Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Table of Contents I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. General Definitions of Critical Thinking2 Misrepresentations about Critical Thinking3 Critical Thinking and Information Processing Critical Thinking and Education. Critical Thinking for Science Education Critical Thinking for Agricultural Education. Critical Studies in Critical Thinking Critical Thinking Skills vs. Dispositions. Critical Thinking Skills Critical Thinking Dispositions. Discipline-specific Critical Thinking Predictors and Correlates of Critical Thinking Skill. Teaching for Critical Thinking.. The Need for Critical Thinking in Biotechnology Education... References.
making decisions" (p. 5). Simply put, critical thinking is the "reasonable and reflective thinking that is focused upon deciding what to believe or do" (Norris & Ennis, 1989, p. 18).
conclusions rationally. 4. The ability to comprehend, develop, and use concepts and generalizations. 5. The ability to distinguish between fact and opinion.
4. Testing hypotheses and gathering data. 5. Revising hypotheses and testing revised or new hypotheses. 6. Forming a conclusion.
than sophomores, that reading score accounted for 28% of the variance in critical thinking, and that GPA and leadership positions accounted for 2%. Many of the critical thinking studies in agricultural education deal with levels of cognition and higher order thinking. Cano and Martinez (1991), who simply defined critical thinking as A set of thinking skills needed to answer a particular question (p. 24) sought to (1) determine the cognitive level of performance of Ohio agricultural education students (n = 385) as measured by the Developing Cognitive Abilities Test (DCAT), (2) the critical thinking ability of agricultural education students as determined by the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (W-GCTA), and the relationship between DCAT and W-GCTA scores. All of the students scored the lowest on the critical thinking portion of the DCAT. Additionally, Cano and Martinez found a linear relationship between critical thinking and grade level as measured by the DCAT. In their study, all students were found to score the lowest on the Inference sub-skill as measured by W-GCTA, and again, 12th grade students scored higher on critical thinking than all of the others. In 1993, Cano used the DCAT and the W-GCTA and found that agricultural education students scored at higher levels of cognition than the average of other disciplines. Torres and Cano (1995) also used the DCAT with a random sample of agricultural students (n = 196) from The Ohio State University. They also found that (1) the students scored the lowest on the critical thinking portion of the DCAT and that (2) there was no significant difference in critical thinking accounting for gender. Torres (1999) also introduced baseline information regarding preservice teachers. He reported that preservice teachers are more likely to emphasize basic and application thinking skills and abilities than skills and abilities requiring critical thinking.
Whittington (1995, 2000), who concentrates on higher order thinking because she believes it is a key component of critical thinking has studied faculty and critical thinking. In a study of 28 faculty at the University of Idaho she found that faculty members (1) wanted to teach at all levels of cognition, (2) actually taught at low levels of thinking 98% of the time actually, (2) aspired to teach at levels higher than where they were assessed, (4) had favorable attitudes toward teaching at higher levels of cognition, and that (5) faculty who had experienced more educational activities held more favorable attitudes towards teaching at higher cognitive levels. Whittington (1997) has also shown that the factor having the greatest effect on thinking opportunities was the instructor. Torres and Cano (1995b) and Rudd, Baker, and Hoover (2000) hypothesized critical thinking was related to learning styles using the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT). Torres and Cano found that learning style predicted 9% of the variance in critical thinking and Rudd, Baker, et al found no significant difference between learning style and critical thinking. The definition of critical thinking Rudd, Baker, et al provided for critical thinking is noteworthy. They defined critical thinking as A reasoned, purposive, and introspective approach to solving problems or addressing questions with incomplete evidence and information for which an incontrovertible solution is unlikely (p. 5). Whether or not distance education delivery methods are effective ways to teacher critical thinking has also been a evaluated by some agricultural educators. Miller and Pilcher (1999) found that instructors taught at the same levels of instruction for teaching critical thinking in traditional and off-campus courses. Ricketts, Irani, and Joness (in press) results generally supported the contention that distance learners were not significantly different than traditional learners with respect to perceptions of course effectiveness, opportunities to think critically and
critical thinking disposition; however, traditional learners were significantly different from distance learners in terms of change in some critical thinking disposition subscale factors, including truth-seeking and inquisitiveness.
changing, and often difficult for students to grasp. Further complicating the educational process is the fact that studies have suggested that most consumers get their information on biotechnology from the media (Hoban, 1998). Indeed, studies indicate that most of the public's information about biotechnology comes from the mass media, even though their level of trust in what they learn is relatively low (Hallman & Metcalf, 1995). This is true of agricultural educators as well. In a study of teachers of agriculture from three southern states, Iverson (1998) found that the major source for information about biotechnology was the mass media, primarily newspapers. On the other hand, respondents felt their most trusted source of information about biotechnology was the land grant university. Despite these challenges, some university- level agricultural educators have begun teaching courses solely focused on biotechnology and/or to include it as a course topic in agrisciences curricula. Arguably, the ultimate objective of such educational efforts among agricultural institutions of higher learning is to enhance understanding and acceptance of food biotechnology. But how can we determine whether or not these objectives are actually being achieved? As agricultural educators, we may have the educational objective of wanting our students to know more about the science associated with biotechnology, its benefits, perceived risks, and attendant potential social issues. But while we can measure knowledge acquisition based on exposure to information, that does not necessarily inform us of actionable outcomes associated with values, belief systems, attitude formation, and change. The literature has consistently shown that simple exposure to information will not necessarily influence knowledge, attitude or change behavior (Ro gers, 1995; Salwen & Sacks, 1997; Goldberg, Fishbein & Middlestadt, 1997). As nationally known biotechnology educator Thomas Zinnen (2000) has pointed out, however, there is a distinction that needs to be made
between individual understanding of biotechnology and acceptance of biotechnology-derived products. For one to lead to the other may require higher order thinking and evaluation that operates beyond mere exposure to factual information in the classroom or elsewhere. Therefore, it may not be enough to produce educational curricula and conduct instruction that contain balanced, fact-based, objective information in an attempt to raise awareness and enhance knowledge acquisition. It may be equally important to determine how to develop such instruction so as to specifically focus on enhancing a students ability to think and reason critically about biotechnology. This would have the added benefit of ensuring that our future graduates in the food and agricultural sciences are equipped with strong reasoning and thinking skills that will help them act, communicate and educate effectively about this important topic. According to Howe and Warren (1989), science or environmental education topics, such as biotechnology, provide a good mechanism for developing critical thinking skills for several reasons. First, science education provides topics and problems that cut across the school curriculum and can improve the integration of knowledge. Second, science education provides real issues that can be studied or simulated. Last, science education topics can be adjusted to the developmental levels of students.
conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based. CT is essential as a tool of inquiry. As such, CT is a liberating force in education and a powerful resource in one's personal and civic life. While not synonymous with good thinking, CT is habitually inquisitive, well- informed, trustful of reason, open- minded, flexible, fair- minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent is seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and circumstances will permit. Thus, educating good critical thinkers means working toward this ideal. It combines developing CT skills with nurturing those dispositions which consistently yield useful insights and which are the basis of a rational and democratic society" (p. 3). The multiple definitions of critical thinking and confusion concerning its specificity led to the need for further refinement of the composition of the critical thinking construct. Facione (1990) assembled a group of forty individuals (52% from Philosophy, 22% from Education, 20% from Social Sciences, 6% from Physical Sciences) recognized by their colleagues as having special experience and expertise in CT instruction, assessment, or theory. Facione (1990) employed the powerful qualitative research methodology known as the Delphi Method was used to develop the theoretical framework used for this study. The Delphi study (Facione, 1990), which ran from February of 1988 until November of 1989, consisted of six rounds of questions and response. The findings of the Delphi Report are as follows: 1. Critical thinking includes the dimensions of skill and disposition. 2. There was consensus that critical thinking could be improved in several ways. The experts agreed that a person could critically examine and evaluate one's own
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reasoning processes, that they could learn how to think more objectively and logically, that they could expand their repertoire of those more specialized procedures and criteria used in different areas of human thought and inquiry, and that they could increase their base of information and life experience (p. 4). 3. "While CT skills themselves transcend specific subjects or disciplines, exercising them successfully in certain contexts demands domain-specific knowledge, some of which may concern specific methods and techniques used to make reasonable judgments in those specific contexts"(p. 5). 4. "There is a critical spirit, a probing inquisitiveness, a keenness of mind, a zealous dedication to reason, and a hunger or eagerness for reliable information which good critical thinkers possess but weak critical thinkers do not seem to have...the affective dispositions are necessary for the CT skills identified to take root and to flourish in students" (p. 11). 5. "It is inappropriate use of the term to deny that someone is engaged in CT on the grounds that one disapproves ethically of what the person is doing. What 'CT' means, why it is of value, and the ethics of its use are best regarded as three distinct concerns" (p. 12). 6. "A good critical thinker...is habitually disposed to engage in, and to encourage others to engage in a wide range of contexts and for a wide variety of purposes. Although perhaps not always uppermost in mind, the rational justification for cultivating those affective dispositions which characterize the paradigm critical thinker are soundly grounded in CT's personal and civic value. CT is known to contribute to the fairminded analysis and resolution of questions. CT is a powerful tool in the search for
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knowledge. CT can help people overcome the blind, sophistic, or irrational defense of intellectually defective or biased opinions. CT promotes rational autonomy, intellectual freedom and the objective, reasoned and evidence-based investigation of a very wide range of personal and social issues and concerns" (p. 13). Many of the findings of the Delphi study are addressed in one way or another in this investigation. The first finding as stated above indicated that critical thinking includes the dimensions of skill and disposition. This consensual agreement among the experts was a reiterated point of critical thinking scholars preceding them (Dewey 1933; Norris and Ennis 1989), but Facione (1990) and his group of experts went a step further. They identified a set of specific skills and sub-skills for the skill dimension and a specific set of attitudes for the disposition dimension (Facione 1990).
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rules, etc. Analysis was found to be about identifying the relationship between statements, questions, concepts or descriptions to express beliefs, judgments or reasons. The experts thought that evaluation was about assessing credibility of statements and representations of others as well as assessing the logical strength of statements, descriptions or questions. Inference was found to be the ability to draw reasonable conclusions and/or hypotheses based on facts, judgments, beliefs, principles, concepts or other forms of representation. The experts in the Delphi study found explanation to be about stating and justifying the results of one's reasoning using each of the aforementioned abilities. Self-regulation, the last skill was found to be the ability of an individual to monitor their own personal cognitive activities to make sure that they are engaged in critical thinking. Several studies have been conducted to confirm the Delphi consensus statement. The 1990 Delphi report describing the ideal critical thinker was put to the test by Giancarlo (1996) using the California-Q sort method, which was a technique derived from the work of Block (1961). A national expert panel concerning critical thinking sorted 100 Q-sort items to achieve a result that would characterize the ideal critical thinker. The results would validate the critical thinking skills identified in the theoretical framework in this study. The following study would secure national recognition of the viability of critical thinking skills. Jones, Hoffman, Moore, Ratcliff, Tibetts, and Click (1995; 1994) further validated the use of critical thinking skills through a 1993/1994 national survey and replication study conducted by the National Center for Higher Education Teaching, Learning and Assessment at The Pennsylvania State University. As a result of this study skills, along with dispositions became recommended outcomes of post-secondary education.
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1. Analyticity targets the disposition of being alert to potentially problematic situations and anticipating possible results or consequences. 2. Self-confidence refers to the level of trust one places in ones own reasoning process. 3. Inquisitiveness is innate curiousness about acquiring information and which motivates the message recipient to learn more. 4. Maturity addresses cognitive Maturity and mature thinkers are disposed to approach problems, inquiry and decision making realizing that some situations have more than one plausible option and that decisions must sometimes be made without the benefit of having all the relevant information about the situation. 5. Open-mindedness addresses the state of respecting the right of others with differing opinions. 6. Systemacity targets the disposition to being organized, orderly, focused and diligent in seeking information. 7. Truth-seeking describes thinkers who are eager to seek the truth even if the results do not support ones own interests or preconceived opinions. Although Faciones work has seemingly been the only attempt at measuring critical thinking dispositions, its validity has been brought into questions by a study conducted by Moore, Rudd, and Penfield (submitted for publication). This study examined the reliability of the subscales of the CCTDI as well as the factor strength of the whole instrument. During factor analysis, the data obtained in the Moore, Rudd, et al study did not fit the seven scale structure outlined by Facione and associates (Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo). Ana lysis of the seven factor structure resulted in only 51 of the 75 items on the instrument with factor loadings greater than .30 and
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four to 11 items loading on seven factors. The seven factor structure had a sum of Eigenvalues of 25.33 and explained 27.2% of the variance.
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literacy ability and knowledge in the content area. Finally, Facione (1990) found that "While CT skills themselves transcend specific subjects or disciplines, excercising them successfully in certain contexts demands domain-specific knowledge, some of which may concern specific methods and techniques used to make reasonble judgements in those specific contexts"(p. 5). The success of domain-specific critical thinking has been demonstrated in research. In a study of 254 seventh grade French speaking science students, researchers found a statistically significant mean gain in pre-test post-test investigation of CCTDI scores (t=4.54, p<.001), suggestive of the fact that critical thinking, indeed can be context specific (Ferguson and Vazquez-Abad 1995).
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suggest that critical thinking skill accounts for 16.8% of the variance in critical thinking disposition and vice versa. In the largest known study to identify relationships between critical thinking skill and disposition, as well as other demographic factors, (Facione and Facione 1997) conducted a fiveyear longitudinal investigation of 7,926 students from 50 different college level programs. Positive correlations were found between overall disposition and strength of critical thinking. Examples of the types of analyses run with the large data set were a sample of 1557 nursing students that showed weak positive correlations (r=.201, p<.001) and a sample of 793 students who again had similar results (r=.169, p<.001). These findings would suggest a significant correlation, especially with such a large sample. The study that looked at correlations between each of the subscales and found significant correlations among all of the subscales, except for the relationships between critical thinking self-confidence and awareness and the relationship between critical thinking self-confidence and evaluation. These findings indicated that each subscale skill could not be individually correlated with the corresponding disposition. (Rapps, Riegel et al. 2001) conducted a study to test a model of cognitive development which sought to determine which of the four variables, knowledge base, critical thinking skills, critical thinking dispositions, and experience were utilized to predict cognitive development. Critical thinking dispositions contributed to all of the levels of Perry's scheme of intellectual development; dualism, relativism, and commitment, and experience only predicted the commitment stage.
Age
When the study was designed age was entered into the regression equation as a variable that may have significant influence on the critical thinking skill level of youth leaders, but after
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an extensive review of the literature only one report placed age in the predictor category. (Torres and Cano 1995) conducted a study of 92 agriculture seniors while testing for the relationship of learning style to crit ical thinking. The control variables, age, gender, and GPA, accounted for 13% of the critical thinking variance. However, it is not possible from their study to know whether age was really significant or not as the control variables were looked at as one. The majority of the studies in the literature show age as having no significant difference or no relationship to critical thinking (Cillizza 1970; Feely 1975; Facione 1990; Facione 1991; Claytor 1997; Jenkins 1998; Rodriquez 2000; Rudd, Baker et al. 2000; Thompson 2001). One reason for this maybe homogeneity of age in most of the groups studied.
Gender
Gender as a predictor of critical thinking skills or dispositions was a variable that has been evaluated by nearly all of the critical thinking studies. One of the first to consider gender in their critical thinking research was (Wilson 1989). He studied the critical thinking ability of (n=203) entering college freshmen using the Watson-Glaser test and ACT College Reports. He found that ACT standard scores significantly accounted for 28.41% of the variance in WGCTA raw scores, but also that gender was a significant predictor or critical thinking skill. Costa, McCraes and Sanchezs study (as cited in (Facione, Giancarlo et al. 1995) examined the relationship of personality. Both studies looked at genders influence on critical thinking in addition to personality and found that females were more open- minded and mature in their thinking, while males were more analytical. (Walsh 1996) conducted a study of 499 male and female undergrads. Along with highest eventual degree and major, gender was a variable predicting variance in critical thinking disposition. In a study of College of Agricultural and Life Sciences undergraduates at the
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University of Florida that evaluated learning style and critical thinking disposition, (Rudd, Baker et al. 2000) found significant gender differences (alpha = .03) for scores of the CCTDI. Males scored an average of 288.1 while females at the university scored 297.8. Another study trying to ascertain learning style influence on critical thinking combined gender with age and GPA to achieve a significant variance (13%) in critical thinking (Torres and Cano 1995). Since GPA is consistently related to critical thinking, this finding fails to indicate genders influence. There have been just as many studies indicating the null nature of gender effect on critical thinking. Using the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal, critical thinking was found to be independent of gender, neurotic and rigid personality types, as well as introvert and extrovert measurements (Hoogstraten and Christiaans 1975). The Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal was also used by (Jenkins 1998) when he also found that gender was not a predictor of critical thinking. Other studies using assessments from CCTST to CCTDI to author-developed instruments have also found that gender is not related to or a predictor of critical thinking. In developing and validating an instrument to evaluate critical thinking skills of nurses, gender and ethnicity were found to be independent of critical thinking skills (Claytor 1997). (Rodriquez 2000) studied the critical thinking of (n=60) registered nurses. None of the individual predictors, age, degree, career path, years of experience, personality type, or gender were statistically significant. (Thompson 2001) was another researcher who also found that gender had no predictive value of critical thinking or learning style. (Pienaar 2000) conducted a South African study of adolescents critical thinking in the context of political issues, and found that gender, had no significant relationship with critical thinking ability.
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The aforementioned studies indicated that gender, as a predictor of critical thinking is still a variable that should be included in the explanation of critical thinking skill. Various potential predictors of critical thinking skills have been studied. The majority of the studies in the literature show age as having no significant difference or no relationship to critical thinking (Cillizza 1970; Feely 1975; Facione 1990; Facione 1991; Claytor 1997; Jenkins 1998; Rodriquez 2000; Rudd, Baker et al. 2000; Thompson 2001). The role of gender has not been as conclusive. Some studies have shown gender to not be related to critical thinking skills (Claytor 1997), while other studies have found a significant relationship between gender and critical thinking skills (Rudd, Baker et al. 2000; Walsh 1996; (Wilson 1989).
Academic Achievement
While the role of gender in critical thinking is unclear, academic achievement status, as exemplified, for example, by high GPA scores, has been shown to be related to critical thinking. Giancarlo and Facione (2001) found that GPA was significantly correlated with four of the CCTDI scales: Openmindedness, Analycity, Systemacity and Maturity. GPA was not found to be significantly correlated, however, with Truth seeking, Confidence or Inquisitiveness. Additionally, SAT scores have consistently been shown to be significantly correlated with scores on critical thinking instruments (Facione & Facione, 1992; Erwin, 1996; Jacobs, 1995; Frisby, 1992) as have ACT scores (Mines et al., 1990; King et al., 1990). By extension, it could be assumed that other hallmarks of high academic achievement, for example, selection as an undergraduate honors program participant, might be similarly related to CCTDI scores. In 1993, Torres did a study where he surveyed all seniors in the College of Agriculture at The Ohio State University. The only thing he found predictive of critical thinking was a student's cumulative GPA while in college.
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Psychographics
Torres and Cano (1995) surveyed 92 agriculture seniors and found that learning style predicted 9% of the variance in CT and that it must be a significant variable in developing CT skills. A conceptual model developed by Torres (1993) indicated that there were five major factors contributing to complex mental operations or critical thinking abilities. They were teacher-related variables, student-related variables, personal characteristics, learning style, and other factors. Learning style and personal characteristics such as gender, age, and GPA were the only variables looked at in this study. The three control variables, GPA, age, and gender, which were not broken out individually accounted for 13% of the variance in critical thinking ability. Controlling for the variance of the aforementioned variables, learning style (GEFT) accoounted for 9% of the variance in senior students ability to think critically (t=3.38, p<.05).
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Existing Instrumentation
Instrument CCTDI or The California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory Source Contact Information Insight Assessment 217 La Cruz Millbrae, CA 94030 (650) 697-5628 Main (650)692-0141 Fax www.insightassessment.com info@insightassessment.com Testing Purpose Measures the attributes of truthseeking, openmindedness, analyticity, systematicity, inquisitiveness, confidence in reasoning, and cognitive maturity To assess an individual's or group's critical thinking and reasoning skills To gather data for program evaluation and research on critical thinking skills development An intellectually challenging and highly reliable test specifically designed to measure those reasoning skills that are essential to success at the professional and managerial levels Focuses primarily on the evaluative aspects of critical thinking, such as judging the reliability of reports of observations that other people make Focuses primarily on the evaluative aspects Appropriate Audience Community college students, college and university undergraduate students, graduate and professional school students, adults, and working professionals For use with adults at community college, undergraduate, graduate, and professional school levels.
Insight Assessment 217 La Cruz Millbrae, CA 94030 (650) 697-5628 Main (650)692-0141 Fax www.insightassessment.com info@insightassessment.com
Insight Assessment 217 La Cruz Millbrae, CA 94030 (650) 697-5628 Main (650)692-0141 Fax www.insightassessment.com info@insightassessment.com
Individuals who are expected to have advanced reasoning skills, that is, those in the top 20% of the general population.
Critical Thinking Press and Software (formerly Midwest Publications) PO Box 448 Pacific Grove, CA 93950 Critical Thinking Press and Software
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Critical Thinking Press and Software (formerly Midwest Publications) PO Box 448 Pacific Grove, CA 93950 Insight Assessment 217 La Cruz Millbrae, CA 94030 (650) 697-5628 Main (650)692-0141 Fax www.insightassessment.com info@insightassessment.com
of critical thinking, such as judging the reliability of reports of observations that other people make Measures learning characteristics and abilities that contribute to academic performance A diagnostic and research tool for analyzing the effects of a specific curriculum Supports multi- modal assessment, for it provides evaluators with descriptors of four levels -- two positive and two negative -- where in they can categorize the critical thinking evident to them in projects, portfolios, presentations, essays, etc. and the like Majority of the items dealing with deduction
People who are using reasoned judgment to problem solve and to make decisions about what to do or what to believe
I.A.P.C. Order Department Montclair State University Upper Montclair, NJ 07043 Phone: 973-655-4277 matkowskij@mail.montclair.e du Fax (973) 655-7834 Insight Assessment 217 La Cruz Millbrae, CA 94030 (650) 697-5628 Main (650)692-0141 Fax www.insightassessment.com info@insightassessment.com
To assess an individual's or group's basic reasoning skills To secure essential information as an element in a
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comprehensive employment application process To gather program evaluation on reasoning and critical thinking skills. Measures reasoning skills in relation to quantitatively oriented problems
Quant-Q
Insight Assessment 217 La Cruz Millbrae, CA 94030 (650) 697-5628 Main (650)692-0141 Fax www.insightassessment.com info@insightassessment.com The Psychological Corporation 19500 Bulverde Road San Antonio, Texas 78259 http://www.psychcorpcenter.c om/ pan_reqs/order.html
Department of Agricultural Education and Communication University of Florida PO Box 110540 Gainesville, FL 32611-0540
The WGCTA produces a single score based upon the assessment of five critical thinking skills: Inference, Recognition of Assumptions, Deduction, Interpretation, and Evaluation of Arguments The EMI was developed from the Delphi Report.
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