SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM INTRODUCTION Photovoltaics (PVs) are arrays of cells containing a solar photovoltaic material (semiconductor device)

that converts solar radiation directly into electricity. A material or device that is capable of converting the energy contained in photons of light into an electrical voltage and current is said to be photovoltaic. A photon with short enough wavelength and high enough energy can cause an electron in a photovoltaic material to break free of the atom that holds it. If a nearby electric field is provided, those electrons can be swept toward a metallic contact where they can emerge as an electric current. SEMICONDUCTORS Photovoltaics use semiconductor materials to convert sunlight into electricity. Photovoltaic devices, almost all semiconductors, is pure crystalline silicon. Germanium is too used as a semiconductor in some electronics. Other elements in photovoltaics are boldfaced. Boron and phosphorus are added to silicon to make most PVs. Gallium and arsenic are used in GaAs solar cells, while cadmium and tellurium are used in CdTe cells. The semiconducting elements form a loose band on the table; not quite metals and not quite insulators. Compounds formed from various crystalline and amorphous mixtures are also semiconducting. On top of which, the electrical characteristics of semiconductors can be changed by introducing traces of other elements in minute proportions. This is called doping and is how n-type and p-type semiconductors are constructed. By applying voltages and bias currents, semiconductors can function as switches forming the basis of transistors and by applying light radiation, semiconductors can function as photovoltaic devices. Silicon Silicon has 14 protons in its nucleus, and so it has 14 orbital electrons as well. its outer orbit contains four valence electronsthat is, it is tetravalent.Those valence electrons are the only ones that matter in electronics, so it is common to draw silicon as if it has a +4 charge on its nucleus and four tightly held valence electrons.

Band gap energy At absolute zero temperature, silicon is a perfect electrical insulator. There are no electrons free to roam around as there are in metals. As the temperature increases, some electrons will be given enough energy to free themselves from their nuclei, making them available to flow as electric current. The warmer it gets, the more electrons there are to carry current, so its conductivity increases with temperature. Silicons conductivity at normal temperatures is still very low, and so it is referred to as a semiconductor. Quantum theory describes the differences between conductors (metals) and semiconductors (e.g., silicon) using energy-band diagrams

Energy bands for (a) metals and (b) semiconductors. Metals have partially filled conduction bands, which allows them to carry electric current easily. Semiconductors at absolute zero temperature have no electrons in the conduction band, which makes them insulators Under the condition of thermal equilibrium the valance band of a pure semiconductor is practically fully occupied by immobile electrons sitting between neighboring semiconductor atoms and the conduction band is empty. Under these conditions no electrons can move about freely in the solid and the semiconductor behaves like an insulator. When a photon is absorbed in the semiconductor, thereby transferring energy to a bound immobile electron in the valance band which is then excited across the band gap into the conduction band, where it is free to move about the solid. The electron that has been excited to the conduction band leaves a place in the valance band that is now not occupied by an electron. Such an empty energy state of a negatively charged electron behaves like a positively charged particle-a so-called hole. These charge carrying holes are also comparatively free to move about the semiconductor solid. The units for band-gap energy are usually electron-volts (eV), where one electron-volt is the energy that an electron acquires when its voltage is increased by 1 V.

There is an attractive force between the negatively charged electron in the conduction band and the positively charged hole in the valance band resulting in a locally confined electron-hole pair. The attractive force creating this pair has to be overcome and the electron-hole pair split spatially in order to produce a useful electric current. If left alone, the excited electron will eventually recombine either with the original hole of the electron-hole pair or any other hole within reach to produce a photon or waste heat.

Principle of doping The presence of electrons in the conduction band (and holes in the valence band) will permit electrical conductivity; however without the presence of an electric field, these electrons will simply return to the holes -> no conductivity. Doping addition of impurities such as phosphorus or boron to the intrinsic material like silicon. Arsenic / Atimony/ Phosphorus) has five valance electrons, only four of which are required to make covalent bond with Si. --> one electron is excess, n-type. Boron/Alumnium/Indium has three valence electrons. since four are required to bond, the hole is free to move around, and conduct --> excess hole, p-type.

P-N Junction A p-n junction is formed when part of a material is doped n-type and part of it is doped p-type. A depletion region forms starting at the junction that is devoid of any majority carriers. The depletion region is formed by ionization. Consider two pieces of a given semiconductor, one doped with donor atoms and the other with acceptor atoms. Suppose that each piece has a plane face and imagine bringing them together at their plane faces. This forms a pn-junction. Free electrons in n-type diffuse across junction to p-type and free holes in p-type diffuse to n-type; electrons and holes close to junction recombine. A depletion region develops on either side of the junction with fixed -ve ions on p-side and fixed +ve ions on the n-side. These residue charges prevent further diffusion so that recombination between holes and electrons is inhibited. Suppose that heat is applied to the junction, so that extra electron-hole pairs are created by thermal excitation, the electric field drives the electrons towards the n-type material and the holes towards the p-type material. So if the two sides of the crystal are joined to an external circuit, the effect of the heat is to drive a current through the crystal from n-type side to the p-type side, and round the circuit.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR CELL Sunlight can be converted to electricity due to the photovoltaic effect discovered in 1839 by Edmund Becquerel, a French scientist. Sunlight is composed of photons, or packets of energy. When photons strike a solar cell (technically a semiconductor p-n junction device), they get absorbed in solar cell resulting in generation of voltage across the solar cell which can deliver current and thus power to run an electric load. (i.e. the generation of an emf as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation).

In a crystal, the bonds [between silicon atoms] are made of electrons that are shared between all of the atoms of the crystal. The light gets absorbed, and one of the electrons that's in one of the bonds gets excited up to a higher energy level and can move around more freely than when it was bound. That electron can then move around the crystal freely, and we can get a current.

Fig. Cross-section of solar cell Example Imagine that you have a ledge, like a shelf on the wall, and you take a ball and you throw it up on that ledge. That's like promoting an electron to a higher energy level, and it can't fall down. A photon [packet of light energy] comes in, and it bumps up the electron onto the ledge [representing the higher energy level] and it stays there until we can come and collect the energy [by using the electricity].

MATERIALS Materials presently used for photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon, microcrystalline silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium selenide/sulfide. Due to the growing demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacture of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has advanced dramatically in recent years. Mono-crystalline Silicon Modules Most efficient commercially available module (11% - 14%) Most expensive to produce Circular (square-round) cell creates wasted space on module Polycrystalline Silicon Modules Less expensive to make than single crystalline modules Cells slightly less efficient than a single crystalline (10% - 12%) Square shape cells fit into module efficiently using the entire space

Amorphous Thin Film Most inexpensive technology to produce Metal grid replaced with transparent oxides Efficiency = 6 8 % It can be deposited on flexible substrates Less susceptible to shading problems Better performance in low light conditions that with crystalline modules DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS The following factors to be considered in photovoltaic system 1. Selecting the correct module 2. Effects of temperature

3. Effects of shading/ low insolation 4. Site selection panel direction 5. Tilt angle Selecting the Correct Module Size Voltage Availability Warranty Mounting Characteristics Cost (per watt)

Effects of Temperature As the PV cell temperature increases above 25 C, the module Vmp decreases by approximately 0.5% per degree C

Effects of Shading/Low Insolation As insolation decreases amperage decreases while voltage remains roughly constant

Shading on Modules It depends on orientation of internal module circuitry relative to the orientation of the shading. The shading can half or even completely eliminates the output of a solar array.

Site Selection Panel Direction The panel should face true south and also consider correct for magnetic declination while installing. Site Selection Tilt Angle

Max performance is achieved when panels are perpendicular to the suns rays.

Year round tilt = latitude; Winter + 15 latitude; Summer 15 latitude GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Weather characteristics - Wind intensity, Estimated snowfall Site characteristics - Corrosive salt water, Animal interference Human factors Vandalism, Theft protection, Aesthetics, Loads and time of use, Distance from power conditioning equipment, Accessibility for maintenance

Basic Mounting Options The following mounting options practiced currently. It may be, Fixed - Roof, ground, pole Integrated Tracking - Pole (active & passive)

PV WIRING Series Connections Loads/sources wired in series (1) voltages are additive, (2) current is equal

Parallel Connections Loads/sources wired in parallel (1) Voltage remains constant, (2) Currents are additive

Wire Components Conductor material = copper (most common) Insulation material = thermoplastic (most common) Wire exposed to sunlight must be classed as sunlight resistant

Cables and Conduit Cable: two or more insulated conductors having an overall covering Conduit: metal or plastic pipe that contains wires

Wire Size Wire size selection based on two criteria: Ampacity Voltage drop

Ampacity - Current carrying ability of a wire; Voltage drop - the loss of voltage due to a wires resistance and length DESIGN PROCEDURE Amount of Power generated It depends on solar cell efficiency and solar cell area. Solar cell convert 15% of light falling on it. Larger the solar cell area, larger the solar power output. Power = Cell efficiency * cell area * solar intensity Rated power and actual power from module Rated power power output from solar cell when it is measured under sunlight condition corresponding to 1000 W/m2 and at 25 degree C temperature. It is the peak power that can be obtained from PV module. In reality, amount of solar radiation varies throughout the day and varies from 600 to 800 W/m2 and always lower than std 1000 W/m2. Actual power output from a PV panel is 20 to 40 % lower than the rated power value depending upon solar intensity and module temperature. Factors affecting power output Standard Test Conditions

The dc output of solar modules is rated by manufacturers under Standard Test Conditions (STC). This module will often have a production tolerance of +/-5% of the rating, which means that the module can produce 95 Watts and still be called a 100-watt module. Temperature

Module output power reduces as module temperature increases. When operating on a roof, a solar module will heat up substantially, reaching inner temperatures of 50-75 oC. For crystalline modules, a typical temperature reduction factor recommended by the CEC is 89% or 0.89. So the 100-watt module will typically operate at about 85 Watts (95 Watts x 0.89 = 85 Watts) in the middle of a spring or fall day, under full sunlight conditions.

Dirt and dust

Dirt and dust can accumulate on the solar module surface, blocking some of the sunlight and reducing output. Mismatch and wiring losses

The maximum power output of the total PV array is always less than the sum of the maximum output of the individual modules. This difference is a result of slight inconsistencies in performance from one module to the next and is called module mismatch and amounts to at least a 2% loss in system power. Power is also lost to resistance in the system wiring. These losses should be kept to a minimum but it is difficult to keep these losses below 3% for the system. Dc to ac conversion losses

Some power is lost in the conversion process, and there are additional losses in the wires from the rooftop array down to the inverter and out to the house panel. Modern inverters commonly used in residential PV power systems have peak efficiencies of 92-94% indicated by their manufacturers. Actual field conditions usually result in overall dc-to-ac conversion efficiencies of about 88-92%, with 90% or 0.90 a reasonable compromise. DESIGN STEPS Find the total energy requirement of the system (total load) Calculate the units of power consumption using operating hours of each system Assume the PV panel rating and calculate the energy produce by one PV panel Calculate the number of solar panels Battery requirement Inverter sizing

Step 1 : Find the total energy requirement of the system (total load) Assume the house has 5 (18 W each) CFL and 3 (60 W each) fans operating for 6 hrs/day. Total energy requirement = No. of units * rating of equipment = 5 * 18 + 3 * 60 = 270 Watts

Step 2: Calculate the units of power consumption using operating hours of each system Total watt hours rating = load * operating hours = 270 Watts * 6 hrs/day = 1620 Watt-hours\ Step 3: Assume the PV panel rating and calculate the energy produce by one PV panel PV panel rating is the peak wattage at STC (Wp). In market, the 3 Wp, 5 Wp, 7 Wp, 12 Wp, 20 Wp, 40 Wp, 75 Wp, 90 Wp, 120 Wp, 300 Wp etc., Assume we use 75 Wp panel Actual power output = Actual power output * combined efficiency = 75 * 0.2 = 15 Watts Energy produced by one panel = Actual power output * sunshine hours per day = 15 * 8 = 120 Watt-hour Step 4: Calculate the number of solar panels Number of solar panels = Total watt-hour rating (daily load)/ daily energy produced by a panel = 1620/120

= 13.5 = 14 panels Step 5: Battery requirement

Total amp-hour required = total watt hour rating/ (Battery eff * depth of discharge * battery voltage) = 1620/ (0.9 * 0.8* 12) = 187.5 Number of batteries required = Total amp-hour rating/battery rating under use = 187.5/ 120 = 1.5 = 2 batteries Step 6: Inverter sizing Total connected load = 270 Watts = 270 VA Inverters are available in the rating of 100, 200, 300, 500 VA etc., We can go for 300 VA inverter Applications of PV Water Pumping: PV powered pumping systems are excellent ,simple ,reliable life 20 yrs Commercial Lighting: PV powered lighting systems are reliable and low cost alternative. Security, billboard sign, area, and outdoor lighting are all viable applications for PV Consumer electronics: Solar powered watches, calculators, and cameras are all everyday applications for PV technologies. Telecommunications Residential Power: A residence located more than a mile from the electric grid can install a PV system more inexpensively than extending the electric grid (Over 500,000 homes worldwide use PV power as their only source of electricity)

MNRE SUBSIDY (2010) Solar PV power packs 30% capital subsidy and loan @5% on 50% of capital cost. MNRE considered the bench mark price of Rs.300 per Watt (with battery) for extending 30% capital subsidy i.e., Rs.90/- per watt. The subsidy is Rs.70/- per watt (without battery) Solar Power plant MNRE Government of India subsidy is 50% of the actual cost or Rs.1.25 lakhs / KWp for upto 10 KWp plant and Rs.1.50 lakhs / KWp for bmore than 10 KWp plant with distribution line or 50% of the actual Cost whichever is less. Subsidy is available to non profit organisations and non commercial organisations in rural areas only. Solar PV street light MNRE, Government of India subsidy for Street lighting system is 50% of the actual cost or a maximum of Rs.9600/- (whichever is less) is applicable for non profit organisations in rural areas (Subsidy pattern will change year to year). Minimum of 5 Nos. SPV Street lights will have to be installed to avail the Central Financial Assistance. Solar PV home light Model 1 (18 W module, 1 light) Rs.8000/Model 2 (37 W module, 2 lights) Rs.14000/Model 3 (37 W module, 1 light, 1 fan) Rs.16000/Model 4 (74 W module, 2 lights 1 fan) Rs.30000/Model 5 (74 W module, 4 lights) Rs.30000/ 50% of actual cost or Rs.2500 for Model-1 and Rs.4800 for Model 2 to 5 Whichever is less. Solar PV water pump

IREDA will provide loan upto 90% of cost to the eligible users and intermediaries / manufacturers at the rate of 5% per annum and 2.5% per annum respectively Rs.30 / Wp of P.V. arrey used in the SPV Water Pumping system subject to a maximum of Rs.50,000/per system is being provided as CFA by MNRE, Government of India.

Street light solar control system Dusk to dawn systems of 5 wp SPV module capacity 25% cost or Rs.5,000/- which ever is less (100 lights per system) Illuminated Hoardings Minimum of 2 sq.m. hoarding are atleast for 6 hours. 50% of the cost or Rs.15,000/- per 100 wp hoarding which ever is less Solar road studs 50% of the cost or Rs.1,000/- (for each stud) which ever is less.

Solar blinkers Systems with minimum 37 wp module capacity and 24 hours operation 50% of the cost or Rs.7,500/- which ever is less. Solar traffic signals Systems with minimum of 500 wp SPV modules for four road junctions 50% of the cost of Rs.2.5 lakhs which ever is less. For availing MNRE, subsidy each proposal is to be sent to MNRE and specific sanction should be obtained.

SOLAR TRACKING AND CONTROL A solar tracker is a generic term used to describe devices that orient various payloads toward the sun. Payloads can be photovoltaic panels, reflectors, lenses or other optical devices. In flatpanel photovoltaic (PV) applications trackers are used to minimize the angle of incidence between the incoming light and a photovoltaic panel. This increases the amount of energy produced from a fixed amount of installed power generating capacity. In standard photovoltaic applications, it is estimated that trackers are used in at least 85% of commercial

installations greater than 1MW from 2009 to 2012. Primary benefit of a tracking system is to collect solar energy for the longest period of the day Types of solar tracking Single axis tracking HSAT. VSAT, TSAT, PASAT Dual axis tracking TTDAT, AADAT

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) Used in PV system to extract maximum power throughout the day It tries to match the impedance of the module with that of load/battery, which is required for extracting maximum power It can increase the power output upto 20 %

Single & Dual axis tracking Have one degree of freedom that acts as an axis of rotation Typically aligned along a true North meridian It is possible to align them in any cardinal direction with advanced tracking algorithms. Have two degrees of freedom that act as axes of rotation These axes are typically normal to one another The axis that is fixed with respect to the ground can be considered a primary axis. The axis that is referenced to the primary axis can be considered a secondary axis.

Horizontal single axis tracker( HSAT) Axis of rotation is horizontal with respect to the ground Field layouts with horizontal single axis trackers are very flexible. Horizontal trackers typically have the face of the module oriented parallel to the axis of rotation.

As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation.

A long horizontal tube is supported on bearings mounted upon pylons or frames. The axis of the tube is on a north-south line. Panels are mounted upon the tube, and the tube will rotate on its axis to track the apparent motion of the sun through the day.

Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT) Axis of rotation is vertical with respect to the ground These trackers rotate from East to West over the course of the day. Such trackers are more effective at high latitudes than are horizontal axis trackers. Vertical single axis trackers typically have the face of the module oriented at an angle with respect to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it sweeps a cone that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation. Tilted single axis tracker (TSAT) All trackers with axes of rotation between horizontal and vertical are considered tilted single axis trackers. Tracker tilt angles are often limited to reduce the wind profile and decrease the elevated ends height off the ground. With backtracking, they can be packed without shading perpendicular to their axis of rotation at any density. However, the packing parallel to their axis of rotation is limited by the tilt angle and the latitude. Tilted single axis trackers typically have the face of the module oriented parallel to the axis of rotation.

As a module tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation.

Polar aligned single axis trackers (PASAT) This method is scientifically well known as standard method mounting a structure which supports a telescop. The tilted single axis is aligned to the polar star. It is therefore called polar aligned single axis tracker (PASAT). In this particular implementation of a tilted single axis tracker the tilt angle is equal to the latitude of the installation. This aligns the tracker axis of rotation with the earths axis of rotation.

Tiptilt dual axis tracker (TTDAT) The panel array is mounted on the tip of a long pole Normally the east-west movement is driven by rotating the array around the top of the pole On top of the rotating bearing is a T- or H-shaped mechanism that provides vertical rotation of the panels and provides the main mounting points for the array. The axes of rotation of tiptilt dual axis trackers are typically aligned either along a true north meridian or an east west line of latitude. It is possible to align them in any cardinal direction with advanced tracking algorithms.

Azimuth-altitude dual axis tracker (AADAT) An azimuthaltitude dual axis tracker has its primary axis vertical to the ground The secondary axis is then typically normal to the primary axis. They are similar to tip-tilt systems in operation, but they differ in the way the array is rotated for daily tracking. Instead of rotating the array around the top of the pole, AADAT systems typically use a large ring mounted on the ground with the array mounted on a series of rollers.

The main advantage of this arrangement is the weight of the array is distributed over a portion of the ring, as opposed to the single loading point of the pole in the TTDAT.

This allows AADAT to support much larger arrays. Unlike the TTDAT, however, the AADAT system cannot be placed closer together than the diameter of the ring, which may reduce the system density, especially considering intertracker shading.