m i r r o r ; i t i s t h e n combined w i t h t h e f i x e d LOS f i e l d i n t h e b e a m s p l i t t e r and imaged ( i n t h e f o c a l p l a n e ) by t h e same o b j e c t i v e l e n s and e r e c t i n g system. The o p e r a t o r , by observ i n g t h e f o c a l p l a n e through t h e e y e p i e c e and a d j u s t i n g t h e scanning f i e l d s o f view can superimpose t h e s e l e c t e d t a r g e t s i n t h e f i x e d and s c a n n i n g f i e l d s o f view, and t h u s e s t a b l i s h t h e a n g u l a r s e p a r a t i o n of t h e t a r g e t s . The a n g u l a r r o t a t i o n of t h e s c a n n i n g m i r r o r i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e two-speed scanning c o n t r o l knobs, f which p r o v i d e t a r g e t o p t i c a l motions o f 1 d e g r e e and 5 degrees p e r r e v o l u t i o n o f t h e knobs.
50% reflection

A n engraved r e t i c l e i s l o c a t e d a t t h e p r i n c i p a l focus o f t h e t e l e scope o b j e c t i v e l e n s . The r e t i c l e Figure 2.- Schematic diagram o f o p t i c s ; handp a t t e r n was designed t o assist t h e held sextant. o p e r a t o r i n keeping t h e t a r g e t s a l i n e d i n t h e measurement p l a n e of t h e i n s t r u m e n t w h i l e making t h e s i g h t i n g s . The r e t i c l e a l s o d e f i n e d t h e area o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t f i e l d of view i n which measurements were t o b e made t o minimize measurement e r r o r s . Reticle i l l u m i n a t i o n i s provided t o e n a b l e t h e o p e r a t o r t o see t h e r e t i c l e a g a i n s t a dark background.
I -I

- ----- -- -

The s e x t a n t i s equipped w i t h two removable e y e p i e c e s , one p r o v i d i n g normal eye r e l i e f , and t h e o t h e r , long eye r e l i e f . The normal eye r e l i e f eyepiece i s used when t h e s e x t a n t can b e b r o u g h t d i r e c t l y t o t h e eye f o r viewing, w h i l e t h e long eye r e l i e f eyepiece a l l o w s t h e s e x t a n t t o b e used w i t h t h e p r e s s u r e s u i t helmet on and t h e helmet v i s o r down. Data r e a d o u t i s accomplished by d i r e c t r e a d i n g o f a mechanical c o u n t e r l o c a t e d below t h e i n s t r u m e n t e y e p i e c e . The measured a n g l e between t h e f i x e d and s c a n n i n g LOS i s i n d i c a t e d on t h e c o u n t e r i n d e g r e e s , t h e l e a s t count b e i n g 0.001" o r 3 . 6 arc seconds. A d u a l - c e l l r e c h a r g e a b l e nickel-cadmium b a t t e r y , c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e s e x t a n t , provides 2 . 5 v o l t s f o r i l l u m i n a t i n g b o t h t h e d a t a readout and t h e reticle.

An event t i m e r b u t t o n and s w i t c h are l o c a t e d on t h e r i g h t s i d e o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t . The event timer s w i t c h was connected t o t h e Gemini XI1 space c r a f t t e l e m e t r y r e c o r d e r through t h e s p a c e c r a f t u t i l i t y cord. Depression of t h e event t i m e r b u t t o n p u t a t i m e - c o r r e l a t e d signal on t h e on-board p u l s e code modulation (PCM) d a t a r e c o r d e r t a p e f o r u s e i n t h e d a t a a n a l y s i s .

Two f i l t e r s of d i f f e r e n t d e n s i t y are provided i n each LOS t o reduce t h e amount of l i g h t t r a n s m i t t e d through them. The purpose o f t h e f i l t e r s i s t o p e r m i t viewing o f images o f widely v a r y i n g b r i g h t n e s s . The g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s e x t a n t are as f o l l o w s : Size

....................

7-1/4

6-1/16 i n . 6 l b 4 oz 6 l b 0 oz

Weight Normal eye r e l i e f eyepiece Long eye r e l i e f e y e p i e c e Magnification Normal e y e p i e c e . . . . Long eye r e l i e f e y e p i e c e F i e l d of view

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

................... 8x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4.6~ ......................... 7"

E x i t pupi 1 Normal eye r e l i e f e y e p i e c e Long eye r e l i e f e y e p i e c e . Eye r e l i e f Normal eye r e l i e f e y e p i e c e Long eye r e l i e f e y e p i e c e

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

mm mm

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18 mm 60 mm

Diopter adj u s tment Normal eye r e l i e f e y e p i e c e Long eye r e l i e f e y e p i e c e .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 3 t o +S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -3 t o +3 Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 s e c of a r c Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Erect

Range

............................

76"

A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e i n s t r u m e n t , t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e f l i g h t r a t i n g program, and r e s u l t s o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l v e r i f i c a t i o n program a r e p r e s e n t e d i n r e f e r e n c e 11.

S e x t a n t C a l i b r a t i on

P r e f l i g h t . - The f l i g h t s e x t a n t (GFAE No. EG 25100-1, s e r i a l no. 4) was c a l i b r a t e d p r i o r t o t h e f l i g h t of t h e Gemini X I 1 u s i n g t h e Acceptance T e s t and O p t i c a l C a l i b r a t i o n Procedure (KTS 41580 00 001) o f r e f e r e n c e 1 2 . The s e x t a n t c a l i b r a t i o n e r r o r , E C Y i s t h e average o f t h e e r r o r s o b t a i n e d a t each d i sCrete i n d i c a t e d s e x t a n t angle v reading (every l o from -60 to +700) Note: Curve values to be added to sextant reading i n t h r e e consecutive c a l i b r a t i o n s . The range of t h e t h r e e i n s t r u m e n t e r r o r s measured a t each i n d i c a t e d s e x t a n t angle during t h e c a l i b r a t i o n &Ah C was always less t h a n 6 a r c seconds. 0 .v-v" F o r an a c t u a l t r u e t a r g e t a n g l e of 2 - -20 0" t h e s e x t a n t was c a r e f u l l y a l i n e d on an o p t i c a l bench t o i n d i c a t e 0 " on C
I I I
I 2 -40-10 To 5o
o ; t h e s e x t a n t readout counter. $ 0 1 0 20 30 40 Indicated sextant angle, e,, deg o b t a i n t h e a c t u a l measured s e x t a n t a n g l e , t h e i n s t r u m e n t e r r o r i s added Figure 3 . - P r e f l i g h t c a l i b r a t i o n o f hand-held algebraically t o the indicated space s e x t a n t (GFAE No. E G 2 5 1 0 0 - 1 , s e r i a l sextant angle ( f i g . 3).

FR/\Ih
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no. 4 ) .
Post f I i g h i ca Iibra t ion Special postflight calibration for actuol Gemini X U measured angles
0

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Preflight calibration from Fig 3 Preflight calibration, 0" lo 3"

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I I

01 -10 L
I 1 7 I 1 8

0 I 1 9

1 0

0 .

p...*.
I
4
I I

-10

I 3

Indicated sextant a n g l e ,

e,,

deg

Figure 4 . - P o s t f l i g h t c a l i b r a t i o n of hand-held s p a c e s e x t a n t (GFAE No. E G 2 5 1 0 0 - 1 , s e r i a l no. 4 ) .

P o s t f l i g h t . - A f t e r t h e Gemini X I 1 f l i g h t , t h e s e x t a n t was v i s u a l l y i n s p e c t e d and c a l i b r a t e d t o determine whether exposure t o t h e space and s p a c e c r a f t environment had any d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s on t h e s e x t a n t o r i t s performance. The i n s p e c t i o n r e v e a l e d no change i n t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n of t h e i n s t r u m e n t . The s e x t a n t was c a l i b r a t e d u s i n g t h e procedure of reference 1 2 , b u t only i n t h e r e s t r i c t e d ranges of i n d i c a t e d sex t a n t a n g l e s , from 0 t o 3', 6.5" t o 9 . 5 " , and 16.5" t o 19.5", i n which s i g h t i n g measurements were made dur i n g t h e Gemini X I 1 f l i g h t . A c a l i b r a t i o n f o r t h e range from 31.5' t o 34.5" was a l s o made t o check a s i m i l a r p r e f l i g h t c a l i b r a t i o n . Figure 4 compares t h e p os t f 1i gh t c a l i b r a t i on d a t a with t h e p r e f l i g h t d a t a of f i g u r e 3 and w i t h t h e c a l i b r a t i o n made i n t h e range o f s e x t a n t a n g l e s from 0' t o 3". Two s p e c i a l p o s t f l i g h t c a l i b r a t i o n s were made f o r i n d i c a t e d s e x t a n t a n g l e s of 7.525' and 18.605', t h e approximate measured a n g l e s of t h e s i g h t i n g s performed on t h e Gemini X I 1 f l i g h t .

From examination o f f i g u r e 4 , it may b e s e e n t h a t t h e p o s t f l i g h t and p r e f l i g h t s e x t a n t c a l i b r a t i o n e r r o r s d i f f e r g e n e r a l l y by about 5 arc sec w i t h a few as l a r g e as 10 arc sec. Except f o r t h e f e w l a r g e r e r r o r s , t h e c a l i b r a t i o n s meet t h e a c c e p t a n c e t e s t requirements f o r o p e r a t i o n a l u s e of t h e s e x t a n t ( r e f . 1 2 , appendix 11, p a r a . 9 . 1 8 ) : t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e maximum and minimum e r r o r a t any d a t a p o i n t ( i n d i c a t e d s e x t a n t a n g l e ) s h a l l n o t exceed 6 a r c s e c . I t seems r e a s o n a b l e t o conclude, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e exposure t o t h e s p a c e - f l i g h t environment had l i t t l e o r no e f f e c t on t h e performance o f the sextant. Event Timing System The i n t e g r a l e v e n t t i m e r s w i t c h ( f i g . 1) was a c t u a t e d by t h e p i l o t when h e a t t a i n e d t a r g e t s u p e r p o s i t i o n i n t h e s e x t a n t f i e l d of view. A c t u a t i o n of t h e s w i t c h i n i t i a t e d a t i m e - c o r r e l a t e d e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l t o an on-board PCM t a p e r e c o r d e r . T h i s e v e n t t i m i n g system was c a p a b l e of p r o v i d i n g t h e time of each s e x t a n t s i g h t i n g w i t h an e r r o r less t h a n 20.2 sec. The d a t a were s t o r e d on t h e t a p e and t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e ground v i a t e l e m e t r y equipment a t a f u t u r e time. I t t h e n became a v a i l a b l e f o r r e d u c t i o n of t h e s i g h t i n g d a t a . In a p r e v i o u s experiment on Gemini IV ( r e f . 5 ) , time c o r r e l a t i o n d a t a were l o s t as t h e r e s u l t of an equipment f a i l u r e , which s e r i o u s l y r e s t r i c t e d t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d and recorded i n t h e p i l o t s l o g and, i n t h i s c a s e , made i t impossible t o o b t a i n q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s u l t s . To p r e v e n t d a t a l o s s i n t h i s experiment, a backup t i m i n g system was devised i n which t h e command p i l o t manually logged t h e time o f s e x t a n t s i g h t i n g , which h e r e a d from a s p a c e c r a f t e l a p s e d time c l o c k on an o r a l "MARK" command from t h e p i l o t . T h i s system proved a c c u r a t e w i t h i n about k 0 . 6 s e c based on t h e e v e n t times s u c c e s s f u l l y t e l e m e t e r e d from t h e primary system d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t . Sext a n t S t o wag e During t h e launch and e n t r y phase of t h e Gemini XI1 m i s s i o n , t h e s e x t a n t was stowed between t h e p i l o t s i n a s p e c i a l c o n t a i n e r shown i n f i g u r e 5 . T h i s container r e s t r a i n e d t h e s e x t a n t during t h e s e high a c c e l e r a t i o n f l i g h t regimes and a l s o p r o t e c t e d t h e i n s t r u m e n t from damage due t o b o t h t h e s u s t a i n e d a c c e l e r a t i o n and v i b r a t i o n l o a d s . During t h e o r b i t a l f l i g h t phase, t h e i n s t r u m e n t was stowed above t h e back of t h e command p i l o t ' s s e a t where i t was r e s t r a i n e d from moving by means of Velcro pads.

1-------

... c=J
'., . . . . .

. .

\. . . .

.,'

...

'

. .

: .

Figure S. - Sto\yage of sextan t on board Gemini XI I spacecraft.

EXPERIMENTAL M E T H O D S AND PROCEDURES

P r e f l i g h t Training T r a i n i n g i s a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r i n developing t h e a b i l i t y of a s p a c e c r a f t n a v i g a t o r t o make a c c u r a t e n a v i g a t i o n measurements ( r e f . 7 ) . The Gemini X I 1 p i l o t , Major Edwin A l d r i n , was t r a i n e d f o r t h e TO02 experiment i n t h e Gemini cab o f t h e Docking S i m u l a t o r a t NASA's Manned S p a c e c r a f t Center ( f i g . 6 ) . Two s i m u l a t e d s t a r t a r g e t s were i n s t a l l e d i n t h e s i m u l a t o r room. The s t a r t a r g e t s consisted of 12-in. parabolic mirrors t h a t projected collimated l i g h t toward t h e s i g h t i n g s t a t i o n s i m u l a t i n g a s t a r magnitude o f about 2 . Using t h e hand-held s e x t a n t i n t h e darkened Docking S i m u l a t o r , t h e p i l o t performed 15 c o n s e c u t i v e measurements of t h e a n g l e between t h e s i m u l a t e d s t a r s . A z e r o b i a s c o r r e c t i o n was o b t a i n e d by having t h e p i l o t t a k e 10 c o n s e c u t i v e measure ments when s i g h t i n g on one s t a r with b o t h s e x t a n t LOS. The measured s e x t a n t angles were r e a d o f f o f t h e s e x t a n t c o u n t e r and r e c o r d e d . S e x t a n t measure ments were r e p e a t e d i n 15 s i g h t i n g s e s s i o n s d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r a p e r i o d of 4 days.
P r e f 1i gh t Bas e 1i n e Experiments

Accurate r e f e r e n c e b a s e l i n e d a t a were r e q u i r e d f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e e f f e c t of t h e s p a c e - f l i g h t environment on t h e p i l o t ' s a b i l i t y t o make a c c u r a t e s e x t a n t measurements. A l l b a s e l i n e d a t a were o b t a i n e d a t Ames Research Center p r i m a r i l y i n t h e A m e s Midcourse Navigation and Guidance S i m u l a t o r ( r e f . 7 ) . The b a s i c components of t h e s i m u l a t o r are a v i s u a l scene (moons t a r f i e l d ) and a movable cab (manned s p a c e v e h i c l e ) . The cab was s t a t i c f o r t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e s i g h t i n g s e s s i o n s . Cab motion appeared t o have no e f f e c t on s i g h t i n g performance. The two s i m u l a t e d stars used i n t h e i n i t i a l t r a i n i n g were employed i n o b t a i n i n g t h e b a s e l i n e d a t a . Using t h e hand-held sex t a n t , t h e Gemini X I 1 p i l o t made 5 c o n s e c u t i v e measurements of t h e a n g l e o b t a i n e d when viewing t h e same s i m u l a t e d s t a r through b o t h s e x t a n t L O S to e s t a b l i s h an i n s t r u m e n t - o p e r a t o r measured zero b i a s . Subsequently, 10 con s e c u t i v e measurements of t h e a n g l e between t h e s e l e c t e d s i g h t i n g t a r g e t s were made from which t h e mean and s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s of t h e measurement e r r o r s were computed. Measurements were made w i t h t h e helmet o f f (normal eye r e l i e f e y e p i e c e ) and helmet on, v i s o r down ( l o n g eye r e l i e f e y e p i e c e ) . S e x t a n t measurements were made i n 25 s i g h t i n g s e s s i o n s d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r a p e r i o d of 2 days. The t r u e a n g l e s between t h e s i m u l a t o r s i g h t i n g t a r g e t s were measured u s i n g a H i l g e r Watts No. 2 M i c r o p t i c T h e o d o l i t e w i t h a 0 . 1 a r c s e c r e a d o u t and an e r r o r o f l e s s t h a n 1 arc s e c . B a s e l i n e d a t a were a l s o o b t a i n e d a t t h e Ames ground s i g h t i n g s t a t i o n u s i n g r e a l s t a r s . Measurements were made i n 5 s i g h t i n g s e s s i o n s d i s t r i b u t e d over a p e r i o d o f 2 d a y s .

-----~

f-'

Figure 6.- MSC docking simulator used in preliminary astronaut training.

The s e x t a n t e v e n t t i m i n g system was used t o mark t h e t i m e o f s e x t a n t n e l e c t r o n i c clock synchronized t o t h e measurement on a d i g i t a l r e c o r d e r . A n a t i o n a l t i m e s t a n d a r d t r a n s m i t t e d over r a d i o s t a t i o n WWV was used as t h e time r e f e r e n c e . Timing e r r o r was less t h a n +0'.25 s e c . I n - F l i g h t Experiment I n - f l i g h t procedures were c a r e f u l l y formulated by t h e experimenters and t h e f l i g h t crew i n t h e Gemini Mission S i m u l a t o r a t t h e Manned S p a c e c r a f t and Kennedy Space C e n t e r s . The methods f o r a c q u i r i n g t h e t a r g e t , t a k i n g d a t a , measuring t i m e of t a r g e t s s u p e r p o s i t i o n , and l o c a t i n g s e x t a n t LOS on t h e window were s i m p l i f i e d t o a s s u r e a maximum p r o b a b i l i t y o f experiment s u c c e s s . These procedures were f r e q u e n t l y p r a c t i c e d by t h e crew u s i n g t h e v i s u a l scene of t h e Mission S i m u l a t o r . The s e x t a n t was t a k e n from i t s stowed l o c a t i o n between t h e p i l o t and t h e command p i l o t . The s p a c e c r a f t commander t h e n e s t a b l i s h e d t h e s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t a t i o n with r e s p e c t t o t h e s e l e c t e d s t a r t a r g e t s s o t h a t t h e p i l o t could s e e them through t h e r i g h t - h a n d window ( f i g . 7 ) . The s p a c e c r a f t was s t a b i l i z e d t o t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n w i t h i n about _+2" i n p i t c h and yaw and + l o o i n r o l l with very low r e s i d u a l a t t i t u d e r a t e s ( l e s s t h a n O . l O o p e r s e c ) . A f t e r t h e s p a c e c r a f t was s t a b i l i z e d , t h e p i l o t brought t h e s e x t a n t t o t h e window as shown i n f i g u r e 7 , s e t t h e r e t i c l e i l l u m i n a t i o n t o a comfortable l e v e l , and a c q u i r e d t h e t a r g e t s i n b o t h LOS. The p i l o t t h e n superimposed t h e t a r g e t images and marked t h e time of s u p e r p o s i t i o n by d e p r e s s i n g t h e s e x t a n t event timer b u t t o n . A n o r a l time !'MARK" was c a l l e d o u t by t h e p i l o t , and t h e s p a c e c r a f t commander r e a d h i s s p a c e c r a f t c l o c k , n o t i n g t h e time i n t h e exper iment log along w i t h t h e measured a n g l e r e a d from t h e s e x t a n t by t h e p i l o t . This procedure was r e p e a t e d f o r a t l e a s t 13 c o n s e c u t i v e measurements of t h e a n g l e between t h e t a r g e t p a i r and 5 times f o r a s i n g l e s t a r ( t h e same s t a r i n each LOS) t o p r o v i d e an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e measured z e r o b i a s o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t - o p e r a t o r combination. During each s i g h t i n g s e s s i o n , t h e command p i l o t determined and noted on a diagram c o n t a i n e d i n h i s l o g , t h e p o i n t on t h e window t h a t would b e i n t e r cepted by t h e e x t e n s i o n of t h e lower l e f t c o r n e r of t h e s e x t a n t c a s e . This p o i n t was used by t h e experimenter i n c o r r e c t i n g t h e d a t a f o r window-induced errors. The procedure w a s w e l l executed by t h e crew and although some of t h e t e l e m e t e r e d time d a t a were l o s t , t h e backup time "MARK" procedure provided adequate redundant d a t a .
Data Reduction

The s i g h t i n g performance of t h e p i l o t was e v a l u a t e d u s i n g t h r e e c r i t e r i a : (1) s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r ; ( 2 ) t h e mean o r a r i t h m e t i c average of a group o f s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r s ; and ( 3 ) t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f

11

_.

_. - - - - - - -- - - -

- - - - -- -

------..
~

-----

-~

~ ../"
/'

Figure 7.- Sextan t sighting experiment on Gemini XII spacecraft.

t h e group of s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r s about t h e i r mean v a l u e . The compu t a t i o n of t h e v a l u e s of t h e s e c r i t e r i a was accomplished u s i n g t h e e q u a t i o n s and c o r r e c t i o n s e x p l a i n e d below. S i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r . - The s e x t a n t s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r v a l u e s E ( i n a r c s e c ) were computed as f o l l o w s :
E

(eM - eT) - ( e Z

mean

= s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r

(1)
(2)

eM = 0 R +

= measured t a r g e t a n g l e
OR = s e x t a n t readout counter reading
E~

= s e x t a n t c a l i b r a t i o n e r r o r (from f i g . 3) = t r u e t a r g e t angle = c e l e s t i a l t a r g e t a n g l e (computed) = window-induced measurement e r r o r (determined b o t h

eT

es

EW

ER

(3)

es
E

e x p e r i m e n t a l l y and a n a l y t i c a l l y )
E

= e r r o r due t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e index o f

r e f r a c t i o n o f t h e l i g h t t r a n s m i t t i n g media w i t h i n (n2) and o u t s i d e ( n l ) of t h e s p a c e c r a f t

= sin-'(Z

sinal)-al

( r e f . 13)

n l , n 2 = index of r e f r a c t i o n
a1 = a n g l e between t h e i n c i d e n t l i g h t r a y from t h e s t a r and t h e window normal

('Z'mean

= mean measured z e r o b i a s = t h e measured z e r o b i a s o r t h e measured a n g l e when

ez

t h e same s t a r i s viewed i n each LOS The mean measured z e r o b i a s i s used t o c o r r e c t t h e measurement d a t a f o r p o s s i b l e mechanical changes i n t h e s e x t a n t due t o environmental changes as well as p o s s i b l e changes i n t h e p i l o t ' s v i s i o n . Mean s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r . - The mean s e x t a n t s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r values E ( i n arc s e c ) were computed as f o l l o w s : mean
Emean E

= ('M

- 'T'mean

('Z)mean

(4)

m e an

= mean s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r

13

Standard d e v i a t i o n o_f s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r . - The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f t h e s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r , crE, p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s r e p o r t was computed using equation (5).

_-

Greenwich mean t i m e (GMT) o f s i g h t i n g measurement.- The GMT o f each s i g h t i n g measurement was computed as f o l l o w s :
GMT = TL + ATG

TL = Gemini XI1 launch t i m e

= 20 h r

46 min 3 3 . 4 1 9 sec GMT November 11, 1966

TL

ATG = Gemini e l a p s e d time from

Window-induced measurement e r r o r . - Deformation o f t h e s u r f a c e s o f t h e window panes o f t h e Gemini s p a c e c r a f t (due t o manufacture, and p r e s s u r e and temperature environment i n f l i g h t ) causes d e v i a t i o n s i n t h e s e x t a n t LOS r e s u l t i n g i n e r r o r s i n t h e measured s e x t a n t a n g l e s . L i n e - o f - s i g h t d e v i a t i o n s determined both e x p e r i m e n t a l l y and a n a l y t i c a l l y have been used i n t h i s r e p o r t t o c o r r e c t t h e measured d a t a . An important f a c t o r i n c o r r e c t i n g t h e e x p e r i mental d a t a was t h e p o i n t on t h e window a t which each s e x t a n t LOS i n t e r s e c t e d t h e window s u r f a c e ( s e e p . 1 1 ) . The i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t s were used i n an experimental l a b o r a t o r y s e t u p and an a n a l y t i c a l program t o determine t h e average s e x t a n t LOS l o c a t i o n s f o r each s e x t a n t s i g h t i n g p e r i o d and t h e a n g l e s and p l a n e s of i n c i d e n c e o f each LOS w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e window a x i s system. I t was e s t i m a t e d by t h e s p a c e c r a f t crew t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e x t a n t LOS through t h e window could b e determined t o about + 1 / 2 i n c h . Analysis has i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i s u n c e r t a i n t y i n p o s i t i o n could r e s u l t i n a maximum uncer t a i n t y i n t h e s e x t a n t measurement e r r o r of about + 2 t o 3 a r c s e c . TEST CONDITIONS

The TO02 experiment was s u c c e s s f u l l y completed on o r b i t s 4 0 , 48, 54, 55, and 56 of t h e Gemini XI1 f l i g h t . The s p a c e c r a f t p o s i t i o n ( l a t i t u d e , l o n g i t u d e , and a l t i t u d e ) as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e (GMT) f o r each o r b i t i s given i n table I.

14

Sighting Targets The s t a r s Betelgeuse and R i g e l were t h e measurement t a r g e t s d u r i n g t h e s i g h t i n g p e r i o d s on o r b i t s 40, 48, and 56. B e t e l g e u s e and B e l l a t r i x were t h e measurement t a r g e t s f o r t h e s i g h t i n g p e r i o d s 54 and 55. The c e l e s t i a l a n g l e BS between Betelgeuse and R i g e l and Betelgeuse and B e l l a t r i x were 1836'17" and 731'47'', r e s p e c t i v e l y . These a n g l e s were computed from t h e known v a l u e s of r i g h t a s c e n s i o n and d e c l i n a t i o n o f each t a r g e t ; t h e y are c o r r e c t e d f o r annual a b e r r a t i o n and have been shown t o b e l e s s t h a n 1 a r c s e c i n e r r o r . Measurements between t h e moon limb and a s t a r were a l s o planned f o r t h i s f l i g h t , b u t t h e moon was a t h i n c r e s c e n t t h a t was a v a i l a b l e as a s i g h t i n g f o r only a s h o r t t i m e a f t e r s p a c e c r a f t s u n s e t . Although t h e s t a r / s t a r t a r g e t c o n f i g u r a t i o n used i s an i d e a l i z e d non-navigation t y p e t a r g e t p a i r , a sub s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n of t h e experiment o b j e c t i v e s were s t i l l m e t . S u i t Conf i g u r a t i on The p i l o t wore a s t a n d a r d Gemini t y p e p r e s s u r e s u i t w i t h gloves and helmet o f f d u r i n g a l l s i g h t i n g p e r i o d s except t h e l a s t . During o r b i t 56, h e donned t h e p r e s s u r e s u i t h e l m e t , i n s e r t e d t h e long eye r e l i e f e y e p i e c e i n t h e s e x t a n t , and performed t h e measurement sequence. Spacecraft I n t e r i o r Lighting During t h e s i g h t i n g p e r i o d , t h e s p a c e c r a f t was completely dark except f o r a shaded r e d u t i l i t y l i g h t p e r m i t t i n g t h e command p i l o t t o w r i t e down t h e d a t a and r e a d h i s e l a p s e d time c l o c k . The s e x t a n t r e a d o u t c o u n t e r was i l l u m i n a t e d w i t h a r e d l i g h t , which was t u r n e d on only as r e q u i r e d . Vehicle A t t i t u d e Rates The v e h i c l e a t t i t u d e s measured w i t h r e s p e c t t o a s t a b l e p l a t f o r m were used t o compute t h e v e h i c l e a t t i t u d e r a t e s . P r i o r t o t h e s i g h t i n g p e r i o d 8856342t h e p l a t f o r m was a l i n e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e l o c a l v e r t i c a l and t h e space 8452338 c r a f t o r b i t p l a n e and was t o r q u e d i n t h e o r b i t p l a n e ( p i t c h ) a t a r a t e of about 4.0/min, t h e o r b i t a l r a t e a t about 150 m i l e s a l t i t u d e . F i g u r e 8 i s a t y p i c a l time h i s t o r y o f t h e variation of the vehicle a t t i t u d e s f o r t h e Gemini e l a p s e d time c o r r e sponding t o t h e s i g h t i n g measurements mber numbers 14, 1 5 , 16, and 17 of '43 s i g h t i n g p e r i o d 1 ( o r b i t 4 0 ) . Due t o Gemini elapsed time. hr min a s h o r t a g e of s p a c e c r a f t e l e c t r i c a l power, this is the Only sighting Figure 8.- Typical vehicle attitudes during sextant sighting period number 1 (Orbit 4 0 ) . p e r i o d d u r i n g which t h e s t a b l e 15

p l a t f o r m r e f e r e n c e was a v a i l a b l e f o r measurement o f v e h i c l e rates and a t t i t u d e s . However, t h e command p i l o t a s s u r e d t h e experimenters t h a t i t was typical o f a l l t h e s i g h t i n g p e r i o d s .

I t can b e s e e n from figure 8 t h a t t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s well s t a b i l i z e d i n p i t c h and yaw w i t h maximum rates of 2" and 4"/min, r e s p e c t i v e l y , w h i l e t h e r o l l r a t e d u r i n g t h e s e s i g h t i n g measurements was about c o n s t a n t a t SO/min. There was l i t t l e e f f e c t of a t t i t u d e r a t e on s e x t a n t measurement performance a t r a t e s of l . S " / s e c ( r e f . 8 ) ; t h e r e f o r e , a t t h e s e rates o f less t h a n 0 . l o / s e c , performance s h o u l d n o t b e a f f e c t e d .
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The r e s u l t s o f t h e TO02 experiment c o n s i s t o f l e a r n i n g curve d a t a o b t a i n e d d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l p e r i o d of t r a i n i n g w i t h t h e s e x t a n t , b a s e l i n e d a t a f o r comparison w i t h f l i g h t r e s u l t s , and i n f l i g h t d a t a o b t a i n e d d u r i n g t h e Gemini X I 1 f l i g h t . I n i t i a l Training The Gemini X I 1 p i l o t was t r a i n e d as d e s c r i b e d p r e v i o u s l y . The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f t h e measurement e r r o r from i t s mean v a l u e was used as t h e measure of t h e p i l o t ' s p r o f i c i e n c y . The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n v a r i e d from a maximum of about k 1 3 arc s e c e a r l y i n t h e t r a i n i n g p e r i o d t o a minimum o f about k4 arc s e c toward t h e end. The t r a i n i n g d a t a o f r e f e r e n c e 7 f o r a l a r g e group of s u b j e c t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e range o f s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f s i g h t i n g measurements a t t h e end of a 2-week p e r i o d was about 14 a r c sec. The TO02 t r a i n i n g d a t a , however, were o b t a i n e d from an e x c e p t i o n a l l y t a l e n t e d o p e r a t o r who used an 8-power s e x t a n t . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s e x t a n t used i n o b t a i n i n g t h e TO02 t r a i n i n g d a t a i s a v a s t l y improved i n s t r u m e n t o p t i c a l l y and mechanically, o v e r t h a t used i n r e f e r e n c e 7 . The lower s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n f o r t h e TO02 t r a i n i n g d a t a compared with t h a t o f r e f e r e n c e 7 may a l s o b e due p a r t i a l l y Helmet on /visor down Helmet off t o t h e i n c r e a s e i n m a g n i f i c a t i o n from 3.0 t o 8.0.
Standard deviolion

B a s e l i n e Data - S t a r / S t a r T a r g e t s S e x t a n t measurements were made with t h e helmet o f f (normal eye

F i g u r e 9 . - P r e f l i g h t b a s e l i n e d a t a , TO02 -experiment; h e s n a v i g a t i o n s i m u l a t o r and ground s i g h t i n g s t a t i o n ; s t a r / s t a r t a r g e t s .

d e i i a t i o n of t h e s i g h t i n g measurement error- about t h e i r mean v a l u e ( t h e shaded b a r s ) and t h e mean s i g h t i n g

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measurement e r r o r ( t h e o f f s e t l i n e ) f o r a l l s i g h t i n g p e r i o d s ; t h e s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r i s p l o t t e d as t h e a b s c i s s a . The f i g u r e a l s o summarizes b a s e l i n e d a t a o b t a i n e d a t a ground s i g h t i n g s t a t i o n u s i n g real s t a r s . The s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r i s c o r r e c t e d f o r annual a b e r r a t i o n and atmospheric r e f r a c t i o n . The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f t h e s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r s o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e helmet o f f , b o t h i n t h e s i m u l a t o r and from t h e ground o b s e r v a t o r y u s i n g a c t u a l s t a r s , a g r e e w e l l w i t h v a l u e s o f +5 and +4 arc sec, r e s p e c t i v e l y . S i m i l a r measurements w i t h t h e helmet on and v i s o r down, b o t h i n t h e s i m u l a t o r and from t h e o b s e r v a t o r y , a l s o a g r e e w e l l , having s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f +7 and +8 a r c s e c , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The mean s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r s a r e small, ranging from 1 t o 5 arc s e c . Gemini X I 1 I n - F l i g h t Data The Gemini X I 1 i n - f l i g h t s e x t a n t measurements were, as noted p r e v i o u s l y , made from w i t h i n t h e s t a b i l i z e d s p a c e c r a f t w h i l e t h e p i l o t was looking through t h e r i g h t - h a n d window, which was of good o p t i c a l q u a l i t y . The measurement d a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d i n t a b l e 11. The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of t h e s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r s and t h e mean s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r are summarized i n f i g u r e 10 where t h e s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r i s a g a i n p l o t t e d as t h e a b s c i s s a . F o r t h e f i r s t f o u r Helmet off Helmet on /visor down s i g h t i n g p e r i o d s , t h e measurements Sighting period were made w i t h t h e helmet o f f . The 5 standard deviation f o r these sighting -2 p e r i o d s was l e s s t h a n +9 a r c s e c , and t h e average s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n -4
f o r a l l f o u r s i g h t i n g p e r i o d s was 7 0 a r c s e c . The measurement b i a s e r r o r s f o r t h e f i r s t two s i g h t i n g p e r i o d s i n 9 9 I which Betelgeuse and R i g e l were used as t a r g e t s were - 2 and 0 a r c s e c , -26 0 r e s p e c t i v e l y , whereas t h e measurement Measurement error, orcsec Measurement error, orcsec bias errors f o r sighting p eriods _ Figure 10.- I n - f l i g h t s i g h t i n g measurement d a t a 3 and 4 , i n which Betelgeuse and TO02 experiment; Gemini XI1 s p a c e c r a f t ; B e l l a t r i x were used as t a r g e t s , were star/star targets. - 4 and - 2 a r c s e c , r e s p e c t i v e l y . The average mean s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r f o r a l l f o u r p e r i o d s was - 2 a r c s e c . During t h e f i f t h s i g h t i n g p e r i o d , t h e measurements were made with t h e helmet on, v i s o r down, and w i t h t h e long eye r e l i e f e y e p i e c e i n s t a l l e d i n t h e s e x t a n t . The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of measurement e r r o r s f o r t h e s e measurements was 8 arc s e c , w h i l e t h e mean s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r was -11 a r c s e c .

I-

The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f t h e measurements f o r a l l s i g h t i n g c o n d i t i o n s i s below 9 arc sec, a g r e e i n g w e l l w i t h t h e b a s e l i n e d a t a . The mean s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r s o f t h e i n - f l i g h t d a t a are g e n e r a l l y s m a l l , less t h a n 4 arc s e c f o r t h e helmet o f f c o n f i g u r a t i o n , which a l s o a g r e e s w e l l w i t h t h e b a s e l i n e d a t a . The l a r g e mean s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r , for the helmet on c o n f i g u r a t i o n d a t a ( o r b i t 56) i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h b o t h t h e 17

p r e f l i g h t b a s e l i n e d a t a and t h e o t h e r i n - f l i g h t d a t a . The mean s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r , mean comprises many components as i n d i c a t e d i n e q u a t i o n s (1) t o ( 4 ) . The magnitudes o f t h e s e e r r o r components f o r t h i s s e t o f d a t a were c a r e f u l l y s c r u t i n i z e d i n a n e f f o r t t o e x p l a i n t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c y . A l l t h e e r r o r components seemed r e a s o n a b l e except t h e mean z e r o b i a s measurement e r r o r (0z)mean ( t a b l e 1 1 1 ) , which had b o t h a l a r g e mean v a l u e and a l a r g e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n . This l a r g e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e mean z e r o b i a s measurement e r r o r (0z)mean i s n o t w e l l known and t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e l a r g e mean s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r , E m e m , may t h e r e f o r e b e open t o question. The mean s i g h t i n g e r r o r s p r e s e n t e d h e r e a r e c o r r e c t e d f o r window-induced measurement e r r o r s , f o r e r r o r s due t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e of t h e i n d e x o f refrac t i o n of t h e l i g h t - t r a n s m i t t i n g media w i t h i n and o u t s i d e t h e s p a c e c r a f t , f o r measured zero b i a s , and f o r instrument c a l i b r a t i o n . S u b j e c t i v e Comments The p i l o t s t a t e d t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e TO02 s e x t a n t i n z e r o g w a s much s i m p l e r and easier t o manage than had been a n t i c i p a t e d from h i s p r e f l i g h t t r a i n i n g and s i m u l a t i o n . During t r a i n i n g , t h e p i l o t i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e weight of t h e s e x t a n t caused f a t i g u e , b u t t h i s was a l l e v i a t e d i n t h e w e i g h t l e s s environment of a c t u a l space f l i g h t . H e a l s o s t a t e d t h a t a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e s t a r p a t t e r n s f o r t h e experiment was marginal w i t h t h e r e s t r i c t e d f i e l d of view of t h e window. A l a r g e r window i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t and easier access t o it would probably s i m p l i f y a c q u i s i t i o n of t h e s t a r p a t t e r n s .
Star /Star Star / Lunar I i m b

errory

Standard ,,deviation Inf light

Comparison o f B a s e l i n e and F l i g h t Data The p i l o t ' s performance as i n d i c a t e d by t h e b a s e l i n e d a t a was v i r t u a l l y t h e same as t h a t i n t h e s p a c e - f l i g h t environment as s e e n i n f i g u r e 11, t h u s i n d i c a t i n g t h e u s e f u l n e s s of s i m u l a t o r s and e a r t h - b a s e d o b s e r v a t o r i e s i n e v a l u a t i n g space n a v i g a t i o n measurement t e c h n i q u e s . Figure 11 shows t h a t n a v i g a t i o n t y p e measurements ( s t a r / l u n a ? limb) were made w i t h a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f +6 a r c sec i n t h e s i m u l a t o r . I n - f l i g h t d a t a t o s u p p o r t t h i s performance await future flights.

+5rcr5*

Baseline

0
Measurement error, arcsec

0
Measurement error, arcsec

Figure 11.- Comparison o f i n - f l i g h t and b a s e l i n e d a t a , TO02 experiment; helmet o f f .

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Space Navigation Using a Hand-Held S e x t a n t For t h e Apollo l u n a r mission t h e primary s p a c e c r a f t n a v i g a t i o n system w i l l u t i l i z e e a r t h - b a s e d r a d a r t r a c k i n g measurements. A s i m p l i f i e d on-board backup system i s s t i l l d e s i r a b l e , however, i n which t h e hand-held s e x t a n t could b e a key element. The minimum f u n c t i o n s o f backup system hardware are: (1) t o make a n g u l a r n a v i g a t i o n measurements; (2) t o p r o v i d e a r e f e r e n c e f o r h o l d i n g s p a c e c r a f t a t t i t u d e d u r i n g a v e l o c i t y c o r r e c t i o n ; and (3) p o s s i b l y t o p r o v i d e a r e f e r e n c e f o r a l i n i n g an i n e r t i a l measurement u n i t t o measure t h e AV a p p l i e d . The s e x t a n t obviously i s designed t o measure a n g l e s w i t h good accuracy. The s e x t a n t w i t h a l i g h t e d r e t i c l e could a l s o perform f u n c t i o n s 2 and 3 i f i t were mounted on a b r a c k e t a t t h e s p a c e c r a f t window and b o r e s i g h t e d w i t h t h e s p a c e c r a f t a x e s . Such a mount i n t h e Gemini X I 1 s p a c e c r a f t appeared t o perform s a t i s f a c t o r i l y d u r i n g rendezvous. P r e l i m i n a r y s t u d i e s a t Ames have i n d i c a t e d t h a t w i t h only a simple c o l l i m a t e d r e t i c l e on t h e s p a c e c r a f t window i t i s p o s s i b l e t o h o l d t h e s p a c e c r a f t a t t i t u d e manually w i t h s u f f i c i e n t accuracy t o perform a v e l o c i t y c o r r e c t i o n . The s e x t a n t w i t h 8-power m a g n i f i c a t i o n s h o u l d improve t h i s performance. A l i n i n g an i n e r t i a l measurement u n i t by t h i s t e c h n i q u e h a s n o t been s t u d i e d . R e s u l t s of b o t h t h e D - 9 autonomous o r b i t n a v i g a t i o n i n - f l i g h t experiment ( r e f . 5 ) on Gemini V I 1 and t h e N A S A rendezvous n a v i g a t i o n experiment on Gemini V I ( r e f . 6) i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e hand-held s e x t a n t i s s u i t a b l e f o r navigation i n these f l i g h t phases. This experiment h a s shown t h a t s a t i s f a c t o r y n a v i g a t i o n measurements f o r s e v e r a l phases of s p a c e - f l i g h t ( e . g . , midcourse, rendezvous, e a r t h o r b i t ) can b e made u s i n g a hand-held s e x t a n t . T h e r e f o r e , i t appears t h a t t h e hand-held s e x t a n t could b e used t o implement an autonomous on-board n a v i g a t i o n system.
I t i s recognized t h a t t h e s e x t a n t s used i n t h e s e t e s t s a r e experimental i n s t r u m e n t s manufactured t o prove t h e d e s i g n concept. Design changes may b e n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e an i n s t r u m e n t compatible w i t h t h e o p e r a t i o n a l system requirements.

CONCLUSIONS From an i n s p e c t i o n of t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e i n - f l i g h t s p a c e c r a f t experi ments p r e s e n t e d , i t may b e concluded t h a t :

1. The a n g l e between s t a r s can b e measured w i t h a hand-held s e x t a n t . The t o t a l measurement e r r o r ( a s t r o n a u t + s e x t a n t + s p a c e c r a f t window) had a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n of l e s s t h a n 510 a r c sec and an average mean s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r of only 2 a r c sec.

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2. S e x t a n t measurements o f t h e a n g l e between stars w i t h t h e helmet on, v i s o r down, i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f s i g h t i n g measurement e r r o r s was less t h a n k10 a r c sec. 3. The TO02 i n - f l i g h t d a t a and t h e p r e f l i g h t b a s e l i n e d a t a o b t a i n e d i n t h e s i m u l a t o r and from ground o b s e r v a t o r i e s were almost i d e n t i c a l . I t appears t h a t a t least f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h i s experiment, s i m u l a t o r s and ground o b s e r v a t o r i e s can b e u s e f u l i n e v a l u a t i n g s p a c e n a v i g a t i o n measurement techniques.
4 . I n - f l i g h t e x p e r i e n c e h a s demonstrated t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e hand-held s e x t a n t f o r u s e i n midcourse n a v i g a t i o n (NASA TO02 experiment), o r b i t naviga t i o n ( A i r Force D-9 experiment), and rendezvous n a v i g a t i o n (NASA rendezvous experiment on Gemini VI).

Ames Research Center N a t i o n a l Aeronautics and Space A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Moffett F i e l d , C a l i f . , 94035, Aug. 20, 1968 125-17-02- 10-00-21
REFERENCES 1. McLean, John D . ; Schmidt, S t a n l e y F . ; and McGee, Leonard A . : Optimal F i l t e r i n g and Linear P r e d i c t i o n Applied t o a Midcourse Navigation System f o r t h e Circumlunar Mission. N A S A TN D-1208, 1962. 2 . C h r i s t e n s e n , J a y V . ; and Kipping, E . David: Midcourse Navigation Using S t a t i s t i c a l F i l t e r Theory, A Manual T h e o d o l i t e , and Symbolic Computer Control. N A S A TN D-3875, 1967.
3 . White, John S . ; Callas, George P . ; and C i c o l a n i , Luigi S . : A p p l i c a t i o n of S t a t i s t i c a l F i l t e r Theory t o t h e I n t e r p l a n e t a r y Navigation and Guidance Problem. N A S A TN D-2697, 1965.

4 . C i c o l a n i , Luigi S . : I n t e r p l a n e t a r y Midcourse Guidance Using Radar A S A TN D-3623, 1966. Tracking and On-Board Observation Data. N

5. S i l v a , Robert M . , C a p t a i n , USAF; J o r r i s , T e r r y R . , C a p t a i n , USAF; and V a l l e r i e , Eugene M . , 111, Captain, USAF: The A i r Force Space Naviga t i o n Experiment on Gemini (DOD/NASA Gemini Experiment D-9, Gemini I V and V I 1 F l i g h t s ) . Technical Report AFAL-TR-66-289, S e p t 1966.
6 . Murtagh, T . B . ; P r i c e , C. R . ; and Smith, H . E . : Analysis of Gemini 7-Star S i g h t i n g s U t i l i z i n g a Space S e x t a n t i n Gemini 6 . J . S p a c e c r a f t and Rockets, v o l . 4 , no. 5 , 1967.

20

7 . Lampkin, Bedford A . ; and Randle, Robert J . : I n v e s t i g a t i o n of a Manual S e x t a n t - S i g h t i n g Task i n t h e Ames Midcourse N a v i g a t i o n and Guidance S i m u l a t o r . NASA TN D-2844, 1965.
S e x t a n t S i g h t i n g Performance f o r Space N a v i g a t i o n 8. Lampkin, Bedford A . : Using S i m u l a t e d and Real C e l e s t i a l T a r g e t s . N a v i g a t i o n : J . I n s t . N a v i g a t i o n , v o l . 12, no. 4 , Winter 1965-66. 9 . Lampkin, Bedford A . : N a v i g a t o r Performance Using a Hand-Held S e x t a n t t o Measure t h e Angle Between a Moving F l a s h i n g L i g h t and a S i m u l a t e d S t a r . NASA TN D-4174, 1968. N a v i g a t o r Performance S t u d i e s 10. Acken, Richard A . ; and Smith, Donald W . : f o r Space N a v i g a t i o n Using t h e NASA CV-990 Research A i r c r a f t . NASA TN D-4449, 1968.

11. Lampkin, Bedford A . ; and Smith, Donald W . : for Space F l i g h t . NASA TN D-4585, 1968.
1 2 . Anon.:

A Hand-Held S e x t a n t Q u a l i f i e d

"Environmental Q u a l i f i c a t i o n and Acceptance T e s t Report," Hand-Held Space S e x t a n t , GFAE NO. EG25100. Kollsman I n s t r u m e n t C o r p o r a t i o n . CR-73073.

The E f f e c t s 13. Walsh, Thomas M . ; Warner, David N . ; and Davis, Michael B . : o f a Gemini Left-Hand Window on Experiments R e q u i r i n g Accuracy i n S i g h t i n g o r R e s o l u t i o n . NASA TN D-3669, 1966.

21

N
N

TABLE 1 . - SPACECRAFT ORBITAL POSITION

O r b i t 40; November 1 4 , 1966

~~ ~ ~

O r b i t 48; November 15, 1966 A 1t i t u d e above an oblate earth, n mi

140.81 140.59 140.63 140.91 141.42 142.12 142.93 143.84 144.92 146.03 147.26 148.31 149.44 150.51 151.39 152.01 152.98

Greenwich mean time, hr:min:sec

Latitude, deg

Longitude, deg

Greenwich mean time, hr:min:sec

00 :03 :30
00 :05 :30

L a t i tude, deg

Longitude, deli

A 1 t i tude above an oblate earth, n mi

140.51
I

12:Ol: 16

2.12N 2.03s 5.58s 9.57s 13.30s 16.68s 19.70s 22.30s 24.73s 26.63s 28.08s 28.82s 28.98s 28.48s 27.47s 25.92s 23.85s

101. OOE 108 .OOE 114.00E 121.OOE 128. OOE 135 OOE 142.00E 149 . O O E 157 . O O E 165. O O E 174 .OOE 178. OOW 169 .OOW 160. OOW 152 .OOW 144.00W 136.OOW

4.83s 8.65s 12.33s 15.81s 19.02s 21.90s 24.38s 26.38s 27.85s 28.73s 29.02s 28.68s 27.73s 26.21s 24.12s 21.67s 18.78s

71.22W 64.58W 57.80W 50.83W 43.60W 36,lOW 28.29W 20 I19W 11.84W 03.29W 05,34E 13.97E 22.48E 30.78E 38.83s 46.57E 54.01E

1 2 :03: 25
14 12 :05: 12: 07: 20

140.61 140.92 141.43 142.10 142.92

00 :07: 30 00 :09 :30 00:11:30 00 : 13: 30

0 0 : 15 :30 00 : 17 :30

1 2 :09 :23
12 :11:23 1 2 : 13:18
1 2 :15 :09

143.84 144.83 145.85 146.87 147.87 148.82 149.70 150.52 151.25 151.91 152 .50
i

1 2 : 17: 11
12:19:09 1 2 : 2 1 : 18 12 :23 : 10 12:25:15

0 0 : 19 :30 00:21:30 00 :23:30 00: 25 :30 00 :27:30 0 0 : 29 :30 00 :31: 30 00 :33:30 00 :35 : 30

1 2 : 27: 2 1
12:29:14 12: 31: 10 12 :33: 11

TABLE 1 . - SPACECRAFT ORBITAL POSITION

Orbit 54; November 15, 1966
L

Continued

Orbit 55; November 15, 1966

A 1 t i tude

A 1 ti tude
Greenwich mean time, hr:min:sec Latitude, deg Longitude, above oblatean earth, n mi

G r e enwi ch mean time, Latitude,

h r :min :s ec deg

Longitude,
deg

above an oblate earth, n mi

deg

10:31:30
10:33:30
10:35:30

10:37:30

3.32s 7.17s 10.91s 14.47s 17.80s 20.82s 23.46s 25.65s 27.33s 28.46s 28.98s 28.88s 28.17s 26.87s 25.02s 22.70s 19.95s 16.85s 13.46s

125.28E 131.88E 138.60E 145.48E 152.61E 160 .O 1E 167.70E 175.68E 176.05W 167.70W 158.95W 150.31W 141.73W 133 33W
~

140.68 140.60 140.73 141.06 141.58 142.25 143.03 143.90 144.84 145.79 146.74 147.65 148.52 149.33 150.08 150.77 151.41 151.98
152.52

12 :01:30
12:03:30

3.67s 7.51s 11.24s 14.79s 18.09s 21.08s 23.68s 25.83s 27.47s 28.54s 29.01s 28.85s 28.08s 26.72s 24.83s 22.45s 19.67s 16.53s

102.89E 109.50E 116.23E 123.14E 130.29E 137.71E 145.43E 153.45E 161.74E 170.24E 178.87E 172.48W 163.92W 155.53W 147.40W 139.56W 132.02W 124.78W

140.48 140.33 140.40 140-67 141.12 141.74 142.46 143.29 144.19 145 .ll 146.03 146.94 147.81 148.63 149.40 150.13 150.80 151.43

12:OS :30
12 : 07:30

10:39:30 10:41:30 10:43: 30 10:45:30 10:47:30 10 :49 :30 10:51:30 10:53:30

10 :55:30 10:57:30
10 :59: 30

12 :09: 30
12:11:30

12 : 13 :30 12:15:30 12 : 17: 30

12:19:30

12:21:30
12:2 3 : 30

12 : 25 : 30
12 :27: 30

125.18W 117.32~ 109.761V 102.481.V 95.48W

12:29:30
12 : 31 :30
1 2 :33 :30

11:01: 30 11:03:30

11 :05:30
w
N

12 : 35 :30

11 :07:30

13
P

TABLE I.- SPACECRAFT ORBITAL POSITION

Concluded

Orbit 56; November 15, 1966 Greenwich mean time , hr :min:sec 13:31:30
13:33:30 13:35 :30 13:37:30 13:39 :30 13:41: 30 13:43:30 13:45:30 13 :47:30 13:49 :30 13:51:30 13:53:30 13:55 : 30
'

Latitude,
Longitude,
deg
deg

A1titude
above an
oblate
earth,
n mi

140.46
140.31
140.39
140.66
141.12
141.73
142.43
143.28
144.17
145.24
146.14
147.01
147.85
148.64
149.38
150.07
150.71
151.32
151.89

4.02s
7.86s
11.58s
15.61s
18.38s
21.34s
23.91s
26.01s
27.598
28.61s
29.01s
28.80s
27.97s
26.57s
24.62s

80.51E
87.12E
93.87E
100.81E
107.98E
115.42E
123.17E
131.22E
139.53E
148.05E
156.68E
165.32E
173.88E
177.76W
169.65W
161.84W
154.33W
147.12W
140.15W

13:57:30

13:59 :30 14:Ol:30 14:03:30

14:05 : 30 14:07:30

22.21s

19.39s
16.22s
12.79s

TABLE 11.- IN-FLIGHT SEXTANT SIGHTING DATA, TO02 EXPERIMENT, GEMINI XI1
Orbit 40 Sighting t a r g e t s : Primary L O S - Betelgeuse
Scanning LOS - Rigel
Zero b i a s measurement - Aldebaran
Orbit 48 Sighting t a r g e t s : Primary LOS - Betelgeuse
Scanning LOS - Rigel
Aldebaran
Zero b i a s measurement

bias 3 4 5 6 7 8

stars 1 3

18
20

63:21:33.5 99.999 00.000 63:22:09.0 63:22:53.5 00.001 63: 28 : 22 . O 18.611 63:30:31.5 18.606 63 :31 :38.5 18.604 63: 32 :53 .O 18.608 63:34:27.0 18.604 63: 35: 26 . O 18.604 18,609 63:37:13.5 63:38:46.0 , 18.606 Void 63: 39 : 36.5 63:40:21.0 18.608 18.611 63 :41: 15 . O 18.605 63:42:07.0 63:43:53.0 18.605 18.605 63:44:51.0
,

I
I

bias

3 4 -, 5 6
,
I

75:21:45,0 75:22:35.0 75:23:29.0 75:28:44.0

I
I

'

16 17 18 19 20

75:39:00.0 75:39:33.5 75:40:29.0 75 :41:11 .O

99,995 00.005 00.003 18.604 18.605 18.608 18.605 18.609 18.604 18.608 18.606 18,606 18.605 18.604 18,605 18.606 18.604

I
76.9
I

TABLE 11.- IN-FLIGHT SEXTANT SIGHTING DATA, TO02 EXPERIMENT, GEMINI XI1 - Continued
O r b i t 55 Sighting targets: Primary LOS - Betelgeuse Scanning LOS - B e l l a t r i x Zero b i a s measurement - Aldebaran Suit configuration: Cabin temp., Cabi n pres sure, psi 5.29
Measurement Helmet o f f Sextant readout angle, deg 00.005 00,002 00.000 99.995 00.003 07,529 07.531 07.532 07,529 07.529 07,530 07.529 07.529 07.528 07.529 07.530 07.529 07.529 07.532 07.529 Cabin temp.,
OF

I r b i t 54 ;ighting targets : Primary LOS - Betelgeuse Scanning LOS - B e l l a t r i x Zero b i a s measurement - Aldebaran hit c o n f i g u r a t i o n : Gemini elansed I
time hr:min:sec
1 2 !ero 3 iias 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Two 1 stars 3 14 15

Helmet o f f Sextant readout angle, deg 00.002 00.001

00.000
00.002
00.005
07.536
07.531
07.529
07.530
07.529
07.528
07.528 07.528 07.531 07.529 07.528 07.529 07.528 07.531 07.531

OF
71.3

Zero bias
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Gemini e 1apsed time h r :min: s e c 87:19:23.5 87: 20: 24 .O 87: 20: 53.5 87: 2 2 : 28 .O 87:23:15.5 87 :25 :49 .5 87:27:16.3 87: 28: 29.5 87: 29 : 28 .O 87 :30 : 13.5 87:31:35.0 87:32: 24 .O 87: 33: 14 .O 87 :33:45 .O 87: 35 :02 .O 87: 35 :50.5 87: 36 :30 .O 87 :37: 27 .O 87:38:06 .O 87 :38 :54 .0

Cabin pres sure, psi 5.26

85:50:06.5 85: 51 :06 .O 85 :5 1: 49.5 85:52:31.0 85:53:15.5 86:02:05.5 86:03:51.0 86:04:56.0 86:05:57.5 86: 06: 56 .O 86:07:51.5 86:08:53.0 86:09:31.0 86:11:02.0 86:13:23.5 86: 14:35 .O 86:15:56.0 86:17:03.0 86:17:50.0 86:18:53.5

70.6

rwo
stars

TABLE 11.- IN-FLIGHT SEXTANT SIGHTING DATA, TO02 EXPERIMENT, GEMINI XI1 - Concluded

Orbit 56

Sighting targets:
Primary LOS - Betelgeuse
Scanning LOS - Rigel
Zero bias measurement - Aldebaran
Suit configuration: Helmet on. Visor down
Measure
ment

Gemini
Sextant
elapsed
readout
Cabin temp. , time
angle , "F hr :min: sec
deg

88:48:53.0
00.003
88:49:30.0
00.009
88:50:29.1
00.007
88:Sl:lS.S
99.995
88:51:59.5
00.003
88:58:03.0
18.605
88:58:28.5
18.605
88:Sg:Ol.O
18.604
88:59:32.0
18.607
89:OO:lO.O
18.607
89:00:48.3
18.607
89:01:33.0
18.608
89:02:19.0
18.610
89:03:10.5
18.607
89:04:05.1
18.611
89:04:57.1
18.610
89:05:27.0
18.610
89:06:09.0
18.607
89:06:43.0
18.609
89 :07:44.5 18.609

Cabin pres sure, psi

5.26

1 2 Zero
bias
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Two
12 stars
13 14
15 16 17 18 19 20

70.0

70.6

co

TABLE 111.- S U M M A R Y OF SIGHTING MEASUREMENT DATA

Mean v a l u e and standard deviation of measurement error arc s e c

I

Window induced measurement error, W

Sextant calibration error,

Lc ' a r c sec

Corrected m e an measurement error

40

I
Zero bias M ean
Standard d e v i a t i o n

+2.2

I
-1.6

I
0
-4

m e an ' arc sec

24.1
+5.8 29.0 -5 .o 218.0

i
Zero bias
48

Mean
Standard d e v i a t i o n
Mean
Standard d e v i a t i o n
Mean
Standard d e v i a t i o n
Mean
Standard d e v i a t i o n
Mean
Standard d e v i a t i o n

+o .4
j

-2.4

i
I

-7.6

1
-0.4
I

Two

star

+1.4 +5.4
+6.8 k6.8

-4.8
-9.7

-4

-1.1 k7.6

-9.5

i
I

bias

Standard d e v i a t i o n
Mean
Standard d e v i a t i o n

t13.7 -1.8 k4.5

i
N

Two star
b Zero ias

!
56

? N

N VI

'1
I

Standard M e an deviation

+ k19 3. 3 7 +9.7

Two star

M ean Standard d e v i a t i o n

+7,5

rr
I

+4

-4.5

-9.5

+4

-1.6

'

-10.8

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