CHAPTER ONE 1.0 1.

1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study

The health consequences of unsafe drinking water include an estimated four (4) billion cases of diarrhea and 1.87 million deaths in children under 5 each year (Boschi-Pinto et al. 2008). It is estimated that 1.5 billion people still lack access to clean water supplies (WHO, 1993).An estimated 80% of all diseases and over one-third of deaths in developing countries are caused by theconsumption of contaminated water and, on average, as much as one-tenth of each persons productivetime is sacrificed to water-related diseases (UNCED, 1992).In addition,waterborne diarrheal diseases lead to decreased food intake andnutrient absorption, malnutrition, reduced resistance to infection (Baqui et al. 1993), and impaired physical growth and cognitivedevelopment (Guerrant et al. 1999). Interventions to improve water and sanitation conditions indeveloping countries, and reduction in the risks of diarrheal disease,fall into several categories such as, improved water supply, sanitation,hygiene promotion, and household water treatment and safe storage (Chiller et al.2006; Crump et al. 2005). However, in many cases protection of the water source from pollution is problematic. In the case ofcontaminated water sources, several treatment processes such as coagulation, sedimentation, filtration anddisinfection, will be necessary to provide multiple barriers to the spread of pathogenic microorganisms, sothat the failure of any one process will not result in waterborne disease. The final barrier is disinfection. The function of the entire system, and indeed of much of water treatment, may with some justification beregarded as that of conditioning the water for effective and reliable disinfection (WHO, 1996). Household water treatment chlorination projects, liquid chlorine and more recently chlorine tablets, havebeen implemented in a number of countries in Africa (Lule et al. 2005).Chlorine is by far the most commonly used disinfectantand, in developing countries, the use of chlorine is often the only affordable mean of disinfectingdrinking-water (Galal-Gorchev, 1996). The use of chemical disinfectants, including chlorine, in water treatment usually results in the formationof chemical by-products, some of which are potentially hazardous. However, the risks to health from theseby-products are extremely small in comparison with the risks associated with inadequate disinfection, andit is important that disinfection should not be compromised in attempting to control such by-products (Regli, 1996). 1.2 Research problem

Chlorine, as well as other disinfectants, reacts with certain water constituents to form new compoundswith potentially harmful long-term health effects. Chlorine disinfection by-products have been extensivelyidentified and assessed for toxicity. The liver and the kidney are major

organs involve in metabolism of substances intake and as a result exposure to toxic agents could cause damages to the histomorphometry of these organs. Due to the increase in the number of cases associated with chlorine toxicity and health issues in the society, this study will ascertain the effect of sodium hypochlorite on the histology of the liver and kidney. 1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study

The general aim of the study is to assess the effect of sodium hypochlorite on the histology of liver and kidney of adult Wistar rat. Specifically this study will, 1. Determine the effect of sodium hypochlorite on body weight 2. Ascertain the effect of sodium hypochlorite on liver histology 3. Examine the effect of sodium hypochlorite on kidney histology 1.4 Justificationof the Study

The dangers posed by untreated water is well documented and hence the need to treat with chemicals such as chlorine. These chlorinated water have emanated their own metabolites which have proved to be harmful after long term use. This study will therefore examine the effect of chlorinated water on the histology of the liver and kidney and then explain possible mechanism behind the action. 1.5 Significance of the Study

The research work will be of immense significance as information derived from this study will help in creating awareness of chlorinated water effect on liver and kidney and possibly a look out for alternative means of water treatment. 1.6 Scope of the Study

This study was carried out within the confines of Delta State University, Abraka, Institute of Science Laboratory Technology Department of Physiology. The study was done in the animal house of the college of health sciences, Delta State University using adult male Wistar rats. This study was specially limited to the use of chlorinated water and its effect on the histology of liver and kidney.

References World Health Organization.Implementation of the Global Strategy for Health for All by the Year 2000.WHO,Geneva (1993). United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). Agenda 21: ProgrammeofAction forSustainable Development. Chapter 18.Protection of the Quality and Supply of Freshwater Resources (1992). World Health Organization.Guidelines for Drinking- Water Quality, 2nd edn, Volume 2-Health Criteria andother supporting information.WHO, Geneva (1996). Regli S. In Safety of Water Disinfection: Balancing Chemical & Microbial Risks (G.F. Craun ed.), pp. 39-80. ILSI Press, Washington, DC (1993). Galal-Gorchev, H. Chlorine in water disinfection.Pure & App/. Chem., Vol. 68, No. 9, pp. 1731 1 735, 1996. Baqui, A. H., Black, R. E., Sack, R. B., Chowdhury, H. R., Yunus, M.,and Siddique, A. K. 1993. Malnutrition, cell-mediated immune deficiency,and diarrhea: A community-based longitudinal study in ruralBangladeshi children. Am. J. Epidemiol., 1373, 355365. Boschi-Pinto, C., Velebit, L., and Shibuya, K. 2008.Estimating childmortality due to diarrhoea in developing countries. Bull. WorldHealth Organ, 869, 710717. Guerrant, D. I., Moore, S. R., Lima, A. A., Patrick, P. D., Schorling, J. B.,and Guerrant, R. L. 1999. Association of early childhood diarrheaand cryptosporidiosis with impaired physical fitness and cognitivefunction four-seven years later in a poor urban community in NortheastBrazil. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 615, 707713. Chiller, T. M., et al. 2006. Reducing diarrhoea in Guatemalan children:Randomized controlled trial of flocculant-disinfectant for drinkingwater.Bull. World Health Organ, 841, 2835. Crump, J. A., et al. 2005. Household based treatment of drinking waterwith flocculantdisinfectant for preventing diarrhoea in areas with turbidsource water in rural western Kenya: Cluster randomised controlledtrial. BMJ, 3317515, 478484.